Biochemistry-Chapter 1- Carbohydrates  Carbohydrate oxidation provides energy

 storage, in the form of glycogen, provides a

Biochemistry-study of chemical substances found in
short-term energy reserve
living organisms and the chemical interactions of these
 supply carbon atoms for the synthesis of
substances with each other.
other biochemical substances (proteins,
Biochemical Substances-chemical substances found lipids, and nucleic acids)
within a living organism. Types:  form part of the structural framework of DNA
Bioinorganic-Water and inorganic salts and RNA molecules
 linked to lipids are structural components of
Bioorganic Substances-Carbohydrates, lipids, protein, cell membranes
and nucleic acid.  linked to proteins function in a variety of cell–
cell and cell–molecule recognition processes
Water 70%
Biochemical SUbstance

Bioinorganic Classification of carbohydrates

Inorganic salt 5%
• Empirical formula of simple carbohydrates CnH2nOn or
Protein 15% Cn (H2O)n (hydrate of C) • n is the number of atoms

Lipid 8% Carbohydrate: Polyhydroxy aldehyde, polyhydroxy

Bioorganic ketone, or a compound that produces such substances
carbohydrates 2%
upon hydrolysis
Nucleic acid 2% Monosaccharide

 As isolated compounds, bioinorganic and  Contains single polyhydroxy aldehyde or

bioorganic substances have no life in and of ketone unit.
themselves  Cannot be broken down into simpler
 substances are gathered together in a cell, substances by hydrolysis reaction (Hydrolysis-
their chemical interactions are able to sustain molecule of water breaks one or more
life chemical bonds)
 Naturally occurring Contains 3-7 Carbon
Occurrence and functions of carbohydrates: atoms
 5 and 6 carbon species are more common
Plants and Carbohydrates
 Pure monosaccharides - Water soluble white,
 It is estimated that more than half of all crystalline solids
organic carbon atoms are found in the  • Monosaccharides - Glucose and fructose
carbohydrate materials of plants
Disaccharide
 uses for carbohydrates of the plant kingdom
extend beyond food:  Contains 2 monosaccharide units covalently
-cotton and linen for clothing bonded to each other (Covalently bonded-
-wood for shelter, heating, making paper when atoms share one or more pairs of
electrons)
Carbohydrate
 Crystalline and water-soluble substances
 Most abundant class of bioorganic molecules  Common disaccharides - Table sugar
 Most of the matter in plants, except water, is (sucrose) and milk sugar (lactose)
carbohydrate material  Upon hydrolysis, they produce 2
 Carbohydrates account for 75% of dry plant monosaccharide unit
material and are produced by photosynthesis
Oligosaccharide
Two main uses:
-Cellulose - Structural element  Contains 3-10 monosaccharide units
-Starch/glycogen - Energy reservoir for plants covalently bonded to each other
 Free oligosaccharides are seldom
Photosynthesis- Process in which plants produce
encountered in biochemical systems
carbohydrates using carbon dioxide, water, and solar
energy  Usually found associated with proteins and
lipids in complex molecules – Serve structural
CO2 = H20 + solar Energy Chlorophyl/ plant enzymes> and regulatory functions
Carbohydrates +O2

Functions of Carbohydrates in the Human Body Polysaccharides

  Polymeric carbohydrate that contains many
monosaccharide units covalently bonded to
each other
 Monosaccharide units varies from 100-50 000
units
 Examples: – Cellulose - Paper, cotton, wood
– Starch - Bread, pasta, potatoes, rice, corn,
beans, and peas
The structural requirement for handedness is the
presence of a carbon atom that has four different
groups boned to it in a tetrahedral orientation
Chiral center- an atom in a molecule that has four
different groups bonded to it in tetrahedral
orientation.
Bromochloroiodomethane is a chiral organic molecule

Chiral molecule-mirror images are not superimposable

Carbohydrates based on molecular sizes -
Stereoisomers

Monosacharides Disaccharides Oligosaccharides Polysaccharides

Enantiomers Diastereomers

Possess Handedness
Chirality: Handedness in molecules
Achiral Molecule-molecule whose mirror images are
Objects and Handedness
superimposable. Do NOT possess handedness
 Handedness-important properties of
Stereoisomerism: Enantiomers and Diasterioisomers
molecules including most carbohydrate. A
form of isomerism - (Same formula, diff Stereoisomers-isomers that have the same molecular
structure) and structural formulas but differ in the orientation of
atoms in space.

Handedness

Left-handed Right-handed

Left Enantiomers: Molecules are non-superimposable
hand and a right hand are mirror image of images of each other.
each other
Eg: Molecules with chiral center
Mirror Image-Reflection of an object in a mirror
Diastereomers: molecules are not mirror images
Mirror
image of each other

Superimposable nonsuperimposable Eg: Cis-Trans isomers

Superimposable- Images that coincide at all points

when the images are laid upon each other

 Achiral molecule

Nonsuperimposable mirror images: Images where not

all points coincide when the images are laid upon each
other

 Chiral Molecule (Handedness)

Chirality
Chapter 2: Lipids
Lipids
 Organic compound found in the living
organisms that is insoluble in water but
 Soluble in nonpolar organic solvents
 Do not have a common structural feature
that serves as the basis of defining
compounds
 Structural formula of lipids illustrate diversity
among lipids
 Solubility is defining parameter rather than
structure
Classification based on two methods
 Biochemical function
 Saponification Reaction-A hydrolysis reaction
that occurs in basic solution
Classification based on Biochemical Function (5)
 Energy-storage lipids (triacylglycerols)
 Membrane lipids (phospholipids,
sphingoglycolipids, and cholesterol)
 Emulsification lipids (bile acids)
 Messenger lipids (steroid hormones and
eicosanoids)
 Protective-coating lipids (biological waxes
Classification Based on whether or not saponification
occurs when a lipid is placed in basic aqueous solution,
lipids are divided into two categories.
 Saponification (lipids triacylglycerols,
phospholipids, sphingoglycolipids,
cholesterol, and biological waxes)
o Coverted into two oe more smaller
molecules when hydrolysis ocurs
 Nonsaponifiable lipids (bile acids, steroid
hormones, and eicosanoids)
o Cannot be broken up into smaller
units since they do not react into
water
Structural Diversity of Lipid
 Lipids exhibit structural diversity
 Some are esters, amides, alcohols, acyclic and
polycyclic
Types of Fatty Acids
Fatty Acid- Naturally occurring monocarboxylic acids
with linear (unbranched) carbon chain.
- They have even number of carbon atoms
 Long-chain fatty acids (C12 to C26)
 Medium-chain fatty acids (C8 to C10)
 Short-chain fatty acids (C4 to C6 )
Two types of Fatty Acids
 Saturated- with a carbon in chain All C–C
bonds are single bonds.
-Numbering starts from the end of -COOH
group
IUPAC name: Hexadecanoic Acid
Common Name: Palmitic acid
 Unsaturated
o Monounsaturated- with a carbon
chain in which one carbon-carbon
double bond is present
IUPAC NAME: cis-9-octadecaenoic
acid
Common Name: Oleic Acid
o Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFAs)
- with a carbon chain in which two or
more carbon-carbon double bonds
are present
-Up to six double bonds are found in
biochemically important PUFAs.
 Unsaturated Fatty Acids and Double-Bond
Position
o Numbering starts from the other end
of –COOH
o Structural notation indicates number
of C atoms
o Example: 18:2 signifies that a fatty
acid has 18 carbons with 2 double
bonds
 Types of Unsaturated Fatty Acids
o Omega (ω)-3 fatty acid: Unsaturated
fatty acid with its endmost double
bond three carbon atoms away from
its methyl end
o Omega (ω)-6 fatty acid: Unsaturated
fatty acid with its endmost double
bond six carbon atoms away from its
methyl end
Learning Objectives
2.3 Understand the relationships between the fatty
acid`s structure and its melting point and it water
solubility
Physical Properties of Fatty Acids
 Water Solubility- Solubility decreases as
carbon length increases.
o Short-chain fatty acids have some
solubility, whereas long-chain fatty
acids are insoluble
o Short-chain fatty acids are sparingly
soluble because of the presence of
carboxylic group
 Melting Point-carbon chain length increases,
melting point increases.
o Depends upon the following:
o Length of carbon chain
 o Degree of unsaturation (number of
double bonds in a molecule)
 Number of “bends” in a fatty acid chain
increases as the number of double bonds
increases
o Less packing occurs
o Melting point is lower
o Tend to be liquid at room temperature

Energy-Storage Lipids: Triacylglycerols