UNIT I (P1)

ANTENNA FUNDAMENTALS
1. Introduction

Fig 1: Antenna as a matching device between free space & wave launching system

 The electric charges are the sources of the electro-magnetic (EM) fields.

 When these electric charges are time varying, the EM waves propagates away from the
sources & the radiation takes place.

 In general, the radiation can be considered as a process of transmitting energy.

 The radiation of EM wave into the space is effectively achieved by using a conducting (or)
dielectric structure called antennas (or radiators).

 NB: an Antenna can be defined in number of ways:

 A Metallic Device used for radiating / receiving radio (EM) waves is called antenna.

 The System used for launching the EM waves is either transmission line (or) Waveguide.
Types of Antennas

Fig 2: Typical Antennas

 From Fig 2 some important types of Antennas are: Wire Antennas (Ex: Dipole, Loop &
Helical antennas), Traveling Wave Antennas (Ex: Rhombic, V & Dielectric antennas), Slot &
 Aperture Antennas (Ex: Parabolic Reflector & Horn antennas), Integrated Circuit type
Antennas (Ex: Micro-Strip Patch &Co-Planer Strip Horn).

 Dipole Antenna: The most commonly used Antenna is the Dipole antenna. It is made up of
two straight wires (or) conductors lying along the same axis.

 Loop Antenna: It consists of a single turn (or) many turns of Wire forming a Loop. It is
generally excited by a Generator directly.

 Helical Antenna: The antenna with a Wire in the form of a Helix backed by a ground plane is
called Helical Antenna.

NB: All the three Antennas are mentioned above are Wire Antennas & these are extensively
used in Air Crafts, Ships & Automobiles etc.

 Rhombic Antenna: In case of Travelling Wave Antenna (TWA), the antenna is designed in
such a way that a travelling wave in one direction is obtained. The velocity of this wave
equals the velocity of light & it excites the wave in the space in the same direction strongly.

 Travelling Wave Antenna (TWA): The TWA in which the Travelling Wave is guided by a
dielectric is called Dielectric Antenna. The TWAs are useful for Broad-band Signals.

 Horn Antenna: In general, a field across an aperture excites radiation in space. If an aperture
is small, then it must be resonant to excite to large amount of power. But if an aperture is
large, then it need not be resonant.

 Parabolic Reflector: For Microwave radiation, Parabolic Reflectors are most commonly used.
These are based on the principle of, “the EM waves are reflected by a conducting sheet”. The
dish of the Parabolic Reflector acts as a mirror. The Dish reflects the radiation from a Dipole
(or) Horn placed at the focal point & hence the parallel beams are resulted.

 Micro-strip Patch Antenna: The Antenna to be used with Microwave Integrated circuit may
be placed on a dielectric substrate.

 Co-Planer Strip Horn: The Fig 2(i) shows a Horn type Antenna used with an Integrated
circuit.
2. Radiation Mechanism

2.1 Single Wire

Fig 1: Radiation form of Single Wire

 It is a fundamental Single Wire Antenna

 Then by the principle of radiation, there must be a time varying current

 or a Single Wire Antenna:

 If charge is stationary, then no current is developed, so no radiation is observed.

 If charge is moving with uniform velocity, then;

 No radiation for straight wire, which is ∞ extent

 Possible radiation, if wire is curved, bent, discontinuous, terminated (or) truncated

2.2 Two Wires

Fig 2: Radiation form of Two Wire Antenna

 Consider an Antenna driven by a transmission line with a voltage source as shown in Fig
2(a).

 When the source is applied, the charge (or electrons) movement occurs. Due to the charge
movement, current is produced & it produces magnetic field intensity.

 The Electric Field lines travel from +ve to − ve charges, while the Magnetic Field lines
form closed loops encircling current carrying conductors. The charge distribution is due to
Electric Field lines.

NB: If the voltage source applied between the two conductors is sinusoidal, then the electric
field existed between the two conductors is also sinusoidal.

3. Isotropic Radiator

 In general Isotropic Radiator is a Hypothetical (or) Fictitious Radiator.

 The Isotropic Radiator (or Source or Antenna) radiates energy in all directions uniformly.

 As it radiates uniformly in all directions, it is also called Omni directional Radiator (or)
Unipole.

 Basically Isotropic radiator is a lossless ideal radiator.

 Practically all Antennas show directional properties (i.e., Directivity property). That means
none of the Antennas radiates energy in all directions uniformly. Hence practically Isotropic
radiator cannot exist.

 Consider that an Isotropic radiator is placed at the centre of sphere of radius r . Then all the
Power radiated by the Isotropic Radiator passes over the surface area of the sphere given
by 4πr 2 .

 Then at any point on the surface, the Poynting Vector 𝐏 gives the Power radiated per unit
area in any direction. But the radiated power travels in the radial direction. Thus the
magnitude of Poynting Vector 𝐏 will be equal to radial component.I.e.,

𝐏 = Pr − − − (1)

 Therefore, the total power radiated is given by,

Prad = 𝐏. ds = Pr ds

 Now the radial component Pr is the average power density component, which can be
denoted as Pavg .

∴ Prad = Pavg ∙ 4πr 2

Prad W
∴ Pavg = − − − (2)
4πr 2 m2

Where, Prad = total power radiated in Watts

Pavg = radial component of average power density in W
m2

r = radius of sphere in meters

4. Basic Antenna Parameters

 All the Antennas are having certain fundamental properties:

1. Radiation Pattern

 Field Radiation Pattern

 Power Radiation Pattern
2. Radiation Intensity

3. Directive Gain & Directivity

4. Power Gain

5. Beam-Width

6. Band-Width

Fig 1: Antenna Fundamentals

 Consider a transmitting Antenna which launches a guided wave via transmission line to free
space as shown in Fig 1.

 Hence the Antenna acts as terminal resistance to the transmission line, which is commonly
called Radiation Resistance denoted byR rad .

 Basically Radiation Resistance is not an actual resistance, but it is the resistance interfaced
from Antenna with its surrounding at the terminals.

 The transmitting Antenna radiates power in the free space which is absorbed by various
objects like Tree, Building, Hill, Ground & also other Antennas.

 Thus any Antenna is characterized by its Radiation Pattern. It is nothing but the graphical
representation of Antenna Radiation represented as a direction.
 The receiving Antenna receives two types of Radiations namely:

 Active Radiations from other Antennas

 Passive radiations which are the reflections from the distinct Objects

 These radiations increases the Antenna temperature TA of the Radiation Resistance

 Thus Radiation Resistance & Antenna Temperature is important parameters, which are
both single valued scalar quantities. But the radiation pattern is 3-D quantity which is
represented as a function of spherical co-ordinates asθ &ϕboth.

 Let us discuss these basic parameters one by one.

5. Radiation Pattern

 Practically any Antenna cannot radiate energy with same strength uniformly in all
directions (i.e., the radiation is large in one direction, while zero (or) minimum in other
directions).

 The Radiation from the Antenna in any direction is measured in terms of field strength at a
point located at a particular distance from an Antenna.

 The field strength can be calculated by measuring voltages at two points & then divide the
distance between two points. Hence the unit of radiation pattern is Volt per meter.

 The radiation pattern of an antenna is the important characteristic of antenna, because it

indicates the distribution of the energy radiated by the antenna in the space.

 In general, the radiation pattern is a 3D graph.

 There are two basic Radiation Patterns:

 Field Radiation Pattern.

 Power Radiation Pattern (or) simply Power Pattern.

5.1 Field Radiation Pattern

Fig 1: Three Dimensional representation of Field Radiation Pattern of an Antenna

 In general the complete Field Radiation Pattern is a 3-D pattern. It requires 3-D

representation to represent the radiation for all angles of θ &ϕ .

 From Fig 1: rindicates the distance from Antenna located at origin to the distant

pointP . The Field intensity at point Pis inversely proportional to the distance r .

 Also it is clear that, the Field Pattern consists main lobe inzdirection, where θ = 0(which

represents maximumϕradiation in that direction).

 The minor lobes (or side lobes) & nulls between different lobes indicating minimum & zero

radiation respectively.

 The Pattern consists a small lobe exactly opposite to the Main Lobe is called Back Lobe.

 The Field Radiation Pattern can be completely described w.r.to the Field Intensity &

Polarization using following three important factors:

 𝐄𝛉 𝛉, 𝛟 : The θcomponent of the Electric Field as a function of anglesθ &ϕexpressed in

Volts/meter.
  𝐄𝛟 𝛉, 𝛟 : The ϕcomponent of the Electric Field as a function of anglesθ & ϕexpressed in
Volts/meter.

 𝛅𝛉 𝛉, 𝛟 or 𝛅𝛟 𝛉, 𝛟 : The Phase angles of both the Field components (expressed

either in degrees or radian).

 In general, the Field Pattern is expressed mathematically in terms of relative Field Pattern

(or) normalized Field Pattern.

 The normalized field pattern is defined as the ratio of the field component to its maximum

value.

 The normalized Field Pattern is a dimensionless quantity with maximum value equal to one

(or Unity).

 Thus normalized Field Pattern forθ &ϕcomponents of the Electric Field are given as

follows:

𝐄𝛉 𝛉, 𝛟
𝐄𝛉𝐧 𝛉, 𝛟 = − − − (1)
𝐄𝛉 𝛉, 𝛟 𝐦𝐚𝐱

𝐄𝛟 𝛉, 𝛟
𝐄𝛟𝐧 𝛉, 𝛟 = − − − (2)
𝐄𝛟 𝛉, 𝛟 𝐦𝐚𝐱

 As the 3-D Pattern cannot be plotted in Plane, then 3-D representation is avoided. Hence the

Polar Plots considered in this aspect:

 When the Magnitude of the normalized Field Strength is plotted Eθ n θ, ϕ Vs θ with

constant ϕ, then the Pattern is called E –plane Pattern (or vertical Pattern) as:

𝐄𝛉𝐧 𝛉, 𝛟 𝐕𝐬 𝛉
𝛟 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭

NB: The E-plane Pattern for the Hertzian dipole is shown in Fig 2(a)

 Similarly the H –plane Pattern (or Horizontal Pattern) as:

𝐄𝛉𝐧 𝛉, 𝛟 𝐕𝐬 𝛟
𝛉 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
 Fig 2: E-plane Pattern & H-plane Pattern for the Hertzian Dipole

Fig 2: Field Pattern of Half & One Wave Length Dipoles

 The E-plane & H-plane Pattern for the Hertzian dipole is shown in Fig 2(a & b).

 Similarly, the Radiation Pattern for a half & one Wavelength long Vertical Dipole are shown
Fig 3 (a&b).
1
 The Field Radiation Pattern for the 1 & 2 Wavelength long Vertical Dipoles are shown Fig
2

4(a) & (b).

𝟏
Fig 4: Field Radiation Pattern for the𝟏 & 2Wavelength Vertical Dipoles
𝟐
5.2 Power Radiation Pattern

 When the Radiation in a given direction is expressed in terms of Power per Unit Solid angle,
then the Pattern is called Power radiation Pattern.

 Consider a Spherical Surface with radiusrcentered at the point source representing the
Antenna. At a point on this surface, the radiated Power flows radially outwards.

 The corresponding Electric & Magnetic Fields are normal to this direction & are also
mutually perpendicular with,

E
H = 120π ; Free space

 The Power density Pd θ, ϕ is defined as Power flow per Unit Area & is a function of the
direction θ, ϕ .

 The Power density can be expressed in terms of the Magnitude of the Electric Field
Intensity as,
𝟐
𝟏 𝐄 𝛉, 𝛟 𝐖
𝐏𝐝 𝛉, 𝛟 = − − − (3)
𝟐 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝛑 𝐦𝟐

 The direction in which E θ, ϕ is maximum, then the Power Density Pd θ, ϕ is also

maximum in that direction & it is denoted by Pd θ, ϕ max .

 Now similar to the Field Radiation Pattern, the Power Radiation Pattern represented in
terms of its normalized value denoted as Pdn θ, ϕ & is given by,

𝐏𝐝 𝛉, 𝛟 𝐄 𝛉, 𝛟 𝟐
𝐏𝐝𝐧 𝛉, 𝛟 = = 𝟐
= 𝐟𝐧𝟐 𝛉, 𝛟 … . (4)
𝐏𝐝 𝛉, 𝛟 𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝐄 𝛉, 𝛟 𝐦𝐚𝐱

 For Ex: If the Field Radiation Pattern is given by, f θ, ϕ = sinθ , then the Power Radiation
Pattern is given by,Pd θ, ϕ = f 2 θ, ϕ = sin2 θ .
6. Radian & Steradian

Fig 1: Representation of 1radian Plane Angle

Fig 2: Representation of 1Sr Solid Angle

 The basic difference between radian and steradian is that the; radian is the measure of a
Plane Angle, while steradian is the measure of a Solid Angle.

 One radian is defined as the plane angle with its vertex at the centre of a circle with the
radius r that is subtended by an arc whose length is also r . It is represented as unit radian.

 From Fig 1: The total circumferenceCof a circle with radius r is given by, C = 2πr .

 Thus over a complete circle, there are 2πradian.

 In the similar way: The steradian (or) Square radian is the SI unit of solid angle. It is used in
3D geometry.

 From Fig 2: the area of a complete sphere with radius 𝑟 is given by,

𝐀 = 𝟒𝛑𝐫 𝟐 − − − (1)

 Thus over a closed sphere with radiusr , the solid angle subtended by it is 4π steradian.

𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐢𝐝 𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐒𝐩𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞 (dΩ)

∴ We can write ∶ 𝟏 𝐬𝐫 = … . (2)
𝟒𝛑
𝟐
𝟐
𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝟐
⇨ 𝟏 𝐬𝐫 = 𝟏𝐫𝐚𝐝 = 𝐝𝐞𝐠 = 𝟑𝟐𝟖𝟐. 𝟖𝟏 𝐬𝐪. 𝐝𝐞𝐠 … (3)
𝛑
 Generally in the antenna pattern, the beam area ΩA or beam solid angle (dΩ) is expressed
in steradian.
 The beam area ΩA is defined as, the integral of normalized power pattern over a sphere.
I.e.,
2π π
ΩA = Pdn θ, ϕ sinθ dθ dϕ
ϕ=0 θ=0

𝟐𝛑 𝛑
(𝐨𝐫) 𝛀𝐀 = 𝐏𝐝𝐧 𝛉, 𝛟 𝐝𝛀 𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐚𝐧 − − − (4)
𝛟=𝟎 𝛉=𝟎

Fig 3: Representation of equivalent solid angle

 Many times, the beam areaΩA is described in terms of the angles subtended by half power
points of the Main Lobe as shown in Fig 3.

 Thus, the Beam Area can be written as,

𝐁𝐞𝐚𝐦 𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚 = 𝛀𝐀 ≅ 𝛉𝐇𝐏 ∙ 𝛟𝐇𝐏 𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐚𝐧 − − − (5)

7. Radiation Intensity

 The Radiation Intensity of an antenna is defined as power per unit solid angle & it is
denoted by U θ, ϕ . It is expressed inW Sr (watts/steradian). I.e.,

𝐔 𝛉, 𝛟 = 𝐫 𝟐 ∙ 𝐏𝐝 𝛉, 𝛟
 𝐍𝐁: Pd θ, ϕ = Power Radiation of a Plane Angle

&U θ, ϕ = Power Radiation of a Solid Angle

 Then the total power radiated can be expressed in terms of the radiation intensity as,

Prad = Pd θ, ϕ ds = Pd θ, ϕ r 2 sinθ dθ dϕ
s s

 Let dΩ = sinθ dθ dϕ be the differential Solid angle in steradian. Then we can write,

𝟐𝛑 𝛑
𝐏𝐫𝐚𝐝 = 𝐔 𝛉, 𝛟 𝐝𝛀
𝛟=𝟎 𝛉=𝟎

 Thus the radiation intensity U θ, ϕ is expressed in W Sr & it is defined as time average

power per unit solid angle. The average value of the radiation intensity is given by,

 Using radiation intensity U θ, ϕ , we can also calculate normalized power pattern as :

𝐔 𝛉, 𝛟
𝐏𝐝𝐧 𝛉, 𝛟 = − − − (6)
𝐔 𝛉, 𝛟 𝐦𝐚𝐱

7. Directive Gain & Directivity

 An isotropic antenna is the Omni-Directional antenna.

 If the antenna were Isotropic i.e., it radiates uniformly in all directions, then the power
density at all the points on the surface of the sphere will be same.

 Therefore, the average power can be expressed in terms of the radiated power as,

𝐏𝐫𝐚𝐝 𝐖𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐬
𝐏𝐚𝐯𝐠 =
𝟒𝛑𝐫 𝟐 𝐦𝟐

 The directive gain is defined as the ratio of the power densityPd θ, ϕ to the average power

radiatedPavg .

 For Isotropic antenna, the value of the Directive Gain is unity. I.e.,
 Pd θ, ϕ Pd θ, ϕ ∙ r 2
GD θ, ϕ = =
Pavg P rad
4π

 The numerator in the above equation is the Radiation Intensity, while the denominator is
the average value of the Radiation Intensity. Hence the Directive Gain can be written as,

𝐔 𝛉, 𝛟 𝟒𝛑 𝐔 𝛉, 𝛟
𝐆𝐃 𝛉, 𝛟 = =
𝐔𝐚𝐯𝐠 𝐏𝐫𝐚𝐝
 Thus the Directive Gain can be defined as a measure of the concentration of the radiated
power in a particular direction θ, ϕ .

 The ratio of the maximum power density to the average power radiated is called maximum
Directive Gain (or) Directivity of the antenna. It is denoted by GDmax or D .

 The directivity can alternatively defined as,

𝐔𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝟒𝛑 𝐔𝐦𝐚𝐱
𝐃 = 𝐆𝐃𝐦𝐚𝐱 = =
𝐔𝐚𝐯𝐠 𝐏𝐫𝐚𝐝

9. Power Gain & Radiation Efficiency or Antenna Efficiency

 The practical antenna is made up of a conductor having finite conductivity. Hence we must
consider the Ohmic Power Loss of the antenna.

 If the practical antenna has Ohmic losses I 2 R represented by Ploss , then the power
radiated Prad is less than the input power Pin . Therefore, we can express the Prad in terms of
the Pin as,
𝐏𝐫𝐚𝐝 = 𝛈𝐫 ∙ 𝐏𝐢𝐧

Prad
Where,ηr = Pin = Radiation efficiency of an antenna

 But the total input power to the antenna can be written as,
𝐏𝐢𝐧 = 𝐏𝐫𝐚𝐝 + 𝐏𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬

 Hence the Radiation Efficiency can be written as,

 𝐏𝐫𝐚𝐝 𝐏𝐫𝐚𝐝
𝛈𝐫 = = − − − (1)
𝐏𝐢𝐧 𝐏𝐫𝐚𝐝 + 𝐏𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬

 The Power Radiated & the Ohmic Power Loss can be expressed in terms of r.m.s current as,
𝟐 𝟐
𝐏𝐫𝐚𝐝 = 𝐈𝐫𝐦𝐬 ∙ 𝐑 𝐫𝐚𝐝 & 𝐏𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬 = 𝐈𝐫𝐦𝐬 ∙ 𝐑 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬

 Hence the Radiation Efficiency can be written as,

𝐑 𝐫𝐚𝐝
𝛈𝐫 = − − − (2)
𝐑 𝐫𝐚𝐝 + 𝐑 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬

 The ratio of the Power Radiated in a particular direction θ, ϕ to the actual Power i/p to the
antenna is called Power Gain of the antenna. The power gain of the antenna is denoted by
GP θ, ϕ & is given by,

𝐏𝐝 𝛉, 𝛟
𝐆𝐏 𝛉, 𝛟 =
𝐏𝐢𝐧
 The maximum power gain can be defined as the ratio of the maximum radiation intensity to
the radiation intensity due to Isotropic lossless antenna. i.e.,

maximum radiation intensity

GP max =
rad. intensity due to Isotropic loss less antenna

𝐔𝐦𝐚𝐱
∴ 𝐆𝐏𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝐏𝐫𝐚𝐝
− − − (3)
𝟒𝛑

 But the maximum radiation intensity is given by,

𝐏𝐫𝐚𝐝 𝛈𝐫 𝐏𝐢𝐧
𝐔𝐦𝐚𝐱 = ∙ 𝐆𝐃𝐦𝐚𝐱 = ∙ 𝐆𝐃𝐦𝐚𝐱 − − − (4)
𝟒𝛑 𝟒𝛑
 Equation (4) in (3) gives,

∴ 𝐆𝐏𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝛈𝐫 ∙ 𝐃 − − − (5)

 For many practical antennas, the radiation efficiencyηr is 100%. Then the maximum power
gain is approximately same as the directivity (D) or the maximum directional gain of the
antenna.

 Generally, both power gain & the directional gain are expressed in decibels (dB).
12. Front to Back Ratio

 It is the ratio of the power radiated in the desired direction to the power radiated in the
opposite direction.

𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐝𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐝𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

∴ 𝐅𝐁𝐑 =
𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐨𝐩𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐞 𝐝𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

 Generally, the FBR value desired is very high as it is expected to have large radiation in the
front (or) desired direction rather than that in the back (or) opposite direction.

 The FBR depends on frequency of operation. So when frequency of antenna changes, the
FBR also changes.

 Similarly the FBR depends on the spacing between the antenna elements (i.e., if the spacing
between the antenna elements increases, then the FBR decreases).

 The FBR also depends on the electrical length of the Parasitic (or Feeding) Elements of the
antenna.

 The method of adjusting the electrical length of the Parasitic Element is called tuning. Thus
higher FBR is obtained at the cost of gain from the opposite direction.

 Practically, the FBR is important in case of the receiving antennas rather than transmitting
antennas.

13. Antenna Beam-Width

(a) Antenna Power Pattern in Polar Co-ordinates

 (b) Antenna Power Pattern in Rectangular Co-ordinates & logarithmic scale
Fig 1: Measurement of Antenna Beam-width

 Basically an antenna Beam-width is the measure of the directivity of the antenna.

 The antenna Beam-width is an angular width in degrees. It is measured on a radiation

pattern on Major Lobe, where the radiated power decreases to half of its maximum value.

 Hence this beam-width is also known as HPBW. The measurement of the antenna Beam-
width is shown in Fig 1(a) & (b).

 In the Fig 1(a): antenna Power Pattern is represented on linear scale in polar co-ordinates.

 In the Fig 1(b):the same pattern is represented on logarithmic scale in rectangular co-
ordinates.

 The Beam-Width is also called 3dB Beam-Width. I.e., shown in Fig 1(b)

 The directivity (D) of the antenna is related with beam solid angle ΩA or Beam-area (B)
through expression.
𝟒𝛑 𝟒𝛑
𝐃 = = − − − (1)
𝛀𝐀 𝐁
Where, B = Beam Area. I. e. ,

B = HPBW in Vertical Plane × HPBW in Horizontal Plane

or B = θE × θH ; Where, θE &θH in radians

𝟒𝛑
𝐃 = − − − (2) ; if θE &θH are in radians
𝛉𝐄 ∙ 𝛉𝐇

 Converting angles expressed in radians into degrees as,

1 rad = 57.30
𝟐
𝟒𝛑 𝟓𝟕. 𝟑 𝟒𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟕
Hence; 𝐃 = = − − − (3)
𝛉𝐄 𝐨 ∙ 𝛉𝐇 𝟎 𝛉𝐄 𝐨 ∙ 𝛉𝐇 𝟎
14. Antenna Beam-Efficiency

 The quality of the transmitting & receiving antennas is achieved by the antenna Beam-
efficiency parameter

 The beam-efficiency is defined as,

𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐓𝐱𝐦𝐢𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐨𝐫 𝐑𝐱𝐯𝐝 𝐰𝐢𝐭𝐡𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝛉𝟏

𝐁𝐄 = … (1)
𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐓𝐱𝐦𝐢𝐭𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐨𝐫 𝐑𝐱𝐯𝐞𝐝 𝐛𝐲 𝐀𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐧𝐚
Where, θ1 = Half angle of the cone within which the percentage of oftotal Power is found

 Mathematically the Beam-efficiency is given by,

𝟐𝛑 𝛑
𝐔
𝛟=𝟎 𝛉=𝟎 𝐌
𝛉, 𝛟 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉 𝐝𝛉 𝐝𝛟
𝐁𝐄 = 𝟐𝛑 𝛑
− − − (2)
𝐔
𝛟=𝟎 𝛉=𝟎 𝐀
𝛉, 𝛟 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉 𝐝𝛉 𝐝𝛟

 The Beam-efficiency can also be expressed in terms of the main Beam-area ΩM to the total
Beam-area ΩA . It is denoted by ϵM .

𝛀𝐌
∴ 𝐁𝐄 = 𝛜𝐌 = − − − (3)
𝛀𝐀

NB: The total Beam-area ΩA is the combination of the main Beam-area ΩM & the minor lobe
area Ωm .

𝛀𝐀 = 𝛀𝐌 + 𝛀𝐦 − − − (4)

 Dividing equation (4) by ΩA on both sides, we get,

𝛀𝐌 𝛀𝐦
1= +
𝛀𝐀 𝛀𝐀
ΩM Main Beam Area
Where; = = ϵM = Beam Efficiency
ΩA Total Beam Area

Ωm minor area
& = = ϵm = Stray Factor
ΩA Total Beam Area

Thus, 𝛜𝐌 + 𝛜𝐦 = 𝟏 − − − (5)
15. Antenna Bandwidth

 In general, the performance of antenna depends on various characteristics such as antenna

gain, side lobe level, standing wave ratio (SWR), antenna impedance, radiation pattern,
antenna polarization, FBR etc…

 During the operation of antenna, these requirements may change. Thus there is no unique
definition for antenna BW. The functional BW of antenna is generally limited by one (or)
more factors mentioned above. So the antenna BW can be specified in many ways such as,

 BW over which the gain of the antenna is higher than the acceptable value (or)

 BW over which the SWR of the antenna is below acceptable value

 BW over which the FBR is maximum equal to the specified value.

 Thus, the BW can be expressed mathematically as,

𝛚𝐨
𝐁𝐚𝐧𝐝𝐰𝐢𝐝𝐭𝐡 𝐁𝐖 = ∆𝛚 = 𝛚𝟐 − 𝛚𝟏 = − − − (1)
𝐐

𝐟𝐨
⇨ ∆𝐟 = 𝐟𝟐 − 𝐟𝟏 = 𝐇𝐳 − − − (2)
𝐐

Where, fo = centre frequency (or) design frequency (or)resonant frequency

Q = quality factor of an antenna & is given by

𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐒𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐛𝐲 𝐚𝐧 𝐀𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐧𝐚

𝐐 = 𝟐𝛑 ∙ − − − (3)
𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐑𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐂𝐲𝐜𝐥𝐞

 Thus for lower Q-antennas, the antenna BW is very high and vice versa.

16. Effective Aperture (or) Effective Area

 In general, the concept of aperture considering in a receiving antenna.

 The Effective Aperture Ae is the ability of antenna to extract energy from the EM wave. It
is also called as Effective Area.

 Effective Aperture is defined as the ratio of power received in the load to the average power
density produced at the point. I.e.,
 𝟐
𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐞𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐝 𝟐 𝐈𝐫𝐦𝐬 ∙ 𝐑𝐋 𝟐
𝐀𝐞 = 𝐦 or 𝐀𝐞 = 𝐦 − − − (1)
𝐏𝐝𝐚𝐯𝐠 𝐏𝐝𝐚𝐯𝐠

Where, PR = Power received by the antenna in W

Pd avg = average power density measured in W
m2

 In other words:Ae is an area, which extracts energy from the EM wave, out of the total area
of antenna. Obviously an antenna should have maximum useful area to extract energy. Thus
the maximum effective aperture is obtained when power received is maximum & it is
denoted by Aem .

 In general, antenna has certain impedance, which is made up of resistive & reactive part.

 The resistive part of the impedance is known as the radiation resistance R rad .

NB: Hence under maximum power transferred condition, the power received is maximum&
hence effective aperture is maximum.

Fig 1: Equivalent circuit of the receiving antenna

 Calculation of𝐀𝐞 : If the Hertzian Dipole is used as the receiving antenna, then it extracts
power from the incident waves & delivers it to the load, producing voltage in it.

 From the equivalent circuit of the receiving antenna is shown in Fig 1: The voltage induced
in the antenna is given by,

𝐕𝐎𝐂 = 𝐄 𝐝𝐋 − − − (2)

Where, 𝐄 = magnitude of the electric field intensity produced at the receiving point

dL = length of the Hertzian dipole.

 Then the current flowing the load is given by,
𝐕𝐎𝐂
𝐈= − − − (3)
𝐙 + 𝐙𝐋
 Substituting the values of ImpedancesZ &ZL , the current flowing can be written as,
VOC
I =
R rad + JX + R rad − JX

𝐕𝐎𝐂
∴𝐈= − − − (4)
𝟐𝐑 𝐫𝐚𝐝

 Then the power delivered to the load is given by,

V OC 2
2
2 2R rad VOC
PR = Irms ∙ R rad = ∙ R rad ⇨ PR =
2 8R rad

 Substituting the value ofVOC from equation (2), we get,

𝐄 𝟐 𝐝𝐋𝟐
𝐏𝐑 = − − − (5)
𝟖𝐑 𝐫𝐚𝐝

 Hence, the maximum effective aperture is given by,

max power rxved PR max

Aem = =
avg power density Pd avg

dL2 ∙ ηo
∴ Aem =
4R rad

 Substituting the value of R rad &ηo = 120π we get,

𝛌𝟐
𝐀𝐞𝐦 = 𝟏. 𝟓 − − − (6)
𝟒𝛑

 Above equation represents the maximum effective aperture Aem of the Hertzian dipole. But
the directivity of the Hertzian dipole is 1.5.

 Hence we can rewrite the expression for the maximum effective aperture as,
𝛌𝟐
𝐀𝐞𝐦 = 𝐆𝐃𝐦𝐚𝐱 ∙ − − − (7)
𝟒𝛑
16.1 Relationship between Directive Gain & Maximum Effective Aperture

 Consider two antennas as, antenna1 & antenna2.

 Let the directives of these two antennas be denoted by D1 & D2.

 Assume that, their maximum effective areas are denoted by (Ae1 )max &(Ae2 )max .

 As we know that, the directivity of an antenna is proportional to the maximum effective

area. Hence we can write,

𝐃𝟏 ∞ (𝐀𝐞𝟏 )𝐦𝐚𝐱 − − 1 &𝐃𝟐 ∞ (𝐀𝐞𝟐 )𝐦𝐚𝐱 − −(2)

𝐃𝟏 (𝐀𝐞𝟏 )𝐦𝐚𝐱
= − − − (3)
𝐃𝟐 (𝐀𝐞𝟐 )𝐦𝐚𝐱

 Let antenna1 be the isotropic radiator for which the directivity is unity. i.e., D 1 = 1. Hence
we can write,

𝟏 (𝐀𝐞𝟏 )𝐦𝐚𝐱
= − − − (4)
𝐃𝟐 (𝐀𝐞𝟐 )𝐦𝐚𝐱

(𝐀𝐞𝟐 )𝐦𝐚𝐱
(𝐀𝐞𝟏 )𝐦𝐚𝐱 = − − − (5)
𝐃𝟐

 Let us assume that, the antenna 2 be the test antenna which is a short dipole. The maximum
3
effective aperture Aem is λ2 & the directivity is 3/2. Hence we can write,
8π

𝛌𝟐
(𝐀𝐞𝟏 )𝐦𝐚𝐱 = − − − (6)
𝟒𝛑
 Putting the value of (Ae1 )max in the expression for D2 we get,

𝟒𝛑
𝐃𝟐 = (𝐀 ) − − − (7)
𝛌𝟐 𝐞𝟐 𝐦𝐚𝐱
 Hence in general we can write,
𝟒𝛑
𝐃 = (𝐀 ) − − − (8)
𝛌𝟐 𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐱
16.2 Different Types of Antenna Apparatus

 In receiving antenna, effective aperture Ae is very important parameter as it indicates the

ability of an antenna to extract energy from E.M waves.

 Other than the effective aperture we are having:

i. Scattering Aperture As
ii. Loss Aperture A𝑙
iii. Collecting Aperture Ac
iv. Physical Aperture Ap

i. Scattering Aperture

 Scattering aperture A𝑠 is defined as, the ratio of Power received by radiation

resistance (PR ) to the average power produced at a point P.
𝟐
𝐏𝐑 𝐈𝐫𝐦𝐬 ∙ 𝐑 𝐫𝐚𝐝 2
𝐀𝐬 = = m − − − (1)
𝐏𝐚𝐯𝐠 𝐏𝐚𝐯𝐠

 Using an equivalent circuit of an antenna

𝐕𝐀
𝐈𝐫𝐦𝐬 =
𝐑𝐋 + 𝐑𝐀 𝟐 + 𝐗𝐋 + 𝐗𝐀 𝟐

𝐕𝐀𝟐 ∙ 𝐑 𝐫𝐚𝐝
𝐀𝐬 = − − − (2)
𝐑𝐋 + 𝐑𝐀 𝟐 + 𝐗𝐋 + 𝐗𝐀 𝟐 ∙ 𝐏𝐚𝐯𝐠

 For maximum power transfer condition,R L = R A = R rad assuming R loss = 0 &XL = −XA we
get,

𝐕𝐀𝟐
𝐀𝐬 𝐦𝐚𝐱 = = 𝐀𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐱 − − − (3)
𝟒𝐑 𝐫𝐚𝐝 𝐏𝐚𝐯𝐠
 The ratio of scattering aperture of an antenna to its effective aperture is known as
scattering ratio. It is denoted by β& its value lies between 0 & ∞ . The mathematical
expression forβ is,
𝐀𝐬
𝛃= − − − (4)
𝐀𝐞

ii. Loss Aperture

 Loss aperture A𝑙 is defined as the ratio of power dissipated by the loss resistance of an
antenna to the average power at a point.
𝟐 𝟐
𝐈𝐫𝐦𝐬 ∙ 𝐑 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬 𝐈𝐫𝐦𝐬 ∙ 𝐑 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬
𝐀𝒍 = = − − − (5)
𝐏𝐚𝐯𝐠 𝐏𝐚𝐯𝐠

 Putting the value ofIrms we will the alternative expression for A𝑙 as,

𝐕𝐀𝟐 ∙ 𝐑 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬
𝐀𝐥 =
𝐑𝐋 + 𝐑𝐀 𝟐 + 𝐗𝐋 + 𝐗𝐀 𝟐 ∙ 𝐏𝐚𝐯𝐠

 But R A = R rad + R loss . Hence we get,

𝐕𝐀𝟐 ∙ 𝐑 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬
𝐀𝒍 = − − − (6)
𝐑 𝐋 + 𝐑 𝐫𝐚𝐝 + 𝐑 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬 𝟐 + 𝐗 𝐋 + 𝐗 𝐀 𝟐 ∙ 𝐏𝐚𝐯𝐠

iii. Collecting Aperture

 The collecting aperture Ac is the sum of effective aperture Ae , scatteing aperture As &
the loss aperture A𝑙 of an antenna. I.e.,

Ac = Ae + As + A𝑙

𝟐
𝐈𝐫𝐦𝐬 𝐑 𝐋 + 𝐑 𝐫𝐚𝐝 + 𝐑 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬
⇨ 𝐀𝐜 = − − − (7)
𝐏𝐚𝐯𝐠

Where, Pavg = magnitude of avg power density at a point

 Substituting the value of Irms , the alternative expression for collecting aperture Ac is given
by,
 𝐕𝐀𝟐 ∙ 𝐑 𝐋 + 𝐑 𝐫𝐚𝐝 + 𝐑 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬
𝐀𝐜 = − − − (8)
𝐑 𝐋 + 𝐑 𝐫𝐚𝐝 + 𝐑 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬 𝟐 + 𝐗 𝐋 + 𝐗 𝐀 𝟐 ∙ 𝐏𝐚𝐯𝐠

iv. Physical Aperture (𝐀𝐩 ) & Aperture Efficiency

 The physical aperture Ap is defined as the actual physical cross section of an antenna,
which is set for its maximum response.

 It is observed that, for large cross section antennas (ex: Horn & Reflector antennas) the
physical aperture is greater than their respective effective aperture. I.e.,Ap > Ae .

 When the losses are assumed to be zero, then the physical aperture & effective aperture
both are equal. I.e., Ap = Ae

Aperture efficiency

 The ratio of effective aperture to the physical aperture of an antenna is known as aperture
efficiency (or) absorption ratio & it is denoted byγ . It is a dimension less quantity & its
value lies in between0 and ∞ .

𝐀𝐞
𝛄 = 𝐀𝐩 − − − (9)

17. Effective Height

Fig 1(a) Fig 1(b)

Fig 1(a) Dipole of length l= λ/2 with Sinusoidal current distribution

Fig 1(b) Dipole of length l = 0.1λwith Triangular Current Distribution

 The effective height h (meters) of an antenna is another parameter related to the aperture.

 The effective height ( he ) may be defined as the ratio of the induced voltage to the incident
field. I.e.,

𝐕
𝐡 = mtrs − − − (1)
𝐄

 Ex: a vertical dipole of length 𝑙 = 𝜆 2immersed in an incident field E (shown in Fig 1a). If

the current distribution of the dipole were uniform, then its effective height would be l.
Therefore, the actual current distribution however is nearly sinusoidal with an average
value 2 𝜋 = 0.64 of maximum, so that it’s effective height he = 0.64l. It is assumed that,

the antenna is oriented for maximum response.

 If the same dipole is used at a longer wavelength, so that it is only 0.1λ, the current tappers
almost linearly from the central feed point to zero at the ends in the triangular distribution
(shown in Fig 1b). The average current is1 2of the maximum so that, the effective height is

0.5l.

 Thus, another way of defining effective height as,

𝐡𝐩 𝐈𝐚𝐯𝐠
𝟏
𝐡𝐞 = 𝐈(𝐳) ∙ 𝐝𝐳 = 𝐡 mtrs − − − (2)
𝐈𝟎 𝟎 𝐈𝟎 𝐩

Where, he = effective height (meters)

hp = physical height (m) &

 The effective height he is useful parameters for transmitting tower type antennas. It
also has an application for small antennas.

 The parameter effective aperture Ae has more general application to all types of antennas.
18. Reciprocity Theorem

Fig1: 4 terminal representation of the Antenna System

 Statement: In any linear & bilateral network consisting the ratio of voltage Vapplied
between any two terminals to the current I measured in any branch is same as the ratio
V to Iobtained by interchanging the positions of voltage source & the current source.

 The ratio V to I is generally called transfer Impedance.

 This theorem is equally useful in the circuit theory as well as in the field theory.

 Let us consider the antenna system is represented as 4 terminals (or 2 ports) network with
pair of terminals at input & another pair of terminals at the output.

 From Fig 1: there are four variables at two ports namely V1 , I1 , V2 &I2 . These variables are
related to each other through the equations given by,

𝐕𝟏 = 𝐙𝟏𝟏 𝐈𝟏 + 𝐙𝟏𝟐 𝐈𝟐 &𝐕𝟐 = 𝐙𝟐𝟏 𝐈𝟏 + 𝐙𝟐𝟐 𝐈𝟐

(or)
𝐈𝟏 = 𝐘𝟏𝟏 𝐕𝟏 + 𝐘𝟏𝟐 𝐕𝟐 &𝐈𝟐 = 𝐘𝟐𝟏 𝐕𝟏 + 𝐘𝟐𝟐 𝐕𝟐

 Thus accordingly to the reciprocity theorem for the linear & bilateral networks, the
conditions of the reciprocity of the network are:
′ ′
𝐙𝟏𝟐 = 𝐙𝟐𝟏 or 𝐘𝟏𝟐 = 𝐘𝟐𝟏 or 𝐙𝟐𝟏 = 𝐙𝟏𝟐

 The impedances Z12 &Z21 are called mutual impedances which are individually the ratio of
open circuit voltage at one port to the current at other port. I.e.,

𝐕𝟏 𝐕𝟐
𝐙𝟏𝟐 = or 𝐙𝟐𝟏 =
𝐈𝟐 𝐈𝟏
 SimilarlyY12 &Y21 are called transfer admittances which are individually the ratio of a short
circuited current at one port to the voltage at other port. I.e.,

𝐈𝟏 𝐈𝟐
𝐘𝟏𝟐 = or 𝐘𝟐𝟏 =
𝐕𝟐 𝐕𝟏
′ ′
 Finally the impedancesZ21 &Z12 are called transfer impedances which are individually the
ratio of an open circuit voltage at one port to a short circuit current at other port.

10. Application of Network Theorems to Antenna

 The properties of the transmitting antenna & the receiving antenna are related to each
other through various antenna theorems.

 In general, the antenna theorems are applied to analyze the properties of the transmitting
antenna.

 For these transmitting antennas, the sinusoidal current distribution is assumed.

 But in case of the receiving antennas, the current distribution is not sinusoidal & there is a
variation in the current distribution in accordance with the direction of the received field.

 This indicates that, the basic antenna properties such as directional property, impedance
property etc., are not identical for the transmitting & receiving conditions.

 Thus it is difficult to compute the properties of the receiving antennas under this condition.

 But by using antenna theorems, the properties of receiving antenna can be found by using
the properties of transmitting antenna & the appropriate receiving antenna can be chosen.
ANTENNA PARAMETERS
 CURRENT DISTRIBUTION ON A THIN WIRE ANTENNA
In order to illustrate the creation of the current distribution on a linear
dipole, and its subsequent radiation, let us first begin with the
geometry of a lossless two-wire transmission line.
The movement of the charges creates a traveling wave current, of
magnitude I0/2, along each of the wires. When the current arrives at
the end of each of the wires, it undergoes a complete reflection.
The reflected traveling wave, when combined with the incident
traveling wave, forms in each wire a pure standing wave pattern of
sinusoidal form.
Radiation from each wire individually occurs because of the time-
varying nature of the current and the termination of the wire.
For the two-wire balanced (symmetrical) transmission line, the current
in a half cycle of one wire is of the same magnitude but 180◦ out-of-
phase from that in the corresponding half-cycle of the other wire.
 CURRENT DISTRIBUTION ON A THIN WIRE ANTENNA
If in addition the spacing between the two wires is very small (s<< λ),
the fields radiated by the current of each wire are essentially cancelled
by those of the other. The net result is an almost ideal non radiating
transmission line.
As the section of the transmission line between 0 ≤ z ≤ l/2 begins to
flare, it can be assumed that the current distribution is essentially
unaltered in form in each of the wires.
However, because the two wires of the flared section are not
necessarily close to each other, the fields radiated by one do not
necessarily cancel those of the other. Therefore ideally there is a net
radiation by the transmission line system.
Ultimately the flared section of the transmission line can take the form
shown in Figure. This is the geometry of the widely used dipole
antenna.
 CURRENT DISTRIBUTION ON A THIN WIRE ANTENNA
If l < λ, the phase of the current standing wave pattern in each arm is
the same throughout its length. In addition, spatially it is oriented in
the same direction as that of the other arm.
If the diameter of each wire is very small (d << λ), the ideal standing
wave pattern of the current along the arms of the dipole is sinusoidal
with a null at the end.
CURRENT DISTRIBUTION ON A THIN WIRE ANTENNA
Current distribution on a lossless two-wire
transmission line, flared transmission line, and
linear dipole
 CURRENT DISTRIBUTION ON A THIN WIRE ANTENNA

Current distribution on linear dipoles

CURRENT DISTRIBUTION ON A THIN WIRE ANTENNA

Current distribution on a λ/2 wire antenna for different times

 ANTENNA PARAMETERS
✓ Near and far field regions
✓ Radiation Patterns- Patterns in Principal Planes
✓ Main Lobe and Side Lobes
✓ Beam width
✓ Polarization
✓ Beam Area
✓ Radiation Intensity
✓ Beam Efficiency
✓ Directivity, Gain and Resolution,
✓ Antenna Apertures
✓ Aperture Efficiency
✓ Effective Height
 NEAR AND FAR FIELD REGIONS
The space surrounding an antenna is usually subdivided into three
regions: (a) reactive near-field, (b) radiating near-field (Fresnel)
(c) far-field (Fraunhofer) regions
These regions are so designated to identify the field structure in each.
Although no abrupt changes in the field configurations are noted as
the boundaries are crossed, there are distinct differences among them.
The boundaries separating
these regions are not unique, although various criteria have been
established and are commonly used to identify the regions.
 NEAR AND FAR FIELD REGIONS
Reactive near-field region is defined as “that portion of the near-field
region immediately surrounding the antenna wherein the reactive field
predominates.”
For most antennas, the outer boundary of this region is commonly
taken to exist at a distance R  0.62 D3
 from the antenna surface, where λ is
the wavelength and D is the largest dimension of the antenna.
“For a very short dipole, or equivalent radiator, the outer boundary is
commonly taken to exist at a distance λ/2π from the antenna surface.”
Radiating near-field (Fresnel) region is defined as “that region of the
field of an antenna between the reactive near-field region and the far-field
region wherein radiation fields predominate and wherein the angular field
distribution is dependent upon the distance from the antenna
 NEAR AND FAR FIELD REGIONS
If the antenna has a maximum dimension that is not large compared
to the wavelength, this region may not exist. For an antenna focused at
infinity, the radiating near-field region is sometimes referred to as the
Fresnel region.
If the antenna has a maximum overall dimension which is very small
compared to the wavelength, this field region may not exist.” The
inner boundary is taken to be the distance R  0.62 D
3

 and the outer

boundary the distance R < 2D2/λ.
In this region the field pattern is, in general, a function of the radial
distance and the radial field component may be appreciable.
 NEAR AND FAR FIELD REGIONS
Far-field (Fraunhofer) region is defined as “that region of the field of an
antenna where the angular field distribution is essentially independent of the
distance from the antenna.
If the antenna has a maximum overall dimension D, the far-field
region is commonly taken to exist at distances greater than 2D2/λ
from the antenna.
The far-field patterns of certain antennas, such as multi beam reflector
antennas, are sensitive to variations in phase over their apertures. For these
antennas 2D2/λ may be inadequate.
In physical media, if the antenna has a maximum overall dimension,
D, which is large compared to π/|γ|, the far-field region can be taken
to begin approximately at a distance equal to |γ |D2/π from the
antenna, γ being the propagation constant in the medium.
For an antenna focused at infinity, the far-field region is sometimes referred
to as the Fraunhofer region.
 NEAR AND FAR FIELD REGIONS
In this region, the field components are essentially transverse and the
angular distribution is independent of the radial distance where the
measurements are made.
The inner boundary is taken to be the radial distance R = 2D2/λ and
the outer one at infinity.
 RADIATION PATTERN
An antenna radiation pattern or antenna pattern is defined as “a
mathematical function or a graphical representation of the radiation
properties of the antenna as a function of space coordinates.
In most cases, the radiation pattern is determined in the far field region and
is represented as a function of the directional coordinates.
Radiation properties include power flux density, radiation intensity,
field strength, directivity, phase or polarization.” The radiation
property of most concern is the two- or three dimensional spatial
distribution of radiated energy as a function of the observer’s position
along a path or surface of constant radius.
A trace of the received electric (magnetic) field at a constant radius is called
the amplitude field pattern. On the other hand, a graph of the spatial
variation of the power density along a constant radius is called an amplitude
power pattern.
 RADIATION PATTERN
For an antenna, the
a. field pattern(in linear scale) typically represents a plot of the
magnitude of the electric or magnetic field as a function of the
angular space.
b. power pattern(in linear scale) typically represents a plot of the
square of the magnitude of
the electric or magnetic field
as a function of the angular
space.
c. power pattern(in dB) represents
the magnitude of the electric or
magnetic field, in decibels, as a
function of the angular space
Two-dimensional normalized field pattern( linear scale), power pattern( linear scale),
and power pattern( in dB)
 RADIATION PATTERN
Various parts of a radiation pattern are referred to as lobes, which
may be sub classified into major or main, minor, side, and back lobes.
A radiation lobe is a “portion of the radiation pattern bounded by
regions of relatively weak radiation intensity.”
A major lobe (also called main beam) is defined as “the radiation lobe
containing the direction of maximum radiation.
In some antennas, such as split-beam antennas, there may exist more
than on e major lobe.
A minor lobe is any lobe except a major lobe. All the lobes with the
exception of the major can be classified as minor lobes.
A side lobe is “a radiation lobe in any direction other than the
intended lobe.” (Usually a side lobe is adjacent to the main lobe and
occupies the hemisphere in the direction of the main beam.)
 RADIATION PATTERN
A back lobe is “a radiation lobe whose axis makes an angle of
approximately 180◦ with respect to the beam of an antenna.” Usually it
refers to a minor lobe that occupies the hemisphere in a direction
opposite to that of the major (main) lobe.
Minor lobes usually represent radiation in undesired directions, and
they should be minimized.
Side lobes are normally the largest of the minor lobes. The level of
minor lobes is usually expressed as a ratio of the power density in the
lobe in question to that of the major lobe. This ratio is often termed the
side lobe ratio or side lobe level.
Side lobe levels of −20 dB or smaller are usually not desirable in most
applications.
(a) Radiation lobes and beam widths of an
antenna pattern.
(b) Linear plot of power pattern and its
associated lobes and beam widths.
 RADIATION PATTERN
If the radiation of the antenna is expressed in terms of field strength E, the
graphical representation is called Field Strength (radiation) Pattern.
The field radiation pattern can be described completely with respect to
the field intensity and polarization using following three important
factors :
I. Eθ(θ,Φ) →the θ-component of the electric field as a function of angles θ
and Φ. (expressed in V/m).
II. EΦ(θ,Φ)—The Φ -component of the electric field as a function of angles θ
and Φ. (expressed in V/m).
III. δθ(θ,Φ) or δΦ(θ,Φ)→ The phase angles of both the field components
(expressed either in degree or radian)
In general, the field pattern is expressed mathematically in terms of
relative field pattern which is commonly called normalized field pattern.
The normalized field pattern is defined as the ratio of the field
component to its maximum value.
 RADIATION PATTERN
Basically normalized field pattern is a dimensionless quantity with maximum
value equal to one.
These normalized field patterns for 8 and o components of the electric
field are given as follows:

It is an usual practice to find field radiation patterns for far field conditions
only.
If the radiation pattern is expressed in terms of power per unit solid angle,
then the graphical representation is called Power radiation pattern.
consider a spherical surface with radius r centered at the point source
representing the antenna. At a point on this surface, the radiated
power flows radially outwards.
The corresponding electric and magnetic fields are normal to this direction
and are also mutually perpendicular with for free space.
E
= 120 
H
 RADIATION PATTERN
The power density Pd (θ,Φ) is defined as power flow per unit area and is a
function of the direction (θ,Φ). The power density can be expressed in terms
of the magnitude of the electric field intensity as,

The direction in which E(θ,Φ) is maximum, the power density Pd (θ,Φ)

is also maximum and it is denoted by Pd(θ,Φ) max.
Now similar to the field radiation pattern, mathematically the power
radiation pattern is represented in terms of its normalized
value denoted as Pdn (θ,Φ) and is given by,
 RADIATION PATTERN
The basic difference between radian and steradian is that the radian is
the measure of a plane angle; while the steradian is the measure of a
solid angle.
One radian is defined as the plane angle with its vertex at the centre of a
circle with radius 'r' that is subtended by an arc whose length is also r. It is
represented as unit rad.
In the similar way, the measure of a solid angle is defined as steradian. One
steradian is defined as a solid angle with its vertex at the centre of the sphere
with radius r that is subtended by a spherical surface area equal to that of a
square with each side equal to r.
The angle in steradian is expressed in Sr.
The area of a complete sphere with radius
r is given by, A = 4Πr2. Thus over a
closed sphere with radius r, the solid
angle subtended by it is 4Π steradian.
 RADIATION PATTERN
The infinitesimal area dA on the surface of a sphere of radius r, is
given by
Therefore, the element of solid angle dΩ of a sphere can be written as
 RADIATION PATTERN
As the three dimensional pattern can not be plotted in a plane, three
dimensional representation is avoided.
Instead of this, the polar plots of the relative magnitude of the
field in any desired plane are sketched. These polar plots are plotted
in two planes; namely one containing the antenna and the other normal to
it. These planes are called principle planes and the two plots or patterns are
called principle plane patterns.
These patterns are obtained by plotting the magnitude of the
normalized field strengths. When the magnitude the normalized field
strength is plotted versus θ with constant Φ, the pattern is called E-
plane pattern or vertical pattern.
When the normalized field strength is plotted versus Φ for θ = 2 the pattern is
called H-plane pattern or horizontal pattern.
 BEAM WIDTH
The beamwidth of a pattern is defined as the angular separation between two
identical points on opposite side of the pattern maximum.
In an antenna pattern, there are a number of beamwidths. One of the
most widely used beamwidths is the Half-Power Beamwidth (HPBW ),
which is defined by IEEE as: “In a plane containing the direction of the
maximum of a beam, the angle between the two directions in which the
radiation intensity is one-half value of the beam.”
Another beamwidth is the angular separation between the first nulls of the
pattern, and it is referred to as the First-Null Beamwidth (FNBW).
However, in practice, the term beamwidth, with no other identification,
usually refers to HPBW.
 BEAM AREA
In the antenna pattern the beam area or beam solid angle is expressed
in steradian. It is defined as the integral of normalized power pattern over
a sphere. It is denoted by ΩA and is given by

But

Many times, the beam area ΩA is described in terms

of the angles subtended by half power points of the
main lobe as shown in the Fig.
 RADIATION INTENSITY
Radiation intensity in a given direction is defined as “the power radiated
from an antenna per unit solid angle.” The radiation intensity is a far-field
parameter, and it can be obtained by simply multiplying the radiation
density by the square of the distance. In mathematical form it is expressed
as
The radiation intensity is also related to the far-zone electric field of an
antenna, The total power radiated can be expressed in terms of the radiation
intensity as, Prad
 RADIATION INTENSITY
Thus the radiation intensity U (θ,Φ) is expressed in watts per steradian
(W/Sr) and it is defined as time average power per unit solid angle. The
average value of the radiation intensity is given by,
 BEAM EFFICIENCY
Another parameter that is frequently used to judge the quality of
transmitting and receiving antennas is the beam efficiency.
For an antenna with its major lobe directed along the z-axis (θ = 0), the
beam efficiency (BE) is defined by

where θ1 is the half-angle of the cone within which the percentage of

the total power is to be found.

If θ1 is chosen as the angle where the first null or minimum occurs,

then the beam efficiency will indicate the amount of power in the
major lobe compared to the total power.
 BEAM EFFICIENCY
Very high beam efficiency (between the nulls or minimums), usually
in the high 90s, is necessary for antennas used in radiometry,
astronomy, radar, and other applications where received signals
through the minor lobes must be minimized.
 POLARISATION
Polarization of a radiated wave is defined as that property of an
electromagnetic wave describing the time-varying direction and relative
magnitude of the electric-field vector.
The figure traced as a function of time by the extremity of the vector at a fixed
location in space, and the sense in which it is traced, as observed along the
direction of propagation.
Polarization then is the curve traced by the end point of the arrow (vector)
representing the instantaneous electric field. The field must be observed along
the direction of propagation.
Polarization may be classified as linear, circular, or elliptical. If the
vector that describes the electric field at a point in space as a function of
time is always directed along a line, the field is said to be linearly polarized.
In general, the electric field traces is an ellipse, and the field is said to be
elliptically polarized.
 POLARISATION
Linear and circular polarizations are special cases of elliptical, and
they can be obtained When the ellipse becomes a straight line or a
circle, respectively.
The figure of the electric field is traced in a clockwise (CW) or
counterclockwise (CCW) sense. Clockwise rotation of the electric-field vector
is also designated as right-hand polarization and counterclockwise as left-
hand polarization.
The polarization characteristics of an antenna can be represented by its
polarization pattern whose one definition is “the spatial distribution of the
polarizations of a field vector excited (radiated) by an antenna taken over its
radiation sphere.
POLARISATION
 DIRECTIVE GAIN AND DIRECTIVITY
An isotropic antenna is the omnidirectional antenna. The meaning of the
omnidirectional antenna is the antenna acting as a point radiator which
radiates equally in all directions. But practically an isotropic antenna
does not exist in practice.
Practically antenna does not radiate equally in all directions. If the antenna
were isotropic i.e. if it were to radiate uniformly in all directions, then
the power density at all the points on the surface of a sphere will be
same.
The average power can be expressed in terms of the radiated power
as,

The directive gain is defined as the ratio of power density Pd (θ,Φ) to the
average power radiated. For isotropic antenna, the value of the directive
gain is unity.
 DIRECTIVE GAIN AND DIRECTIVITY
The numerator in the above ratio is the radiation intensity while the
denominator is the average value of the radiation intensity. Hence the
directive gain can be written as

Thus the directive gain can be defined as a measure of the

concentration of the radiated power in a particular direction (θ,Φ).
The ratio of the maximum power density to the average power radiated is
called maximum directive gain or directivity of the antenna. It is denoted by
GD max or D.
DIRECTIVE GAIN AND DIRECTIVITY
 GAIN
Another useful measure describing the performance of an antenna is the
gain. Although the gain of the antenna is closely related to the
directivity, it is a measure that takes into account the efficiency of the
antenna as well as its directional capabilities.
Directivity is a measure that describes only the directional properties
of the antenna, and it is therefore controlled only by the pattern.
Gain of an antenna (in a given direction) is defined as “the ratio of the
intensity, in a given direction, to the radiation intensity that would be
obtained if the power accepted by the antenna were radiated
isotropically.
The radiation intensity corresponding to the isotropically radiated
power is equal to the power accepted (input) by the antenna divided
by 4π.”
 GAIN
In most cases we deal with relative gain, which is defined as “the ratio
of the power gain in a given direction to the power gain of a reference
antenna in its referenced direction.”
The power input must be the same for both antennas. The reference antenna
is usually a dipole, horn, or any other antenna whose gain can be calculated
or it is known.
In most cases, however, the reference antenna is a lossless isotropic source.
When the direction is not stated, the power gain is usually taken in the
direction of maximum radiation.

The resolution of an antenna is defined as half of the beamwidth

between first nulls. FNBW
Resolution =
2
 GAIN
But half the beamwidth between first nulls is approximately equal to
Half Power Beamwidth of an antenna. Actually in practice for an
antenna HPBW is slightly less than FNBW
2
FNBW
HPBW =
2
We Know that antenna beam area is given by the product of two half
power beamwidths in two principle planes
 FNBW   FNBW 
 A = HPHP     
 2   2 
 EFFECTIVE APERTURE
In general, the concept of aperture considering in a receiving antenna.
The Effective Aperture Ae is the ability of antenna to extract energy
from the EM wave. It is also called as Effective Area.
Effective Aperture is defined as the ratio of power received in the load to
the average power density produced at the point. i.e.,

In other words: Ae is an area, which extracts energy from the EM wave, out
of the total area of antenna. Obviously an antenna should have
maximum useful area to extract energy. Thus the maximum effective
aperture is obtained when power received is maximum & it is denoted
by Aem.
 EFFECTIVE APERTURE
In general, antenna has certain impedance, which is made up of
resistive & reactive part.
The resistive part of the impedance is known as the radiation
resistance Rrad .

Calculation of 𝐀𝐞:
If the Hertzian Dipole is used as the receiving antenna, then it extracts
power from the incident waves & delivers it to the load, producing voltage in
it.
From the equivalent circuit of the receiving antenna, The voltage induced in
the antenna is given by,
𝐄 = magnitude of the electric field intensity produced at the receiving point
dL = length of the Hertzian dipole.
 EFFECTIVE APERTURE
Then the current flowing the load is given by,

Then the power delivered to the load is given by,

Substituting the value of VOC

Substituting the value of Rrad & ηo=120π we get,

But the directivity of the Hertzian dipole is 1.5.
 Relationship between Directive Gain & Maximum Effective Aperture
Consider two antennas as, antenna1 & antenna2.
Let the directives of these two antennas be denoted by D1 & D2.
Assume that, their maximum effective areas are denoted by
(Ae1)max&(Ae2)max .
As we know that, the directivity of an antenna is proportional to the
maximum effective area. Hence we can write,

Let antenna1 be the isotropic radiator for which the directivity is

unity. i.e., D1 = 1. Hence we can write,
Relationship between Directive Gain & Maximum Effective Aperture