EC6602Antennaandwavepropagation Notes

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EC6602 Antenna and Wave Propagation
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UNIT 1- Antenna Fundamentals Dr. M. Moorthi, Asso.Prof/ECE
PART A-SHORT ANSWERS

1.Define antenna.
Antenna is defined as a
 Impedance transforming device
 Transition device or transducer between a guided wave and a free space wave or vice versa.
 Transformer between a feeder and free space and vice versa
 Conducting wire designed for radiating as well as receiving the EM energy as effectively as
possible.
 System of elevated conductors designed to have a definite shape & size, which is used for
radiating the EM energy into the free space or to receive the same from the free space,
efficiently.
 “ A means for radiating or receiving radio waves”
 Other names: EM Energy transformer, EM Energy transducer, Aerial.
2. What is Radiation Pattern?
The radiation pattern is the relative distribution of radiated power as a function of
distance in space. It is a graph which shows the variation is the actual field strength of the EM wave at
all points which are at equal distance from the antenna.
3. What is an ‘isotropic radiator’? (Apr/May-2005)

An isotropic (or) isotropic antenna is defined as hypothetical loss less antenna having equal
radiation in all direction. It is an ideal and not physically realizable. It is often taken as a reference
antenna. It is also called as unipole, omni directional radiator or isotropic source.
4. What is dipole & Monopole antenna?
Dipole antenna is a symmetrical antenna in which the two ends are at equal potential
relative to the middle point. It is also called as resonator. Monopole antenna consists of one half of the
dipole antenna mounted above the earth or a ground plane. It is also called as Marconi antenna.
5. What is Effective Length (le)?
Effective length of an antenna represents the effectiveness of an antenna as radiator or
collector of electro magnetic energy. Effective length indicates how for an antenna is effective in
transmitting (or) receiving the electromagnetic wave energy.
Effective length = (open circuited Voltage) / (Incident electric field strength)
le = V / E in meter or wavelengths.
Relation between max effective aperture & effective length is
(Ae) max = (le 2 Z) / (4 Rr)
Where Rr is the radiation resistance and Z is the antenna impedance
6. What is Radiation Resistance (Rr)?
It is defined as that fictitious resistance, which, when substituted in series with an antenna,
will consume the same power as is actually radiated.
7. Write down the types of impedance.
Antenna input (self) impedance is the impedance when all other antennas are completely removed
i.e., away from it.
Driving point or terminal impedance is the impedance presented by an antenna at its terminals.
1
Mutual impedance is defined as the negative ratio of the voltage induced in one circuit to the current
in the second circuit, with all the circuits open circuited except the second circuit.
8. Give various types patterns. (Nov/Dec-2004 &05)
Radiation Pattern: is the graphical representation of radiation of an antenna as a function of
direction (space coordinates)
Field strength or Radiation Density Pattern: denotes the antenna properties including the
radiation intensity, field strength, phase or polarization and is expressed in terms of volts per meter
and is denoted by E.
Field Pattern: represents the graph of the spatial variation of the electric or magnetic field
along a constant radius.
Power Pattern: is a trace of the received power at a const. radius.
9. Define radiation intensity. (Apr/May-2005)
Radiation intensity in a given direction is defined as the power radiated from an antenna per
unit solid angle. The radiation intensity is a far field parameter and it can be obtained by simply
multiplying the radiation density by the square of distance.
U=r2rad
Where,
U=radiation intensity (w/unit solid angle)
rad= radiation density(w/m2)
10. Give various types of antenna Gain.
Gain: is defined as the ratio of maximum radiation intensity in a given direction to the
maximum radiation intensity from a reference antenna, produced in the same direction and with the
same power input.
Directive Gain: can be defined as the ratio of power density (pointing vector) in a
particular direction at a given point, to the power which would be radiated at the same distance by an
isotropic antenna, radiating the same total power.
Power Gain: is the ratio of radiation intensity in a given direction to the average total
input power.
Directivity: denotes the maximum directive gain. It is defined as the ratio of maximum
radiation intensity of an antenna to the radiation intensity of an isotropic antenna, radiating the same
total power. (Power per unit solid angle).
4
D=
A
11. Give the different types of aperture. (Apr/May-2005)
Effective aperture: is defined as the area over which the antenna extracts
electromagnetic energy from the traveling electromagnetic waves. It is also be defined as the ratio of
power received at the antenna load terminal to the power density of the incident wave.
Ae = (Power Received)/(Poynting Vector of incident wave) = W/P
Collecting aperture: is the collective term representing the sum of effective, scattering
and loss apertures. i.e. Ac = Ae + As + Al
Physical aperture: denotes the actual physical size (cross section) of the antenna. It is the
physical cross section perpendicular to the direction of propagation of incident electromagnetic wave
with the antenna set for maximum response.
12. What is antenna efficiency?
Antenna efficiency takes into amount the losses at the input terminals and within the
structure of the antenna.
The total antenna efficiency ρo is given by
2
ρo = ρr ρc ρd
Where, ρr = reflection efficiency
ρc = conditional efficiency
ρd = dielectric efficiency
13. What is antenna beamwidth?
It is the measure of the directivity of an antenna, which represents an angular width in
degrees measured on the radiation pattern (major lobe) between points, where the radiated power has
fallen to half its maximum value.
14. State the ‘Friss Transmission formula’. (Nov/Dec-2005)
Aet . Aer
Pr=Pt (W) in terms of Gain Pr=Pt Gt A er / [4 π r 2] (W)
.2
Pr=Received power (W)
Pt=Power into transmitting antenna (W)
Aet=Effective aperture of transmitting antenna
Aer=Effective aperture of receiving antenna
=Distance between antennas.
=Wavelength between antennas.
15. What is cross-field? When does it occur?
For elliptical and circular polarization, the electric field vector E at a fixed-point rotates with
time in a plane perpendicular to direction of wave propagation; When E rotates in a plane parallel to
the direction of wave propagation. This condition is called cross-field. This situation can occur if
there is an E in the direction of propagation.
This condition never exists in the case of linear polarization. Because there is no electric field
component in the direction of propagation. However, the cross field is present in the near zones.
For elliptical & circular polarization electric field vector E, at a field fixed points rotates with time, in
a plane perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. In such a case, there is no cross field.
16. What is a ‘radiation lobe’?
A radiation lobe is a ‘portion of the radiation pattern bounded by regions of relatively weak
radiation intensity’.
17. Write the three field zones with their boundaries under test? (Nov/Dec-2005)
The three principal antenna full regions are,
1. Reactive near field
2. Radiating near field
3. Far Field
18. Define ‘Fresnel region of antenna’.
Radiative near field defined as that region of field of an antenna between reactive near field
region and the far field region where in radiation field predominates and the angular field distribution
on distance of antenna.
19. Define ‘1’radian.
One radian is defined as the solid angle with its vertex at the center is of a sphere of radius
‘r’ that is subtended by a spherical surface area equal to half of a square with each side of length ’r’.
20. Define beam solid angle. (Nov/Dec2004)

The beam solid angle is defined as the solid angle through which all the power of antenna
would flow its radiation intensity is constant for all angles with in A.
3
21. Fill up the followings.

a. Measure of phase angle is Radian
b. Measure of solid angle is Steradian
c. Poynting vector is a power density.
d. Isotropic radiator radiates power in all direction equally.
e. The radiation intensity is also related to far/Fraunhofer zone E field.
22. Define ‘Half power beam width’.
A half power beam width is defined as “in a plane containing the direction of maximum
of a beam, the angle between 2 directions in which the radiation intensity is one half the maximum
value of the beam.
23. Define ‘beam efficiency’.
It is a parameter which is used to describe the quality of transmitting and receiving
antenna .It is defined as ratio of power transmitted with in cone angle to power transmitted by antenna.
Power transmitted within cone angle 1
B E transmitting =
antenna Power transmitted by antenna
Power received within cone angle

B EReceiving =
antenna Power received by antenna
24. Define ‘band width of an antenna’.

The bandwidth of an antenna is defined as “the range of frequencies with in which the
performance of the antenna with respect to some characteristics conform to a specific standard.
25. Define input impedance of antenna.
Input impedance is defined as the impedance presented by an antenna at its terminal or the
ratio of voltage to current at a pair of terminal of the ratio appropriate components of electric to
magnetic fields at a point.
ZA=RA+ jXA
Where, ZA=Antenna impedance at terminal a-b
XA=Antenna reactance at terminal a-b
RA=Antenna resistance at terminal a-b
26. Define polarization efficiency-Pe (or) polarization loss factor PLF.
It is defined as the radio of power received by an antenna from a given
phase wave of arbitrary polarization to the power that would be received by an antenna of same power
flux density and direction of propagation.
Le Einc 2
Pe=
Le 2 Einc 2 Le =vector effective length of antenna. & Einc=Incident electric field.
27. What is antenna temperature?

Every object with a physical temperature above absolute zero radiates energy. The amount
of energy radiated is usually represented by an equation temperature TB called brightness
temperature. The temperature appears at the terminal of antenna is antenna temperature.
TB(,) =(1-  2)Tm
28. Define ‘system temperature of antenna’. Give its significance.
It is temperature of the antenna terminal, when antenna terminal, transmission line, and
receiver are connected together.
4
29. State Reciprocity theorem.

If an e.m.f is applied to the terminals of an antenna No.1 and the current measured at
terminals of another antenna No.2 then an equal current both in amplitude and phase will be obtained
at the terminals of antenna No.1, if the same e.m.f is applied to the terminals of antenna No.2.
30. What is beam efficiency & stray factor?
ΩA= ΩM + Ωm & M + m=1
Beam Efficiency: εM = ΩM /ΩA => Main Beam Area / Total Beam Area
Stray Factor: εm = Ωm / ΩA => Minor Beam Area / Total Beam Area
31. What is meant by resonant antenna? (Nov/Dec-2004)
Resonant antenna at a given frequency is defined as antenna with purely resistive
impedance. i.e., Z=R + j X in this X=0 And Z=R.
32. A dipole having a length 3 cm is operated at 1 GHz. The efficiency factor K=0.6. Calculate
the radiation resistance, the antenna gain & the effective aperture.
(Nov/Dec-2004)
Given:
l =3 cm; f= 1 GHz; K=0.6
For a short electric dipole Rr = 80 π 2 (l/ ) 2
Rr = 80 π 2 (3 x 10 -2/ ) 2 = 3 x 10 8 (m/s)/ 1 GHz = 0.3 m
Rr = 80 π 2 (0.1) 2 = 7.89 Ω
Gain G =KD
For a short electric dipole Directivity D= (3/2)
Gain G = 0.6 x (3/2)
G = 0.9
0.01074 m2
Effective Aperture Ae =( 2
D) / 4 π = [(0.3)2 x 1.5]/[4 x 3.14]
Ae = 0.01074 m2
33. Consider two similar dipoles having length 3 cm used as transmitting and receiving
antennas. Find the power received by the receiving antenna, if it is placed at a distance of 10 m
from the transmitting antenna, which is radiating 15 W average power at f = 1 GHz.
(Nov/Dec-2004)
Given:
l = 0.03 m; R = 10 m; Pt =15 W ; f = 1GHz.
By Friis transmission formula,
Power received, PR = P T Aet Aer / (R2 2)
Effective Aperture,
Aet = Aer = ( 2 G) / 4 π & = c/f = 3 x 10 8 (m/s)/ 1 GHz = 0.3 m
G=KD = (3/2) x 0.6 = 0.9
Now, Aet = Aer = ( 2 G) / 4 π becomes
Aet = Aer = [ (0.3) 2 x 0.9 ] / 4 π = 0.0065 m 2
PR = 15 x (0.0065) 2 / [10 2 x 0.3 2]= 69.25 W
5
34. Calculate the Beam area of antenna with cos 2 θ pattern.

Solution:
Φ=2 π θ=π
ΩA = ∫ ∫ cos 4 θ sin θ dθ dΦ
Φ=0 θ =0
Φ=2 π θ=π
ΩA = ∫ dΦ ∫ cos 4 θ sin θ dθ
Φ=0 θ =0
π/2
= - 2 π x [ (1/25) cos 5 θ] = 2 π/5 =1.26 sr.
0
an approximate relation for

the beam area
ΩA ≈ HP ΦHP
Where HP & ΦHP are the Half-Power Beam Widths (HPBW) in the two principal planes, minor lobes
being neglected.
HP & ΦHP = 66
0
Now ΩA= HP ΦHP = (66 0) 2 = 4356 sq.deg. Or 4356 □
One square radian = 3283 sq.deg.
Beam area ΩA = 4356 / 3283 = 1.33 sr.
Calculation for θ:
E ( ) = cos 2 for 0 0< <90 0
E ( ) = 0.707 at half power points & now 0.707 = cos 2
From this cos = (0.707) (1/2) and =330
And HPBW =2 = 2 x 33 0 = 66 0
35. Calculate the physical height of a half wave dipole having antenna Q of 30 and
bandwidth of 10 MHz. (Nov/Dec-2004)
Given: Q = 30; BW = 10MHz
Resonant frequency, f = Q.BW
=30 x 10 MHz
= 300MH

Length of the dipole, l =
2
To find λ:
=c/f
6
3  10 8
= =1m
300  10 6
1
 Physical height of half wave dipole = m
2
Height = 0.5m
36. Find the length of a half wave dipole at 30 MH. (May/June-2006)
300

f ( MHz)
150 150
/2  
f ( MHz) 30
Length = 5metres
37. The radiation resistance of an antenna is 72  and loss resistance is 8 . What is its
directivity if the power gain is 16? (May/June-2006)
Solution: By definitions
Rr
= and G = D
Rr  Rl
72 72
=   0.9
72  8 80
G 16 160
D=    17.78
 0.9 90
Directivity D = 17.78
PARTB- 8/16 MARKS QUESTIONS

1. Explain the Antenna Field Zones . (8)
Antenna Fields divided into:
Near Field or Fresnel Zone -short distance
Far Field or Fraunhofer zone -long distance
The boundary which separates the two regions is given by the Radius (R)
R (in meter) = 2 L 2 /
Where L = Max. Dimension of the antenna in m
= Wavelength in m
In the Far Field:
Field Components are transverse
Power flow is radially outward
Field Pattern is independent of the distance
In the Near Field:
Longitudinal Field Component of E-Field may be significant
Power flow is not radial
Field Pattern is depend on the distance
7
Boundary sphere of Antenna

Region R (in meter) = 2 L 2 /
Near Field or
Fresnel Region
Fresnel Fraunhofer
boundary sphere
Antenna Region
Antenna Field zones

From the above figure Antenna is enclosed in an imaginary boundary sphere. The region near the
poles of the sphere acts as a reflector. On the other hand, the waves expanding perpendicular to the
dipole is the equatorial region of the sphere resulting in power leakage through the sphere as if
partially transparent in this region.
This results in oscillating energy flow near the antenna accompanied by outward flow
in the equatorial region. The out flow accounts for the power radiated from the antenna, while the
reciprocal energy represents radiated power that is trapped near the antenna like is a resonator. This
over simplified discussion accounts in a qualitative way for the field pattern of the / 2 dipole
antennas.
From the figure we can further discuss above the antenna fields. For / 2 dipole
antenna, the energy is stored at one instant of the time in the electric field, mainly near the ends of the
antenna (or) maximum charge region while a ½ period later, the energy is stored in the magnetic field
mainly near the center of the antenna or maximum current again
Pol
Dipole
Boundary
Sphere
Equatorial Boundary Sphere

Plane transparent
Boundary sphere opaque (acts as

a reflector)
Pol
8
. Although the beam power flow is sometimes used it is actually energy which flows, power being the
time rate of energy flow.
2. Derive the Friis Transmission Formula. (Nov/Dec-2004) (8)

Usefulness of the aperture concepts can be well illustrated by deriving an expression
called Friis Transmission formula. This formula gives the power received over radio communication
circuit. Let the transmitter T feed a power P1 to a transmitting antenna through a communication
circuit with waves from transmitting antenna arriving at the receiving antenna by a direct path of
length ‘r’ antenna of effective aperture Aet .At a distance ‘r’ a receiving antenna of effective aperture A
er intercepts some of the power radiated by the transmitting antenna and delivers it to the receiver R.
If the transmitting antenna is isotropic, the power per unit area at the receiving antenna is Sr =
P t / ( 4 π r 2 ) of the antenna has gain G t , the power per unit area at the receiving antenna will be
increased in propagation as given by
Sr = P t G t / ( 4 π r 2 ) Watts.
Now the power collected by the receiving antenna of effective aperture A er is
Transmitting Antenna Receiving Antenna
Aet A er
Tx Rx
Transmitter Receiver
P r = S r A er = P t G t A er / ( 4 π r )
2
The Gain of the transmitting Antenna is given by,

G t = 4 π A et / 2
This is substituted in P r and now the equation becomes
P r = P t A et A er / (r 2 2 ) Watts.
Where,
Pr = Received Power (antenna matched) in Watts
Pt = Transmitted Power (antenna matched) in Watts
A et = Effective Aperture of the transmitting Antenna in m 2
A er = Effective Aperture of the Receiving Antenna in m 2
r = Distance between the transmitting & the Receiving antenna in m 2
= Wavelength in m.
3. Explain Polarization & its types. (Apr/May-2005)(16)

Polarization is an important factor for antennas. Both antennas and electromagnetic waves are
said to have a polarization. For the electromagnetic wave it is effectively the plane in which the
electric vibrates. This is important when looking at antennas because they are sensitive to polarization,
and generally only receive or transmit a signal with a particular polarization. For most antennas it is
very easy to determine the polarization. It is simply in the same plane as the elements of the antenna.
So a vertical antenna (i.e. one with vertical elements) will receive vertically polarized signals best and
similarly a horizontal antenna will receive horizontally polarized signals. It is important to match the
polarization of the antenna to that of the incoming signal. In this way the maximum signal is obtained.
If the antenna polarization does not match that of the signal there is a corresponding decrease in the
9
level of the signal. It is reduced by a factor of cosine of the angle between the polarization of the
antenna and the signal.
Accordingly the polarization of the antennas located in free space is very important, and obviously
they should be in exactly the same plane to provide the optimum signal. If they were at right angles to
one another (i.e. cross-polarized) then in theory no signal would be received.
For terrestrial applications it is found that once a signal has been transmitted then its polarization
will remain broadly the same. However reflections from objects in the path can change the
polarization. As the received signal is the sum of the direct signal plus a number of reflected signals
the overall polarization of the signal can change slightly although it remains broadly the same.
Polarization types:
 Linear Polarization
Horizontal & Vertical
 Circular Polarization
LHCP & RHCP
 Elliptical Polarization
Linear Polarization:
Vertical and horizontal are the simplest types of polarization and they both fall into a category known
as linear polarization. Consider a plane wave traveling in positive Z direction as shown in figure with
the electric field at all times in the Y direction. This wave is said to be linearly polarized in Y
direction. Suppose the electric field at all times in the X direction, then the wave is said to be linearly
polarized in X direction.
y
E2
z x
Out E1
Mathematically
E y = E 2 sin (ωt – βz)
Elliptical Polarization:
Another form of polarization is known as elliptical polarization. It occurs when there is a
mix of linear and circular polarization. This can be visualized as before by the tip of the electric field
vector tracing out an elliptically shaped corkscrew.In general the electric field of a wave traveling is in
the z direction may have both x and y component. The wave is said to be elliptically polarized. At a
fixed value of z the electric vector E rotates as a function of time, the tip of the vector describing, an
ellipse called the ‘Polarization ellipse’. The ratio of the major to minor axis of the polarization ellipse
is called as the “Axial Ratio (AR)”.
10
Axial Ratio (AR) = E2/E1

We can note that elliptical polarization has two extremes. They are
(i) Circular Polarization (ii) Linear Polarization
Conditions:
Elliptical Polarization become a Linear Polarization (E1 = 0 & AR = ∞):
For E1 = 0, the wave is said to be linearly polarized in y direction
For E2 = 0, the wave is said to be linearly polarized in z direction
If the time phase angle = 0 & E1=E2, the wave is said to be linearly polarized at an angle of 45 0
with respect to x-axis.
Elliptical Polarization become a Circular Polarization (E1 = E2 & AR = 1):
Let us consider two electric field components in x and y directions
E2
Ey
Tilt Angle
Ex E1 x
Minor Axis
Major Axis
E x = E 1 sin (ωt – βz)

E y = E 2 sin (ωt – βz + )
E 1 = amplitude of the linearly polarized wave in x direction
E 2 = amplitude of the linearly polarized wave in y direction
= the time phase angle by which E y leads E x.
Combining these two equations,
11
E= a x E1 sin (ωt – βz) + ay E 2 sin (ωt – βz + )

Where a x & a y are the unit vectors in the direction of x & y.
At z=0
E x = E 1 sin (ωt – βz) & E y = E 2 sin (ωt – βz + ) becomes
E x = E 1 sin (ωt)
E y = E 2 sin (ωt + )
Expanding E y yields E y = E 2 [sin ωt cos + cos ωt sin ]
Sin ωt = E x / E 1
Cos ωt = (1 – (E x / E 1) 2) (1/2)
(E x / E 1) 2 - (2 E x E y cos / E1 E2) + (E y / E 2) 2 = sin2
We can write it as
a Ex2 - b E x E y + c Ey 2 = 1 this equation describes the ellipse.
Circular Polarization:
Elliptical Polarization become a Circular Polarization when
E1 = E2 & AR = 1
= + 90 0
= + 90 0 the wave is Right Circularly Polarized
= - 90 0 the wave is Left Circularly Polarized
Applications:
Different types of polarization are used in different applications to enable their
advantages to be used. Linear polarization is by far the most widely used. Vertical polarization is often
used for mobile or point to point applications. This is because many vertical antennas have an omni-
directional radiation pattern and it means that the antennas do not have to be re-orientated as positions
are changed if for example a moving vehicle.
For other applications the polarization is often determined by antenna considerations. Some
large multi-element antenna arrays can be mounted in a horizontal plane more easily than in the
vertical plane. This is because the antenna elements are at right angles to the vertical tower of pole on
which they are mounted and therefore by using an antenna with horizontal elements there is less
physical and electrical interference between the two.
This determines the standard polarization in many cases. In some applications there are
performance differences between horizontal and vertical polarization. For example medium wave
broadcast stations generally use vertical polarization because ground wave propagation over the earth
is considerably better using vertical polarization, whereas horizontal polarization shows a marginal
improvement for long distance communications using the ionosphere.
Circular polarization is sometimes used for satellite communications as there are some
advantages in terms of propagation and in overcoming the fading caused if the satellite is changing its
orientation.
12
4. Explain the concept “Duality of Antennas”. (Nov/Dec-2005)(6)

Space Quantities
Circuit
Quantities Antenna Field E ( ,Φ)
Patterns E Φ ( ,Φ)
Current Power S ( ,Φ)

Radiation Distribu- Patterns Pn( ,Φ)
Resistance R r tion
Beam solid angle (Ω)
directivity (D) Gain (G)
Effective Aperture (Ae)
Antenna Transition scattering aperture (As)
Temperature T A region
Duality Concept
This schematic diagram of basic antenna parameters, illustrating the duality of an antenna a circuit
device with a resistance and temperature on the one hand and a space device on the other, with
radiation patterns, beam angles, directivity gain and aperture.
The radio antennas have a two fold function. The first of these functions is to radiate the EM
energy generated from the transmitter. In this capacity the antenna acts as an impedance transforming
device to match the impedance of the transmission line (or feed line) to that of free space.
The second function is to direct the EM energy into desired directions and to suppress the radiation in
the other unwanted directions. The second function is considered as the directional property.
5.a) Compare the Antenna & Transmission Line. (8)

A radio antenna may be defined as the structure associated with the region of
transition between a guided wave and a free-space wave & vice versa. In connection with this
definition, it is also useful to consider what is meant by the terms transmission line and resonator.
A transmission line is a device for transmitting or guiding radio-frequency energy from one point to
another. Usually it is desirable to transmit the energy with a minimum attenuation, heat and radiation
losses. This means that while the energy is being conveyed from one point to another, it is confined to
the transmission line or is bound closely to it. Thus, the wave transmitted along the line is one
dimensional; and the wave does not spread out into space but allows along the line. From the general
point of view one may extend the transmission line ( or transmission system) to include not only
coaxial and 2-wire transmission lines but also hollow pipes, or ‘wave guides’.
A generator connected to an infinite lossless transmission line, produces a
uniform traveling wave along the line. If the line is short circuited, the out going traveling wave is
reflected. And a standing wave is produced on the line due to interference between the out going and
the reflected waves.
Normally a standing wave is associated with local concentration of energy. If the
reflected wave equals the incident wave, then a pure standing wave exists. The energy concentrated in
13
such a wave oscillates from electric energy to magnetic energy and back twice per cycle. Such energy
behavior is characteristics of a resonant circuit, or resonator. Where there is only an outer conductor,
as in the short circuited section of wave guide, the device is called cavity resonator.
Thus, antennas radiate (or receive) energy, transmission lines guide energy while resonators store
energy..
This line will radiate electromagnetic energy. The guided wave is a plane wave while
the free space wave is a spherically expanding wave. Along the uniform part of the line, energy is
guided as a plane wave with little loss provided; the spacing between the wires is a small fraction of a
wave length. The open ended line acts as an antenna and the wave is radiated from this end(i.e.) the
antenna launches a free space wave the currents and transmission line and end there, buy the fields
associated with them, keep on going. More explicitly the region of transition between the guided wave
and the free space wave may be defined as an antenna. Thus an antenna is a transition device (or) a
transducer between a guided wave and a free space wave (or) vice versa.
The transmission lines (or wave guides) are usually made so as to minimize the
radiation. However, antennas are designed to radiate on to receive EM energy as effectively as
possible. The antenna is a transformation device converting electromagnetic photons into circuit
current; it can also convert energy from a circuit into photons radiated into space. In simplest terms, an
antenna converts photons to current or vice versa. Note: A photon is a quantum unit of EM energy
equal to hf, where h=Plancks constant=6.63 x 10 -34 Js and f=frequency (hertz).
A simple example can be considered here. Consider a transmission line connected to a dipole antenna,
as shown in figure below.
The dipole acts as an antenna because it launches a free space wave. However it is also
regarded as a section of open-ended transmission line. In addition, it exhibits many of the
characteristics of the resonator. Because energy is reflected from the ends of the dipole. This gives rise
to a standing wave and energy storage near the antenna thus the dipole, a single device exhibit the
properties of an antenna, a transmission line and a resonator simultaneously.
b)Write short notes on Balun
Balun:
Balun is nothing but a /2 balance to unbalance transformer. It is an impedance
transforming device. Balun is generally used for impedance matching between a transmission line and
an antenna. A dipole antenna fed by a two-wire transmission line is balanced with respect to ground,
provided the two halves of the dipole have the same orientation and placement with respect to ground.
In a balanced mode, the two halves of the dipole are at potentials +V and –V with respect to ground.
If the dipole is connected to a co-axial transmission line which is an unbalanced
drive system, then the outer conductor and one arm of the dipole will be at a different potential level
with respect to ground, than that of the center conductor and the other arm of the dipole. The result is
that currents are excited on the outside of the outer conductor of the co-axial line and the currents in
the two halves of the dipole antenna will not be the same. The radiation from the current on the outside
of the co-axial line will interfere with the radiation from the dipole antenna. Hence the radiation
pattern also gets changed.
The change in radiation pattern which is not predicted readily and the change in the
input impedance of the antenna due to unbalanced currents are undesirable effects. Therefore, when a
co-axial feed line is used, some form of BALUN is necessary to convert the unbalanced feed system to
a balanced feed system, before connection is made. Baluns are constructed in a variety of ways,
depending on the frequency band involved.
14
6. Explain the Beam Area or Beam Solid Angle (ΩA). (Apr/May-2005)(8)

In polar two-dimensional coordinates an increment area dA on the surface of a sphere is the product of
the length r dθ in the θ direction and r sin θ dΦ in the Φ direction.
Thus, dA= (r dθ)( r sin θ dΦ) = r 2 dΩ
Where, dΩ = solid angle expressed in steradians (sr) or square degrees (□)
dΩ = solid angle subtended by the area dA
Solid angle
In 1 steradian ≈ 3283 □
In sphere ≈ 41,253 □
The area of the strip of width r dθ extending around the sphere at a constant angle θ is given by (2 π r
sin θ ) (r dθ). Integrating this for θ values from 0 to π yields the area of the sphere. Thus,
π π
Area of the sphere = ∫ (2 π r sin θ) (r dθ) = 2 π r ∫ sin θ dθ
2
0 π 0
= 2 π r 2 [- cos θ] = 4 π r 2
0
Where 4 π = solid angle subtended by a sphere, sr. Thus,
1 steradian = 1 sr = (solid angle of sphere) / 4 π
= 1 rad2 = (180 / π) 2 (deg2) = 3282.8064 square degrees.
Therefore, 4 π steradians = 4 x 3282.8064 = 41,252.96 ≈ 41,253 square degrees
= 41,253 □
= solid angle in a sphere
The beam area or beam solid angle or ΩA of an antenna is given by the integral of the normalized
power pattern over a sphere (4 π sr)
Φ=2 π θ=π
ΩA = ∫ ∫ Pn (θ, Φ) sin θ r dθ dΦ
Φ=0 θ =0
And Beam area ΩA = ∫∫ Pn (θ, Φ) d Ω (sr)

4π
Where dΩ = sin θ dθ dΦ, sr.

The beam area ΩA is the solid angle through which all of the power radiated by the antenna would
stream if P ( , Φ) maintained its maximum value over ΩA and was zero elsewhere.
Thus the power radiated= P ( , Φ) ΩA watts. The beam area of an antenna can often be described
approximately in terms of the angles subtended by the half –power points of the main lobe in the two
principal planes. Thus,
Beam area ΩA ≈ HP ΦHP
Where HP & ΦHP are the Half-Power Beam Widths (HPBW) in the two principal planes, minor lobes
being neglected.
7. Explain Poynting vector. (6)

As per the pointing theorem, the vector product of E & H, is another vector, denoted by P.
this vector P, is known as Poynting vector. “It measures the rate of flow of energy and its direction is
the direction of power flow and is perpendicular to the plane containing the E & H vectors”.
P=ExH W/m2 => where E in V/m & H in A/m.
15
“The time rate of energy flow per unit area is the Poynting vector, or ‘Power density’ (watts per square
meter)”.
A source that radiates energy uniformly in all directions is an “Isotropic source”. For such a
source the radial component pr of the Poynting vector is independent of & Φ. The average Poynting
vector is given by:
Pav = (1/2) Re (E x H*) the far-field components are E & HΦ so that the radial component of
the Poynting vector is:
Pr = (1/2) Re E HΦ* where E & HΦ* are complex.
Ex=E1 e j (ωt-βz)
Ey=E2 e j (ωt-βz+ )
At z=0 the total electric field vector is then,
E = x Ex + y Ey=x E1 ej ωt + y E2 e j(ωt+ )
Where x = unit vector in x direction & y = unit vector in y direction
The H field component associated with Ex is Hy=H1 e j(ωt-βz – ) where is the phase lag of Hy with
respect to Ex.
The H field component Hx=-H2 e j (ωt-βz+ – )
The total H field at z=0 for a traveling wave in positive z direction is then
H= y Hy – x Hx= y H1 e j(ωt– ) – x H2 e j(ωt + – )
H* = y H1 e - j (ωt– ) – x H2 e - j (ωt + – )
Substituting these equations in average poynting vector at z=0
Sav = (1/2) {Re [x X y] Ex Hy* -[y X x] Ey Hx*
= (1/2) z Re (Ex Hy* +Ey Hx*)
Where z is the unit vector in z-direction.
It follows that the average power of the wave per unit area is
Sav = (1/2) z Re (E1 H1 Re e j +E2 H2 Re e j )
= (1/2) z (E1 H1 +E2 H2) cos (W m -2)
Sav is independent of
In a lossless medium =0 and E1/H1=E2/H2=z0
So the equation reduces to
Sav = (1/2) z (E1 H1 +E2 H2) by substituting E1/H1=E2/H2=z0 we get
Sav = (1/2) z (H12 + H22) z0 = (1/2) z H2 z0 (Wm -2)
Where H= (H12+H22) (1/2) is the amplitude of the total H field. We can also write it as
Sav = (1/2) z [(E1 2 +E2 2) / z0]= (1/2) z [E 2 / z0] (Wm -2)
Where E= (E12+E22) (1/2) is the amplitude of the total E field.
8. Distinguish Radian from Steradian. (Nov/Dec-2004&05)(4)
Radian Steradian
The measure of the plane angle The measure of the solid angle
One radian is defined as the plane angle with its One steradian is defined as the solid angle
vertex at the center of a circle of a radius r that is with its vertex at the center of a sphere of a
subtended by an arc whose length is r radius r that is subtended by an spherical
surface area equal to that of square with
each side of length r
For circular the circumference = 2πr For spherical the total area is 4πr2
In a circle there are 2π radians present In a sphere there are 4π steradians present
16
One radian is calculated for an arc of length r One steradian is calculated for an area of r2
9. Derive the expression for far fields components of a short dipole antenna (or) Oscillating
electric dipole. (Dec-2004, May-2005) (16)
Any linear antenna may be considered as large number of very short conductors
connected in series and hence it is essential to consider the radiation of such short conductor, called as
short electric dipole.
 A short electric dipole is assumed to be of length L << and is placed in coincide with the
Z-axis with its centre at the origin.
 Since it is so short, the current which is flowing through the dipole is assumed to be
constant throughout its length.
 The effect of this current is not felt instantaneously at a distant point P, but only after an
interval equal to the time required for the wave to propagate over the distant r,called
retardation time .
Retarded vector potential; Distance point

I = Im Sinωt Im – maximum current
I = instantaneous
current
[I] =Im Sin ω (t-r/c) ω = 2пf
r – Distance Retarded time represented by phase angle ωr/c
c – Velocity of propagation
Consider a uniform plane wave in +Z direction.
[I] = Im Sin (ωt – βz)
= ImSin (ωt – βr) β =2п/ ω =2пf

= ImSin ω (t- βr/ ω) f =c/ ω =2пc/
= ImSin ω (t- r/c) βr/ ω = 2пr/ = r/c
2пc/
[I] = Im ejω (t-r/c) = Imej(ωt-βr) Amp.
[J] = Jm ejω (t-r/c) = Jm ej(ωt-βr) Amp/m2
While considering the distance
[A] = /4п ∫ v [I] /r dv
[A] = /4п ∫ v Jm ejω (t-r/c) dv
r
[A] = /4п ∫ v J (t-r/c) dv dv = ds.dl
r
= /4п ∫ v J (t-r/c) ds.dl ∫ J.ds = I
r
= /4п ∫ v I (t-r/c) dl
r
= /4п ∫ v Im Sin ω (t- r/c) dl
r
17
Scalar potential:
[v] = 1/4п ∫v [ρ]dv = 1/4п ∫vρ0 ejω (t-r/c) dv
r r
[v] = Retarded scalar potential V- in volt
[ρ] = ρ0 ejω (t-r/c) Retarded charge density, cm -3
Dipole is of length, coincide with z- axis and centre is at origin

Medium – air, E – field components are: Er ,E ,Eφ
r – Distance from origin to distant point P
Current in the dipole I = Im ejωt
Propagation time or retardation time by Lorenz equation.
[I] = Im ejω (t –r/c) = Imej (ωt-βr) ωr/c = 2πfr/c radians = 3600fr/c radiations.
(t-r/c) is used to represent the retarded potential at distant point.
Electric field Intensity in terms of scalar and vector potential is
E = - ∆v - ∂A /∂t V/m
V – Electric scalar potential at point P in volts
A – Vector potential at point p in wb/m
Magnetic field:
∆ x A =B = 0 H H = 1/ 0 [∆ x A] A/m
By using retarded potential, the eqn can be written as
E = - ∆ [v] - ∂A /∂t = -∆ [v] – jω [A] V/m (∂ /∂t = j ω)
H = 1/ 0 [∆ x A] A/m
jω (t-r/c)
Where V = 1/4π 0 ∫v [ρ] dv =1/4п 0 ∫v ρm e dv volts
r r
A = 0/4π ∫vJ/r dv = 0/4π ∫ v Jm ejω (t-r/c) dv wb/m
18
r
Electric field depends on currents and charges.
Magnetic field depends only currents.
Determination of Retarded vector potential [A]:-
The dipole is placed along the Z- axis direction .Hence the current in Z-direction is the result. So, it
has only Z- component.
l/2
[A] = AZ = 0/4π ∫ [I] / S dz where [I] =Im ejω (t –r/c)
-l/2
Z – Distance to a point on dipole
Im – peak value in time on current
0 - permeability of free space = 4 π x 10 H/m
-7
ω - Radiation frequency 2 f where f is frequency in Hz

l/2 l/2
jω (t –r/c) jω (t –r/c)
AZ = ( 0/4πs) Im e ∫ dz = ( 0/4πs) Im e [z]
-l/2 -l/2
AZ = ( 0/4πs) Im l ejω (t –r/c)
When r >>l and > >l
AZ = ( 0/4πr) Im l ejω (t –r/c)
Determination if retarded scalar potential: [v]
V = 1/4π 0 ∫v [ρ] dv
S
[ρ] = ρm ejω (t-r/c) Retarded charge dv = infinitesimal volume element
-2
0 = Permittivity of free space = 8.854 x 10 F/m
Potential can be given as in terms of charge and distance.
V =1/4π 0 [Q] - [Q] we know that dQ/dt = I and Q = ∫ [I] dt
S1 S2
The retarded charge [Q] =∫ [I] dt
S1 = r-l/2 Cos S1 = r+l/2 Cos
Now V = 1/4π ∫ [I] dt - ∫ [I] dt
S1 S2
V = 1/4π 0 ∫ Im ejω (t –S1/c) dt _ ∫ Im ejω (t –S2/c) dt ∫ ejωdt = ejωt
S1 S2 jω
By integrating with respect to t
V = 1/4π Im ejω (t –S1/c) _ Im ejω (t –S2/c)

0
S1jω S2jω
jω (t –S c)
V = Im e 1/ _ ejω (t –S2/c)
4π 0 j ω S1 S2
Substitute S1 and S2 values
= Im ejω (t – (r-l/2 cos )) _ ejω (t – (r+l/2 cos ))

4π 0 j ω c c
l
r- l/2 cos r+ l/2 cos S2 =r + l/2cos
= Im ejω (t-r/c) e (jωlcos )/2c _ e (-jωlcos )/2c

4π 0 j ω r- l/2 cos r+ l/2 cos
19
r > >l and neglect (l/2 Cos ) 2 after rearrange
= Im ejω (t-r/c) (r+l /2 cos ). e(jωlcos )/2c _ ( r-l/2 cos ) e(-jωlcos )/2c
4π 0 j ω r 2 - (l cos )2
Neglect
= Im ejω (t-r/c) (r+l /2 cos ) e (jωlcos )/2c _ ( r-l/2 cos ) e(-jωlcos )/2c
4π 0 j ωr2
ej = Cos +j Sin
Similarly e(jωlcos )/2c= cos (ωl cos /2c) + j sin (ωl cos /2c)
For small values of Co s (ωl cos /2c) approximately equal to 1.
For small values of Sin (ωl cos /2c) approximately equal to ωl cos /2c
= Im ejω (t-r/c ) (r+l /2 cos ). (1+j ωl cos ) _ ( r- l/2 cos ) (1-jωl cos )
4π 0 j ωr2 2c 2c
= Im ejω (t-r/c) r+l /2 cos . + j ωl cos + jωl2 cos2 - r+ l/2 cos + jωl cos - jωl2 cos2
4π 0 j ωr2 2c 4c 2c 4c
= Im ejω (t-r/c) l cos + jωl cos

4π 0 j ωr2 c
= Im l cos ejω (t-r/c) 1 + r

4π 0 j ωr2 cr
= Im l cos ejω (t-r/c) c + 1 (take out c)

4π 0 c j ωr2 r
V = Im l cos ejω (t-r/c) 1 + c volts.

4π 0 c r j ωr2
Determination of Electric field components [Er, E θ, E φ]:
E = jωA - ∆V
Vector potential can be written as in terms of polar coordinates and its unit vectors.
A = Arar + A a + Aφaφ
Scalar potential
∆V = ar ∂v/∂r + a 1/r (∂v/∂ ) + aφ1/r Sin (∂v/∂φ)
The field has only Z- component. So, the vector potential can be written as
Aφ = 0 Ar = Az Cos A = - Az Sin
We know Az = 0 Im l ejω (t- r/c)

4πr
20
Now the electric field equation becomes

arEr+a E +aφEφ = - jω (Arar + A a +Aφaφ) – ar ∂v/∂r-a 1/r(∂v/∂ )
- aφ1/r Sin (∂v/∂φ)
Form the above field components Er, E , E φ can be written as
Er = - jωAr - ∂v/∂r
E = - jωA - 1/r (∂v/∂ )
Eφ = - jωAφ- 1/r Sin (∂v/∂φ)
Er component
Er = - jωAr - ∂v/∂r
V = Im l cos ejω (t-r/c) 1 + c
4π 0 c r j ωr2
∂v/∂r = Im l cos ∂/∂ r ( ejω (t-r/c)) 1 + c

4π 0 c r j ωr2
= Im l cos 1 + c ejω (t-r/c) -jω + ejω (t-r/c) - 1 – 2c

4π 0 c r j ωr2 c r2 jωr3
Im l cos e j (t r / c )  j 1 1 2c 
=   2  2  
4 0 c  cr r r jr 3 
Im l cos e j (t r / c )  j 2 2c 
=   2  
4 0 c  cr r jr 3 
v Im l cos e j (t r / c )  j 2 2c 
- =   2  
r 4 0 c  cr r jr 3 

_j Ar = - j Az cos  = - j  0 I m le j (t r / c )
1
4r

cos  
 j 0 I m l cos e j (t r / c )
=
4r
 j 0 I m l cos e j (t r / c ) I l cos e j (t r / c )  j 2 2c 
Er = + m   2  
4r 4r 0 c  cr r jr 3 
I m l cos e j (t r / c )  j 0 1  j 2 2c  
=     2  
4  r  0 c  cr r jr 3  
Relation between 0, 0 and c is given as
1 1 1
C= c2 = 0  2
 0 0  0 0 c 0
I m l cos e j (t r / c )   j j 2 1 c 
=  2  2   2  
4  rc  0 c  0 r  0 c  r jr 3  
21
I m l cos e j (t r / c )  1 1 
Er =  2  
2 0  cr jr 3 
Eθ Component;
E = - jωA - 1/r (∂v/∂ )
V = Im l Cos ejω (t-r/c) 1 + c
4π 0 c r j ωr2
∂V/∂ = Im l ejω (t-r/c) 1+ c
4π 0 c r j ωr2 ∂/∂ (Cos )
-1/r (∂v/∂ ) = - Im l ejω (t-r/c) 1+ c (- Sin )

4π 0 cr r j ωr2
= Im l sin ejω (t-r/c) 1 + c

4π 0 cr r j ωr2
-jωA = -jω (-AzSin ) = + jωAzSin
= jω ejω (t- r/c) Sin

0 Im l
4πr
= jω 0 Im l Sin ejω (t- r/c)
4πr
E = jω 0 Im l Sin ejω (t- r/c) +Iml Sin ejω (t- r/c) 1 + c
4πr 4π 0 cr r j ωr2
= Im l sin ejω (t- r/c) jω 0 + 1 1 + c

4π r 0 cr r j ωr2
0= 1/c2 0
= Im l sin ejω (t- r/c) jω + 1 + 1

4π c2 0 0cr2 j 0ωr3
E = Im l sin ejω (t- r/c) jω + 1 + 1

4π 0 c2 r cr2 j ωr3
Eφ Component:
Eφ = - jωAφ – 1/Asin (∂v/∂φ)
Eφ = 0
22
Because there is no Aφ component and no

term with ‘φ’available in ‘V’ equation.
Determination of Magnetic field components: (Hr, Hθ, Hφ)
ar ar aφr sin
0H = ∆ x A = 1/r sin ∂/∂r ∂/∂ ∂/∂φ
2
Ar rA r sin Aφ
ar a r aφr sin
0H =1/r2sin ∂/∂r ∂/∂ 0 ∂/∂φ = 0
Ar rA 0 Aφ = 0
ar 0Hr +a 0H + aφ 0Hφ = ar (∆ x A)r + a (∆ x A) + aφ (∆ x A) φ

ar 0Hr = (∆ x A) r = 0 Hr = 0
a 0H = (∆ x A) = 0 H =0
Hφ component:
aφ 0Hφ = aφ r sin ∂/∂r (rA ) - ∂/∂ (Ar)
r2sin
Hφ = 1/ 0r ∂/∂r (rA ) - ∂/∂ (Ar)
∂/∂r (rA ) = ∂/∂r (– rA zsin )
= -∂/∂r +r 0 Im l ejω (t- r/c) sin

4πr
jω (t- r/c)
= -∂/∂r 0 Im l e sin
4π
=- 0 Im l sin ∂/∂r (ejω (t- r/c) )

4π
0 m l sin
=-
I (ejω (t- r/c) ) (-jω/c)
4π
= + jω 0Iml sin (ejω (t- r/c) )
4πc
∂/∂ (Ar) = ∂/∂ (Az cos ) = - Azsin
sin ejω (t- r/c)

=- 0 Im l
4πr
- ∂/∂ (Ar) = + 0 Im l sin ejω (t- r/c)
4πr
Now Hφ = 1/ 0r ∂/∂r (rA ) - ∂/∂ (Ar)
= 1/ 0r jω 0Iml sin ejω (t- r/c) + 0Iml sin ejω (t- r/c)
4πc 4πr
= 0Iml sin ejω (t- r/c) jω 0 + 0

4π 0cr 0r
2
Hφ = Iml sin ejω (t- r/c) jω + 1

4π cr r2
23
Results: Er = Im l cos ejω (t- r/c) 1 + 1

2π 0 cr2 j ωr3
E = Im l sin ejω (t- r/c) jω + 1 + 1

4π 0 c2 r cr2 j ωr3
Hφ = Iml sin ejω (t- r/c) jω + 1

4π cr r2
10. Derive an expression for radiation resistance of an oscillating electric dipole. (Nov-2004,
April-2005) (13)
The radiation resistance of the short dipole is determined by the following steps:
Step 1:
If the surface integral of the average pointing vector is taken over any surface enclosing an
antenna, the total power radiated is the result.
W = ∫ Pav ds.
Where W = power radiated in watts.
Pav = Average pointing vector in W/m2
Ds = Surface area in m2
Step 2:
We know in general the power can be given as
W = Irms2 R Irms - rms value of current.
Otherwise
W = (Im / √2)2R = 1/2 Im2 R Im – max current, Irms = Im /√2
We use this base equation to compare with step 1 result to be calculated in the following steps.
Step 3:
The average pointing vector is given by
Pav = 1/2 Re (E x H*)
Step 4:
Substitute the far field components in Pav equation such as E , Hφ and the result is given as
power radiated
24
Pr = 1/2 Re (E .Hφ*)
Step 5:
The E and H field components are related by
E / Hφ = 0 = 120 π = √ 0 / 0
Now, Pr = 1/2 Re (E .Hφ*) is given as
Pr = 1/2 Re ( 0 Hφ Hφ*) E = 0 Hφ
= 1/2 Hφ 2 Re ( 0 )
= 1/2 Hφ 2 120 π
= 60 π Hφ 2
Step 6:
Calculation of total power by integrating the power radiated.
W = ∫ Pr ds.
Step 7:
Substitute the surface area and the limits.
2π π 2π π
W = ∫ ∫ Pr ds = ∫ ∫ Pr.r2Sin d dφ
00 0 0
Step 8:
Integral calculation.2π π
W = ∫ ∫ 60π Hφ 2.r2Sin d dφ
00
We know Hφ = ω0 Im l Sin
Hφ 4πcr
(From Hφ = Im l Sin ejω (t-r/c) jω + 1 and taking modules and neglecting the
4π cr r 2
induction field we will get
Hφ = ω Im l Sin
2π π 4πcr
W = ∫ dφ ∫ 60π ω0 Im l Sin2 r2 Sin d
2 2 2
0 0 π 16 π2 c2 r2
= 2π 60π ∫ ω0 Im2 l 2 Sin3 d
2
16 π2 0 c2
π
= 120 ω02 Im2 l 2 ∫ Sin3 d π/2
16 c2 0 π/2 ∫Sin3 d = 3-1/3 = 2/3
= 2 x 120 ω0 Im l ∫ Sin3 d
2 2 2
0
16 c2 0
= 2 x 120 ω0 Im l x 2
2 2 2
16 c2 3
= 10 ω0 Im l
2 2 2
= 10 2π .2 π Im2 l2
c2 2
W = 40 π Im (l / )
2 2 2
Step 9:
Equate the result with 1/2 Im2Rr or Irms2Rr
W = 1/2 Im2Rr
= 40 π2 Im2 (l / ) 2
So 1/2 Im Rr = 40 π2 Im2 (l / ) 2
2
25
Step 10: Rr = 80 π2 (l / ) 2
Radiation resistance value

Rr = 80 x (3.1416)2 (l/ ) 2 π = 3.1416
= 80 x 9.8696 (l/ )2
= 789.57204 (l/ )2
Rr≈ 790 (l/ ) 2Ω
11. Derive the expression for far fields and radiation resistance of Half wave Dipole Antenna.
Elementary dipole is the simplest practical antenna. It is a centre fed antenna having a length
that is very short in wavelength. The current amplitude is maximum at centre and decreases uniformly,
at the ends the current amplitude is zero. A dipole antenna is defined as a symmetrical antenna in
which the two ends are at equal potential relative to mid point.
Half wavelength dipole antenna is the fundamental radio antenna of metal rod or thin wire
which has a physical length of half wavelength in free space at the frequency of operation. The half
wavelength dipole is employed as an element of an antenna arrays. Half wave dipole antenna produces
maximum radiation in the plane normal to the axis.
+h P Distant point
R = r-z cos
r
h dz
Im Sin (h-z)
l =2h Z=0
Im Sin (h+z)
-h
To calculate the radiation field of a half wave dipole, at a point P distribution is assumed as shown in
figure.
I = Im Sin (h-z) for Z > 0
I = Im Sin (h+z) for Z < 0
Im – maximum current
 jR
0 Idze
h
Idze  jR
 dAz  h 4R  0 4R
R = r – z cos
And Z>0 I = Im Sin (h-z)
Z<0 I = Im Sin (h+z)
26
0
I m sin  (h  z )e  j ( r  z cos ) h
I sin  (h  z )e  j ( r  z cos ) h
I m sin  (h  z )e  j ( r  z cos )
= dz   m dz 0 dz
h
4 ( r  z cos  ) 0
4 ( r  z cos  ) 4 (r  z cos  )
0 h
-j β r +j β z cos
Az = Im e ∫ Sin (h+z) e dz + ∫ Sin (h-z) e+j β z cos dz
4π -h r-z cos 0 r-z cos
r-z cos ≈ r in denominator. z cos is small distance compared to r.
0 h
-j β r +j β z cos
AZ = Im e ∫ Sin (h+z) e dz + ∫ Sin (h-z) e+j β z cos dz
4πr -h 0
l = 2h = /2
h = /4 = π/2
Sin (h-z) and Sin (h-z) is given as
Sin (π/2-z) and Sin (π/2+z) = Cos z
Then 0 h
-j β r +j β z cos
AZ = Im e ∫ Cos z e dz + ∫ Cos z e+j β z cos dz
4πr -h 0
Change the order of Integration –h and 0 to 0 and h.
Cos (-z) = Cos z and e-j β z cos
h h
-j β r -j β z cos
AZ = Im e ∫ Cos z e dz + ∫ Cos z e+j β z cos dz
4πr 0 0
h
AZ = Im e-j β r ∫ Cos z ej β z cos + e-j β z cos dz
4πr 0
h
-j β r
= Im e ∫ 2 Cos z Cos (β z cos ) dz
4πr 0
We know 2 CosA CosB = Cos (A-B) +Cos (A+B)
So h
-j β r
AZ = Im e ∫ Cos (z -β z cos ) + Cos (z + β z cos ) dz
4πr 0
h
-j β r
= Im e ∫ Cos z (1-cos ) + Cos z (1 +cos ) dz
4πr 0 h
-j β r
= Im e Sin z (1-cos ) + Sinz (1 +cos ) dz
4πr (1-cos ) (1+cos )
0 h
= Im e-j β r (1+cos ) Sin z (1-cos ) + (1-cos ) Sinz (1 +cos )
4πβr 1-cos2 0
h
-j β r
= Im e Sin z (1-cos ) + Sinz (1-cos ) cos +
4πβr Sinz (1+cos ) - Sinz (1+cos ) cos
Sin2 0
27
Sin (z -z cos ) = Sin (h -h cos ) h = /4

= Sin (π/2 - π/2cos ) = cos (π/2cos ) h = 2π / . /4
Similarly = π /2
Sin (z -z cos ) = Sin (π/2 +π/2cos ) = cos (π/2cos )
AZ = Im e-j β r Sin z (1-cos ) + Sinz (1-cos ) cos +

4πβr Sinz (1+cos ) - Sinz (1+cos ) cos
Sin2
Cos (π/2cos ) + Cos (π/2cos ) - Cos (π/2cos ) cos +

-j β r
= Im e Cos (π/2cos )
4πβr Sin2
= Im e-j β r 2 Cos (π/2cos )

4πβr Sin2
AZ = Im e-j βr Cos (π/2cos

2πβr Sin2
Far Field Components: Magnetic field component H φ:

From Maxwell Equation
∆xA= H
Hφ = (∆ x H) φ = 1/r ∂/∂r (A .r) - ∂/∂ (Ar)
By considering only radiation field, ∂/∂ (Ar) is neglected.

Hφ = 1/r ∂/∂r (-Az Sin .r)
= 1/r ∂/∂r - Im e-j βr r. Sin 2 Cos (π/2cos

4πβr Sin2
= 1/r - ImSin ∂/∂r (e-j βr) 2 Cos (π/2cos )

4πβ Sin2
-j βr
= - ImSin e (-j β) 2 Cos (π/2cos )
4πβr Sin2
-j βr
Hφ = + j β ImSin e 2 Cos (π/2cos )
4πβr Sin2
-j βr
Hφ = + j Ime . Sin 2 Cos (π/2cos )
4πr Sin2
Hφ = Im.Sin Cos (π/2cos ) j = 1, e-j βr = 1

2πr Sin2
Hφ = Im Cos (π/2cos ) Amp/m2

2πr Sin
28
Electric field components:

We know that E and Hφ can be related as
E = Hφ
E = 120π
Hφ
E = 120π Hφ
= 120π Ime-j βr 2 Cos (π/2cos )
4πr Sin
E = 30 Ime-j βr 2 Cos (π/2cos )
r Sin
E = 60 Im Cos (π/2cos ) Volts/meter

r Sin
10. Derive the Average power and Radiation Resistance of λ/2 Dipole Antenna.
Average power calculation:
The maximum power flow is obtained from pointing vector method
Pmax= E Hφ
From maximum power the average power flow is given by
P (average) = Pmax = E x Hφ
2 √2 √2
P (average) = 1/2 (E Hφ)
= 1 60Im x Cos (π/2cos ) Im x Cos (π/2cos )

2 r Sin 2πr Sin
Pave = 1 60Im2 Cos (π/2cos ) 2
2 2πr2 Sin
In terms of Irms
Pave = 15 Im2 Cos (π/2cos ) 2
πr2 Sin
Pave = 15 (√2 Irms) 2 Cos (π/2cos ) 2
πr2 Sin
Pave = 30 I2rms Cos (π/2cos ) 2 w/m2
πr2 Sin
Radiation Resistance of λ/2 Dipole Antenna:

The radiation resistance is calculated from the total power radiated which is nothing but surface
integral of average power. The elemental area of the spherical shell is given by
ds = 2πr2 Sin d
Ptotal = W = ∫SPav ds
π
= ∫ 30 I2rms Cos2 (π/2cos ) 2πr2 Sin d
0 πr2 Sin2
29
π
W = 60 I rms ∫ Cos2 (π/2cos ) d
2
0 Sin
π
W = 60 I2rms ∫ 1/2 1+ Cos (πcos ) d
0 Sin
π
Let ∫ 1/2 1+Cos (πcos ) d = A
0 Sin
W = 60 I2 rms x 1.219
W = 73.140 I2 rms
From the general power equation
W = RI2 rms
From the above two eqn the radiation resistance is found to be 73.140Ω
Rr = 73Ω
12.Write short notes on Folded dipole
Folded dipole
A folded dipole is a dipole where an additional wire (λ/2) links the two ends of the (λ/2) half wave
dipole. The folded dipole works in the same way as a normal dipole, but the radiation resistance is
about 300 ohms rather than the 75 ohms which is expected for a normal dipole. The increase in
radiation resistance allows the antenna to be driven from a 300 ohm balanced line.
30
UNIT 3- Aperture Antennas Dr. M. Moorthi, Asso.Prof/ECE
UNIT III
APERTURE ANTENNAS
PART A-TWO MARKS QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by monopole antenna?
A mono pole antenna consists of a ½ of a dipole antenna mounted above the earth or a
ground plane. Monopole antenna is used for commercial broadcasting in AM band (500-
1500 KHz) and for the land-mobile communication service.
2. What is meant by parasitic elements?
The elements in which currents are induced by the fields of a driven element and have no
transmission line connection to the transmitter are called as parasitic elements.
Eg. Elements 1 & 3 are parasitic elements.
3. What are the advantages of folded dipole?
 High input impedance Z = n2 x 73 Ω
Where n = no. of half wave dipole used.
 Wide band operation.
 Acts as built- in reactance compensation network.
4. What are the various types of phased arrays?
1. Frequency scanning arrays
2 Retro arrays
3.Adaptive arrays and smart antennas.
5. What is meant by smart antenna?
An antenna structure which can become active and react intelligently to its environment,
steering its beam toward a desired signal while simultaneously steering and thereby
maximizing the signal – to – noise ratio of the desired signal is called adaptive or smart
antenna.
6. What is the principle of microwave antenna?
As the frequency increase, the wavelength decreases and thus it becomes easier to construct an
antenna system that are large in terms of wavelengths, and which therefore can be made to have
higher directivity. Here, to achieve directivity, suitably shaped metallic reflectors are used.
The most important wave antennas are
1. Parabolic reflector
2. Lens antenna
3. Horn antenna.
7. Give the methods of minimizing spill-over of parabolic reflector antenna.
1. Geometric structure of the parabolic reflector should be such that f < D/4
Where f- focal length
D – Diameter of aperture in meters
2. By employing cassegrain feed systems and gregoriah feed systems, spill over loss
can be reduced.
8. Define spill over (Aperture Blockage).
When the feed is placed at the focal point of a parabolic reflector, some of the
desired rays are not captured by the reflector and this constitutes SPILL OVER.
It increases noise pick up which is particularly trouble some in satellite ground
stations.
9. Why at microwave frequencies, parabolic dish antennas are preferred in most of the
applications?
 The EM wave everywhere is locally a plane wave and propagates in straight lines.i.e.,
along straight rays in homogeneous media:
1
 Dimensions of antenna can be made several wavelengths to achieve a high gain. Since
at ω frequencies, the wave length is only a few cm.
10. What is the principle of phased array design?
 To accomplish beam steering without the mechanical and inertial problems of rotating
the entire array.
 To provide beam control at a fixed frequency or at any number of frequencies within
a certain bandwidth in a frequency independent manner.
11. Calculate the power gain in decibels of an optimum horn antenna whose one side of
a square aperture is 10λ (May /June -2005)
Solution:
Gp = 4.5A / 2
D (db) = 10 log 10 450 = 10 x 2.6532 = 26.532 db

12. What are sectorial horn antennas? (Nov/Dec-2004)
If flaring is done by only in one direction, then sectorial horn is produced.
Flaring in the direction of Electric vector and Magnetic vector, the sectorial E-plane horn and
H-plane horn are obtained respectively.
Sectorial horn antennas are:
Sectorial E-plane horn
Sectorial H-plane horn.
13. State Huygen’s Principle
Each point on a primary wavefront can be considered to be a new source of a secondary
spherical wave and that a secondary wavefront can be constructed as the envelope of these
secondary spherical waves.
14. Applications of Microstrip Antennas

• Aerospace vehicles including high-performance aircraft, spacecraft, satellites and
missiles
• Mobile radios, phones and pagers
• Base stations for personal communications
• Large ground-based phased array antennas
An antenna structure which can become active and react intelligently to its
environment, steering its beam toward a desired signal while simultaneously steering and
thereby maximizing the signal – to – noise ratio of the desired signal is called adaptive or
smart antenna.
16. What are the limitations of micro strip antenna? (May/June-2006)
 Low frequency
 Low power
 High Q
 Poor polarization purity
2
 Poor scan performance

 Spurious feed radiation and very narrow frequency bandwidth.
1.Explain Reflector antennas and their feed systems.

(April/May-2005) (8) (Or) Describe in detail the different methods of feeding a
parabolic Reflector. (Nov/Dec-2004) (8)
Reflector antennas may take many geometrical configurations, some of the most popular
shapes are
1. Plane
2. Corner
3. Curved reflector as shown below
Reflector
Feed Feed
(a) Plane (b) Corner
1. Plane Reflector:
The simple type reflector used to direct energy in a desired direction as shown in fig
(a), when the radiating source is a vertical or horizontal linear element
It has been demonstrated that the polarization of the radiating source and its position
relative to the reflecting surface can be used to control the radiating properties [pattern,
impedance, directivity] of the overall system.
2. Corner Reflector:
To better collimate the energy in the forward direction, the geometrical shape of
the plane reflector itself must be changed so as to prohibit radiation in the back and side
directions.
One arrangement is accomplished by joining two plane reflectors to form a corner and is
called corner reflector. Because of its simplicity in construction, it has many unique
applications.
For example, if the reflector is used as a passive target for radar or
communications, it will return the signal exactly in the same direction as it received it when
its included angle is 900 as shown in fig (b).
Main Reflector Parabola
Sub-reflector
Feed focal point Hyperbola
Vertex . Blockage
Reflector
3
(c) Curved (front fed) (d) Curved (Cassegrain fed)
Parabolic Reflector:
Parabola:
To produced a plane wave front over a large aperture by means of a sheet reflector,
it is required that the distance from the source to the plane wave front via path 1 and 2 be
equal.
From the below figure

For path 2, = 2 L
For path 1, = (R+ x)
2L = R+R cos θ
= R (1+ cos θ)
R = 2L / 1+ cos θ x
Equation of a parabola with the focus at F. Sheet Path 1
Reflector R
F
cos θ = x / R L Path2
Parabolic Reflector
The Parabolic Reflector:
To find x:
x = R cos θ
If an isotropic source is placed at the focus of a paraboloid reflector as in the below fig, a
portion A of the source radiation that is intercepted by the paraboloid is reflected as a plane
wave of circular cross section.
If the distance L between the focus and vertex of the paraboloid is an even number of
/4,
i.e., when L = n / 4 n = 1, 3, 5…
the direct radiation in the axial direction from the source will be in the same phase and will
tend to reinforce the central region of the reflected wave
4
Various feed
Reflector Antenna
2. Explain in detail about Slot antenna
• Slot antennas are used typically at frequencies between 300 MHz and 24 GHz. They
can be cut out of whatever surface they are to be mounted on. Radiation patterns are
roughly omnidirectional (similar to a linear wire antenna). The polarization of the slot
antenna is linear. The slot size, shape and what is behind it (the cavity) offer design
5
variables that can be used to tune the performance.They have very low-profile, Can be
conformed to basically any configuration. Thus they have found many applications on
aircraft and missiles. Slot has its complementary form in wires and stripes. Patterns
and impedances of sheet or wires can be used to find the patterns and impedances of
slot.Fig1(a) has two resonant /4 stub connected to form two wire transmission line.
Short end ‘w’ alone radiates. Requires more current to radiate appreciably. Fig. 1(b)
current spread out over the sheet – efficient radiator.
• If slot is horizontal, radiation is normal to sheet- vertically polarized, If slot is

vertical, radiation is along the plane of the sheet- horizontally polarized, Slot is
energized with co-axial transmission line .Off- Center feed, provides better impedance
match. Offset distance- / 20 can be used.
Babinet’s Principle
• The field at any point behind a plane having a screen, if added to the field at the same
point when the complementary screen is substituted, is equal to the field at the point
when no screen is present.
6
Case 1 : Perfectly absorbing screen at A, Field behind the screen Fs

Case 2: Complementary screen at A, Field behind the screen Fcs
Case 3: No screen present, Field at the same point Fo
According to Babinet’ principle Fo = Fc + Fcs
Babinet’s Principle applied to Slot

Antenna
E field is E1
E field is E2
E field is Eo
• Transmission line analogy is considered to find the surface impedance of the screen
and the complementary screen is used
7
• Impedance of slot antenna – use line integral along the path of current flow
• Since the impedance for a half-wavelength dipole is about 73 ohms, the

corresponding slot has an impedance of
3. Explain in detail about Horn antenna
• Horn antennas are the simplest and one of the most widely used microwave antennas
– the antenna is nicely integrated with the feed line (waveguide) and the performance
can be easily controlled.
• They are mainly used for standard antenna gain and field measurements, feed
element for reflector antennas, and microwave communications.
• Pyramidal horn– A horn antenna with the horn in the shape of a four-sided pyramid,
with a rectangular cross section. They are a common type, used with rectangular
waveguides, and radiate linearly polarized radio waves.
• Sectoral horn – A pyramidal horn with only one pair of sides flared and the other
pair parallel. It produces a fan-shaped beam, which is narrow in the plane of the flared
sides, but wide in the plane of the narrow sides. These types are often used as feed
horns for wide search radar antennas.
• E-plane horn– A sectoral horn flared in the direction of the electric or E-field in the
waveguide.
8
• H-plane horn– A sectoral horn flared in the direction of the magnetic or H-field in
the waveguide.
• Conical horn– A horn in the shape of a cone, with a circular cross section. They are
used with cylindrical waveguides.
Parameters In Horn Design

L- length of the
horn
- Path length
- Flare angle
a -Aperture of the
horn
E-plane horn ,  < 0.25 

H-plane horn ,  > 0.4 
Horn Design
9
5.Write short notes on Magnetic current,duality principle,Uniqueness theorem,Field

equivalence,Huygens principle,Method of images
Maxwell’s equations with a magnetic current source
When there is only a magnetic current source Ms, an electric vector potential F can be
defined similar to the magnetic vector potential A.
Hence if there is only a magnetic current source, E can be calculated from the electric vector
potential F, whose solution is given about. In general, when there are both magnetic and
electric current sources, E and H can be calculated by the superposition principle.
Uniqueness Theorem
10
An electromagnetic field (E, H) in a lossy region is uniquely specified by the sources (J, M)
within the region plus (i) the tangential component of the electric field over the boundary, or
(ii) the tangential component of the magnetic field over the boundary, or (iii) the former over
part of the boundary and the latter over the rest of boundary. The case for a lossless region is
considered to be the limiting case as the losses go to zero. Here M is the magnetic current
density assumed that it exists or its existence is derived from M = E× n, where E is the
electric field on a surface and n is the normal vector on that surface. (For a proof, see ref. [3])
Field Equivalence Principle
For the actual problem on the left-hand side, if we are interested only to find the fields (E1,
H1) outside S (i.e., V2), we can replace region V1 with a perfect conductor as on the right-
hand side so that the fields inside it are zero. We also need to place a magnetic current
density Ms=E1×n on the surface of the perfect conductor in order to satisfy the boundary
condition on S. Now for both the actual problem and the equivalent problem, there are no
sources inside V2. In the actual problem, the tangential component of the electric field at the
outside of S is E1×n. In the equivalent problem, the tangential component of the electric field
at the outside of S is also E1×n as a magnetic current density Ms=E1×n has been specified
on S already.
Hence by using the uniqueness theorem, the fields (E1, H1) in V2 in the equivalent
problem will be the same as those in the actual problem.
Note that the requirement for zero fields inside V1 is to satisfy the boundary condition
specified on the tangential component of the electric field across S. Because now in the
equivalent problem just outside S, the electric field isE1 while there is also a magnetic current
density Ms. But
just inside S, the electric field is zero. Hence on S,
This is exactly the boundary condition specified on the tangential

component of the electric field across S with an added magnetic
current source. The advantage of the equivalent problem is that we
can calculate (E1, H1) in V2 by knowing Ms on the surface of a
perfect conductor.
A modified case with practical interest is shown below.
11
Thus the problem of an aperture in a perfectly conducting ground plane is equivalent to the
finding of (i) the fields inV2 due to an equivalent magnetic current density of Ms radiating in
a half-space bounded by the ground plane, or(ii) the fields in V2 due to an equivalent
magnetic current density of 2Ms radiating in a free space having the properties of V2. Note
that for the equivalent problem in(c), the field so calculated in V1 may not be equal to the
original fields in V1 in actual problem in (a).
To find the electromagnetic field due to a magnetic current
Density Ms, we need to construct an equation with the source Ms and solve it.
Huygens’s principle: Each point in a wavefront can be regarded as a secondary source,

which gives rise to a spherical wavelet, and the wave at a point can be obtained by
superposition of these elementary wavelets.
The Method of Images charges are used in electrostatics to simply calculate or visualize the
distribution of the electric field of a charge in the vicinity of a conducting surface. It is based
on the fact that the tangential component of the electrical field on the surface of
a conductor is zero, and that an electric field E in some region is uniquely defined by
its normal component over the surface that confines this region (the uniqueness theorem)
6. Explain about the radiation Mechanism of Microstrip or patch antenna
Microstrip or patch antennas are becoming increasingly useful because they can be printed
directly onto a circuit board. They are becoming very widespread within the mobile phone
market. They are low cost, have a low profile and are easily fabricated.Consider the
microstrip antenna shown in Figure, fed by a microstrip transmission line. The patch,
12
microstrip and ground plane are made of high conductivity metal. The patch is of length L,
width W, and sitting on top of a substrate (some dielectric circuit board) of thickness h with
permittivity .
(a) Top View
(b) Side View

Figure :Geometry of Microstrip (Patch) Antenna.
The frequency of operation of the patch antenna of Figure is determined by the length L. The
center frequency will be approximately given by
The above equation says that the patch antenna should have a length equal to one
half of a wavelength within the dielectric (substrate) medium.
The width W of the antenna controls the input impedance. For a square patch fed in the
manner above, the input impedance will be on the order of 300 Ohms. By increasing the
width, the impedance can be reduced. However, to decrease the input impedance to 50 Ohms
often requires a very wide patch. The width further controls the radiation pattern. The
normalized pattern is approximately given by:
13
n the above, k is the free-space wavenumber, given by . The magnitude of the fields,
given by:
The fields are plotted in Figure for W=L=0.5 .
Normalized Radiation Pattern for Microstrip (Patch) Antenna.
The directivity of patch antennas is approximately 5-7 dB. The fields are linearly
polarized. Next we'll consider more aspects involved in Patch (Microstrip) antennas.
14
15
16
UNIT-II Wire Antennas And Antenna Arrays Dr.M.Moorthi Associate Professor/ECE
UNIT II
WIRE ANTENNAS AND ANTENNA ARRAYS
PART A- 2 MARKS QUESTIONS

1. What is Antenna array?
A system of similar antennas oriented similarly to get greater directivity in a desired direction is called
antenna array.
2. Define Broadside Array

In Broadside array, a number of identical parallel antennas are set up along a line drawn perpendicular
to their respective axis and antennas are equally spaced along a line each element is fed with equal and
same phase current.
3. Define End fire Array
An arrangement in which the principal direction of radiation coincides with the direction of the array
axis.
4. Define point sources.

Any antenna, regardless of its size of complexity, can be represented by a single point source,
provided that observations are made in the far field with distance R =β L/λ meters.
5. What is the condition on phase for the end fire array with increased directivity?
When δ = - d, produces a maximum field in the direction Φ =0 But does not give the maximum
directivity.
It has been shown by Hansen and Wood yard that a larger directivity is obtained by increasing the
phase change between sources
So that, δ = - ( d +п/n).
This condition will be referred to as the condition for “increased directivity”.
6. Define array factor.
The normalized value of the total field is given by,
E= 1/n sin (nΨ/β)/sin (Ψ/β)
The field as given by the expression E will be referred to as array factor.
7. What is End fire couplet?
1
If two equal radiators operate in phase quadrature with a spacing of quaterwave length
between them is called End fire couplet.
8. Write the expression of null for Broad side array
Φmax = cos [1/ d (+ (βk +1)п/n)
Φmin = cos [1/ d (+ (βkп/n)]
9. Write the expression of null for End fire array.
Φmax =Cos [1/ d (+ (βk +1) п/n) +1]
Φmin =Cos [1/ d (+ (βkп/n) +1]
(Or)
Φmin =β Sin (+ kλ/β n d)
End fire array with increased directivity:
Φmin =β Sin + (2k-1) λ/4 n d
10. Define linear array and uniform linear array.
An array is said to be linear, if the individual elements of the array are spaced equally
along a line and uniform, if the same are fed with currents of equal amplitude and having an uniform
progressive phase shift along the line.
11. What is the need for an array with non-uniform amplitude distribution? Or what is the need
for a binomial array?
Binomial arrays are the arrays with non-uniform amplitude distribution.
The need for a binomial array is,
(i) In uniform linear array, as the array length is increased to increase the directivity, the
secondary or minor lobes also occur.
(ii) For certain applications, it is highly desirable that secondary lobes should be eliminated
completely or reduced to minimum desirable level compared to main lobes.
12. Define beam width of major lobe.
It is defined as angle between the first nulls. (Or)
It is defined as twice the angle between the first null and the major lobe maxima directions.
13. What is pattern multiplication?
The total field pattern of non-isotropic, but similar sources is the multiplication of the
individual source patterns and the pattern of an array of isotropic point sources, each located at the
phase centre of individual sources having relative and phase. Whereas the total phase pattern is the
addition of the phase patterns of the individual sources and that of the array of isotropic point sources.
This concept is called pattern multiplication.
14. What are the Advantages of the pattern Multiplication?
1. Gives a speedy method of sketching the pattern of complicated arrays just by inspection.
2. Proves to be a useful tool in designing antenna arrays.
3. The method is very accurate as point by point multiplication of pattern is carried out.
15. What are the Disadvantages of Binomial Array?
1. The width of beam (HPBW) increases, thus decreasing directivity
2. For designing a large size array (number of elements), larger amplitude rate of currents for
the radiating sources is required which is difficult to achieve in practice.
16. Write the expression of beam width for broad side array.
For broad side array, expression of beam width between first nulls is given by,
BWFN = +βλ/n d
17. Write the expression of beam width for end fire array.
For end fire array, expression of beam width between first nulls is given by,
BWFN = +2 √ βλ/n d
18. Differentiate broadside and end fire array. (Nov-2004)
Broadside Array End Fire Array
2
1.Antennas are fed in phase δ =0 Antenna elements are fed out of phase
δ=- d
= βп/λ
d = Distance between elements
2. Maximum radiation is perpendicular to Maximum radiation is directed along the
the direction of array axis. array axis.
3. Beam width of major lobe is twice the The beam width is greater than that for a
reciprocal of the array length. broad side array of same length.
Beam width = + βλ/n d Beam width = + 2 √ βλ/n d
19. What are the controls that can be used to shape overall pattern of the antenna?
1. The geometrical configuration of the overall array (linear,Circular, rectangular, spherical)
2. The relative displacement between the elements.
3. The excitation amplitude of the individual elements.
4. The excitation phase of the individual elements.
5. The relative pattern of the individual elements.
20. Explain Array of Two Point Sources.
If two isotropic point sources are separated by a distance d and have the same polarization.
In array theory of antennas, the total field produced by an antenna array system at a great distance
from it, is the vector sum of the fields produced by the individual antenna elements of array system.
21. What are the cases for the arrays of two isotropic point source?
1. Equal amplitude and phase
2. Equal amplitude and opposite phase
3. Unequal amplitude and opposite phase
22. Explain the properties of broadside and endfire array
PROPERTIES BROADSIDE ARRAY ENDFIRE ARRAY

1. Major Lobe
2. Magnitude of
n n
Major Lobe
3. Subsidiary Maxima
4. Nulls
5. Beam width
6. Directivity
3
PART B- 8/16 MARKS / QUESTIONS
1. Derive the expression for Field and Radiation pattern of two isotropic radiators with Equal
amplitude and phase. (16)
Two isotropic point sources symmetrically situated with respect to the origin is
shown in figure below
y
To great distance point P

Max
θ HPPD
21
Min 1 2 Min
θ=0
1 d/2 2
11
d
Max
(a) (b) Field pattern of figure (a) with d=l/2
Two isotropic point sources with same amplitude and phase.
To phase calculation, Origin point O is taken as reference point and the field is calculate at a far
distant point P, which is R distance far from the origin. Due to the path difference, the waves from point
1 reach O after the waves from source 2.Therefore, the fields due to source 1 lags while that due to
source 2 leads. So, path difference between the two waves is given by
Path difference =1 2 metres = [d/βcosθ + d/βcosθ] metres
= d cosθ metres
= d/λ cosθ wavelength
Phase angle (Ψ) = βп (path difference)
Ψ = βп (d/λ cosθ) radian
=βп /λ d cosθ radian
If =βп /λ
then, Ψ = d cosθ radians
Let E = far electric field at P due to sources 1
E = far electric field at P due to sources 2
E = Total electric field at point P.
Then total far field at point P in the direction of θ is given by
4
 j / 2
E = E1e  j / 2  E2e
E1e  j / 2 = field component due to source 1, it has term
e  j / 2 Because field is lags.
E2e  j / 2 = field component due to source 2, it has term
e  j / 2 Because field is lags
In this case E1 =E2 =E0, therefore
E = E0 (e j / 2  e j / 2 )
e  j / 2  e j / 2
= 2 EO ( )
2
e j  e  j
From trigonometry = cos θ
2
E =2E0 cos Ψ/β
E =2E 0Cos d cos θ
2
The above eqn shows, the far field at point P due to two isotropic sources of same amplitude and phase.
Since the maximum amplitude of total field is the 2E .So
2E 0 =1
E0 =1/2
The normal valve of field is defined as
2E0 cos [ d cos θ]
Enor = E / E = 2 = cos ( d cosθ)
2E0 2
Where = βп/λ, d =λ/β so, by putting these values.
Enorm = Cos (п/β cos θ)
Now, we will calculate the maximum, minimum and half power point direction of the field pattern as
follows.
1. Maxima directions
E is maximum, when cos (п/β cos θ) is maximum, and its maximum valve is + 1
Hence E is max. When cos (п/β cos θ) = +1
Or п/β cos θ max = + nπ
Or п/β cos θmax = 0
Or cos θ max = 0
θmax = 900 and 2700
Therefore, the field at point P will be maximum in the directions, where
θ is equal to 900 and 2700.
2. Minima directions
E is minimum when cos (п/β cos θ) is minimum and its minimum value is 0. Hence E is minimum,
when
Cos (п/β cos θ) = 0

(П/β Cos θ min ) = (βn +1) П/β
Where n =0, 1, 2,..


П/β Cos θ  min = ) П/β when n=0
5

Cos θ  min = 1
θ  min = 0 and 180



Therefore, the field at point P will be minimum in the directions, where θ is equal to 0 and 180 .
3. Half power point direction
1
At half power points power is 1/2 voltage or current is times the maximum value of voltage
2
1
or current. Therefore, for half power points cosine term should be equal to  .Thus,
2
  1 1
Cos  . cos     =
2  2 2
Or  / 2 cos  HPPD  (2n  1) / 4
 
cos  HPPD  
2 4
1
COS HPPD  
2
θHPPD = 600 , 1200
If now the field pattern between E versus θ is drawn for d = λ/β.Then figure below is
obtained which is a bidirectional, figure of eight (figure of ‘8’).This is the simplest type of broadside
array and known as broadside couplet as two isotropic radiators radiate in phase.
1200
600 Half power point
1800 00, 3600 Minima power
2700 Maxima point

Field pattern between E versus θ.
2. Explain and derive the expression for the Array of two point source
i) With equal amplitude and opposite phase (16)
ii) With unequal amplitude and any phase.
i) With equal amplitude and opposite phase

This is exactly similar to the above eqn but the point source 1 is out of phase or 180
phase difference w.r.t source 2. So the far field at distance point P, is given by
E = (- E e  j / 2 ) + (+ E e  j / 2 )
E is minus because point sources 1 and 2 are out of phase that means when E is maximum and E will
minimum and vice versa. So the total field at far point P.
E e j / 2  E1e  j / 2
E= 2
But E = E2 = E0
6
 j / 2  j / 2
E = E0 ( ee )
j / 2
 j / 2
e e 
= 2j E0  
 2 j 
E =2j E0 sin Ψ/β
 d 
= 2j E0 sin  cos  
 2 
This eqn is similar having j operator that means opposite phase brings a phase shift of 90 in the total
field. The maximum value of the field is given by
Emax  2 jE0
Then
E 2 jE0 Sin ( d / 2 cos  )
Enorml 
Emax 2 jE0
= sin ( d/β cosθ)

1. Maximum directions
The Field E is maximum, when sin (п/β cos θ) is maximum, and maximum value of sine
function is  1.
So, sin (п/β cos θ) =  1.
 (2n  1)
cos  max   Where n = 0, 1, 2…
2 2
cos  max  1 For n = 0
 max  0 0 and 1800
Therefore, in this case the field at point P is maximum in the directions, where θ equal to 00 and 1800.
2. Minima direction
The field E is minimum, when sin (п/β cos θ) is minimum value of sine function is 0. Therefore,
Sin (п/β cos θ) = 0
П/β cos  min  2n where n = 0, 1, β…
Cos  min  90 and -90 or 2700.
0
Therefore, the field at point P will be minimum in the directions, where θ is equal to 900 and 2700.
3. Half power point direction.
1
For the HPPD the power is 1/2 and sine function should be  Therefore, Sin (п/β cos θ)
2.
1
= 
2.
 / 2 cos  HPPD  (2n  1) / 4 Where n =0, 1, 2, 3...
 / 2 cos  HPPD   / 4 For n = 0
1
cos  HPPD  
2
θ HPPD = 600 + 1200
The field pattern of this field E versus θ is given below.
900 Minima power point
1200 600
1800 00’γ600 Maximum power point
7
2400 3000
2700
This is the simplest type of end fire array.
ii) Array of two point sources with unequal amplitude and any phase.
The amplitude of two point sources are not equal and phase difference is arbitrary say α.In
fig, source 1 as reference for phase and amplitude of fields due to source 1 and 2 at a distance P is
E1 and E in which E E. then total phase difference between radiates of two sources at point P is given
by,
Ψ =βп/λ d cos θ +α
I
Where α is the phase angle by which the current 2 of source-2 leads the current I of source-1, if
α = 0 or 180 and E = E =E, then it will correndponds to the above two cases, respectively just described.
Now the total field at P for this case, is given by
Far point P
I1
I2
21
θ θ x
1 d 2
 E 
E = E1e j 0  E2 e j  E1 1  2 e j 
 E1 
E = E1 (1  Ke j )
E
K  2 ; Since E1  E2
E1
0  K 1
Therefore K>1 i.e.
Or E  E1[1  K (COS  j sin )]

Or modules is given by
E  E1 (1  K cos ) 2 ( K sin )  
K sin
  tan 1
1  K cos
The phase angle at point P.The field pattern of this case may be drawn similar to the above two
cases.
3. Explain the field pattern of non-isotropic but similar point sources. (8)
8
In case of non-isotropic sources, the field patterns must have the same shape and
orientation. However, in case of non-isotropic source it is not necessary that amplitude of individual
non-isotropic source is equal.
When the amplitude of individual sources are equal, the source will be identical and isotropic. Let us
now take two short dipoles which are super imposed over the two isotropic point sources and are
separated by a distance d. Let the field pattern of each isotropic point source be given by
E0  E1 sin 
The same pattern can obtain by the short dipole and hence the two types of sources are
symmetrically superimposed with respect to origin. Similar to the previously case, the field pattern of
two identical isotropic sources is given by,
E  2 E0 cos / 2
  d cos   
Where   d cos   
Substitute the value of E0 in E
E  2E1 sin  cos / 2
The maximum value of the field is 2E .Therefore
E 2 E sin  cos / 2
E norm   1
Emax 2 E1
Or Enormal  (sin  )  (cos / 2)

Or Enorm = Pattern of individual x Pattern of array of
Isotropic point source two isotropic point sources
The above eqn is base for the principle of multiplication of pattern as multiplication pattern of
individual point source and pattern of array of isotropic point sources givens the field pattern of non-
isotropic but similar point source.
4. With neat sketches explain the principle of multiplication of radiation patterns.

(Nov-2004) (10)
Principle of Multiplication pattern:
“The total field pattern of array of non-isotropic but similar sources is the multiplication of
the individual source patterns and the pattern of an array of isotropic point sources each located at the
phase centre of individual source and having the relative amplitude and phase, whereas the total phase
pattern is the addition of the phase pattern of the individual sources and that of the array of isotropic
point sources”.
Individual source either it is in the array or isolated, it is assumed that pattern will
remain the same. The phase centre of array is the reference point for total phase pattern
Let E = total field
Ei (θ, Φ) = field pattern of individual source
Ea (θ, Φ) = field pattern of array of isotropic point source
Epi = phase pattern of individual source
Epa = phase pattern of array of isotropic point source
Then the total field pattern of an array of non-isotropic but similar source, may be written as
E = {Ei (θ, Φ) x E a(θ, Φ)} x. {Epi (θ, Φ) + E pa (θ, Φ)}
(Multiplication of (Addition of
Field pattern phase patter))
The angle θ and Φ respectively, represent the,” polar and azimuth” angles. The principle of
multiplication of pattern is true for any number of similar sources. For two dimensional cases, the
resultant pattern is given by
9
E = βE cos Ψ/β
E = βE sin θ cos Ψ/β
Or E = E (θ).cos Ψ/β
E is a function of E (θ).The total field pattern in this case, is multiplication of field pattern known as
primary and cos Ψ/β the secondary pattern or array factor that the principle is equally applicable 3-
dimensional case also. The principal of multiplication of pattern is a speedy method, for sketching the
pattern of complicated arrays, only by inspection and, therefore, the principle is useful tool in designing
of antenna arrays. Let us now use the principle to solve some typical cases.
Radiation Pattern of 4-Isotropic Element Fed in Phase, Spaced λ /2 Apart
The 4-elements of isotropic (non-directive) radiators are in a linear arrays in which elements are
placed at a distance of λ /2 and are fed in phase, i.e,. α = 0.We can find the radiation pattern of array
by two methods one of them is principle of multiplication.
Hence 4 elements spaced λ /2 have been replaced by two unit spaced λ, so problem now
convert into the determination of radiation pattern of two antennas spaced λ apart. Now by the
multiplication of pattern, the resultant radiation pattern of 4 elements is obtained by multiplying the
radiation pattern of individual element and array of two unit spaced λ.
The radiation pattern of is modified whether array is replaced by non-isotropic antenna (i.e., directional
antenna) in place of isotropic antennas (non-directional antennas).
Individual (unit pattern) Group pattern due to array Resultant pattern of 4
due to two individual of two isotropic point isotropic elements
element source
Resultant pattern of 4-isotropic elements by pattern multiplication.
Radiation pattern of 8-Isotropic Elements Fed In –Phase, Spaced λ/2 Apart.
The multiplication of pattern principle can be applied to broad side linear arrays of 8-
isotropic element.Inthis case 4-isotropic elements are assumed to be one unit and spaced βλ apart. The
radiation of two isotropic antennas spaced βλ apart fed in phase can be calculated as follows:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(a)
λ/4 λ/β λ/β λ/β λ/4
βλ
(b)
(a) Linear array of 8-isotropic elements spaced λ/2
(b) Equivalent two units array spaced 2λ
700
600
400
Thus the radiation pattern of 8-isotropic element is obtained by multiplying the unit pattern of
4 individual elements and group pattern of two isotropic radiator spaced βλ
The important features of resultant pattern are as follows:
10
(i) The width of the principle lobe (between nulls) is the same as the width of the
corresponding lobe of the group pattern.
(ii) The sum of nulls in the unit and group pattern gives the number of nulls in the resultant
pattern assuming none of the nulls are coincident.
(iii) The number of secondary lobes in the resultant pattern can be determined from the
number of nulls in the resultant pattern.
5. Derive the expression for the linear array of n Isotropic point sources of Equal Amplitude and
spacing. (8)
In this case n-isotropic point sources of equal magnitude and spacing arranged as a linear array.
Where n is any positive integer. The total field E at a large distance P is given by
E0 a aj  E0e1 j  E0e 2 j  E0e3 j  ...E0e( n1) j

E=
 E0 [1  e j  e 2 j  2e3 j  ....  e( n1) j ]
Where Ψ is the total phase difference of the field from adjacent sources as given by
Ψ = βп /λ cos θ + α radian.
Where α is the phase difference of adjacent sources means source-2 with respect to 1 and 3 with respect
to 2, etc. Since the above eqn is a geometric series and each represents a phasor, therefore, the
amplitude of total field E and its phase angle can be obtained by addition. Now multiplying the eqn E
by e jψ.
E ejΨ= E0 (e jψ + e jβψ + e jγψ + e j4ψ + e j5ψ ……..+ e jnψ)
Subtracting the above eqn
E (1-ejψ ) = E0 (1-ejnΨ)
E = E0 [1-ejnψ] / [1-ej Ψ]
The above eqn may also obtain by the submission formula of geometric series as follows:
x = 1 + x + x2+ x3+…….xn-1
Y = 1-xn/1-x
And now rewrite the eqn E.
= E0 [1-ejnψ/β. ejn ψ/β] / [1-ej ψ/β.ejψ/β]
= E0 e –jnψ/β(e-jnψ/β- e +jnψ/β)
e-jψ/β (e-jψ/β-e-j ψ/β)
= E0 e j (n-1) ψ/β (ejnψ/β- e -jnψ/β)2j
2j (ejψ/β-e-j ψ/β)
j (n-1) ψ/2
= E0 e (sin n Ψ /β) / sin Ψ /β
The maximum value of sin n Ψ /β / sin Ψ /β will be n. Hence, the maximum value for field is given by
│E │ = n E0
Therefore, normal field for total far field at point P is given by
Enorm = E = 1/n Sin n Ψ /β

│E│max Sin Ψ /β
6. Derive the expressions for directions of pattern maxima, minima and beam width of major lobe
for is Broad side array. (May-2005) (16)
An array of “n” isotropic sources is said be a broadside a broadside array if the phase angle is
such that it makes maximum radiation in a direction perpendicular to the line of array. The phase angle
is given by
11
Ψ = d cos θ + α
In broadside array the elements or sources are in phase hence α =0 then the phase angle can be written
as Ψ = d cos θ
To find the principal maxima the phase angle “Ψ” should also be zero.
Ψ = d cos θ
d cos θ = 0
Cos θ = 0
θ = 900 or 2700
The principle maxima occurs when θ = 900 or 2700direction.
Pattern Maxima Directions
The total Electric field vector
Et = E0 sin nΨ/β is maximum when the numerator is
Sin Ψ/β maximum (i.e.)
Sin n Ψ/β = 1
n Ψ/β = +(βN+1) п/β where N =1 ,β, γ….
Ψ/β = +(βN+1) п/βn
Substitute Ψ = d cos θ then
d cos (θmax) = +(βN+1) п/n
(θmax) =cos-1 1/ d + (βN+1) п/n
Where this θmaxrefers to the maximum of minor lobe.

For example- Consider linear array of 4 elements which are λ/β apart.
Then (θmax) minor = Cos-1 1 + (βn+1) п/4
βп/λ.λ/ 2
If N=1 then (θmax) min = Cos + 3/4

(θmax) min = Cos-1 ( + 0.7500)
(θmax) min = + 41.40 or 138.60.
Minor lobe maxima of array of four isotropic sources are +41.40, +138.60,
-41.40, -138.60 only four maximas is exist because for
N = βCos (θmax) min= + 5/4 >1 but the Cosine function always <1.
Direction of pattern minima:
Et = minima when sin n ψ/β = 0
Sin n ψ/β = 0
n ψ/β = sin-1(0)
n ψ/β = + 2 N п
n
ψ =+ 2 N п
Ψ/β = + β N nп
n
W.k.t Ψ = d cos θ + α
d cos θ + α = + 2 N п
n
Cos (θmin) minor = 1 + βN п- α
d n
Minimum direction of minor lobe
12
(θmin) minor = Cos-1 1 ( + βN п -α )

d n
Put α = 0, n =4, d = λ/β
(θmin) minor = Cos-1 1 (+ βN п -0 )
βп/λ .λ/β 4
(θmin) minor = cos-1( + N/2)
N =1, 2, γ …
When N =1 (θmin) minor = 600 (or) 1200
For N =2
(θmin) minor = 00 (or) 1800
The minor lobe minimas for four isotropic radiator are 00, 60 0,180 0, 1200,-600,-1200 .
Beam width of the Major Lobe:
Beam width of the major lobe is defined as the angle between the first null or double angle
between first null and major lobe of maximum direction. This may be denoted as complementary angle
= 900-θ because the beam width of major lobe is usually small.
BWFN = 2 x angle between first null and maximum of major lobe.

BEFN = 2 x
Complimentary angle is obtained from pattern minima angle
(90 – ) = θ min = Cos-1 (+ Nλ/nλ)
Cos (90 – ) = Sin = + Nλ/nd
Sin = if is very small
= + Nλ/nd
First null occurs when N = 1
1 = + λ/nd
Beam width = 2 x 1
If L is the total length of the array ~ nd
BWFN = β 1 = β λ/nd = 2 radians.
L/ λ
If d = λ/β
BWFN = 2 x λ/L x 57.3 degrees
HPBW = BWFN = 57.γ λ degree (or) 57.3 degrees

2 L L\ λ
7. Derive the expressions for directions of pattern maxima, minima and beam width of major lobe
for is End fire array. (May-2005) (16)
 An arrangement in which the principle of direction of radiation coincides with the
direction of array axis.
 It feed with same magnitude of current and out of phase.
 Unidirectional radiation pattern.
 Maximum radiation direction is parallel to the axis.
Ψ = d cos θ + α
For BSA Ψ = 0, α = 0
For EFA Ψ = 0, α = - d
= - (βп / λ) (λ/2)
Therefore α=-п
d =λ/4 α = - (βп / λ) (λ/4) = - п /β
13
Maximum direction is at θ =0 (or) 180
0 0
Direction of pattern maxima:

Maxima direction of minor lobe is obtained by equating the numerator of the equation
ET = E0 Sin n Ψ/β
Sin Ψ/β is to maximum value.
The maximum value occurs when Sin n Ψ/β = + 1
Sin n Ψ/β = 1
n Ψ/β = Sin-1 (1)
n Ψ/β = + (βN+1) п/β
Ψ = + (βN+1) п/n
d cos θ + α = + (βN+1) п/n
Sub α = - d
d (cos θ – 1) = + (βN+1) п/n
(Cos θ – 1) = + (βN+1) п
dn
Cos θ = + (βN+1) п +1
dn
(θmax)minor = Cos-1 + (2N+1) п +1

dn
Put n=4, = βп /λ, d = λ/β then

(θmax) minor = Cos-1 + (βN+1) п +1
βп /λ. 4. λ/β
= Cos-1( + (βN+1) п+1)
4п
= Cos-1 ( + (2N+1)+1) N =1, 2, 3,..
4
When N = 1 (θmax) minor = 75.50
N=2 (θmax) minor = 104.47 0
N=3 (θmax) minor = 138.59 0
Direction of pattern minima:
The minimum value obtained by equating Sin n Ψ/β to its minimum.
Sin n Ψ/β = 0
n Ψ/β = + N п
Ψ = + βN п / n
d Cos θ + α = + (βN п) / n
α=- d
d (Cos θ – 1) = + βN п/n
(Cos θ – 1) = + βпN
dn 1- Cos β θ = sin2 θ
2 Sin (θ/β) = + βпN
2
2
dn 2 sin2 θ = 1- Cos β θ
Sin2 (θ/β) = + βпN Cos β θ = 1-2 sin2 θ
2. (βп /λ) d n Cos θ = 1-2 sin2 θ/β
Sin (θ/β) = + (N λ / 2nd)
(θ/β) = Sin- 1 + N λ
2nd
(θmin)minor= 2 Sin -1 + Nλ
14
2nd
N=1, 2, 3...
Put n = 4, d = λ/β
(θmin) minor= 2 Sin -1 + Nλ
β.4. λ/β
= 2 Sin -1 + N/4
When N =1 (θmin) minor = + 600

N=2 (θmin) minor = + 90 0
N=3 (θmin) minor = +120 0
Beam width of the minor lobe
BWFN = 2 x angle between first null and maximum of minor lobe.
BEFN = 2 x θ 1
θ1 = θ min which is equal to 2 Sin -1 + (Nλ /2nd)
Sin θ min= θ min
θmin =2 Sin -1 + (Nλ/ 2nd)
Sin θ = θ
θmin = Sin -1+ (Nλ/ 2nd) θmin /2 = + (Nλ/ βnd)
2
Sin (θ min / 2) = + (Nλ/ 2nd) θmin = 2 + (Nλ/ βnd)
θ 1 = + 2Nλ = + 4Nλ/ βnd

nd
Length of array L = (n-1) d
L ~ nd
θ1 = + βλ
L
=+ 2
(L/λ)
FNBW =2x + 2 radians Rad to deg =1800/п

L/λ Deg to rad = п/1800
FNBW = 114.6 + 2 radians

L/λ
FNBW = 162.1
L/ λ
9.Write short notes on a) Binomial array b)Pattern multiplication
BINOMIAL ARRAY
15
16
Pattern multiplication theorem

Given an antenna array of identical elements, the radiation pattern of the antenna array may be
found according to the pattern multiplication theorem.
Pattern Array
Array element pattern - the pattern of the individual array element.

Array factor - a function dependent only on the geometry of the array and the excitation
(amplitude, phase) of the elements.
10. Explain the basic principle of operation of a phase array antenna. (Nov/Dec-2004) (8)
Phased array is an array of many elements with the phase (and also, the amplitude) of
each element being a variable, providing control of the beam direction and pattern including side lobes.
Specialized phased arrays:
1. Frequency scanning array
2. Retro array
3. Adaptive array
Objective of phased Array:
1. To accomplish beam steering without the mechanical and inertia problems of rotating the
entire array.
2. To provide beam control at a fixed frequency or within a certain bandwidth in a frequency
independent manner.
Frequency – Scanning Arrays:
 In this type, phase change is accomplished by varying the frequency.
 Simplest type because no phase control is required at each element.
 Consider a line –fed array of uniformly spaced elements (dipoles) with a receiver connected at
the right end.
Beam
Dipole elements
17
S S
Directional couplers Matched Terminations To Receiver

 Each element is fed from the transmission line via a directional coupler that are fixed
The transmission line is matched to eliminate reflections and ensure an essentially pure traveling wave
on the line.
Let S – spacing both elements m

Phase difference ψ = βπ /λ0. S Cosφ -δ
To distant point P
Free space
Guided wave
1 β γ 4 …....n
Array axis φ = 0
Where λ0 = free space wavelength
φ = angle between array axis and direction of distant point, rad or deg
δ = phase difference of adjacent elements deg or rad.
δ = βπ / λ0 p deg
Where P = phase constant of traveling wave.
 For the fields from the n-sources to be in phase at a distant point requires,
Ψ = β π m rad or deg
Where m = mode number = 0, + 1, + β …
2 π m = (βπ / λ0) S cosφ - βπ S / λ0P
 S  0
m  _
 o P  S
Cos φ = m 1
cos   
 S  P
 
 0 
 For P =1, m = 0, φ = 00 beam fixed at end fire independent of λ0.
 For P =1, m = -1, S= 1 m and λ0 = 1m
Cos φ = 1 – 0.9 = 0.1 φ = cos -1(0.1)
φ = 84.γ0
Or 5.7 0right of broadside.
 If the frequency is decreased so that λ = 1.1 λ0 or 1.1 m
Cos φ = 1 – 1.1 = -0.1 φ = cos -1 (0.1)
φ = 95.70
Or 5.7 0 left of broadside.
Retro Arrays – The van -Atta Array
 If a wave incident on an array is received and transmitted back in the same direction, the array
acts as a retro array or Retro reflector.
 In general, each element of a retro array re radiates a signal which is the conjugate of the
received signal.
18
 With element pairs connected by identical equal- length cables, a wave arriving at any angle φ is
transmitted back in the same direction.
 The array shown below, like square corner reflector, is passive.
 An (active) adaptive array can also be mace retro directive by using mixer to produce a
conjugate phase shift for each element and also can incorporate amplifiers.
Directive of arrival & return
φ
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Dipole
Elements
Equal length Cables between

element pairs
Adaptive Arrays and Smart Antenna:

 By processing the signals from the individual elements , an array can become active and
1) React intelligently to its environment,
2) Steering its beam toward a desired signal while simultaneously steering a null toward an
undesired, interfering signal.
3) Thereby, maximizing the signal – to noise ratio of the desired signal.
 By suitable signal processing, and by appropriate sampling and digitizing the signal at the
terminals of each element, and processing them with a computer, a very intelligent smart
antenna can be built.
Incoming signal direction
λ/4
Dipole 1 Dipole 2
λ/β
VCO Phase detector VCO
IF amp φ φ IF amp
V1< φ1 f0 V2 < φ2
Final (summing) Am
∑
19
Two element adaptive array
This type gives enhanced, simulated patterns of higher resolution and lower side lodes.
 For a given number of elements, such antenna’s capabilities are limited by the programming
power and computer power and computer power available.
 Consider, two element adaptive arrays shown in fig with λ / β spacing between the elements at
the signal frequency fs.
 With elements operating in phase, the beam is broad side.
 Consider the signal is at 300 from broad side, so that the wave arriving at element β travels λ / 4
farther than to element 1, thus retarding the phase of the signal by 900 at element 2.
 Each element is equipped with its own mixer, VCO, IF amplifier and phase detector.
 The phase detector computes the phase of the down shifted signal with the reference oscillator
and produces a voltage proportional to the phase difference.
This voltage in turn advances or retards the phase of the VCO output so as to reduce the
phase difference to zero (phase locking).
 When they are in locked phase,
φ1 = φ 2 = φ0
Where
φ1 = phase of down shifted signal from element 1.
φ2= phase of down shifted signal from element 2.
φ0= phase of reference oscillator.
 With equal gain from IF amplifier,
V1 < φ1 = V2 < φ2
Making the voltage from summing amplifier proportional to 2V1 (= 2V2) and maximizing the
response of the array to the incoming signal by steering the beam onto the incoming signal.
20
Unit IV- Special Antennas and Antenna Measurements Dr. M. Moorthi, Asso.Prof/ECE
UNIT IV
Part A- TWO MARKS QUESTIONS

1. Define pitch angle of an helical antenna. What happens when X=00 and X=900?
When one turn of a circular helix is unrolled on a flat plane, the relation between the spacing
S, circumference C, turn length L are illustrated by the triangle Pitch angle is the angle
between a line tangent to the helix wire and plane normal to the helix axis.
S
From the triangle
S
Sin  = C = D
L
L
D
Cos  = α
L
S
tan  =
D
S
 = tan –1( )
D
Where,  - Pitch Angle, S - Spacing between turns, D - Diameter of a helix.

When,  = 00, helix becomes a loop,  = 900, helix becomes a liner conductor.
2. If a flattened tubing width is 5mm, find the required thickness of a polystyrene sheet(  r
= 2.7) for matching to a 50  coaxial transmission line.
Given:
w = 5mm;  r = 2.7; Z0 = 50 
To find:
w
h=
[377 /(  r .Z 0 )]  2
5 h = 1.93mm
h=
[377 /( 2.7  50)]  2
3. List out the phase velocity expressions of an helical antenna for (a) end fire, (b) end
fire with increased directivity.
Phase velocity expressions of an helical antenna for end fire array:
L
P=
S  1
1
In terms of pitch angle, P =
cos 
sin   ( )
D
Phase velocity expressions of an helical antenna for end fire array with increased
directivity:
L
P=
2n  1
S  ( )
2n
1
1
In terms of pitch angle, P=
2n  1 cos 
sin   ( )( )
2n D
4. Draw the geometrical structure of an helical antenna with its parameters. (Nov-2005)
Surface of imaginary
Helix cylinder d
Helix axis
D
Where D = Diameter of helix (center to center), C = Circumference of helix = D

S
S = Spacing between turns (center to center),  = Pitch angle = tan –1( )
D
L = Length of 1 turn, N = Number of turns
A = Axial length = N S, D = Diameter of helix conductor.
6. A monofilar helical antenna has  = 12 , n = 8 and D = 225mm.find the phase velocity P
0
for (a) in phase fields (b) increased directivity at 400MHz.

Given:
 = 120, n = 8, D = 225mm
To find: Phase velocity “p” for (a) in phase fields, (b) increased directivity.
Formula used:
1
(a) P =
cos 
sin   ( )
D
1
(b) P =
2n  1 cos 
sin   ( )( )
2n D
Solution:
(a) In phase field:
1 c 3  10 3
P= ; = = = 0.75m
cos  f 400  10 6
sin   ( )
D
1 D 225  10 3
= ; D = = = 0.3
cos 12 0  
sin 12 0 
 (0.3)
P = 0.8024
(b) Increased directivity:
2
1
P=
17 cos 
sin 12 0  ( )[ ]
16   0.3
P = 0.7626
7. What are the parameters to be considered for the design of an helical antenna?
The parameters to be considered for the design of an helical antenna are:
 Band width
 Gain
 Impedance
 Axial ratio
8. What are the types of radiation modes of operation possible for an helical antenna?
Two types of radiation modes of operation possible for an helical antenna:
 Normal mode of radiation
 Axial mode of radiation
9. Which antenna will produce circularly polarized wave? (Or) Name and sketch an antenna
which provides circularly polarized waves. (April/May-2005)
Helical antenna will produce circularly polarized wave.
10. For a 20 turn helical antenna operating at 3GHz with circumference c=10cm and the
spacing between the turns 0.3  .Calculate the Directivity and HPBW. (Nov/Dec-2004)
Given: f = 3GHz; c =10cm; S = 0.3  ; n = 20

3  10 8
= = 0.1m
3  10 9
Directivity D  12C  2nS 
10cm 2 0.3
= 12( ) 20( )
 
D = 72
52
HPBW = (deg)
c ns 
3
52 2
=
c n.S
3
52  0.1 2
52  0.1
= 
0.1  20  0.3  0.1 0.1  0.775
HPBW = 21.230
11. What is meant by parasitic elements?
The elements in which currents are induced by the fields of a driven element
and have no transmission line connection to the transmitter are called as parasitic elements.
Eg. Elements 1 & 3 are parasitic elements.
 High input impedance Z = n2 x 73 Ω
3
13. What is the condition for an antenna to be frequency independent?

For any antenna to be frequency independent, its surface must be described by
r = eaφ f (θ)
1  K 
a  
K  C 
Where a = constant F (θ) = Arbitrary function of θ
14. What do you understand by log- periodic antenna? Or frequency
independent antenna. (April/May -2005)
 It is a frequency independent antenna, for which the impedance, radiation pattern
(and hence the directivity) remain constant as a function of the frequency.
 It is defined only in terms of angles
 Broad band antenna whose impedance is logarithmically periodic functions of
frequency.
An antenna structure which can become active and react intelligently to its
environment, steering its beam toward a desired signal while simultaneously steering and
thereby maximizing the signal – to – noise ratio of the desired signal is called adaptive or
smart antenna.
 Low frequency
 Low power
 High Q
17. What is LPDA? Why is it called so? (Nov/Dec-2005)
Log Periodic Dipole Array is called LPDA. The design of log periodic
antenna invoives a basic geometric structure that is repeated but with a changing size of
the structure. The structure size changes with each repletion by a constant scale factor so
that the structure expand or contract. This log periodic principle is called as Log Periodic
Dipole Array.
18. Draw the log periodic dipole antenna structures at UHF and VHF ranges. (Nov/Dec-2004)
4
region L< λ/2 L= λ/2 region L> λ/2
1) Included Transmission line region
2) Loaded Transmission line region
3) Active region, 4) Reflective region
1. Draw a neat sketch of a 3-element YAGI-UDA array and explain its

principle of operation.(Nov/Dec-2004) (8) Or Explain about Yagi-Uda
antenna. (April/ May-2005, May /June-2006) (8)
 Yagi-Uda antenna is a very practical radiator in the HF (3-30 MHz) and VHF (30-
30 MHz) and UHF (300-3,000 MHz) ranges.
 This antenna consists of a driven element, a reflector and one or more directors i.e.
Yagi – Uda antenna is an array of a driven element (or active element where the
power from the Tx is fed or which feeds received power to the Rx and one or more
parasitic elements.
(i.e. passive elements which are not connected directly to the transmission line but
electrically coupled).
 The driven elements is a resonant half-wave dipole usually of metallic rod at the
frequency of operation.
 The parasitic elements of continuous metallic rods are arranged parallel to the
driven element and at the same line of sight level. They are arranged collinearly
and close together with one director.
Geometrical Structure of Yagi – Uda:
 To achieve the end fire beam formation, the parasitic elements in the
direction of beam are somewhat smaller in length than the feed element.
 Spacing between driven and parasitic elements that are usually used, in
practice, are of the order of λ/10 i.e. 0.10λ to 0.15λ.
 The parasitic element in front of driven, element is known as director and
its number may be more than one. Whereas the element in back of it is
know as reflector. Generally both directors and reflectors are used in the
same antenna. The reflector is 5% more and director is 5% less than the
driven element which is λ /2 at resonant frequency.
 For 3- element array of Yagi antenna having the following formula
a) Yagi- uda antenna
5
Reflector length = 500 / f (MHz) feet

Driven element length = 475 / f (MHz) feet
Director length = 455 / f (MHz) feet
Working principle:
 A typical 3 elements Yagi antenna suitable for TV reception of moderate field
strength.Futher addition of directors can be done at intervals of 0.15λ i.e. to
increase the gain even up to 12db as is required in for fringe area reception. For
example, 11 elements Yagi antenna the lengths of D2, D3, D4, D5, D6 D7, D8, D9 are
respectively 0.427 λ,0.40λ,0.38 λ,0.36 λ ,0.32 λ,0.304 λ and 0.29 λ.
 The spacing between elements and the lengths of the parasitic elements determine
the phases of the currents. Parasitic antenna in the vicinity of radiating antenna is
used either to reflect or to direct the radiated energy so that a compact directional
antenna system could be obtained.
 Impedance of the director is capacitive and the phase of the current leads the
induced emf.
 Impedance of the reflector is inductive and the phase of the current lags those of
the induced emfs.
 The total phase of the currents in the directors and reflectors is determined by their
lengths and spacing to the adjacent elements.
Thus, by properly adjusting length and spacing of the elements, Yagi-Uda
array supports a traveling wave whose performance is determined by the current
distribution in each element and the phase velocity of the traveling wave.
General characteristic:
1. If three elements array (one reflector, one driven and one director) is used, then such
type of Yagi-uda antenna is generally referred to as beam antenna.
2. It has unidirectional beam of moderate directivity with light weight, low cost and
simplicity in feed system design.
3. With spacing of 0.1λ to 0.15λ, a frequency band width of the order of 2% is obtained.
4. It provides gain of the order of 8db or front to back ratio of about 20 db.
5. It is also know as super directive or super gain antenna due to its high gain and beam-
width per unit area of the array. An antenna or array which provides directive gain,
appreciable greater than that obtainable from uniform distribution is known as super
directive or super gain antenna.
Voltage and current relations in Parasitic Antennas.
6
One or more passive elements coupled magnetically to driven element is known

as parasitic antenna. The presence of parasitic element effects the directional pattern. The
effect on the directional pattern produced depends upon the magnitude and phase of the
induced current in the parasitic elements i.e. on the spacing of the antenna and tuning of
the parasitic antenna.
The quantitative relations between voltages and currents of an antenna system
involving parasitic antennas can be given by considering the general equation.
V1 = I1 Z11 +I2 Z12 +I3 Z13 +……..+In Z1n …….. (a)
V2 = I1 Z21 +I2 Z22 +I3 Z23 +……..+In Z2n …….. (b)
V3 = I1 Z31 +I2 Z32 +I3 Z33 +……..+In Z3n …….. (c)
…………………………………………………………….
Vn = I1 Zn1 +I2 Zn2 +I3 Zn3 +……..+In Znn …….. (d)
V1,V2,V3 ,….Vn = Voltage applied to antenna no. 1, 2 3 …n
I1, I2, I3,……In = Current applied to antenna no. 1, 2 3 …n
Z11, Z22, Z33 …….Znn = Self- impedance of antenna no. 1, 2 3 …n
Z12, Z21, Z13 …….Z31 = Mutual impedance between antennas of subscript i.e. Zin means
mutual impedance between antenna no 1 and n.
If the individual antennas are not excited corresponding applied voltages e.g.
V1,V2,V3 etc are zero. Thus in an antenna system involving parasitic antennas, the voltages
are zero in case of transmitting while in receiving case these applied voltage are the
voltages induced in each parasitic antenna by the electromagnetic waves.
I2 I1
I1 I3
l2 l1 I2
l1
R DR
R DR D
a) Driven element with one parasitic b) driven element with two parasitic
V1 = I1 Z11 + I2 Z12 : V2 = I1 Z21 +I2 Z22
V1 = I1 Z11 + I2 Z12
0 = I1 Z12 + I2 Z22
Or I1 Z12 = - I2 Z22; I2 = - I1 (z12 / z22)
X 12
 tan 1
R  jX 22 
I2 = - I1 12
R12
R22  jX 22   tan 1 X 22
R22
Substitute the value of I2 in the above equation V1
V1 = I1 Z11 – I1 (z12 / z22)

Z12 = I1 (Z11 - Z122 / Z22 )
Or
V1
I1  2
Z12
Z11 
Z 22
7
V 1  V1 Z 12 
I2 = - I1 (z12 / z22) = - (z12 / z22) = V1
Z 11 Z 22  Z 12
2 2 I2 =
Z
Z 11  12  Z Z 
Z 22  Z 12  11 22 
 Z 12 
From the above I1 and I2, the input impedances of driven and parasitic elements are
is given by
2
V1 Z
Z1   Z 11  12
I1 Z 22
V2 Z Z
Z2   Z 12  11 22
I2 Z 12
The above two equations indicate the presence of parasitic elements modifies input
impedance of driven elements as the mutual impedance
2. Draw a neat block diagram for antenna radiation pattern

measurement. Explain the procedure in detail. (Nov/Dec-2004) (10)
 Radiation pattern of a transmitting antenna is described as the field strength or
power density at a fixed distance from the antennas as a function of direction.
 The radiation pattern of an antenna is a 3- dimensional figure and it needs
measurements of field intensity all over the spatial angles.
 The test antenna is assumed to be placed at the origin of spherical coordinates.
 The radiation pattern is taken either along latitude (polar angle θ ) as function of
azimuth angle φ or along azimuth angle φ as a function of polar angle θ depending
upon the application and information needed.
 For most antennas, it is generally necessary to take radiation pattern in XY plane
(Horizontal plane) and XZ plane (vertical plane).
 For horizontally polarized antenna, two patterns are sufficient.
1. E- plane Pattern
The φ component of the electric field (horizontal) is measured as a function of θ
in XZ plane (φ = 900), which is represented as Eφ (θ = 900, φ).
2. H- plane Pattern
The φ component of the field is measured as a function of θ in XZ plane (φ = 00)
and is represented as Eφ (θ, φ = 00)
These two patterns bisect the major lobe in mutually perpendicular planes and hence
provide enough information for a number of applications.
Similarly or Vertically Polarized Antennas.
1. H- plane Pattern
The θ component of the field is measured as a function of φ in XY plane (θ
= 90 ) and is represented as Eθ (θ, φ = 900, φ).
0
2. E- plane Pattern
8
The θ component of the field is measured as a function of φ in XZ plane (θ

= 0 ) and is represented as Eθ (θ, φ = 00).
0
For elliptically or circularly polarized antenna, measurements of these four

patterns would be needed. However, pattern in only one plane provides sufficient
information.
For example, horizontal plane pattern is of interest in earth to earth
communication and broadcasting services whereas the vertical plane patterns is of interest
in communication between earth and space or vice versa.
3. Experimental Setup
Primary Antenna Secondary Antenna (AUT)

2L /λ2
Antenna
Support
shaft
RF cable
Antenna Drive units
Receiver
Transmitter or
Oscillator
Indicator
Radiation pattern measuring setup
 This setup, which consists a transmitting antenna (primary antenna) and AUT
(secondary antenna), a mount for rotating the primary antenna (shaft), detector and
indicator (receiver) for indicating the relative magnitude of received field.
 The equipment may be entirely automatic or a point - to- point plot.
 It is usual to operate the AUT as a receiver, placing it under proper illumination by
primary antenna.
 The primary antenna is fixed and the secondary antenna is rotated on a vertical axis
by antenna support shaft.
 For Eφ (θ = 900, φ) pattern measurement, the antenna support shaft is rotated with
both antennas horizontal.
 For Eφ (θ, φ = 00) pattern measurement, the antenna support shaft is rotated with
both antennas vertical.
 The distance between primary and secondary antenna should be R ≤ 2L2 / λ to
obtain accurate far- field.
 Another requirement for an accurate field pattern is that primary antenna should
produce a plane wave of uniform amplitude and phase over the distance atleast
equal to R.
3. Draw a neat sketch of Helical Antenna. Describe its principle of operation.

(Nov-2004, April-2005) (16)
 Helical antenna operates as a ‘ super gain’ end fire array over a wide
9
Bandwidth.
 It is non-critical with respect to conductor size and turn spacing. It is also easy to
use in arrays because of almost negligible mutual impedance.
Helical Geometry
 The helix is a basic three-dimensional geometric form. A helical wire on a uniform
cylinder becomes a straight wire when unwound by rolling the cylinder on a flat
surface.
 Viewed end-on, a helix projects as a circle. Thus, a helix combines the geometric
forms of a straight line, a circle and a cylinder.
 In addition, a helix can be either left or right handed.
 The following symbols used to describe a helix as given below:
D = Diameter of helix (centre to centre),C = Circumference of helix = π D

S = Spacing between turns [centre to centre],α = Pitch angle = tan-1S/ π D
L = Length of 1 turn, n = Number of turns, A = Axial length = ns
d = Diameter of helix conductor
If one turn of a circular helix is unrolled on a flat plane, the relation

between the spacing S, circumference C, turn length L and pitch angle α is illustrated by
the triangle.
C=πD L
Relation between circumference, spacing, turn length and pitch angle of a helix.
Sin α = S/L
Cos α = π D/L
tan α = S /π D
α = tan -1 S /π D
When spacing S is zero, α = 0 and the helix becomes a loop.
 When the diameter D = 0, α = 900 and the helix becomes a linear conductor.
A subscript λ in any parameter signifies that the dimension is measured in free
space wavelengths.
For example, Cλ, Dλ,Cλ = Circumference in free space wavelengths. Dλ = helis diameter in
free space wavelengths.
10
Modes of operation of Monofilar Helices.

The helical antenna can operate in many modes. However, the principal modes are:
1. Normal mode [Load side]
2. Axial mode [End fire]
The axial mode of operation of operation is usually the most practical because it can
achieve circular polarization over a wide bandwidth 2:1 and it is more efficient.
Axial Mode Pattern
 A monofilar helical antenna radiating in the axial mode may be assumed to have a
single traveling wave of uniform amplitude along its conductor.
 By the principle of pattern multiplication, the far- field pattern of a helix is the
product of the pattern of 1 turn and the pattern for an array of n isotropic point
sources as shown in Fig.
To distant point
1 2 3 4 5 6 Helix axis
Array of isotropic sources, each source represents 1 turn of the helix.

 When the helix is long,( n Sλ >1), the array pattern is much sharper than the
single turn pattern and hence largely determine the shape of the total far – field
pattern.
 The phase difference between sources of the array is equal to the phase shift
over the length lλ for a single traveling wave.
-2π Lλ
δ= P
P – Phase velocity =V/c
Negative sign indicates that the phase of source 2 is retarded with respect to source 2,
Sinnψ/2
The array pattern, E = Sinψ/2
Where ψ = β S cosφ + δ
= (2π / λ).S.cosφ - 2π Lλ
P
ψ = 2π Sλ .cosφ – (Lλ / P)
Lλ – 1 turn length, P - V/c, Relative phase velocity of wave propagation along the helical
Conductor.
V – Phase velocity along, c – Velocity of light in free space.
If the fields from all sources are in phase at a point on the helix axis (φ=0), the radiation
will be in the axial mode [End fire condition], which requires that
ψ = - 2π m m = 0, 1, 2,..
2π Sλ .cosφ – (Lλ / P = - 2π m
At φ = 0, Sλ – Lλ / P = -m
Lλ / P = Sλ + m
m - Order of the transmission mode on a helix radiating a maximum field in axial mode.
Monofilar and Multifilar Normal mode Helical antennas.
11
 In this mode, radiation is maximum in the direction normal to the helix axis and
may also be called as broadside.
 When the helix circumference is approximately a λ, the axial mode of radiation is
dominant, but when the circumference is much smaller, the normal mode is
dominant.
 When the pitch angle is 0, the helix becomes a loop.
 When the pitch angle is 900, the helix becomes straightens out into a linear antenna.
 To determine the far field of the helix, assume that the helix consists of a number
of small loops and short dipoles connected in series.
 The diameter D of the loops is the same as the helix diameter, and the length of the
dipole S is the same as the spacing between turns of the helix.
 The current is assumed to be uniform in magnitude and in phase over the entire
length of the helix.
 Since the helix is small, the far- field pattern is independent of the number of turns.
 Hence, it suffices to calculate the far field patterns of a single small loop and one
short dipole
 The far field of the small loop has only an Eφ component and is given by
Eφ = 120π2 [I] sin θ A

r λ2
Where, the area of the loop A = π D2/4

 The far field of the short dipole has only an Eφ component and is given by
Eθ = [I] S sin θ (jω/c2r)

4πε
= [I] S sin θ j 2πf.√ μ ε

4πε (f λ) r
Eθ = j 60π [I] sin θ. S

r λ
Where, S has been substituted for L, length of the dipole.

 Factor j indicates that Eθ, Eφ are in phase quadrature.
The ratio of the magnitudes of Eθ and Eφ gives the axial ratio of the polarization ellipse of
the far field. Eθ 60π [I] sin θ. S / r λ
AR = Eφ = 120π2 [I] sin θ. A / r λ2
=2Sλ (A = π D2/4)
π D
2 2
=2Sλ x λ
C2 λ
AR = 2Sλ / C2λ
Three special cases of polarization ellipse are interest.
1. When Eφ = 0; the axial ratio is infinite and the polarization ellipse is a vertical line
indicating linear vertical polarization.
The helix in this case is a vertical dipole.
2. When Eθ = 0, the AR = 0, the polarization ellipse is a horizontal polarization.
12
The helix in this case is a horizontal loop.

3. When Eθ = Eφ, AR = 1 and the polarization ellipse is a circle, indicating circular
polarization.
AR = 1 = 2 Sλ / C2λ
Cλ = √ 2 S λ
A monofilar normal mode helix or wheeler coil fulfilling condition Cλ = √ 2 Sλ
is given below. It is a resonant, narrow band antenna.
Field Pattern
Cλ = 0.14
Α = 40
Sλ = 0.01λ
Resonant narrow band circularly polarized monomial normal mode of wheeler coil.
 The bandwidth and radiation efficiency could be increased by increasing the size of
the helix, but to approximate the uniform, in-phase current distribution required
that some type of phase shifter be placed at intervals along the helix.
 This may be inconvenient or impractical. Hence, the production of the normal
mode of radiation from a helix has practical limitations.
4. Write short notes on ‘Advantages and potential applications of
Microstrip antennas’. (Nov/Dec-2004) (4)
Advantages:
 Small size
 Low weight and cost
 Simple and inexpensive to manufacture
 Mechanically robust when mounted on rigid surfaces.
 Versatile in terms of resonant frequency, polarization, pattern and
impedance.
Applications:
 Preferred in high performance aircraft, space craft, and satellite and
missile applications.
 Used in mobile radio and wireless communications.
5. Explain a technique to measure antenna Gain. April / May -2005)(6)
 Absolute method and comparison method are the two basic gain
measurement methods.

13
Reference Antenna Source Antenna
AUT Polarization Positioner
Receiver Positioner Position Position Source Signal

Control Indicator Indicator Control Generator
Control
Pattern
recorder
Typical Instrumentation of an Antenna measurement range.

 The fig shows typical instrumentation of an antenna gain measurement range with Antenna
under Test (AUT) at left, source antenna at right.
 Due to the reciprocity, the direction of signal propagation does matter – the AUT can be as
well the transmitting antenna as the receiving one.
 The advantage of having the AUT as the receiving antenna is that the data processing and
antenna manipulation can occur at one site.
 At short distances, there may be RF transmission lines between the towers.
 The source antenna may be a log periodic antenna at lower frequencies, a horn or reflector
at higher frequencies.
Transmitters and Receivers:
 The transmitter should have a stable frequency and pure spectrum. Stable signal allows
the use of a narrow receiving bandwidth, which is prerequisite for a sensitive receiver.
 Sophisticated sweeping frequency synthesizers are best for demanding measurement
applications.
 The receiver should be sensitive, narrow band to suppress interfering signals, linear,
and should have a large dynamic range.
 The AUT is placed on a pedestal usually having two orthogonal axes of rotation
θ , φ.
 The positioning system includes d.c or stepping drive motors, synchro systems or
digital encoders for shaft position measurement, a position controller, and a position
indicator.
(a)Absolute Method
 The absolute method is based on the Friis transmission formula
14
PR Aer Aet
 2 2 , Ae = G0 λ2/ 4Π …..... (1)
PT R 
Substituting (2) in (1),
2
  
PR  PT GT G R   (Watts) ……… (2)
 4R 
Where, PR = Power received (W).
PT = Power accepted by the transmitting antenna (w).
GT= Gain of the Transmitting antenna.
GR = Gain of the receiving antenna
λ =Wave length (m).
R = Separation between the antennas, m
When two identical antennas are assumed,
4R PR
GT = GR = ……… (3)
 PT
Equation (3) shows that if received power and radiated power from transmitter are
measured and wavelength λ and distance R are known, then gain of either antenna can
be found.
 It is assumed that the polarizations of the antennas are matched, the main lobe
peaks are aligned with the line of measurement, and far- field conditions prevail.
 If two identical antennas are not available, then a third antenna is needed. In this
three antenna method, three sets of measurements are performed, one with each
pair of antennas.
From the three simultaneous equations, the three unknown gains can be solved straight
forwardly.
Procedure for measurement of Radiated and Received Power PR and PT
 Orient both antennas for maximum signal. The input to the transmitting antenna is
adjusted to an appropriate level and corresponding receiver reading level is
recorded.
 There are many sources of error in the absolute method:
1. The misalignment of the antennas.
2. Polarization mismatch.
3. Impedance mismatches both in the transmitting and receiving system.
4. The uncertainty of the power meter or calibrated attenuator used for the
measurements of PR / PT.
5. The test field imperfections.
 The power accepted by the transmitting antenna cannot be measured accurately by
replacing the antenna with a power meter. The same applies on the receiving side.
 The efficiency of power transfer between a generator and a load is
 GL 
1   1   
G
2
L
2
……………. (4)
1   G  L  2
Where,ρG = Complex reflection coefficient of the generator.

ρL = Complex reflection coefficient of the load.
15
 Thus, to correct the measured powers, the reflection coefficients of the antennas,
transmitter and receiver have to be known.
 Due to the test field ripples, the received power may be sensitive to the location.
This effect can be reduced by averaging the powers which are received at slightly
different locations.
(b) Comparison Method.
 In this method, the powers received with the AUT and with a known reference
antenna are compared as in figure.
Receiver
 The gain of the AUT is,

P
GAUT = AUT Gref …………… (5)
Pref
Where, PAUT = Power received with the AUT, (Watts)
Pref = Power received with the reference antenna, (W)
Gref = Gain of the reference antenna
 Gref has been determined by some other means, e.g., by absolute method.
 Half wave dipoles and horn antennas are commonly used reference antennas
because they have a predictable gain and pure polarization.
 The power ratio can be measured simply with a calibrated attenuator: the
attenuation is adjusted to give the same output indication with both antennas and
the power ratio is obtained from the attenuator settings.
The calibration uncertainty of the reference antenna gain is typically ± 0.25 db.
 It is assumed in equation (5) that both the AUT and the reference antenna are
perfectly matched to the receiving system (transmission line and receiver ) and they
have the same polarization.
LOG-PERIODIC ANTENNA
In telecommunication, a log-periodic antenna (LP, also known as a log-periodic array)

is a broadband, multielement, unidirectional, narrow-beam antenna that has impedance and
radiation characteristics that are regularly repetitive as a logarithmic function of the
excitation frequency. The individualcomponents are often dipoles, as in a log-periodic
dipole array (LPDA).
Log periodic antennas are arrays that are designed to be self-similar and
thus are fractal antenna arrays. It is normal to drive alternating elements with a circa 180o
(π radian) phase shift from the last element. This is normally done by wiring the elements
alternatingly to the two wires in a balanced transmission line.The length and spacing of the
16
elements of a log- increase logarithmically from one end to the other.The result of this
structural condition is that if a plot is made of the input impedance as a function of log of
frequency then the variation will be periodic i.e. the impedance will go through the cycles
of variation in such a way that each cycle is exactly like its preceding one and hence the
name.Log.-Periodic Antenna, 250 – 2400 MHz
The method helps us to compute voltages, currents and impedances in antenna systems.
The method understands the voltage, which is observed at the input port of every single
antenna element, being induced by the radiation of all the antenna elements (including the
own element). The voltage can be composed from contributions of single elements. Each
contribution is proportional to the current of the respective element. E.g., voltage U 1 at
the input of the first antenna element equals to the summation
where I 1, I 2, I 3 are currents at the input ports of single elements, Z 11, Z 12, Z 13 are
impedances. Z 11 is self-impedance, Z 1n are mutual impedances between the first
element and the other elements in the antenna system. These impedances depend on the
mutual position and mutual distance of antenna elements
Spiral antenna
In microwave systems, a spiral antenna is a type of RF antenna. It is shaped as a two-arm
17
spiral, or more arms may be used. Spiral antennas operate over a wide frequency range and
have circular polarization.
A spiral antenna transmits EM waves having a circular polarization. It will receive

linearly polarized EM waves in any orientation, but will attenuate signals received with
the opposite circular polarization. A spiral antenna will reject circularly polarized
waves of one type, while receiving perfectly well waves having the other polarization.
One application of spiral antennas is wideband communications. Another application of
spiral antennas is monitoring of the frequency spectrum. One antenna can receive over a
wide bandwidth, for example a ratio 5:1 between the maximum and minimum frequency.
Usually a pair of spiral antennas are used in this application, having identical parameters
except the polarization, which is opposite (one is right-hand, the other left-hand
oriented). Spiral antennas are useful for microwave direction-finding.
Elements
The antenna includes two conductive spirals or arms, extending from the center
outwards. The antenna may be a flat disc, with conductors resembling a pair of loosely-
nested clock springs, or the spirals may extend in a three-dimensional shape like a screw
thread. The direction of rotation of the spiral defines the direction of antenna
polarization. Additional spirals may be included as well, to form a multi-spiral structure.
Usually the spiral is cavity-backed, that is there is a cavity of air or non-conductive
material or vacuum, surrounded by conductive walls; the cavity changes the antenna
pattern to a unidirectional shape. The output of the antenna
18
UNIT-V Radio Wave Propagation Dr. M. Moorthi, Asso.Prof/ECE
UNIT-V RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION
PART A
1. What are the factors that affect the propagation of radio waves?
1. Curvature of earth.
2. Earth’ magnetic field.
3. Frequency of the signal.
2. Distinguish between ground wave and sky wave:
 Energy propagated near the earth’s surface is called ground wave:
Ground wave
1. Space wave
2. Surface wave
 Space wave is made up of direct and ground reflected wave. Sky wave is the
wave which is ionospherically reflected and ionospherically scattered waves.
3. Explain briefly how surface wave propagation takes place?
 The surface wave is a wave that is guided along the earth’s surface, much as
an EM wave is guided by a transmission line.The attenuation of this wave is
directly affected by the constants of the earth along which it travels.
 When both antennas are located right at the earth’s surface, the direct and
ground reflected terms in the space wave cancel each other, and transmission
is entirely by means of surface wave.
4. Define diversity reception.
 To minimize fading and to avoid multipath interference diversity reception is
used.
Types:
1. Space diversity reception.
2. Frequency diversity reception
3. Polarization diversity
5. What is Diversity Reception?
 This method exploits the fact that signals received at different locations do not
fade together.At UHF and µ wave frequencies, it is found that the signal
received on two antennas never fades out simultaneously provided that
antenna heights are properly placed.
 It requires antennas spaced atleast 100λ apart are preferred and the antennas
which high signal strength at the moment dominates.
6. Explain Frequency Diversity Reception:
 This method takes advantage of the fact that signals of slightly different
frequencies do not fade synchronously.This fact is utilized to minimize fading
in radio telegraph circuits.
7. Explain Polarization Diversity Reception:
 Used normally in microwave links, and it is found that signal transmitted over
the same path in two polarizations, have independent fading patterns.In broad
band dish antenna system, polarization diversity combined with frequency
diversity reception achieves excellent results.
8. Define virtual height.
If the incident and returned rays are extrapolated to a vertex, they meet at a
height h’, called virtual height of the ionosphere layer, that is instrumental in
returning the wave to earth.
9. What is meant by Faraday’s rotation?
 Due to earth’s magnetic fields, the ionospheric medium becomes anisotropic
and the incident plane wave entering the ionosphere will split into ordinary
and extra-ordinary waves/ modes. When these modes re- emerge from the
ionosphere, they recombine into a single plane wave again.
 However, the plane of polarization will usually have changed, a phenomenon
known as faraday’s rotation.
10. A VHF communication link is to be established with 35 W
transmitter at 90MH. Find the distance upto which the line of sight
communication may be possible if the heights of the transmitting and
receiving antennas are 40, 25 meters respectively. (Nov/ Dec-2004)
d = 3.57  h  h km
t r
= 3.57  40  25 km
d = 40.43 km
11. At a 150 km height in the monosphere, the electron density at
night is about 2x1012 m-3 and the signal MUF is 1.5 times the critical
frequency for a transmission distance of 600 km.
Compute the following (Nov/Dec-2004)
1. Critical frequency, 5.Wave velocity,
2. Relative dielectric constant, 6. Group velocity.
3. Phase constant,
4. wave impedance,
Given: Nmax = 2 x 10 12 m-3

f = 1.5 fc
(1) Critical frequency, fc = 9 N max
fc = 9 2  1012  12.73MHz
(2) Relative dielectric constant
Ne 2
εr = 1-

m 2  2 
At great heights, ω>>ν
Ne 2
= 1-
m 2
2
f 
= 1   c 
 f 
2
 f  2
εr = 1   c   1   1 
  1.5 
 1.5 f 
εr = 0.56
2
2 f 
(3) Phase constant, β =   1   c 
    f 
2
2  3.14  1 
 (1.5  12.73  10 6 1   
3  10 8
 1 .5 
= 0.2238 rad / sec
0
(4) Wave impedance,  2
f 
1   c 
 f 
377
  503.78
2
 1 
1  
 1.5 
(5) Wave velocity,  p g  c 2
12. Define Fading.
Fading is the fluctuation in the received signal strength at the receiver and is
known as fading.
PART B
1. Draw the profile diagram of Ionosphere and explain. (Nov/Dec-

2004), (Nov/Dec-2005) (5)
Upper part of the atmosphere absorbs large quantities of the radiant

energy from sun. This radiant energy ionizes the atmosphere and produce free
electrons and positive ions. This process takes place at 60 kilometers above the earth
surface. The part of the upper atmosphere where the ionization is appreciable is called
the ionosphere. The most important ionizing agents are UV, α , β rays and cosmic
rays. Because of various kinds of radiations involved, the ionization in the ionosphere
tends to be stratified. The levels at which the electron density reaches a maximum are
termed layers. The figure shows the typical height of ionosphere layers above earth
and electron density variation during day and night.
250-400 km F2 layer
F layer 220 F layer

(Appleton layer)
Height above earth
E layer
Height E layer 110
Above earth (Kennelly Heaviside) Layer
50-90 D layer
Electron density (N) Electron density

Electron density variation during (a) Night, (b) Day
The number of layers, their heights and amount of sky wave

that can be bent by them will vary from day to day, month to month, and year to year.
For each layer there is a critical frequency. Above which if a radio wave is sent
vertically upward will not return back to the earth but it will penetrate it. The three
principle day time maxima called the E, f1 and F2 layers has shown in figure. In
addition to these regular layers there is a region below the E layer which is
responsible for much of the day time attenuation of high frequency radio waves. The
d region which lies between50 to 90 kilometers is responsible for much of the day
time attenuation. During night, D region vanishes, F1 and F2 layers combined to form
one layer called f layer. The variation of electron density with height above the earth
under typical conditions in figure. The regular E layer is governed by the amount of
UV light from the sun and night it tends to decay informally with time.
2. Explain Diversity Reception. (April/May-2005) (6)

Diversity reception is used to minimize the signal fading. While the AGC or AVC
helps in minimizing the fading becomes in effective when the signal fades below the
noise level. There are two types of diversity reception system.
(i). Space Diversity:

It is based on the fact that the signal receives at different locations do not
fade out at some times. In short wave range antennas spaced 3 to 10 λ apart will
receive the signals which fade independent to one another. At UHF and microwave
frequencies the same observation holds good. The different antennas used in space
diversity systems are provided with separate receivers. These receivers are connected
to a common output. So that the signal is always obtained as long as the signal
identity from at least bone of the antennas is acceptable. A common AGC system is
derived from the sum of AGC output voltages of the receivers. The signal from the
strongest receiver is part on the common output stage.
(ii). Frequency Diversity
The signals at different frequency do not fadeout at same time. This
fact is used in frequency diversity system. The same antenna is used for the
receiver that works with simultaneous transmission at two or more frequencies.
Since frequency diversity system is more wasteful of frequency spectrum, it is
used only when space diversity cannot be used.
3. Explain in detail about the Ground wave propagation.
The energy radiated from a transmitting antenna may reach receiving

antenna over any of many possible propagation paths.
1. Sky waves (or) Ionospherically reflected waves:
Waves that arrive at the receiver after reflection in the Ionosphere.
2. Tropospheric waves:
Waves that are reflected in the troposphere.
3. Ground wave:
Energy propagated over other paths near the earth surface.
Ground wave
Space Wave Surface wave
Made up of direct wave and the Wave that is guided along the earth’s
Ground reflected wave. surface, much as an EM wave is guided
by a transmission line
Also includes the portion of energy Attention of this wave is directly affected
received as a result of diffraction around by the constants of the earth along which
the earth’s surface and refraction in the it travels.
upper atmosphere.
When both antennas are located at the
earth’s surface, the direct and ground
reflected terms in the space wave cancel
each other transmission is entirely by
means of this surface wave.
TROPOSPHERIC WAVES:
The troposphere is considered to be the region of the atmosphere adjacent to
the earth and extending up to about 10kms.Wave propagation beyond line-of-sight
within the troposphere can result from
 Diffraction
 Normal refraction
 Abnormal reflection and refraction
 Tropospheric scatter
 Normal refraction :
 A radio wave traveling horizontally in the earth’s atmosphere follows a
path which has a slight downward curvature due to refraction of the wave
in the atmosphere.
This curvature of the path tends to overcome partially
4. Explain Inospheric Abnormalities.
 The ionosphere is highly dependent upon the sun and its conditions vary
continuously. the variations are of two types:
1. Normal:
Seasonal, diurnal, height and thickness variations.
Abnormal:
(a) Sudden ionospheric disturbance (SID) or Dellinger
(b) Ionospheric stroms
(c) Sporadic E-layer reflections

(d) Tides and winds
(e) Sun spot cycle
(f) Fadings
(g) Whistlers
(a) Sudden – Ionospheric Disturbances (SID) or Mongel- Dellinger Effect.
 It is caused by sudden appearance of solar flares i.e. bright spots on the
solar disc which are due to gigantic emissions of hydrogen from the sun.
 The X-ray radiation following solar flares increases tremendously the
ionization density right down to the D-layer. As a result of intense
increases in the ionization density of the D- region, causes the increase in
the absorption of short wave (HF) signals and increased reflection of
atmospheric noise as well. Consequently, the LUHF increases beyond
MUF, resulting in complete black out of all HF sky wave communication
via ionosphere. This type of SID last from a few minutes to about an hour
and takes place simultaneously every where on the sunlit portions of the
globe.
Dellinger Effect (or) SID:
 The phenomenon of complete black out is known as SID or Dellinger fade out
or Mongel- Dellinger effect. However, during SID, the VLF propagation
actually improves. The intensity of disturbances tens to be greater at noon than
at other time of the day.
(b) Ionospheric Stroms:
 Ionospheric stroms last one or more days.These disturbances are worldwide
and simultaneously in the day and night. Ionospheric stroms are correlated
with the rapid and excessive fluctuations associated with magnetic
stroms.During ionospheric stroms, radio wave propagation becomes erratic
and then it is necessary to lower the working frequency in order to maintain
the communication.The effects f ionospheric stroms on the short wave radio
transmission is to narrow the range of frequencies of communication over a
given circuit. It is caused by the particle emissions from the sun, , rays. It
has a tendency to re-occur in intervals of 27.3 days which is the period of the
sun’s rotation.Its effect is more near polar region and becomes less at the
equator.
(c) Sun –spot Cycle:
 The sun has an 11 years cycle over which its output varies tremendously.
Although light variations are slight, but the solar outputs of UV rays, coronee,
flares, particle radiation and sun spot may vary fifty-fold over that period. It is
observed that critical frequencies of the ionosphere are highest during sun spot
maxima and lowest during sun spot minima. From the fig, critical frequency
closed follows the sun spot cycle having minimum value at about 6MHz and
maximum value at about 12MHz. After knowing the ionospheric
characteristics, the frequency selection can accordingly be made for
communication.
Critical
Frequency MHz
1946 1948 1950

Year
Critical frequency with year
(d) Tides and Winds in the Ionosphere:
 The atmosphere also experience tidal pulls of the sun and the moon, just as
happens in case of oceans.
 It is because of the resonance phenomenon of the atmosphere coincides
approximately with the solar tidal period of 12 hours.
 The effect is further complicated by thermal heating of the atmosphere by the
radiations of the sun.
 The ionized particles of the upper atmosphere, while existing these tidal
motions, is affected by the magnetic field of the earth.
 Winds (motion of the ionized particles) in ionosphere is mainly caused by
tides.
 Motions of turbulence in the F2 layer also suggest the presence of ionospheric
winds.
(e) Fading:
 Fading is the fluctuation in the received signal strength at the receiver and is
known as fading.
 It is caused by variation in the heights and density of ionization in the different
layers of the ionosphere.
 Fading may be slow, rapid, frequency selective but in each case fading caused
due to interference between two waves of different path lengths.
 Fading is more likely with higher frequencies.
 In normal fading, variation is of few dB while when fading is severe, change
in the s/e strength may occur from 10 dB to 20 dB.
Selection Fading:
 Produces serious distortion of modulated signal.
 More prevalent at high frequencies for which sky wave propagation is used.
 AM signals are more distorted by selective fading rather than SSB signals.
Interference Fading:
 Produced by the interference between upper and lower rays of a sky wave,
particularly at the lower end of the HF band.
 Interference fading also occurs because of the fluctuations of height in the
ionospheric layer, if a singly sky wave frequency is in use.
 It can be minimized either by space diversity or frequency diversity reception.
Absorption Fading:
 It occurs due to variations of signal strength with the different amount of
absorption of waves by the transmission medium.
Polarization Fading:
 It is caused by a super position of the ordinary and extra-ordinary waves
which are oppositely polarized.
 The polarization with respect to antenna is constantly changing, giving rise to

changes of amplitudes in the receiver and produces polarization fading.
Skip Fading:
This type of fading occurs at distances near the skip distance.
(f) Whistler:
It is a whistling tone with gradually falling pitch. These types of transient
EM disturbance are called whistlers.
 The various whistlers are
- long whistlers
- Short whistlers
- Noise whistlers
 It has been determined that these atmospheric whistlers are associated with
EM pulses of audio frequency radiation propagation along the lines of the
earth’s magnetic field.
Virtual Height
The height to which a short pulse of energy sent vertically upward and
traveling with the spaced of light would reach and takes the same travel time as does
the actual pulse reflected from the layer.
5. Explain the structure of Atmosphere

Factors affecting the propagation of radio wave are
(i)Spherical shape of the earth:-For Free Space RW travel in straight line. But
communication on the earth surface is limited by distance to horizon and requires
change in propagation.
(ii)Atmosphere-Height of about 600km.Is divided into layers. RW near the surface is
affected by troposphere. Higher up RW is influenced by ionosphere.
(iii)Interaction with the objects.
Atmosphere:-
Is divided into Troposphere(earth’s surface to about 6.5 mi), Stratosphere(extends
from the troposphere upwards for about 23 mi), Ionosphere(extends from the
stratosphere upwards for about 250mi) Beyond this layer is Free Space.
The ionosphere is the uppermost part of the atmosphere and is ionized by solar
radiation. Ionization is the conversion of atoms or molecules into an ion by light
(heating up or charging) from the sun on the upper atmosphere. Ionization also creates
a horizontal set of stratum (layer) where each has a peak density and a definable width
or profile that influences radio propagation. The ionosphere is divided into layers.
About 120 km to 400 km above the surface of the Earth is the F layer. It is the
top most layer of the ionosphere. Here extreme ultraviolet (UV) (10-100 nm) solar
radiation ionizes atomic oxygen (O). The F region is the most important part of the
ionosphere in terms of HF communications. The F layer combines into one layer at
night, and in the presence of sunlight (during daytime), it divides into two layers, the
F1 and F2.The F layers are responsible for most sky wave propagation of radio waves,
and are thickest and most reflective of radio on the side of the Earth facing the sun.
The E layer is the middle layer, 90 km to 120 km above the surface of the Earth. This
layer can only reflect radio waves having frequencies less than about 10 MHz. It has a
negative effect on frequencies above 10 MHz due to its partial absorption of these
waves. At night the E layer begins to disappear because the primary source of
ionization is no longer present. The increase in the height of the E layer maximum
increases the range to which radio waves can travel by reflection from the layer. The
D layer is the innermost layer, 50 km to 90 km above the surface of the Earth. when
the sun is active with 50 or more sunspots, During the night cosmic rays produce a
residual amount of ionization as a result high-frequency (HF) radio waves aren't
reflected by the D layer. The D layer is mainly responsible for absorption of HF radio
waves, particularly at 10 MHz and below, with progressively smaller absorption as
the frequency gets higher. The absorption is small at night and greatest about midday.
The layer reduces greatly after sunset. A common example of the D layer in action is
the disappearance of distant AM broadcast band stations in the daytime.
6.Explain various Radio wave propagation in detail
RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION
The propagation of electromagnetic waves between the transmitting and receiving
antennas is a very complex phenomenon. It is nevertheless important to distinguish
the different propagation methods of electromagnetic waves:
 Propagation by ground wave
 Propagation by ionospheric wave(sky wave) and
 Propagation by direct wave (space wave)
Fig. 1. Propagation models
The type of wave Propagation is determined by the carrier frequency of the

transmitted signal.
Ground wave
 For this type of propagation, the electromagnetic waves are
conducted via the boundary of ground and atmosphere. The ground wave is
the preferred propagation type for long distance communication using
frequencies below 3MHz (the earth behaves as a conductor for all frequencies
below 5MHz). The ground wave is also used for short distance
communications using frequencies between 3 and 30 MHz. Example: AM
radio
Fig. 2. Ground wave propagation

Calculation of field strength at a distance
Electric field strength, E at a distance from transmitter antenna due to round wave,
---------(1)
Where,
120π≈377Ω - Intrinsic impedance of free space
- Effective heights of transmitting and receiving antenna
- Antenna currents
d - Distance between transmitting and receiving antenna
λ - Wavelength
According to Somerfield, the field strength for ground wave propagation for a flat
earth is given by,
------- (2)
Where,
is the ground wave field strength at the surface of earth at unit distance from the
transmitting antenna.
A- Attenuation factor (Earth losses)
Unit field strength depends on

i) Power radiation of transmitting antenna
ii) Directivity in vertical and horizontal planes
If the antenna is non directional in the horizontal plane, producing a radiated field
which is proportional to the angle of elevation, then the field at unit distance for a
radiated power 1 KW is given by,
The attenuation constant factor A depends on

i) Frequency
ii) Dielectric constant
iii) Conductivity of earth.
Free space propagation

Free space is the space which does not interfere with the normal radiation and
propagation of radio waves. In free space, no magnetic or gravitational fields or solid
bodies or ionized particles are assumed to exist.
Fig . 3. a. Free space propagation

 Signal reflected from ionized layer of atmosphere back down to earth
 Signal can travel a number of hops, back and forth between ionosphere and
earth’s surface
 Reflection effect caused by refraction
 Examples are Amateur radio and CB radio
Fig 3.b.
The fundamental equation for field strength at the receiving antenna for free space
propagation is given by,
Where,
is the maximum directive gain of the transmitting antenna.
is the power radiated by the transmitting antenna
r is the radius of the sphere.
Line-of-Sight Propagation
 At low frequencies (below approximately 3 MHz) radio signals travel
as ground waves, which follow the Earth's curvature due to diffraction with
the layers of atmosphere. This enables AM radio signals in low-
noise environments to be received well after the transmitting antenna has
dropped below the horizon. Additionally, frequencies between approximately
1 and 30 MHz can be reflected by the F1/F2 Layer, thus giving radio
transmissions in this range a potentially global reach (see shortwave radio),
again along multiple deflected straight lines. The effects of multiple
diffraction or reflection lead to macroscopically "quasi-curved paths".
 However, at higher frequencies and in lower levels of the atmosphere, neither
of these effects are significant. Thus any obstruction between the transmitting
antenna and the receiving antenna will block the signal, just like the light that
the eye may sense. Therefore, since the ability to visually see a transmitting
antenna (disregarding the limitations of the eye's resolution) roughly
corresponds to the ability to receive a radio signal from it, the propagation
characteristic of high-frequency radio is called "line-of-sight". The farthest
possible point of propagation is referred to as the "radio horizon".
Fig 4. LOS Propagation

 Transmitting and receiving antennas must be within line of sight
 Satellite communication – signal above 30 MHz not reflected by
ionosphere
 Ground communication – antennas within effective line of site due to
refraction
 Refraction – bending of microwaves by the atmosphere
 Maximum distance between two antennas for LOS propagation:
d= 
3.57 h1  h2 
 h1 = height of antenna one
 h2 = height of antenna two K = adjustment factor to account for
refraction, rule of thumb K = 4/3
Ground Reflection
2-ray Ground Reflected Model is a radio propagation model that predicts path
loss when the signal received consists of the line of sight component and multi path
component formed predominately by a single ground reflected wave.
Fig .6. Ground reflection
Power varies with inverse fourth power of distance for large .

Surface wave
Surface waves have been used in over-the-horizon radar, which operates mainly at
frequencies between 2 and 20 MHz over the sea, which has a sufficiently high
conductivity to convey the surface waves to and from a reasonable distance (up to
100 km or more; over-horizon radar also uses sky wave propagation at much greater
distances). In the development of radio, surface waves were used extensively. Early
commercial and professional radio services relied exclusively on long wave, low
frequencies and ground-wave propagation. To prevent interference with these
services, amateur and experimental transmitters were restricted to the higher (HF)
frequencies, felt to be useless since their ground-wave range was limited. Upon
discovery of the other propagation modes possible at medium wave and short wave
frequencies, the advantages of HF for commercial and military purposes became
apparent. Amateur experimentation was then confined only to authorized frequencies
in the range.
Fig . 7. Surface waves

Attenuation factor of surface wave
The attenuation factor A of the surface wave depends on the distance between the
transmitter and receiver, the frequency and the electrical properties of the
ground over which the wave is propagating.
Attenuation characteristics for ground wave propagation
It is expressed in terms of numerical distance p and phase constant b.
i) For vertically polarized wave
ii) For horizontally polarized antenna

The parameters p and b are given by,
Diffraction
Diffraction is the bending of the wave path when the waves meet an
obstruction. The amount of diffraction depends on the wavelength of the wave.
Higher frequency waves are rarely diffracted in the normal world. Since light waves
are high frequency waves, they are rarely diffracted. However, diffraction in sound
waves can be observed by listening to music. When outdoors, behind a solid
obstruction, such as a brick wall, hear mostly low notes are heard. This is because the
higher notes, having short wave lengths, undergo little or no diffraction and pass by or
over the wall without wrapping around the wall and reaching the ears. The low notes,
having longer wavelengths, wrap around the wall and reach the ears. This leads to the
general statement that lower frequency waves tend to diffract more than higher
frequency waves. Broadcast band(AM band) radio waves (lower frequency waves)
often travel over a mountain to the opposite side from their source because of
diffraction, while higher frequency TV and FM signals from the same source tend to
be stopped by the mountain.
Diffraction, results in a change of direction of part of the wave energy from the
normal line-of sight path making it possible to receive energy around the edges of an
obstacle. Although diffracted RF energy is usually weak, it can still be detected by a
suitable receiver. The principal effect of diffraction extends the radio range beyond
the visible horizon. In certain cases, by using high power and very low frequencies,
radio waves can be made to encircle the Earth by diffraction.
Mechanism for diffraction
Diffraction arises because of the way in which waves propagate; this is
described by the Hugyens-Fresnel Principle and the principle of superposition of
waves. The propagation of a wave can be visualized by considering every point on a
wave front as a point source for secondary spherical waves. The wave displacement at
any subsequent point is the sum of these secondary waves. When waves are added
together, their sum is determined by the relative phases as well as the amplitudes of
the individual waves so that the summed amplitude of the waves can have any value
between zero and the sum of the individual amplitudes. Hence, diffraction patterns
usually have a series of maxima and minima.
There are various analytical models which allow the diffracted field to be
calculated, including the Kirchoff-Fresnel diffraction equation which is derived from
wave equation, the Fraunofer diffraction approximation of the Kirchhoff equation
which applies to the far field and the Fresnel diffraction approximation which applies
to the near field. Most configurations cannot be solved analytically, but can yield
numerical solutions through finite element and boundary element methods. It is
possible to obtain a qualitative understanding of many diffraction phenomena by
considering how the relative phases of the individual secondary wave sources vary,
and in particular, the conditions in which the phase difference equals half a cycle in
which case waves will cancel one another out.
Knife Edge diffraction model:
In EM wave propagation knife-edge effect or edge diffraction is a redirection

by diffraction of a portion of the incident radiation that strikes a well-defined obstacle
such as a mountain range or the edge of a building. The knife-edge effect is explained
by Hugyens- Fresnel principle which states that a well-defined obstruction to an
electromagnetic wave acts as a secondary source, and creates a new wave front. This
new wave front propagates into the geometric shadow area of the obstacle.
The parameter Vd is known as Frensel-Kirchhoff diffraction parameter and it is given
by,
Fig 8. knife-edge diffraction model

EC6602-ANTENNA AND WAVEPROPAGATION
UNIT 1
1. Define antenna.
Antenna is defined as a transition device or transducer between a guided wave and a free space wave
or vice versa, which is used for radiating the EM energy into the free space or to receive the same
from the free space, efficiently. “ i.e radiating or receiving radio waves”
2. What is Radiation Pattern?
The radiation pattern is the relative distribution of radiated power as a function of distance in space. It
is a graph which shows the variation is the actual field strength of the EM wave at all points which are
at equal distance from the antenna.
3. What is an ‘isotropic radiator’? (Apr/May-2005)

An isotropic (or) isotropic antenna is defined as hypothetical loss less antenna having equal
radiation in all direction. It is an ideal and not physically realizable. It is often taken as a reference
antenna. It is also called as unipole, omni directional radiator or isotropic source.
4. What is dipole & Monopole antenna?
Dipole antenna is a symmetrical antenna in which the two ends are at equal potential relative to the
middle point. It is also called as resonator. Monopole antenna consists of one half of the dipole
antenna mounted above the earth or a ground plane. It is also called as Marconi antenna.
5. What is Effective Length (le)?
Effective length of an antenna represents the effectiveness of an antenna as radiator or collector of
electro magnetic energy. Effective length indicates how for an antenna is effective in transmitting (or)
receiving the electromagnetic wave energy.
Effective length = (open circuited Voltage) / (Incident electric field strength)
le = V / E in meter or wavelengths.
Relation between max effective aperture & effective length is
(Ae) max = (le 2 Z) / (4 Rr)
Where Rr is the radiation resistance and Z is the antenna impedance
6. What is Radiation Resistance (Rr)?
It is defined as that fictitious resistance, which, when substituted in series with an antenna,
will consume the same power as is actually radiated.
7. Give various types patterns. (Nov/Dec-2004 &05)
Radiation Pattern: is the graphical representation of radiation of an antenna as a function of
direction (space coordinates)
Field strength or Radiation Density Pattern: denotes the antenna properties including the
radiation intensity, field strength, phase or polarization and is expressed in terms of volts per meter
and is denoted by E.
Field Pattern: represents the graph of the spatial variation of the electric or magnetic field along a
constant radius.
Power Pattern: is a trace of the received power at a const. radius.
8. Define radiation intensity. (Apr/May-2005)
Radiation intensity in a given direction is defined as the power radiated from an antenna per
unit solid angle. The radiation intensity is a far field parameter and it can be obtained by simply
multiplying the radiation density by the square of distance.
U=r2Wrad
Where,
U=radiation intensity (w/unit solid angle)
Wrad= radiation density(w/m2)
9. Give various types of antenna Gain.
Gain: is defined as the ratio of maximum radiation intensity in a given direction to the maximum
radiation intensity from a reference antenna, produced in the same direction and with the same power
input.
Directive Gain: can be defined as the ratio of power density (pointing vector) in a particular
direction at a given point, to the power which would be radiated at the same distance by an isotropic
antenna, radiating the same total power.
Power Gain: is the ratio of radiation intensity in a given direction to the average total input power.
Directivity: denotes the maximum directive gain. It is defined as the ratio of maximum radiation
intensity of an antenna to the radiation intensity of an isotropic antenna, radiating the same total
power. (Power per unit solid angle).
4
D=
A
10. Define Effective aperture. (Apr/May-2005)
Effective aperture: is defined as the area over which the antenna extracts
electromagnetic energy from the traveling electromagnetic waves. It is also be defined as the ratio of
power received at the antenna load terminal to the power density of the incident wave.
Ae = (Power Received)/(Poynting Vector of incident wave) = W/P
11. What is antenna beamwidth?

It is the measure of the directivity of an antenna, which represents an angular width in
degrees measured on the radiation pattern (major lobe) between points, where the radiated power has
fallen to half its maximum value.
12. State the ‘Friss Transmission formula’. (Nov/Dec-2005)
Aet . Aer
Pr=Pt (W) in terms of Gain Pr=Pt Gt A er / [4 π r 2] (W)
.2
Pr=Received power (W)
Pt=Power into transmitting antenna (W)
Aet=Effective aperture of transmitting antenna
Aer=Effective aperture of receiving antenna
=Distance between antennas.
=Wavelength between antennas.
13. Write the three field zones with their boundaries under test? (Nov/Dec-2005)
The three principal antenna full regions are,
1. Reactive near field
2. Radiating near field
3. Far Field
14. Define ‘Fresnel region of antenna’.
Radiative near field defined as that region of field of an antenna between reactive near field
region and the far field region where in radiation field predominates and the angular field distribution
on distance of antenna.
15. Define ‘1’radian.
One radian is defined as the solid angle with its vertex at the center is of a sphere of radius
‘r’ that is subtended by a spherical surface area equal to half of a square with each side of length ’r’.
16. Define beam solid angle. (Nov/Dec2004)
The beam solid angle is defined as the solid angle through which all the power of antenna
would flow its radiation intensity is constant for all angles with in A.
17. Define ‘Half power beam width’.
A half power beam width is defined as “in a plane containing the direction of maximum
of a beam, the angle between 2 directions in which the radiation intensity is one half the maximum
value of the beam.
18. Define ‘band width of an antenna’.
The bandwidth of an antenna is defined as “the range of frequencies with in which the performance of
the antenna with respect to some characteristics conform to a specific standard.
19. Define input impedance of antenna.
Input impedance is defined as the impedance presented by an antenna at its terminal or the
ratio of voltage to current at a pair of terminal of the ratio appropriate components of electric to
magnetic fields at a point.
ZA=RA+ jXA
Where, ZA=Antenna impedance at terminal a-b
XA=Antenna reactance at terminal a-b
RA=Antenna resistance at terminal a-b
20. What is antenna temperature?
Every object with a physical temperature above absolute zero radiates energy. The amount
of energy radiated is usually represented by an equation temperature TB called brightness
temperature. The temperature appears at the terminal of antenna is antenna temperature.
TB(,) =(1-  2)Tm
21. State Reciprocity theorem.
If an e.m.f is applied to the terminals of an antenna No.1 and the current measured at
terminals of another antenna No.2 then an equal current both in amplitude and phase will be obtained
at the terminals of antenna No.1, if the same e.m.f is applied to the terminals of antenna No.2.
22. A dipole having a length 3 cm is operated at 1 GHz. The efficiency factor K=0.6. Calculate
the radiation resistance, the antenna gain & the effective aperture.
(Nov/Dec-2004)
Given:
l =3 cm; f= 1 GHz; K=0.6
For a short electric dipole Rr = 80 π 2 (l/ Ψ 2
Rr = 80 π 2 (3 x 10 -2/ Ψ 2 = 3 x 10 8 (m/s)/ 1 GHz = 0.3 m
Rr = 80 π (0.1) = 7.89
2 2
Gain G =KD
For a short electric dipole Directivity D= (3/2)

Gain G = 0.6 x (3/2) = G = 0.9
Effective Aperture Ae =( 2 DΨ / 4 π = [(0.3Ψ2 x 1.5]/[4 x 3.14] = 0.01074 m2

23. Consider two similar dipoles having length 3 cm used as transmitting and receiving
antennas. Find the power received by the receiving antenna, if it is placed at a distance of 10 m
from the transmitting antenna, which is radiating 15 W average power at f = 1 GHz.
(Nov/Dec-2004)
Given:
l = 0.03 m; R = 10 m; Pt =15 W ; f = 1GHz.
By Friis transmission formula,
Power received, PR = P T Aet Aer / (R2 2)
Effective Aperture,
Aet = Aer = ( 2 GΨ / 4 π & = c/f = 3 x 10 8 (m/s)/ 1 GHz = 0.3 m
G=KD = (3/2) x 0.6 = 0.9
Now, Aet = Aer = ( 2 GΨ / 4 π becomes
Aet = Aer = [ (0.3) 2 x 0.λ ] / 4 π = 0.00θη m 2
PR = 15 x (0.0065) 2 / [10 2 x 0.3 2] = θλ.2η W
24. Define radiation resistance. (May/June-2006)

The antenna appears from the transmission line as a 2-terminal circuit element having an
impedance Z with a resistive component is known as Radiation resistance Rr.
25. Sketch the current distribution of a liner antenna of lengths  /4,  /2,  .
 / 4 Length  / 2 length  length
26. What do you understand by retarded current?

Since, the short electric dipole is so short, the current which is flowing through the dipole is
assumed to be constant throughout its length. The effect of this current is not felt instantaneous at a
distance point P only after an interval equal to the time required for the wave to propagate over the
distance r is called Retardation time
The retarded current [I] = I0ej  t  r / c 
Where  r/c - Phase retardation
27. What is the Radiation resistance of a  /2 antenna? (Or) centre-fed half wave dipoleMay-
2005)
Radiation resistance of a  /2 antenna is given by.
Rr = 73 
28. Calculate the physical height of a half wave dipole having antenna Q of 30 and bandwidth of
10 MHz. (Nov/Dec-2004)
Given: Q = 30; BW = 10MHz
Resonant frequency, f = Q.BW
=30 x 10 MHz
= 300MH

Length of the dipole, l =
2
To find λ:
=c/f
3  10 8
= =1m
300  10 6
1
 Physical height of half wave dipole = m
2
Height = 0.5m
29. Find the length of a half wave dipole at 30 MH. (May/June-2006)
300

f ( MHz)
150 150
/2  
f ( MHz) 30
Length = 5metres
30. The radiation resistance of an antenna is 72  and loss resistance is 8 . What is its
directivity if the power gain is 16? (May/June-2006)
Solution: By definitions
Rr
= and G = D
Rr  Rl
72 72
=   0.9
72  8 80
G 16 160
D=    17.78
 0.9 90
Directivity D = 17.78
31.What is meant by parasitic elements?

The elements in which currents are induced by the fields of a driven element and have no transmission
line connection to the transmitter are called as parasitic elements.
 High input impedance Z = n2 x 73
33.Define a Hertzian dipole? (NOV-2007,Dec-2010)
Oscillating dipole or Hertzian dipole is a current carrying conductor in which the charges at both the ends
starts at oscillate. Its length is very small compared to .
34. Define Hertz antenna.
It is a symmetrical dipole antenna in which the two ends are at equal potential relative to mid point whose
length is equal to the half of the wavelength.
UNIT II

1. What is Antenna array?
A system of similar antennas oriented similarly to get greater directivity in a desired direction is
called antenna array(A Group of antenna).
2. Define Broadside Array

In Broadside array, a number of identical parallel antennas are set up along a line drawn perpendicular
to their respective axis and antennas are equally spaced along a line each element is fed with equal and
same phase current.
3. Define End fire Array
An arrangement in which the principal direction of radiation coincides with the direction of the array
axis.
4. Define point sources.

Any antenna, regardless of its size of complexity, can be represented by a single point source,
provided that observations are made in the far field with distance R =2 δ/ meters.
5. What is the condition on phase for the end fire array with increased directivity?
When = -βd, produces a maximum field in the direction Φ =0 But does not give the maximum
directivity.
It has been shown by Hansen and Wood yard that a larger directivity is obtained by increasing the
phase change between sources
So that, = - (βd +п/nΨ.
This condition will be referred to as the condition for “increased directivity”.
6. Define array factor.
The normalized value of the total field is given by,
E= sin (n /2Ψ/sin ( /2Ψ
The field as given by the expression E will be referred to as array factor.
7. Write the expression of null for Broad side array
Φmax = cos [1/βd (+ (2k +1Ψп/nΨ
Φmin = cos [1/βd (+ (2kп/nΨ]
8. Write the expression of null for End fire array.

Φmax =Cos [1/βd (+ (2k +1Ψ п/nΨ +1]
Φmin =Cos [1/βd (+ (2kп/nΨ +1]
(Or)
Φmin =2 Sin (+ k /2 n dΨ
End fire array with increased directivity:
Φmin =2 Sin + (2k-1Ψ /4 n d
9. Define linear array and uniform linear array.
An array is said to be linear, if the individual elements of the array are spaced equally
along a line and uniform, if the same are fed with currents of equal amplitude and having an uniform
progressive phase shift along the line.
10. What is the need for an array with non-uniform amplitude distribution? Or what is the need
for a binomial array?
Binomial arrays are the arrays with non-uniform amplitude distribution.
The need for a binomial array is,
(i) In uniform linear array, as the array length is increased to increase the directivity, the
secondary or minor lobes also occur.
(ii) For certain applications, it is highly desirable that secondary lobes should be
eliminated completely or reduced to minimum desirable level compared to main lobes.
11. What is pattern multiplication?
The total field pattern of non-isotropic, but similar sources is the multiplication of the
individual source patterns and the pattern of an array of isotropic point sources, each located at the
phase centre of individual sources having relative and phase. Whereas the total phase pattern is the
addition of the phase patterns of the individual sources and that of the array of isotropic point sources.
This concept is called pattern multiplication.
12. What are the Advantages of the pattern Multiplication?
1. Gives a speedy method of sketching the pattern of complicated arrays just by inspection.
2. Proves to be a useful tool in designing antenna arrays.
3. The method is very accurate as point by point multiplication of pattern is carried out.
13. What are the Disadvantages of Binomial Array?
1. The width of beam (HPBW) increases, thus decreasing directivity
2. For designing a large size array (number of elements), larger amplitude rate of currents
for the radiating sources is required which is difficult to achieve in practice.
14. Write the expression of beam width for broad side array.
For broad side array, expression of beam width between first nulls is given by,
BWFN = +2 /n d
15. Write the expression of beam width for end fire array.
For end fire array, expression of beam width between first nulls is given by,
BWFN = +2 √ 2 /n d
16. Differentiate broadside and end fire array. (Nov-2004)
Broadside Array End Fire Array

1.Antennas are fed in phase =0 Antenna elements are fed out of phase
= -β d
β = 2п/
d = Distance between elements
2. Maximum radiation is perpendicular to Maximum radiation is directed along the
the direction of array axis. array axis.
3. Beam width of major lobe is twice the The beam width is greater than that for a
reciprocal of the array length. broad side array of same length.
Beam width = + 2 /n d Beam width = + 2 √ 2 /n d
17. What are the cases for the arrays of two isotropic point source?
1. Equal amplitude and phase
2. Equal amplitude and opposite phase
3. Unequal amplitude and opposite phase
18. Explain the properties of broadside and endfire array
PROPERTIES BROADSIDE ARRAY ENDFIRE ARRAY

� � � �
1. Major Lobe �= , �= ,
2. Magnitude of
n n
Major Lobe
� + � +
3. Subsidiary Maxima �= � −1 [± ] �= � −1 [ − ]
� �
4. Nulls �= � −1 [± ] �= � −1 [ − ]
5. Beam width ⁄�⁄ ⁄�⁄

� �
6. Directivity �⁄ 4�⁄
� �
19.What is the principle of phased array design?

 To accomplish beam steering without the mechanical and inertial problems of rotating the
entire array.
To provide beam control at a fixed frequency or at any number of frequencies within a certain
bandwidth in a frequency independent manner
20. What are the various types of phased arrays?
1. Frequency scanning arrays
2 Retro arrays
3.Adaptive arrays and smart antennas.
21. Classify Antenna Arrays
UNIT III
PART A-TWO MARKS QUESTIONS

An antenna structure which can become active and react intelligently to its environment, steering its
beam toward a desired signal while simultaneously steering and thereby maximizing the signal – to –
noise ratio of the desired signal is called adaptive or smart antenna.
2. What is the principle of microwave antenna?
As the frequency increase, the wavelength decreases and thus it becomes easier to construct an antenna
system that are large in terms of wavelengths, and which therefore can be made to have higher
directivity. Here, to achieve directivity, suitably shaped metallic reflectors are used.
The most important wave antennas are
1. Parabolic reflector
2. Horn antenna.
3. Give the methods of minimizing spill-over of parabolic reflector antenna.
1. Geometric structure of the parabolic reflector should be such that f < D/4
Where f- focal length
D – Diameter of aperture in meters
2. By employing cassegrain feed systems and gregoriah feed systems, spill over loss can be
reduced.
4.Define spill over
When the feed is placed at the focal point of a parabolic reflector, some of the desired rays are not
captured by the reflector and this constitutes SPILL OVER.
It increases noise pick up which is particularly troublesome in satellite ground stations.
5. Why at microwave frequencies, parabolic dish antennas are preferred in most of the
applications?
 The EM wave everywhere is locally a plane wave and propagates in straight lines.i.e., along
straight rays in homogeneous media:
 Dimensions of antenna can be made several wavelengths to achieve a high gain. Since at ω
frequencies, the wave length is only a few cm.
.
6. What do you meant by sectoral horn & pyramidal horn?
If the flaring or opening is done only in one direction then the horn is called sectoral horn
If the horn is flared along both directions (E & H) then the horn is called Pyramidal horn
7. State Huygen’s Principle
Each point on a primary wavefront can be considered to be a new source of a secondary spherical
wave and that a secondary wavefront can be constructed as the envelope of these secondary spherical
waves.
8.List the applications of parabolic reflector. (Dec-2010)

i)Radio astronomy.ii)Microwave communication. Iii)Satellite tracking
9.What is Slot Antenna? (Dec-2011)

The slot antenna consists of a radiator formed by cutting a narrow slot in a large metal surface.The
shape and size of the slot,as well as driving frequency determine the radiation pattern.
10.What is parabolic reflector?(Apr-2012)
It is a parabola shaped reflective devices used to distribute energy entering the reflector at a particular
angle.
11. Applications of Microstrip Antennas
• Aerospace vehicles including high-performance aircraft, spacecraft, satellites and missiles
• Mobile radios, phones and pagers
• Base stations for personal communications
• Large ground-based phased array antennas
 Low frequency
 Low power
 High Q
13.State the advantages and disadvantages of Cassegrain Reflector.
Adv: The primary feed and the associated receiver or transmitter can be located conveniently behind
the main reflector. The necessity of running long transmission lines or waveguide is eliminated.
Disadv: Some of the radiation from the main reflector is obstructed because of the presence of sub
reflector along the path of paralleled rays.
14. Define Aperture Blockage.
The rays after reflection returns back to the feed point. Thus the reflected rays within the width of the
feed are blocked by the feed. This is known as aperture blockage.
15.What is the relationship between the terminal impedance of slot and dipole antenna?
The terminal impedance Zs of the slot is related to the terminal impedance Zd of dipole by the relation
16. What is the difference between slot antenna and its complementary dipole antenna?
the H field of the complementary dipole antenna.

that of
the complementary antenna.
17. What are the various feeds used in reflectors?
UNIT IV
Part A- TWO MARKS QUESTIONS

1. Define pitch angle of an helical antenna. What happens when X=00 and X=900?
When one turn of a circular helix is unrolled on a flat plane, the relation between the spacing S,
circumference C, turn length L are illustrated by the triangle Pitch angle is the angle between a line
tangent to the helix wire and plane normal to the helix axis.
S
 = tan –1( )
D
Where,  - Pitch Angle, S - Spacing between turns, D - Diameter of a helix.
When,  = 00, helix becomes a loop,  = 900, helix becomes a liner conductor.
2. If a flattened tubing width is 5mm, find the required thickness of a polystyrene sheet(  r =
2.7) for matching to a 50  coaxial transmission line.
Given:
w = 5mm;  r = 2.7; Z0 = 50 
To find:
w
h=
[377 /(  r .Z 0 )]  2
5 h = 1.93mm
h=
[377 /( 2.7  50)]  2
3. Draw the geometrical structure of an helical antenna with its parameters. (Nov-2005)
Surface of imaginary
Helix cylinder d
Helix axis
D
Where D = Diameter of helix (center to center), C = Circumference of helix = D

S
S = Spacing between turns (center to center),  = Pitch angle = tan –1( )
D
L = Length of 1 turn, N = Number of turns
A = Axial length = N S, D = Diameter of helix conductor.
4. What are the parameters to be considered for the design of an helical antenna?
The parameters to be considered for the design of an helical antenna are:
 Band width
 Gain
 Impedance
 Axial ratio
5. What are the types of radiation modes of operation possible for an helical antenna?
Two types of radiation modes of operation possible for an helical antenna:
 Normal mode of radiation
 Axial mode of radiation
6. Which antenna will produce circularly polarized wave? (Or) Name and sketch an antenna
which provides circularly polarized waves. (April/May-2005)
Helical antenna will produce circularly polarized wave.
7. For a 20 turn helical antenna operating at 3GHz with circumference c=10cm and the
spacing between the turns 0.3  .Calculate the Directivity and HPBW. (Nov/Dec-2004)
Given: f = 3GHz; c =10cm; S = 0.3  ; n = 20

3  10 8
= = 0.1m
3  10 9
Directivity D  12C  2nS 
10cm 2 0.3
= 12( ) 20( )
 
D = 72
52
HPBW = (deg)
c ns 
3
52 2
=
c n.S
3
52  0.12 52  0.1
= 
0.1  20  0.3  0.1 0.1  0.775
HPBW = 21.230
8. What is the condition for an antenna to be frequency independent?
For any antenna to be frequency independent, its surface must be described by
r = eaφ f ( Ψ
1  K 
a  
K  C 
Where a = constant F ( Ψ = Arbitrary function of , This is Rumsay equation
9. What do you understand by log- periodic antenna? Or frequency independent antenna.
(April/May -2005)
 It is a frequency independent antenna, for which the impedance, radiation pattern (and hence
the directivity) remain constant as a function of the frequency.
 It is defined only in terms of angles
 Broad band antenna whose impedance is logarithmically periodic functions of frequency.
10. What is LPDA? Why is it called so? (Nov/Dec-2005)

Log Periodic Dipole Array is called LPDA. The design of log periodic antenna
invoives a basic geometric structure that is repeated but with a changing size of the structure. The
structure size changes with each repletion by a constant scale factor so that the structure expand or
contract. This log periodic principle is called as Log Periodic Dipole Array.
11. Draw the log periodic dipole antenna structures at UHF and VHF ranges. (Nov/Dec-2004)
1) Included Transmission line region
2) Loaded Transmission line region
3) Active region, 4) Reflective region

12. What are advantages of helical antenna?
It is a simple broadband VHF & UHF antenna that provides circular polarization
It can operate in two modes
(i) Normal Mode
(ii) Axial Mode
Unit 5
PART A
1. What are the factors that affect the propagation of radio waves?
1. Curvature of earth.
2. Earth’ magnetic field.
3. Frequency of the signal.
2. Distinguish between ground wave and sky wave:
 Energy propagated near the earth’s surface is called ground waveμ
Ground wave
1. Space wave
2. Surface wave
 Space wave is made up of direct and ground reflected wave. Sky wave is the wave which is
ionospherically reflected and ionospherically scattered waves.
3. Explain briefly how surface wave propagation takes place?
 The surface wave is a wave that is guided along the earth’s surface, much as an Eε wave is
guided by a transmission line. The attenuation of this wave is directly affected by the
constants of the earth along which it travels.
 When both antennas are located right at the earth’s surface, the direct and ground reflected
terms in the space wave cancel each other, and transmission is entirely by means of surface
wave.
4. Define diversity reception.
 To minimize fading and to avoid multipath interference, diversity reception is used.
5. Define virtual height.
If the incident and returned rays are extrapolated to a vertex, they meet at a height h’, called
virtual height of the ionosphere layer, that is instrumental in returning the wave to earth.h=CT/2
6. What is meant by Faraday’s rotation?
 Due to earth’s magnetic fields, the ionospheric medium becomes anisotropic and the incident
plane wave entering the ionosphere will split into ordinary and extra-ordinary waves/ modes.
When these modes re- emerge from the ionosphere, they recombine into a single plane wave
again.
 However, the plane of polarization will usually have changed, a phenomenon known as
faraday’s rotation.
7. A VHF communication link is to be established with 35 W transmitter at 90MH. Find the

distance upto which the line of sight communication may be possible if the heights of the
transmitting and receiving antennas are 40, 25 meters respectively. (Nov/ Dec-2004)
d = 3.57  h  h km
t r
= 3.57  40  25 km
d = 40.43 km
8. At a 150 km height in the monosphere, the electron density at night is about 2x1012 m-3 and the
signal MUF is 1.5 times the critical frequency for a transmission distance of 600 km.
Compute the following (Nov/Dec-2004)
1. Critical frequency, 5.Wave velocity,
2. Relative dielectric constant, 6. Group velocity.
3. Phase constant,
4. wave impedance,
Given: Nmax = 2 x 10 12 m-3

f = 1.5 fc
(1) Critical frequency, fc = 9 N max
fc = 9 2  1012  12.73MHz
(2) Relative dielectric constant
Ne 2
 
r = 1-
m 2  2
At great heights, ω>>
Ne 2
= 1-
m 2
2
f 
= 1   c 
 f 
2
 fc  2
r = 1    1   1 
 1.5 f   1.5 
 
r = 0.56
2
 2   fc 
(3Ψ Phase constant, β =   1   
    f 
2
2  3.14  1 
 (1.5  12.73  10 6 1   
3  10 8
 1.5 
= 0.2238 rad / sec
0
(4) Wave impedance,  
2
f 
1   c 
 f 
377
  503.78
2
 1 
1  
 1.5 
(5) Wave velocity,  p g  c 2
9. Define Fading.
Fading is the fluctuation in the received signal strength at the receiver and is known as fading.
10.Which layer is suitable for propagation of high frequency signals? Why?
The F layer. Because the electron density is very high in this layer. Due to this the critical frequency of
this layer is 5 to 7 MHz even upto 10 MHz.
11.What is Snell’s law? (Dec-2009)
The ratio between the sine angle incident wave to the sine angle of refracted wave at the surface of a
medium is constant. = (sin iΨ/(sin rΨ
12.why space wave propagation is called as line of sight propagation?
For space wave propagation the transmitting and receiving antennas must be able to see each other.
There must be a line of sight path between them.
13. Define the mechanism of refraction
The refractive index of ionosphere is a function of electron density N. At the lower edges of the
ionosphere the electron density is zero and hence the refractive index is 1. For ionosphere refractive
index n<1 and Sin i < Sin r i.e., angle of refraction will go on deviating from the normal as the wave
propagates into the ionosphere.
14. What is critical frequency?
The critical frequency of an ionized layer is defined as the highest frequency which can be reflected by
a particular layer at vertical incidence. It is different for different layers.
15. State secant law.
εUF (fmufΨ is greater than critical frequency of the layer by the factor Sec i. This is called Secant
law.
16. Define skip distance.
It is the shortest distance from the transmitter, measured along surface of the earth at which a sky
wave of fixed frequency will return back to the earth.
17. Define maximum usable frequency.
MUF is a frequency of the wave which can be reflected back to earth for some specific angle of
incidence. MUF can also be defined as the maximum frequency that can be used for the sky wave
propagation for specific distance between two points on the earth surface.
18. What is meant by virtual height?
Consider an Electromagnetic wave from a transmitter reaching the receiver after being reflected by the
ionosphere. The wave enters the ionosphere and takes a curved path before it emerges out from the
ionosphere. If the incident wave and reflected ways are extended, they meet at a point. The vertical
height form the ground to the meeting point is called Virtual Height.
UNIT I
PART A
1.Define dipole antenna with respect to the assumed current distribution(Nov 2010)
2.Define retarded vector potential. (May 2009)
3. Define radiation resistance. (May 2009)
4. What do you mean by Hertzian dipole.(Nov 2007)
5. Draw the radiation field distribution for hertzian dipole.
6. Explain the retarded current expression for elementary dipole.
7. Calculate the radiation resistance of a λ/10 wire dipole in free space.
8. What do you mean by induction field and radiation field?(May 2007/May 2010)
9. What is the effective aperture and directivity of a Hertzian dipole antenna?
10. Write down the expression for radiation resistance of a Hertzian dipole?
11. The radial component of the radiated power density of an antenna is given by
A sin 
Wrad  Wr a r  0 2 a r watts/m2 where ,A0 is the peak power density .
r
Determine the total radiated power.
12. An oscillating dipole has an effective height of 100m. If the current at the base of the
antenna is 450A(rms), what is the total power radiated? (May 2007)
13. What is an oscillating electric dipole? (Nov 2006)
14. What are three antenna field zones? (Nov 2005)
15. Define field pattern and power pattern(Nov 2004)
16. What is the directive gain?
17. Define radiation intensity.(May 2005)
18. Define half power beam width.(May 2010)
19. What is the relationship between effective aperture and directivity
20. Define an isotropic antenna (or) radiator
21. Define radiation pattern. May 2005)
26. Define Beam solid angle or beam area. (Nov 2007)
22. Define beam efficiency.
23. Define directivity.(May 2005)
24. Define antenna gain.
25. Define bandwidth of an antenna.
26. Calculate the bandwidth of a 50 cm long half wave dipole having a Q of 15. (Nov
2006)
27. Derive the value of gain of half wavelength antenna. (Nov 2007)
28. Define effective aperture
29. Calculate the FBR of an antenna in dB which radiates 3 kw in its most optimum
direction and 500 w in the opposite direction.(May 2009)
30. An isotropic radiator radiates equally in all directions. The total power delivered to
the radiator is 100 KW. Calculate the power density at distances of 100 meters.
31. Calculate the physical height of a half wave dipole having Q of 30 and bandwidth of
10 MHz(Nov 2004)
32. Find the radiation resistance of an infinitesimal dipole whose overall length is
λ/25(May 2010)
33. The power gain of a reference antenna and a test antenna resulted in the following
data.(a) Input power to the reference antenna = 400mw
b) input power to the test antenna.. Calculate the power gain.
34. Define radian and steradian .(Nov 2005)
35.Write down the expression for radiated fields of a half wave dipole antenna?
36.What is the effective aperture and directivity of a half wave dipole?
37.What is radiation resistance of a half wave dipole?
38.A λ/4 dipole, with a total loss resistance of 1 ohm, is connected to a generator whose
internal impedance is 50+j25 ohms. Assuming that the peak voltage of the generator is
2V and the impedance of the dipole,excluding the loss resistance, is 73+j42.5 ohms, find
the power supplied by the source.(May 2007)
39. Write the types of Baluns.
40. Solve the HPBW for an antenna with a field pattern given by E(Ø)=Cos2Ø for
0˚≤Ø≤90˚
41. Sketch the structure of Yagi Uda Array for a frequency of 200 MHz.
42. Write the use of Baluns in antennas.
PART B
1. Derive the expression for the electric field and magnetic field of an oscillating dipole.
(May 2009)
(or)
Derive the expression for the fields components radiated from an infinitesimal
dipole(Hertzian dipole).(May 2007)
2. Derive the radiation resistance of Hertzian dipole.
3. What is hertzian dipole?. Find the directive gain & the directivity of a hertzian dipole.
4. Define effective aperture. Derive the relation between effective length and radiation
resistance.
7.What is the effective noise temperature if noise figure is given by 1.3 dB. For an
antenna having an effective temperature of 20° K, Calculate available noise power per
unit Bandwidth.
8.The power radiated by a lossless antenna is 10 watts. The directional characteristics of
the antenna are represented by the radiation intensity of
w 
U  B0 cos 3  for 0    and 0    2
sr 2
Find the maximum power density at a distance of 1000 m, assuming far field distance.
Specify the angle where this occurs and find the directivity and half power beam width of
the antenna. (May 2007)
9. Define effective aperture and derive a formula for maximum effective aperture in
terms of pointing vector(May 2007)
10.Obtain the expression for the power radiated by a half wave dipole and find the
radiation resistance .(Nov 2007/May 2007/Nov 2010))
11.Show that the radiation resistance of the half wave dipole antenna is 73 ohms.
12.Write short notes on folded dipole. (May 2009)
13.Derive the expressions for Electric field and magnetic field components from the
magnetic vector potential for a half wave dipole antenna.(Nov 2007)
14.Describe the structure and operation principle of Yagi-Uda array in detail. (10)
15.Write short notes on polarization mismatch. (6)
16. Discuss in detail about the radiation from an oscillating dipole with the required
expressions and diagrams. (16)
17. (i).Explain the structure of a folded dipole antenna. Also find the radiation resistance
and the admittance of the folded dipole. (10)
(ii). Relate the surrounding temperature factors associated with the surroundings to the
antenna temperature through proper explanation and expression. (6)
18. Demonstrate all the types of baluns used in antennas. (12)
UNIT II
PART- A
1. What is antenna array?
2. Define uniform array.
3. Differentiate the Broad side array and end fire array.(Nov 2006)
4. Define array factor. (Nov 2007)
5. State the expression for array factor of an N-element array.
6.What is its significance in pattern multiplication(May 2007)
7. Write the principle of pattern multiplication? (Nov 2007/May 2007/Nov 2010))
8. Using the principle of pattern multiplication , sketch the horizontal pattern of four
vertical antennas placed on half wavelength apart and fed with equal currents ,but 180º
phasing between adjacent elements. (Nov 2006)
9. What is meant by broadside array and end fire array? (Nov 2007)
10. Write down the expressions for BWFN for both broadside and end fire array.
11. Write down the expressions for minor lobe maxima and minima for both broadside
and end fire array
12. Calculate the directivity of a given linear end fire uniform array of 10 elements with
a separation of λ/4 Between the elements.(May 2009)
13. Classify antenna arrays.
14. Interpret meaning of linear array and point source
15. A uniform linear array contains 50 isotropic radiation with an inter element spacing
of λ/2. Invent the directivity of broadside form of arrays.
16. A linear end fire, uniform array of 10 elements has a separation of λ/4 between
elements. Invent the directivity of array
17. What is adaptive array?
18. Show the pattern of 2 point sources separated by λ/2.
19. Give the figure for field patterns of broad side and end fire antenna arrays.
20. Illustrate the meaning and need for the binomial array?
PART – B
1. (i) Show the expression for the field produced by linear array and deduces it for an end
fire array. (10)
(ii) Compare the characteristics of broad side and end fire array. (6)
2. (i) Illustrate about the method of pattern multiplication. (6)
(ii) Solve the expression for directions of pattern minima, pattern maxima, BWFN due to
broad side array. (10)
3. (i) Examine the expression for array factor of a linear array with uniform amplitude
and spacing between elements. Explain the significance of array factor. (10)
4. (i) Quote and derive the expression for field pattern of broad side array of N point
sources. (8)
(ii)A linear broadside array consists of 4 equal isotropic in-phase point sources with λ/3
spacing. Identify the directivity and beamwidth. (8)
5. Discuss the radiation mechanisms of broad side antenna array and End fire antenna
array with neat sketches. (8)
6. Discuss and derive the expressions for directivity of the following N element linear
array antennas. (i) Broad side array (ii) End fire array (iii) Phased array. (16)
9. (i) Explain the working principle of phased array antenna with neat diagram (8)
(ii) Explain the radiation mechanisms of binomial array with neat sketches and derive the
expression for array factor. (8)
10. Expression for linear array with N isotropic point sources having equal amplitude and
spacing with the radiation pattern for a Broad side case. (16)
11. Expression for linear array with N isotropic point sources having equal amplitude and
spacing with the radiation pattern for a End fire case. (16)
12. Explain the concept of phased array with adaptive array. (8)
13. Describe the synthesis of binomial Array. (8)
14 Obtain the expression for the field and the radiation pattern produced by a 2 element
array with distance of separation λ/2 and currents of equal magnitude and phase shift
180° (May 2009/Nov 2007)
15 For an array of n isotropic point sources radiating in broad side direction derive and
obtain the maxima and minima directions for major and minor lobes. Sketch the pattern.
(Nov 2007)
16.Derive the expression for electric field of a end fire array of n sources and also find
the maximum direction, minimum direction and half power point direction
17. Derive the expression maxima direction ,minima direction and half power point
direction for an array of two point sources with equal amplitude and phase(Broad side
array).(Nov 2007/May 2007)
18. For an array of two isotropic point sources , fed with currents of same magnitude but
in phase quadrature, determine the radiation pattern. Evaluate the null directions and
directions of maxima and draw the radiation pattern(May 2007)
UNIT III
APERTURE ANTENNAS
PART – A
1. State uniqueness theorem
2. State Huygens Principle. (May 2009)
3. What is Slot Antenna?
4. What is the relationship between the terminal impedance of slot and dipole antenna?
5. What is the difference between slot antenna and its complementary dipole antenna?
6. What do you meant by sectoral horn? (May 2009/Nov 2004)
7. What do you meant by pyramidal horn?
8. What are the various feeds used in reflectors?
9. What are the different types of horn antennas?
10. What are the different method of feeding of slot antennas? (May 2007)
11. What are the applications of slot radiators? (Nov 2007)
12. A parabolic reflector antenna is designed for operation at 300 MHz. Its largest
dimension is 20 feet. For the measurement of radiation pattern , what should be the
minimum distance between the primary and secondary antenna. (Nov 2007)
13. Draw the structural diagram of the E- plane and H – plane sectoral horn.
14. Difference between E – plane and H – plane Horn.
15. What is the difference between corner and parabolic reflector antenna.(May 2010)
16. Write briefly about cassegrain feedsystem for the reflector antennas.
17. State Field equivalence principle. (May 2007)
18.Describe the features of the pyramidal horn antenna.
19. Give the applications of microstrip antenna
20. State Babinet’s principle
21. The aperture dimensions of a pyramidal horn are 12 X 6 cm, operating at a frequency
of 10GHz. Generate the beam width and directivity for the given specifications.
22. Mention the types of feeding structures used for a microstrip patch.
23. Illustrate the basic concept of reflector antenna.
24. At 2.7GHz, the increase in antenna temperature from Cygnus A with a 20m dish
antenna is 51k. Solve the aperture efficiency of the antenna?
25. What is aperture blockage?
26. Explain how the aperture blockage can be prevented in reflector antenna.
27. Point out the limitations of a microstrip patch antenna.
28. Illustrate any four Numerical tools & their features for antenna analysis.
29. Solve the diameter of aperture of a parabolic antenna to produce a null beam width of
10o at 3GHz.
PART B
1. Derive the radiation from a rectangular aperture treated as an array of huygen’s
sources.
2.(a)Describe the parabolic reflector antenna used at microwave frequencies.(Nov 2007)
(b) Describe the cassegrain feed method of feeding at parabolic reflector.(May 2009)
3. A pyramidal horn antenna has an aperture of 20 cm x15 cm . Assuming the field
distribution to be uniform over the aperture. Estimate the maximum directivity 7 the
beamwidth of the antenna.
4. Explain the different feeding methods of slot antenna.(May 2009)
5. What are the different types of horn structures? Draw the radiation pattern of horn
antenna and hence describe the radiation mechanism with neat diagram. (16)
6. (i) Analyze the different types of feed used in a reflector antenna. Also explain the
principle of reflector antenna. (8)
(ii)Examine the salient features of flat and corner reflector antennas.(8)
7. With necessary sketches, explain in detail the radiation mechanism of a microstrip
patch antenna. (16)
8. Sketch a neat diagram and explain the principle of parabolic reflector antenna and
various types of feed used. (16)
9. In detail, develop the various methods of feeding a slot antenna.(8)
10. (i) List out the numerical techniques useful for the analysis of antenna Explain one of
them in detail. (6)
(ii)A pyramidal horn antenna having aperture dimensions of a = 5.2cm and b = 3.8 cm is
used at a frequency of 10GHz. Calculate its gain and HPBW. (10)
11. (i)Summarize various feeding techniques for the rectangular patch antenna with neat
diagrams. (10)
(ii) Find the diameter of the reflector antenna that has a 0.5 degHPBW at a frequency of
8.2 GHz. Assume an efficiency constant =0.6. Calculate the antenna gain and effective
aperture. (6)
UNIT IV
PART A
1. What is axial ratio of a helical antenna?
2. What is the pitch angle in helical antenna and how it is calculated? (Nov 2007)
3.What are advantages of helical antenna?
4. List out the applications helical antenna
5.Draw the structure of 3-elements yagi-uda antenna and give the dimensions and spacing
between the elements in terms of wavelength? (Nov 2007) (May 2007)
6. What are the applications of log periodic antenna? Give the expressions for design
ratio, spacing factor and frequency ratio, of log periodic antenna?
7.What are the three different regions in log periodic antenna ?
8. What is frequency independent antenna?Give example.(May 2010)
What is LPDA?
9.In a log periodic array, write the relationship between average characteristic impedance
of the elements and length to diameter of nth element.(Nov 2010)
10 . Explain why frequency independent antennas are called so?
11. Infer the applications of log periodic antenna?
12. Recommend the expressions for design ratio, spacing factor and frequency ratio of
log periodic antenna?
13. Classify reconfigurable antenna by considering the properties of a base design.
14. How active antennas are wide interest for industrial applications?
15. Formulate the types of antenna measurements?
16. Select the requirements and types of anechoic chamber
PART – B
1. Develop the condition for frequency independence, construction, analysis and
characteristics features of frequency independent antennas. (16)
2. Evaluate the planar equiangular spiral, and conical spiral antenna with neat diagram
and necessary design equations. (16)
3. What is the importance of helical antenna? Explain the construction and operation of
helical antenna with neat sketch. How does it differ from other antennas? (16)
4. With neat schematic diagram, discuss the construction, principle and operation of a log
periodic antenna. (16)
5. Describe the initial, practical considerations, reconfiguration mechanism of
reconfigurable antenna. And active antennas (16)
6 (i)How the radiation pattern and gain of an antenna are measured. support with neat
diagram (8)
(ii) Draw the neat block diagram for polarization and VSWR measurement and describe
the procedure in detail. (8)
7. Explain about the frequency independent Spiral antenna. (8)
8. Explain the construction of helical antenna with its normal and axial mode of
radiations. (16)
9.a) Explain reconfigurable antenna with dielectric antennas. (8)
b) Discuss about the measurement of radiation pattern. (8)
10) Explain about the gain measurement in antennas. (8)
b) Discuss about the polarization &VSWR measurements in antenna. (8)
11. (i) Draw the structure and explain the working principle and operation of Log-
periodic LPDA antenna .(May 2007/Nov 2006)
(ii)Design a log periodic dipole array and derive the parameters that describe the
configuration of LPDA(May 2007)
12.Explain the geometry of a log periodic antenna. How wide band operation is
possible with this antenna. Give the design equations.(Nov 2007)
13.With neat sketch explain the operation of helical antenna.(Nov 2007)
14.Explain the operation of helical antenna in normal mode and axial mode.Find the axial
ratio in both modes of operation and also the normalized for the pattern in axial mode of
operation. .(Nov 2007)
15.a..Write notes on microstrip patch antenna.
b.Writ notes on Anechoic Chamber measurement.
UNIT V
RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION
PART – A
1. Define Gyro frequency(May 2005)
2. Define the mechanism of refraction
3. Define substandard refraction.(Nov 2010)
4. What is multihop Propagation
5. What is critical frequency ? (May 2005)
6. What is the critical frequency for reflection at vertical incidence if the maximum value of
electron density is 1.24x106 cm-3? (Nov 2007)
7. State secant law
8. Define skip distance. (Nov 2007/May 2007/May 2010))
9. Define Fading
10. What are the types of fading?
11. What is duct propagation? (May 2009/Nov 2007/May 2007)
12. Define maximum usable frequency.(May 2007)
13. Define critical frequency of an ionized layer of ionosphere.
14. What are the effects of earth’s curvature on tropospheric propagation?
15. What is meant by virtual height?
16. Write the expression which relates refractive index and critical frequency.
17. State the relation between critical frequency and electron density of an ionospheric layer.
(May 2007)
18. What do you mean by sporadic E – layer.
19. What are the attenuation characteristics of ground wave propagation.
20. What is known as diversity reception? (Nov 2007)
21. Write the expression about the effective dielectric constant of the
ionospheric propagation.
22. What are the components present in space wave
23. What does the collision frequency represent?(Nov 2010)
24. Calculate the maximum usable frequency for a critical frequency 10 MHz and an angle of
incidence 45º(May 2010)
25. Find the maximum range of a tropospheric transmission for which the transmitting
antenna height is 100 feet and receiving antenna height is 50 feet. (May 2009)
PART – B
1.(i) Discuss briefly about the effect of earth’s magnetic field on
ionospheric propagation.(May 2009)
(ii) Write short notes on Diversity reception.(Nov 2007)
2. Explain in detail about the space wave propagation and derive the expression for
calculating the field strength.(May 2007)
3. Discuss about the structure of ionosphere. .(Nov 2007)
4. Derive the effective dielectric constant and refractive index of ionospheric
propagation.(May 2009/Nov 2007)
5. Explain the principle of troposcatter propagation.
6 Describe the troposphere and explain how ducts can be used for microwave
propagation.
7. What are the factors that lead to fading in ionospheric propagation .Explain the
factors in detail.
8. Explain about the effect of earth’s electrical properties on ground wave propagation.
9. Describe an experimental method of measuring the virtual height of the ionosphere.
10. How does ground wave propagation help communication at low and medium
frequencies?
11. Write short notes on (a) line of sight propagation (b)Tropospheric propagation
(c)Ground wave propagation (d)Critical frequency.(Nov 2007)
12. Explain the attenuation characteristics of ground wave propagation and calculate the
field strength.
13.Explain the mechanism of ionospheric propagation.(Nov 2007)
14.Show that the radius of curvature of wave path is a function of rate of change of
dielectric constant (or) refractive index with height in space wave propagation.(Nov 2007)
15.Explain the limitations of surface wave,space wave and ground wave propagation (Nov
2005)
16.What are the advantages of tropospheric wave propagation and sky wave
propagation(Nov 2005)
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EC6602 Antenna and Wave Propagation

Book · December 2018

Dr. Moorthi Madhavan

EC 8691-MICROPROCESSOR AND MICRO CONTROLLER NOTES View project

Telemedicine View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

PART A-SHORT ANSWERS

3. What is an ‘isotropic radiator’? (Apr/May-2005)

20. Define beam solid angle. (Nov/Dec2004)

21. Fill up the followings.

Power received within cone angle

24. Define ‘band width of an antenna’.

27. What is antenna temperature?

29. State Reciprocity theorem.

34. Calculate the Beam area of antenna with cos 2 θ pattern.

an approximate relation for

Now ΩA= HP ΦHP = (66 0) 2 = 4356 sq.deg. Or 4356 □

One square radian = 3283 sq.deg.

Beam area ΩA = 4356 / 3283 = 1.33 sr.

E ( ) = cos 2 for 0 0< <90 0

E ( ) = 0.707 at half power points & now 0.707 = cos 2

From this cos = (0.707) (1/2) and =330

PARTB- 8/16 MARKS QUESTIONS

Boundary sphere of Antenna

Antenna Field zones

Equatorial Boundary Sphere

Boundary sphere opaque (acts as

2. Derive the Friis Transmission Formula. (Nov/Dec-2004) (8)

The Gain of the transmitting Antenna is given by,

3. Explain Polarization & its types. (Apr/May-2005)(16)

Axial Ratio (AR) = E2/E1

E x = E 1 sin (ωt – βz)

Combining these two equations,

E= a x E1 sin (ωt – βz) + ay E 2 sin (ωt – βz + )

4. Explain the concept “Duality of Antennas”. (Nov/Dec-2005)(6)

Current Power S ( ,Φ)

5.a) Compare the Antenna & Transmission Line. (8)

6. Explain the Beam Area or Beam Solid Angle (ΩA). (Apr/May-2005)(8)

And Beam area ΩA = ∫∫ Pn (θ, Φ) d Ω (sr)

Where dΩ = sin θ dθ dΦ, sr.

7. Explain Poynting vector. (6)

8. Distinguish Radian from Steradian. (Nov/Dec-2004&05)(4)

Retarded vector potential; Distance point

= ImSin (ωt – βr) β =2п/ ω =2пf

Dipole is of length, coincide with z- axis and centre is at origin

ω - Radiation frequency 2 f where f is frequency in Hz

V = 1/4π Im ejω (t –S1/c) _ Im ejω (t –S2/c)

= Im ejω (t – (r-l/2 cos )) _ ejω (t – (r+l/2 cos ))

= Im ejω (t-r/c) e (jωlcos )/2c _ e (-jωlcos )/2c

r > >l and neglect (l/2 Cos ) 2 after rearrange

= Im ejω (t-r/c) l cos + jωl cos

= Im l cos ejω (t-r/c) 1 + r

= Im l cos ejω (t-r/c) c + 1 (take out c)

V = Im l cos ejω (t-r/c) 1 + c volts.

Determination of Electric field components [Er, E θ, E φ]:

We know Az = 0 Im l ejω (t- r/c)

Now the electric field equation becomes

∂v/∂r = Im l cos ∂/∂ r ( ejω (t-r/c)) 1 + c

= Im l cos 1 + c ejω (t-r/c) -jω + ejω (t-r/c) - 1 – 2c

-1/r (∂v/∂ ) = - Im l ejω (t-r/c) 1+ c (- Sin )

= Im l sin ejω (t-r/c) 1 + c

-jωA = -jω (-AzSin ) = + jωAzSin