LECTURE 2

EEE-475
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 1
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ANTENNAS

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 2

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Introduction
It may not apparent in the first glance, but an
AC carry several dozen antennas of different
types.

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 3

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Introduction
Also for different airborne platforms antenna
locations are shown below.
EC-130E

EA-18G
Commando Solo
(Rivet Rider)
MQ9-Block 1
Growler

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 4

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Introduction
Also for educational purposes a large display
of aircraft antennas are assorted by
functional use.

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 5

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Introduction
➢ Antennas are used both for Tx and Rx.
➢ A Tx antenna converts the high frequency
electrical energy supplied to it into EM energy which
is launched or radiated into the space.
➢ An Rx antenna captures the EM energy in the
surrounding space and converts this into high
frequency electrical energy which is then passed on
to the receiving system.
➢ The law of reciprocity: Antenna will have the same
gain and directional properties both in Rx and Tx
usage.
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 6
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The Isotropic Radiator
➢ The most fundamental form is the isotropic radiator.
➢ An isotropic radiator radiates power equally in all
directions, however a perfect isotropic radiator is only
theoretical as even the simplest antennas will
concentrate the signal in certain direction(s).

➢ Before entering the details of antenna gain and

directivity, a common antenna type, HwD, is given.
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 7
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The Half-wave Dipole
➢ HwD is one of the most fundamental type of antenna.
➢ HwD consist of a single conductor having a length
equal to one-half of wave being transmitted or received.

➢ The conductor is split in the center to enable

connection to the feeder.
➢ In practice the antenna is cut a little shorter because
of capacitance effect.
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 8
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The Half-wave Dipole
➢ The length of the antenna is equal to one half
wavelength 
=
2
v
➢ Also we know “v = f x λ”, we can =
conclude that, for a half-wave dipole: 2f
Note that, “ℓ” is the electrical length of the antenna
rather than its actual physical length. In order to
define physical length apps 5% reduction is required
(for capacitance effect) .
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 9
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The Half-wave Dipole
➢ The figure shows the
Current
distribution of current and
voltage along the length of
a HwD. Voltage

➢ The current is max at the center and zero at the ends.

➢ In contrast, the voltage is zero at the center and max
at the ends.
➢ This implies that the impedence is not constant along
the HwD antenna, and takes max value at the ends.
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 10
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The Half-wave Dipole
➢ The dipole antenna has directional properties as
shown in the figure.
➢Figure-d shows the
radiation pattern of the
antenna in the plane of
the antenna’s electric (E)
field.
➢ Figure-c shows the
radiation pattern of the
antenna in the plane of
the antenna’s magnetic
(H) field.
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 11
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The Half-wave Dipole
➢ Figure-b shows the
combination of E- and H-
fields in a 3-D plot.

➢ E-field has min radiation along the axis, whilst the two
zones of max radiation are at 90o the dipole elements.
➢ In H-field the antenna radiates uniformly in all directions.
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 12
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The Half-wave Dipole
➢ A vertical dipole has omnidirectional characteristics,
➢ A horizantal dipole has a bi-directional radiation
pattern.

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 13

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The Half-wave Dipole
Example: Determine the length of a half-wave dipole
antenna for use at a frequency of 150 MHz.
Solution: A half-wave dipole for 150 MHz is determined
as follows;
v
=
2f
if we put the values in the equation;

v 3 10 3 10
8 8
= = = = 1m
2 f 2 150 10 6
300 10 6

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 14

 Impedance and Radiation EEE-475

Resistance
❑ Up until now the antennas have been
sorted as lossless power transformers.
❑ To complete our understanding of
antenna basics we need to consider the
electrical properties of them.
1
❑ Figure-1 shows a simple Tx system.
Power from a source is sent along some
form of transmission line to the
antenna. The antenna then radiates
power in a directional manner we can
describe using its power pattern. 2

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 15

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Impedance and Radiation Res.

❑ In fact the electrical structure of

an antenna system looks like the
circuit shown in Figure-2.
❑ The generator doesn't know
anything about the details of the 1
antenna or its power pattern.
❑ The antenna/transmission line
combination just looks like some
sort of load impedance
2

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 16

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Impedance and Radiation Res.
❑ The impedance is a mixture of resistance “R” and
reactance “X”, both measured in ohms ().
❑ “X” varies with frequency whilst “R” remains
constant. This fact shows us why antennas are often
designed for operation over a restricted range of
frequencies.
❑ The impedance “Z” of an aerial is the ratio of the
voltage “E” across its terminals to the current “I”;
E
Z =  = ( R + RR ) + jX
I
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 17
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Impedance and Radiation Res.

Z = ( R + RR ) + jX → R = RL + Rref
❑ A real antenna won't radiate all the power it
receives. Some will be dissipated in antenna losses
and simply warm it up a bit.
❑ Some power may ‘bounce’ off the antenna and be
reflected back to the generator.
RL RR
❑ These three effects, radiation, loss,
and reflection, can be represented by
Rref
three impedances as illustrated in figure.
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 18
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Impedance and Radiation Res.
RL RR
❑ RR is the antenna's Radiation
Resistance value; it represents the
antenna properties which allow power
Rref
to radiate away.

❑ RL is the Loss Resistance; it represents the ways power

is dissipated, warming up the antenna.
❑ Rref is the Reflection Resistance; the
wave is then reflected at the interface
between the line and the antenna, with
significant energy loss. The goal is then
mismatch
to return to a matched system.
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 19
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Impedance and Radiation Res.

❑ X is the antenna reactance; this represents any

ways the antenna can store energy, returning it to the
generator after a delay.
❑ As mentioned before antenna impedance is
obtained by using following equation;

Z A = ( RL + Rref + RR ) + jX 
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 20
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Impedance and Radiation Res.
Z A = ( RL + Rref + RR ) + jX 

Also a general representation for antenna equivalent

circuit is shown below.

RL Rref RR
+
 VG
jXA
-

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 21

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Radiated Power
➢ The complex power
associated with any element in
the equivalent circuit is given by
1
P =V I *
rms rms = Vpeak I *peak
2

➢ The power radiated by the antenna (Pr) may be

written as
Pr = Vr _ peak I peak = ( I peak ) Rr = ( I rms ) Rr Watts
1 * 1 * 2 * 2

2 2

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 22

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Radiation Efficiency
The radiation efficiency (ηr) of a given antenna is
defined in terms of the total power radiated by the
antenna (Pr) and the total power dissipated by the
antenna in the form of ohmic losses (Pohmic).

Pr Pr
r = =
Pin Pr + Pohmic

The power radiated by the antenna (Pr) may be written

as V R
2

Pr =
g r

8 ( Rr + RL )
2

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 23

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Radiation Efficiency
The total ohmic losses for the antenna are those
dissipated in the antenna loss resistance (RL).
2
Vg RL
Pohmic = PL =
8 ( Rr + RL )
2

Inserting the equivalent circuit results for Pr and Pohmic

into the equation for the antenna radiation efficiency
yields Pr Pr Rr
r = = =
Pin Pr + Pohmic Rr + RL
Rr
Finally Radiation efficiency is; r = 100%
Rr + RL
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 24
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Radiation Power & Efficiency
Example: An HF transmitting antenna has a
radiation resistance of 12 ohms. If a current of
0.5 A is supplied to it, determine the radiated
power.

Pr = I  Rr = ( 0.5 ) 12 = 0.25 12 = 4W

2 2
a

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 25

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Radiation Power & Efficiency
Example: If the aerial in the previous example has a DC
resistance of 2, determine the power loss and the
radiation efficiency of the antenna.
Solution is obtained by using the
RDC
Vout equivalent circuit.
Rr
I a = 0.5 A RDC = 2
PL = I  RDC = ( 0.5 )  2 = 0.5W
2 2
X
a

Pr Pr 4
r = = 100% = 100% = 89%
Pin Pr + Pohmic 4 + 0.5

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 26

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Antenna Gain
The definitions of antenna directivity and
antenna gain are essentially the same except for
the power terms used in the definitions.
Directivity: The ratio of the antenna radiated
power density at a distant point to the total
antenna radiated power (Pr) radiated
isotropically.
Gain: The ratio of the antenna radiated power
density at a distant point to the total antenna
input power (Pin) radiated isotropically.
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 27
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Antenna Gain
Additional note on directivity;
Directivity (D): The ratio of the radiation intensity in a
given direction from the antenna to the radiation
intensity averaged over all directions.

where U(,Φ) is average radiation intensity;

where d = sin d dΦ defines the differential solid angle.

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 28
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Antenna Gain
❑ The antenna gain depends on the total power
delivered to the antenna input terminals, that accounts
for the ohmic losses in the antenna.
4 U ( ,  ) U ( ,  )
G ( ,  ) = =
Pin Pin
4
❑The antenna directivity depends on the total radiated
power, that does not include the effect of ohmic losses.
4 U ( ,  ) U ( ,  )
D ( ,  ) = =
Pr Pr
4
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 29
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Antenna Gain
The relationship between the directivity and gain of
an antenna may be found using the definition of the
radiation efficiency of the antenna.
4 U ( ,  ) U ( ,  ) 4 U ( ,  ) U ( ,  )
G ( ,  ) = = D ( ,  ) = =
Pin Pin Pr Pr
4 4

Pr = r Pin

G ( ,  ) =  r D ( ,  )
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 30
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Antenna Gain

Definition: The dB gain can be defined as follows;

G ( ,  )  dB  = 10 og G ( ,  )

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Antenna Pattern
Definitions
Antenna Pattern; a graphical representation of
the antenna radiation properties as a function of
position at spherical coordinates.
Common Types of Antenna Patterns;
- Power Pattern: Normalized power vs. spherical
coordinate position.
- Field Pattern: Normalized “E” or “H” etc.
spherical coordinate position.
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 32
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Antenna Pattern
Definitions
Antenna Field Types;
- Reactive field: The portion of the antenna
field characterized by standing (stationary)
waves which represent stored energy.
- Radiation field: The portion of the antenna
field characterized by radiating (propagating)
waves which represent transmitted energy.

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 33

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Antenna Pattern
Antenna Field Regions;
- Reactive Near Field Region: The region immediately
surrounding the antenna where the reactive field (stored
energy – standing waves) is dominant.
- Near-Field (Fresnel) Region: The region between the
reactive near-field and the far-field where the radiation
fields are dominant, and the field distribution is
dependent on the distance from the antenna.
- Far-Field (Fraunhofer) Region: The region farthest away
from the antenna where the field distribution is
essentially independent of the distance from the antenna
(propagating waves).
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 34
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Antenna Pattern
Antenna Field Regions;
Far-Field (Fraunhofer) Region

Radiating Near-Field
(Fresnel) Region

Reactive Near Field Region

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Antenna Pattern
Antenna Pattern Definitions;
- Isotropic Pattern : Defined by uniform radiation in
all directions, produced by an isotropic radiator (point
source, a non-physical antenna which is the only non-
directional antenna).
- Directional Pattern: Characterized by more efficient
radiation in one direction than another (all physically
realizable antennas are directional antennas).
- Omnidirectional Pattern: Uniform in a given plane.
- Principal Plane Patterns: E-plane and H-plane
patterns of a linearly polarized antenna.
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 36
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Antenna Pattern
Antenna Pattern Parameters;
Radiation Lobe: A clear peak in the radiation intensity
surrounded by regions of weaker radiation intensity.
Main Lobe (major lobe, main beam): Radiation lobe in the
direction of maximum radiation.
Minor Lobe: Any radiation lobe
other than the main lobe.
Side Lobe: A radiation lobe in
any direction other than the
direction(s) of intended
radiation.
Back Lobe: the radiation lobe
opposite to the main lobe.
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 37
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Antenna Pattern
Antenna Pattern Parameters;
A Half-Power Beamwidth (HPBW): The angular width of
the main beam at the half-power points.

First Null Beamwidth

(FNBW): Angular width
between the first nulls on
either side of the main
beam.

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 38

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The Yagi-Uda Antenna
➢ The Yagi-Uda or Yagi Antenna is one of the most
brilliant antenna designs.
➢ It is simple to construct and has a high gain, typically
greater than 10 dB.
➢ The Yagi-Uda antennas typically operate in the HF to
UHF bands (about 3 MHz to 3 GHz). However, their
bandwidth is typically narrow, on the order of a few
percent of the center frequency.

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 39

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The Yagi-Uda Antenna
❑ The Yagi antenna is characterized by a single
driven element that takes power from the
transmitter-Tx (or is connected to the receiver-
Rx), plus one or more parasitic elements.
❑ The parasitic elements are not connected to
the driven element but indirectly receive their
Power from it.
❑ The indirect means is intercepting the signal
and re-radiating it.

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 40

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The Yagi-Uda Antenna
❑ The minimalist two-element beam antenna may be
composed of a driven element and a reflector or a
driven element and a director. The reflectors and
directors are known as parasitic elements.
❑ The parasitic reflector is three to five percent longer
than the half-wavelength-driven element. It provides
power gain in the direction away from itself.
(inductive)
❑ The parasitic director is three to five percent shorter
than the half-wavelength-driven element. It provides
power gain in its direction. (capacitive)
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 41
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The Yagi-Uda Antenna
❑ The factors that affect the phase difference
between the direct and reradiated signals are
determined principally by the element length and
the spacing between the elements.

❑ Proper adjustment of these

factors determines the gain
and the front-to-back ratio
that is available.

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 42

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The Yagi-Uda Antenna
❑ Two element Yagi antenna uses a driven element
and a director, so the direction of maximum signal
is in the direction of the director.

❑ The gain of a two-element

Yagi is about 5.5 dB-d (gain
above a dipole or dB) for
spacing less than 0.1λ and
the parasitic element is a
director.

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 43

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The Yagi Beam Antenna
The figure shows a three-element Yagi Antenna
made up of a half-wavelength-driven element, a
reflector, and a director. The forward gain is 7 to 8
dB, and the spacing is less than 0.3λ. The front-to-
back ratio of 15 to 28 dB depending on the element
tuning.

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 44

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Vertical Quarter-Wave Antennas
❑ A quarter-wave antenna is a grounded antenna that
is one-fourth wavelength of the transmitted or
received frequency.
❑ Also, the quarter-wave antenna is referred to as a
“Marconi antenna.”
❑ The quarter-wave antenna is also omnidirectional.
❑ A half-wave antenna is the shortest practical length
that can be effectively used to radiate radio signals
into free space.
❑ Then “How do we use a quarter-wave length
antenna?
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 45
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Vertical Quarter-Wave Antennas
The underlying answer of that question is;
Earth is used as the second "arm" of the dipole, so
that the antenna behaves as a half-wave antenna.

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 46

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5/8th Wave Vertical Antennas

❑ This antenna provides a compact

solution to the need for an omnidirectional VHF/UHF
antenna, offering some gain over a basic quarter-wave
antenna.
❑ It behaves electrically as a 3-quarter wave antenna.
❑ To match the antenna, an inductive loading coil (or
tuned coil) is incorporated at the feed point.
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 47
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Corner Reflectors
❑ The corner-reflector (flyswatter) antenna
consists of an adjustable reflector and an antenna
element.
❑ It is used in multichannel systems with radios
that operate in the 200- to 1000-MHz range.
❑ Highly directional, its reflector angle can be
adjusted to operate on any frequency within its
range.
❑ This antenna is usually used with radio sets that
have RF duplexing capabilities.
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 48
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Corner Reflectors
❑ The RF duplexer permits the radio set to transmit
and receive, using one coaxial cable between the
antenna and the radio set.
❑ The corner-reflector is shown is both vertical and
horizontal polarization positions in the figure below.

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Parabolic Reflectors
❑ The Parabolic reflectors typically have a very high
gain (30-40 dB is common) and low cross polarization.
❑ They also have a reasonable bandwidth, and it can
be very wideband in the case of huge dishes, which can
operate from 150 MHz to 1.5 GHz).
❑ The smaller dish
antennas typically operate
somewhere between 2 and
28 GHz.
❑ The large dishes can
operate in the VHF region
(30-300 MHz).
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 50
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Parabolic Reflectors
❑ The parabolic reflector antenna consists of a saucer-like
reflecting surface (parabola) and a dipole (feed device)
placed at its focal point.
❑ Reflector antennas are used in direct broadcast TV,
comms, radars, MW links, EW, and so on.

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Horn Antennas
❑ Horn antennas are very popular at UHF (300
MHz-3 GHz) and higher frequencies.
❑ Horn antennas often have a directional
radiation pattern with a high antenna gain, with
10-20 dB being typical.
❑ Horn antennas have a wide impedance
bandwidth.
❑ The gain of horn antennas often increases (and
the beam-width decreases) as the frequency of
operation is increased.
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Horn Antennas
Popular versions of the horn antenna include the
E-plane horn, shown in the figure. This horn
antenna is flared in the E-plane, giving the name.
The horizontal dimension is constant at width.

Waveguide feed

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Horn Antennas
Another example of a horn antenna is the H-plane
horn, shown in the figure. This horn is flared in
the H-plane, with a constant height for the
waveguide and horn of h.

Waveguide feed

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Horn Antennas
The most popular horn antenna is flared in both
planes as shown in the figure. This is a pyramidal
horn, and has a width B and height A at the end
of the horn.

Waveguide feed

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Horn Antennas
❑ Horn antennas are typically fed by a section of a
waveguide, as shown in figure.
❑ The waveguide itself is often fed with a short
dipole, which is shown in red in the figure.

❑ The waveguide is
rectangular; width b and
height a, with b>a. The E- Horn Antenna feeding
field distribution for the
dominant mode is shown
in the lower part.
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 56
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Feeders
➢ The cable that connects the radio to the antenna
is called the feeder.
➢ Feeder types: Coaxial, Twin Conductors.

+ −
Coaxial cable: Twin Feeder:
Inner Conductor is shrouded by Two conductors kept at
dielectric, with outer (braided) constant separation by
screen. insulation - no screen
For amateur radio 50 coax. is Balanced Feeder is
used (whereas Video/TV uses available in 75-600 .
75).
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 57
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Feeder Impedance
A

•All Feeders have a Characteristic impe-

dance, Z0 (eg 50 or 75 Ohm Coax, 300
Ohm twin feeder etc)
B
•Z0 is based on the Ratio of A and B (and
A the nature of the spacing dielectric)
•If correctly terminated by a resistive load
then Z0 determines the ratio of Vrms / Irms
in the feeder.
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Feeder Impedance
• The impedance can be seen by looking an infinite
length of the feeder at the working frequency.
• The impedance “Z0” is a function of the
inductance “L” and capacitance “C” of the feeder
and defined as;
L
Z0 = 
C
Where L is the loop inductance per unit length,
whereas C is the shunt capacitance per unit length.

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Horn Antennas
Example: A cable has a loop inductance of 20nH
and a capacitance of 100pF. Determine the
charecteristics impedance of the cable.

Solution: In this case L=20nH=20x10-9H and

C= 100pF=100x10-12F

−9
L 180 10
Z0 = = −12
= 1.8 10 = 42
3

C 100 10

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 60

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General Ch. Impedance
Characteristic impedance is a transmission line
parameter that is determined by the physical structure
of the line. It also helps determine how propagating
signals are transmitted or reflected in the line.
Impedance of RF components is not a DC resistance
and, in the case of a transmission line, can be
calculated using the following formula:

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General Ch. Impedance

Because an ideal cable has no resistance or

dielectric leakage, its characteristic impedance can
be calculated by reducing the above formula as:
L
Z0 = 
C
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 62
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Coaxial Cables
Because of screened structure, coaxial cables are
used almost exclusively in AC applications.
Outer Woven
plastic copper Inner
sheath shield dielectric
insulator
Copper
core

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Coaxial Cables
The impedance of such a cable
is given by;

D
Z 0 = 138 og10   
d

where “Z0” is the characteristic impedance, “D” is

outside diameter and “d” is inside diameter.

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Coaxial Cables
D
Z 0 = 138 og10   
d
Example: A coax cable has an inside conductor
diameter of 2 mm, outside cable diameter of
10 mm. Determine the ch.imp.
Solution: Let’s make the calculations as follows;

 10 
Z 0 = 138 og10   = 138  0.7 = 97
 2
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Two-wire Open Feeder
The charecteristic impedance of the two-wire open
feeder is given by,
r

s
(mm)

Z 0 = 276 og10   
r s (mm)

where “Z0” is the characteristic impedance, “s” is

spacing between the wire centers (in mm) diameter
and “r” is the radius of the wire (in mm).

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 66

 EEE-475
Attenuation
❑ A major parameter for coaxial cable is its loss or
attenuation.
❑ It is found that there is a degree of loss as a signal
travels along a coax cable. This arises from a number
of factors and is present on all cables. It is also
proportional to the length.
 R
❑ The attenuation is given by; A = 0.143   dB
 Z0 
where “A” is the attenuation in dB (per meter), “R” is
the resistance (in ohms per meter) diameter and “Z”
is the charecteristic impedance (in ohms).
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 67
 EEE-475
Velocity Factor
❑ Velocity factor of a feeder is the ratio of the
velocity of radio waves in the feeder to that in
free space and that the velocity factor is always
less than unity.
❑ Calculate physical feeder lengths given the
frequency and velocity factor.
❑ Velocity factor must always be less than 1, and
in typical feeders it varies from 0,6 to 0,97. (max
at two-wire open link, min twisted-pair line)

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Connectors
❑ Connectors provide a means of linking coaxial
cables to Tx/Rx equipment and antennas.
❑ Connectors should be;
➢ Reliable,
➢ Easy to mate,
➢ Sealed (against to humidity and fluids),
➢ Low contact resistance,
➢ Exhibit a constant impedance (50  for AC
apps.)

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Connectors
Some types of feeder connectors are shown below.
Right
N-type angle

Famale
BNC
Male
BNC

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 EEE-475
Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)
➢ SWR is a mathematical expression of the non-
uniformity of an EM field on a transmission line such as
coaxial cable.
➢ Usually, SWR is defined as the ratio of the maximum
RF voltage to the minimum RF voltage along the line.
This is also known as the voltage standing-wave ratio
(VSWR).
➢ The SWR can also be defined as the ratio of the
maximum RF current to the minimum RF current on the
line (ISWR).
➢ For most practical purposes, ISWR is the same as
VSWR.
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 EEE-475
Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)
➢ Under ideal conditions, the RF voltage on a
signal transmission line is the same at all points
on the line, neglecting power losses caused by
electrical resistance in the line wires and
imperfections in the dielectric material separating
the line conductors.
➢ The ideal VSWR is therefore 1:1. This optimum
condition can exist only when the load has an
impedance identical to the impedance of the
transmission line.
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 EEE-475
Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)
➢ This means that the load resistance must be the
same as the characteristic impedance of the
transmission line, and the load must contain no
reactance (the load must be free of inductance or
capacitance).
➢ In any other situation, the voltage and current
fluctuate at various points along the line, and the
SWR is not 1.
➢ SWR is a function of the reflection coefficient or
return loss, which describes the power reflected from
the antenna.
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 73
 EEE-475
Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)
When a transmitted wave hits a boundary such as
the one between the lossless transmission line
and load, some energy will be transmitted to the
load and some will be reflected.

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 EEE-475
Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)
VSWR is determined from the voltage measured
along a transmission line leading to an antenna.
VSWR is the ratio of the peak amplitude of a
standing wave to the minimum amplitude of a
standing wave, as seen in the following figure:

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 EEE-475
Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)
To understand how to calculate VSWR and return loss
in an RF system, let us consider the RF transmission
line shown in the figure below,

The impedance of the load (40.5 Ω) is not equal to that

of the source and the transmission line (50 Ω). For this
reason, some portion of the signal propagating through
the transmission line is reflected back from the load.
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 76
 EEE-475
Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)
VSWR calculation;

Z in − Z 0 40.5 − 50
= = = −0.105
Z in + Z 0 40.5 + 50
1 +  1 + 0.105
Voltage Reflection coefficient. VSWR = = = 1.234
1 −  1 − 0.105

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 EEE-475
Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)
Let us imagine that the signal being sourced in the RF
system is a 1 Vpp sine wave. The reflection coefficient for
the system is 0.1, we can determine that the magnitude of
the reflected is 0.1 x 1 = 0.1 V or 100 mV. Figure displays
the max amplitude of the resultant signal which occurs
when the reflected wave is in phase with the input signal.

Blue: Signal
Yellow: Reflected Signal
Green: Resulting Signal
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 78
 EEE-475
Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)
Figure displays the min amplitude of the resultant
signal which occurs when the reflected wave is in
180o out of phase with the input signal.
Blue: Signal
Yellow: Reflected Signal
Green: Resulting Signal

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 79

 EEE-475

Decibel
Arithmetic

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Decibel Arithmetic
➢ The decibel (dB) is a logarithmic unit of
measurement that represents a ratio of a physical
quantity (such as voltage, power, or antenna gain) to a
specific reference quantity of the same type.
➢ The unit dB is named after Alexander Graham Bell,
who originated the unit as a measure of power
attenuation in telephone lines. By Bell’s definition, a
unit of Bell gain is  Po 
Bell ( B ) = log  
 Pi 

where the logarithm operation is base 10, Po is the output power of a

standard telephone line (almost one mile long) and Pi is the input
power to the line.
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 EEE-475
Decibel Arithmetic
If voltage (or current) ratios are used instead of the
power ratio, then a unit Bell gain is defined as
2 2
 Vo   Io 
B = log   or B = log  
 Vi   Ii 
𝟏
A decibel (dB) is of a Bell (the prefix “deci”
𝟏𝟎
means 10-1). It follows that a dB is defined as
2 2
P   Vo   Io 
dB = 10 log  o  = 10 log   = 10 log  
 Pi   i
V  Ii 

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 EEE-475
Decibel Arithmetic
The inverse dB is computed from the relations
Po Vo Io
= 10dB 10 = 10dB 20 = 10dB 20
Pi Vi Ii
❖ The decibel nomenclature is widely used by RF
designers and users for several reasons.
❖ The most crucial reason is that the dynamic
range is significantly reduced by a designer or user
using dB to represent the physical quantities
associated with the RF systems.

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 EEE-475
Decibel Arithmetic
❑ For example, a returning echo signal may be as
weak as 1x10 -9W, which can be expressed in dBs as,
(
10 log 110 −9
) = −90dB ( dBW )
❑ Alternatively, a target may be located at range
R=1000km, which can be expressed (for one-way
link R2) in dBs as
(
20 log 110
3
) = 60dB
❑ Another advantage of dB in RF design and
analysis is facilitating the arithmetic of calculating
the different radar parameters.
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Decibel Arithmetic
❑ This is true since multiplication in base-10
arithmetic translates into addition in dB-arithmetic,
and division translates into subtraction.

 250  0.0001 
  = 10 log ( 250 ) + 10 log ( 0.0001) − 10 log ( 455 )  dB = −42.6dB
 455  dB

To write in general form;

 A B 
10 log   = 10 log A + 10 log B − 10 log C
 C 
10 log Aq = q 10 log A

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 EEE-475
Decibel Arithmetic
➢ Some dB ratios are often used for expressing
absolute physical values.
➢ The first is the dBsm or dBm2 (dB, squared meters).
➢ This definition is significant when referring to the
target Radar Cross Section (RCS), whose units are
square meters.
➢ More precisely, a target whose RCS is σ (m2) can be
expressed in dBsm as 10log(σ (m2)).
➢ For example, a 10m2 target is often referred to as a
10 dBm2 (or dBsm) target and a target with RCS 0.01m2
is equivalent to a -20dBm2.
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 EEE-475
Decibel Arithmetic
➢ Another important absolute dB expression is used
for expressing power. The units dBm (dB, milliwatt) and
dBW (dB, Watt) are power ratios of dBs with reference
to one milliwatt and one Watt, respectively.

 P   P 
dBm = 10 log   dBW = 10 log  
 1mW   1W 

➢ To find dBm from dBW, add 30dB, and to find dBW

from dBm, subtract 30dB.

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 EEE-475
Decibel Arithmetic
➢ The standard absolute dB unit for antenna gain is
dBi. The unit dBi (referenced to isotropic) represents
the forward gain of an antenna compared to an ideal
isotropic antenna that emits energy equally in all
directions.
➢ Sometimes dBd (referenced to a half-wave dipole)
may be confused with dBi. When using dB for antenna
gain, one may assume that the referenced gain is dBd.

dBi = dBd + 2.15

Note: A 3dB antenna has the same gain as a 5 dBi antenna. There is
no performance difference between the two antennae. It is just the
way that each vendor choses to specify each antenna.
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 93