Antenna and

Microwave System

Unit-3
Antenna Basics
What is Communication?
Communication is the process by which information exchange between two
points, it may be sender and receiver, speaker and listener, transmitter and
receiver.

How many types of Communication?

There are two types of communication exist in whole world.

1. Wired communication
2. Wireless communication

In wired communication coaxial cables and transmission line are use to

transfer the information from one point to another points.
In wireless communication antenna is very useful device to transfer the
information from one point to another.
Need of the antenna
For establishing the wireless communication, antenna came into existence
because without antenna such type of communication could not possible.
What is antenna?

Antenna is a device to radiate or receive electromagnetic waves.

or

Antenna is a transforming device just like a transducer that

convert one form of energy into another form (it means, it
converts circuit energy into photons which is radiated in free
space at the transmitter side and at the receiver side it converts
electromagnetic photons into circuit currents or in simple terms
an antenna converts photons to currents or vice versa)
Types of antenna structure

1.Wire antenna: Straight wire antenna (dipole)

Loop antenna (Circular, Square, Rectangular)
Helical antenna

2. Aperture antenna: Pyramidal horn

Circular horn
Rectangular waveguide

3. Microstrip antenna: Circular

Rectangular
Square
Triangular and different other conducting
patch geometries
4. Antenna array: Yagi-Uda array
Aperture array
Microstrip patch array

Linear or planer arrays made up of any one of the above mentioned

radiators to achieve the desired characteristics of high gain and high
directional characteristics.

5. Reflector antenna: Parabolic reflector

Corner reflector

Parabolic reflector with horn feed or cassigrain feed is most

commonly used for satellite earth stations and also for satellite earth
stations and also for radar applications. Most common radiator at
microwave frequencies basically used in satellite communication.

6. Lens antenna: Same application as reflector antenna used at

microwave frequencies and above.
What is radiation?

The process of transmitting electromagnetic waves into a free space is

known as radiation.

How many types of field produced by the antenna?

An antenna produces two types of fields

1. Induction Field: Which remains in the vicinity of the antenna

and energy contained in it is being returned to the antenna. This
is called reactive effect.

2. Radiation Field: Which is propagated to the longer distance and

energy is transported by the field is being given to the receiving
stations.
Elements use for antenna radiation

Source Transmission Antenna Radiated free-space wave

line
Source and Conditions of Radiation from the Antenna
1. A stationary electric charge does not radiate (if a charge is not moving,
current is not created and there is no radiation)

2. If the charge is oscillating in a time motion, it radiates even if the wire is

straight.

3. Electric charge moving with uniform velocity along a straight wire and
infinite in extent do not produce any radiation.

4. Radiation produced, If the charge is accelerated, i.e., its velocity changes

with time.

5. There is a radiation, if the wire is curved, bent, discontinuous, terminated,

or truncated.

6. Charge reversing direction on reflection from the end of a wire radiates.

The shorter the pulse for a given charge, the greater the acceleration and
the greater the power radiated.
a) Static electric charge does not radiate.

b) Electric charge moving with uniform velocity along a

straight wire does not radiate.

c) However, when charge reaches end of wire and reverses

direction it undergoes accelerated and radiates. The
shorter or more compact the pulse of charge the
stronger the radiation

d) Electric charge moving at uniform velocity ‘v’ along a

curved or bent wire is accelerated and radiates.

e) Electric charge oscillating back and forth in simple

harmonic motion along a wire undergoes periodic
acceleration and radiates.
f) Discontinuous

g) Terminated

h) Truncated
Omni directional Radiator
❑ In radio communication, an omnidirectional antenna is a class
of antenna which radiates radio wave power uniformly in all directions in
one plane, with the radiated power decreasing with elevation angle above
or below the plane, dropping to zero on the antenna's axis. This radiation
pattern is often described as "doughnut shaped".

❑ Omnidirectional antennas oriented vertically are widely used for

nondirectional antennas on the surface of the earth because they radiate
equally in all horizontal directions, while the power radiated drops off
with elevation angle so little radio energy is aimed into the sky or down
toward the earth and wasted.

❑ Omnidirectional antennas are widely used for radio broadcasting

antennas, and in mobile devices that use radio such as cell phones, FM
radios, walkie-talkies, wireless computer networks, cordless phones,
GPS as well as for base stations that communicate with mobile radios, such
as police and taxi dispatchers and aircraft communications.
Note that this is different from an isotropic antenna, which
radiates equal power in all directions and has a "spherical"
radiation pattern.
Isotropic Radiator

An isotropic radiator is a theoretical point

source of electromagnetic or sound waves which radiates the
same intensity of radiation in all directions. It has no preferred
direction of radiation. It radiates uniformly in all directions over
a sphere centred on the source.

Or

An isotropic antenna is a hypothetical antenna radiating the same

intensity of radio waves in all directions. It thus is said to have
a directivity of 0 dBi (dB relative to isotropic) in all directions.

• Isotropic radiators are used as reference radiators with which

other sources are compared.
Directional Radiator

❑ With the directional antennas, you can divert the RF energy in a particular
direction to farther distances. Therefore, you can cover long ranges, but
the effective beamwidth decreases.

❑ This type of antenna is helpful in near LOS coverage, such as covering

hallways, long corridors, isle structures with spaces in between, etc.
However, as the angular coverage is less, you cannot cover large areas.
This is a disadvantage for general indoor coverage because you would like
to cover a wider angular area around the AP.
Radiation Pattern

Radiation patterns are graphical representation of the electromagnetic power

distributed in free space. Also, these patterns can be considered to be
representative of the relative field strengths of the field radiated by the
antenna.

Figure (a) shows a field pattern where r is proportional to the field intensity at
a certain Distance from the antenna in the direction θ, φ. The pattern has its
main lobe maximum in the Z direction (θ = φ) with minor lobes (side and
back) in other directions. Between the lobes are nulls in the directions of zero
or minimum radiation.
Figure : (a) Antenna field pattern with coordinate system (b) Antenna power pattern in
polar coordinates (linear scale)
Figure : (c) Antenna pattern in rectangular coordinate and decibel (logarithmic) scale.
Pattern (b) and (c) are the same

To completely specify the radiation pattern with respect to field intensity and
polarization requires three patterns:
Dividing a field component by its maximum value, we obtain a normalized
field pattern which is dimensionless number with a maximum value of unity.
Thus, the normalized field pattern for the θ component of the electric field is
given by

At distance that are large compared to the size of the antenna and large
compared to the wavelength, the shape of the field pattern is independent of
distance, Usually the patterns of interest are for this far-field condition.
Pattern may also be expressed in terms of the power per unit area [or
Poynting vector S(θ,φ) ] at a certain distance from the antenna. Normalizing
this power with respect to its maximum value yields a normalized power
pattern as a function of angle which is a dimensionless number with a
maximum value of unity. Thus, the normalized power pattern is given by

To show the minor lobes in more details, the same pattern is presented in Fig. (c)
in rectangular coordinate on a decibel scale quantities. These include:
Half power Beam width
Although the radiation characteristics of the an antenna involve 3-
dimentional patterns, many important radiation characteristics can be
expressed in terms of simple single valued scalar quantities. These include:

❑ Beam Widths
❑ Beam area
❑ Main-lobe beam area
❑ Beam efficiency
❑ Directivity
❑ Gain
❑ Effective aperture
❑ Scattering aperture
❑ Aperture efficiency
❑ Effective height
Beam Area (Beam solid angle) ΩA

In θ direction (latitude) - rdθ

In φ direction (longitude) - rsinθrd φ

Incremental area (dA) = rdθ * rsinθrd φ

r2dΩ
Where dΩ – Solid angle expressed in
Steradian (sr) or square degrees (°)
Or
dΩ – solid angle subtended by the are dA

That is dΩ = sinθdθdφ
The area of the strip of width rdθ extended around the sphere at a
constant angle θ,

(rdθ) * (2πrsinθ) = 2πr2sinθdθ

Integrating this for θ values fro 0 to π gives the area of the sphere,

Thus area of sphere = 4πr2 (4π is the solid angle subtended by a sphere,
sr)
Radian and Steradian

1steradian = (1radian)2
= (180 / π)2

= 3282.8064 square degrees

4π steradians = 3282.8064 x 4π
= 41,253 square degrees
The beam solid angle of an antenna is given by the
integral of the normalized power pattern over a
sphere (4π Steradian).

But, dΩ = sinθdθdφ, square degrees

Thus, ,sr
Also beam area often be described approximately in terms
of the angles subtended by the half power points of the
main lobe in two principal planes

Beam area ≅ QA ≅ θHPφHP (sr)

Radiation Power Density
The time average Pointing vector (average power density) can be written as

If the real part of (E×H*)/2 represents the average (real) power density and the
imaginary part must represent the reactive (stored) power density associated with
the electromagnetic fields.
The average power radiated by the antenna can be written as

An isotropic radiator is an ideal source that radiates equally in all directions.

The total power is radiated by it is
Radiation Intensity

(1)

(2)
(3)
(4)

(5)
Directivity
If an antenna could be isotropic
Gain
 Aperture of Antenna

The concept of aperture is most simple induced by considering a receiving

antenna. Suppose that the receiving antenna is an electromagnetic horn
immersed in the field of a uniform plane wave as suggested in Figure below.
Let the pointing vector or power density of the plane wave be S watts Per
square meter and the area of the mouth of the horn be A square meter.

Figure: Plane wave incident on electromagnetic horn of mouth aperture A.

 If the horn extracts all the power from the wave over its entire area A, then
the total power P absorbed from the wave is

Thus, the electromagnetic horn may be regarded as an aperture, the total power
it extracts from a passing wave being proportional to the aperture or area of its
mouth.

It will be convenient to distinguish between several types of apertures, namely,

effective aperture, scattering aperture, loss aperture, collecting aperture and
physical aperture.
Effective Height
 Polarization
An important property of an electromagnetic wave is its polarization, a
quantity describing the orientation of the electric field E.
Figure: Rotation of a plane electromagnetic wave and its polarization ellipse at z=0 as
a function of time
Linear, Circular and Elliptical Polarization
❑Linear Polarization
❑Circular Polarization
❑ Elliptical Polarization
Foe elliptical polarization, the axial ratio can be calculated from the Fig. (b)
Antenna Efficiency

The total efficiency eo is used to take into account losses at the input
terminals and within the structure of the antenna. Such losses are
Bandwidth
The bandwidth of an antenna is defined as “ the range of frequencies within
which the performance of the antenna with respect to some characteristics,
conforms to a specified standard”.

The bandwidth can be considered to be the range of frequencies, on either

side of a center frequency (usually the resonance frequency for a dipole),
where the antenna characteristics (such as input impedance, pattern,
beamwidth, polarization, side lobe level, gain, beam direction, radiation
efficiency) are within an acceptable value of those at the center frequency.

Bandwidth of the antenna can be defined by several ways. Ratio bandwidth is

Where, fU and fL are the upper and lower frequency of the band, respectively.
The other definition is the percentage bandwidth
 Problems

An antenna has a field pattern given by E(θ) = cos2θ for

0˚≤θ≤90˚. Find the half power beamwidth (HPBW).
An antenna has a field pattern given by E(θ) = cos θcos2θ for
0˚≤θ≤90˚. Find the half power beamwidth (HPBW) (b) the
beamwidth between first nulls(FNBW)
Find the number of square degrees in the solid angle Ω on a spherical surface that is
between θ=20˚ and θ=40˚ and between Ф=30 ˚ and Ф=70 ˚.
An antenna has a field pattern given by E(θ) = cos2θ for
0˚≤θ≤90˚. Find the half power beam area.
An antenna has a normalized field pattern

 sin(n / 2)
En = sin( )
2n sin( / 2)
where
 = d r (cos  − 1) −  / n
d r =  / 2,
n = 10
HPBW = 40

Calculate the gain G.

Directivity approximate
 Point Sources
Antenna is first considered as a point source and later the
concept is extend to the formation of arrays of point
source

The pattern of any antenna can be regarded as produced

by an array of point sources
The center O of the antenna The center of the antenna is
coincides with the center of displaced from O, even to the extent
the observation circle that O lies outside the antenna
Filed pattern will be same but phase pattern differs as
distance d increases
Complete description of the far field of a source requires three
patterns:
two patterns of orthogonal field components as a function of angle
[Eθ (θ, φ) and Eφ(θ, φ)] and one pattern of the phase difference of
these fields as a function of angle [δ (θ,φ)]
 Power Patterns

The time rate of energy flow per unit area is the

Poynting vector, or power density (watts per square
meter)
For a point source (or in the far field of any antenna),
the Poynting vector S has only a radial component Sr
with no components in either the θ or φ directions (Sθ
= Sφ = 0)

Isotropic source- The 3D power pattern is a sphere

Not a physically
realizable type
Anisotropic sources-radiate more energy in some directions than other

Absolute power pattern - W/m2

Relative power pattern - Sr is expressed in terms of

its value in some reference direction

Normalized pattern – a pattern with a maximum of

unity
 A Power Theorem and its Application to an Isotropic Source

If the Poynting vector is known at all points on a

sphere of radius r from a point source in a lossless
medium, the total power radiated by the source is
the integral over the surface of the sphere of the
radial component Sr of the average Poynting vector.
The magnitude of the Poynting vector varies
inversely as the square of the distance from a point-
source radiator. (the variation of power per unit area
as a function of the distance)
Radiation Intensity

Expressed in watts per unit solid angle (W/sr)

Independent of radius

r2Sr = P/4π = U (W/sr)

The total power radiated is given by the integral of the

radiation intensity over a solid angle of 4π Steradian.
Maximum radiation intensity (Um) is in the θ
= 0 direction

An isotropic source gives P = 4πU0 (W)

where U0 = radiation intensity of isotropic
source, W/sr
Example:
Source with Unidirectional Cosine Power Pattern
A source has a cosine radiation-intensity pattern, that is,
U = Um cos θ
where Um = maximum radiation intensity
The radiation intensity U has a value only in the upper hemisphere (0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2 and 0
≤ φ ≤ 2π) and is zero in the lower hemisphere. The radiation intensity is a maximum at
θ = 0.
The space pattern is a figure of revolution of this circle around the polar axis.
Find the directivity.

To find the total power radiated by the cosine source,

(1)

If the power radiated by the unidirectional cosine source is the same as for an isotropic
source,
then (1) = 4πU0 yielding πUm = 4πU0 or
 Field Patterns
To describe the field of a point source more completely, we
need to consider the electric field E and/or the magnetic
field H (both vectors)

E and H are both entirely transverse to the wave direction,

are perpendicular to each other, are in-phase, and are related
in magnitude by the intrinsic impedance of the medium
(E/H = Z = 377Ω for free space)The relation of the radial
component Sr of the Poynting vector and the electric field
components:
Absolute field pattern: volts per meter

Relative field pattern:

𝐸𝜃
The relative pattern of the Eθ component is then given by
𝐸𝜃𝑚

Eφ
Relative pattern of the Eφcomponent is given by
Eφm
where
Eθm= maximum value of Eθ
Eφm= maximum value of Eφ
 Phase Patterns

The polarity of the lobes alternate (+ and −). Thus, when the
magnitude of the field of one lobe (+) and the adjacent lobe
(−) are equal, the total field goes to zero, producing a null
 Arrays of Two Isotropic Point Sources

Five cases involving two isotropic point sources

Two Isotropic Point Sources of Same Amplitude and Phase

Two Isotropic Point Sources of Same Amplitude but Opposite Phase

Two Isotropic Point Sources of the Same Amplitude and In-Phase

Quadrature

General Case of Two Isotropic Point Sources of Equal Amplitude and

Any Phase Difference

Most General Case of Two Isotropic Point Sources of Unequal

Amplitude and Any Phase Difference
 Case 1. Two Isotropic Point Sources of Same
Amplitude and Phase
Two point sources, 1 and 2, be separated by a distance d and
located symmetrically with respect to the origin of the
coordinates

The angle φ is measured counter clockwise from the positive x

axis

The origin of the coordinates is taken as the reference for phase

At a distant point in the direction φ the field from source 1 is

1
retarded by 𝑑𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠φ
2

1
The field from source 2 is advanced by 𝑑𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠φ
2
2π𝑑
Where dr is the distance between the sources expressed in radians, dr=
λ
The total field at a large distance r in the direction φ is then

where ψ = dr cos φ and the amplitude of the field components at the

distance r is given by E0
The first term is the component of the field due to source 1 and the
second term the component due to source 2.
Also, we can write (1) as,

or
The vector diagram

To normalize, that is, make its maximum value unity, set 2E0 = 1

2π𝑑
Suppose further that d is λ/2 in dr= , then dr= π
λ

Thus E is,
Field pattern of two isotropic point sources of equal
amplitude and same phase

The pattern is a bidirectional figure-of-eight

with maxima along the y axis. The space
pattern is doughnut-shaped, being a figure-of
revolution of this pattern around the x axis
 Locating source 1 at the origin of the coordinates and
source 2 at a distance d along the positive x axis
Taking now the field from source 1
as reference, the field from source 2
in the direction φ is advanced by dr
cos φ

Thus, the total field E at a large distance r is the vector sum of the
fields from the two sources
where ψ = dr
cos φ
 Case 2. Two Isotropic Point Sources of Same Amplitude
but Opposite Phase
Same as case 1 except the two sources are in opposite
phase instead of in the same phase
The total field in the direction φ at a large
distance r is given by

ψ is the total phase difference of the fields

Thus, putting 2jE0 = 1 and considering the special case

of d = λ/2, becomes
 To find maximum field direction φm

where k = 0, 1, 2, 3 . . . . For k = 0, cos φm = ±1 and

φm = 0◦ and 180◦
To find the null directions φ0

To find the half-power directions

Relative field pattern for two isotropic point sources of the same
amplitude but opposite phase, spaced λ/2 apart

A relatively broad figure-of-eight with the maximum field in the same

direction as the line joining the sources (x axis)

The space pattern is a figure-of-revolution of this pattern around the x

axis

The two sources, in this case, may be described as a simple type of

“end-fire” array
(Case 1 is a Broadside array type)
Case 3. Two Isotropic Point Sources of the Same Amplitude and
In-Phase Quadrature
The origin of the coordinates as the reference
for phase

Let source 1 be retarded by 45◦ and source 2

advanced by 45◦

The total field in the direction φ at a large

distance r is given by
The space pattern is a figure-of-revolution of this pattern around the x
axis.
Most of the radiation is in the second and third quadrants

To find maximum direction

A cardioid-shaped,
unidirectional pattern with
maximum field in the negative
x direction. The space pattern is
a figure-of-revolution of this
pattern around the x axis.
Case 4. General Case of Two Isotropic Point Sources of Equal
Amplitude and Any Phase Difference
Any phase difference δ

The total phase difference ψ between the fields from source 2 and
source 1 at a distant point in the direction φ
ψ = dr cos φ + δ

The phase of the field from source 1 at a distant point is given by

−ψ/2 and that from source 2 by +ψ/2

The total field

Normalizing

The three cases we have discussed are obviously special cases. Thus,
Cases 1, 2, and 3 are obtained when δ = 0◦, 180◦, and 90◦ respectively
Non-isotropic but Similar Point Sources and the Principle of Pattern
Multiplication
Similar point sources
Amplitude and phase variations with respect to absolute angle φ is the
same
(maximum amplitudes of the individual sources may be unequal If this is
also equal then sources are said to be identical)

Let the case 4, with total field E=

Let both sources 1 and 2 have field patterns given by,

Substituting (2) in (1) and normalising by setting ,

where ψ = dr cos φ + δ
This result is the same as obtained by multiplying the pattern of the
individual source (sin φ) by the pattern of two isotropic point sources
(cos ψ/2)
Example of pattern multiplication:
(1) Assume two identical point sources separated by a distance d,
each source having the field pattern given by,

where ψ = dr cos φ + δ.
Let d = λ/2 and the phase angle δ = 0. Then the total field pattern is,

sin φ= cos[(π/2) cos φ]=

(2) Let both sources 1 and 2 have field patterns given by,

Let, d = λ/2 and δ = 0 and normalising by setting

then the total field pattern is,
 Linear array of n- isotropic sources of equal
amplitude and spacing
Introduction
The n is any positive integer

The total field E at a large distance in the

direction φ is given by,
(1)

where ψ is the total phase difference of the fields from adjacent

sources as given by,

(2)

where δ is the phase difference of adjacent sources, i.e., source 2

with respect to 1, 3 with respect to 2, etc.
The amplitudes of the fields from the sources are all equal and taken as
unity. Source 1 is the
phase reference.

Thus, at a distant point in the direction φ the field from source 2 is

advanced in phase with respect to source 1 by ψ, the field from source 3
is advanced in phase with respect to source 1 by 2 ψ, etc.

is a geometric series.

Each term represents a phasor, and the amplitude of the total field E and
its phase angle ξ can be obtained by phasor (vector) addition.
Analytical method:
In When ψ = 0, it is indeterminate so that for this case E
must be obtained as

the limit of (8) as ψ approaches zero.

For ψ = 0 we have the relation that E = n and this is the maximum value
that E can attain.

Hence, the normalized value of the total field for Emax = n is

(Array factor)
 Case 1. Broadside Array (Sources in Phase)
The first case is a linear array of n isotropic sources of the same
amplitude and phase. Therefore, δ = 0 and ψ = dr cos φ

To make ψ = 0 requires that φ = (2k+1)(π/2), where k = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . .

The field is, therefore, a maximum when φ = π /2 and 3π/2

For example, the pattern of a broadside array of 4 in-phase isotropic

point sources of equal amplitude and the spacing between sources as
λ/2 is as shown below.
 Case 2. Ordinary End-Fire Array

To find the phase angle between adjacent sources that is required to

make the field a maximum in the direction of the array (φ = 0).

An array of this type may be called an “end-fire” array.

For this we substitute the conditions ψ = 0 and φ = 0 in

Thus, δ = −dr

Hence, for an end-fire array, the phase between sources is retarded

progressively by the same amount as the spacing between sources in
radians.

Thus, if the spacing is λ/4, source 2 should lag source 1 by 90◦, source
3 should lag source 2 by 90◦, etc.
As an example, end-fire array of four isotropic point sources with
spacing between sources is λ/2 (δ = −π) is
Case 3. End-Fire Array with Increased Directivity

In Case 2, namely, for δ = −dr , produces a maximum field in the

direction φ = 0 but does not give the maximum directivity.

It has been shown by Hansen and Woodyard that a larger directivity

is obtained by increasing the phase change between sources so that

(Condition for “increased

directivity”)
Thus for the phase difference of the fields at a large distance,
The additional phase difference yields a considerably sharper main
lobe in the direction φ = 0
• Calculate the maximum effective aperture of an antenna which operating
at a wave length of 2 meters and has directivity of 100.
• The radiation resistance of an antenna is 72 ohms and loss resistance is 8
ohms. What is its directivity, if the power gain is 16?
• Find out the radiation resistance of a λ/2 wire dipole in free space.
• Determine the maximum effective aperture of a beam having a HPBW of
30 deg and 35 deg in perpendicular planes intersecting in the beam axis.
• Calculate the length of the half-wave dipole antenna meant to have
correct half wave length at 6 0 MHz.
• E field of an antenna system is 10π V/m, radiating in free space, then what
is the power density will be
• if the maximum radiation intensity is 6 W and the average radiation
intensity is 12 W, then what is the directivity?
• In an array system, if there are 5 point sources to resolve the beam area,
then calculate the directivity of the antenna is,
• The maximum effective aperture for a beam antenna
having beam area of 0.98 sq. radian with the
wavelength of the signal 2 m, is
• An antenna has a radiation resistance of 103Ω and a
loss resistance of 10Ω, calculate efficiency of the
antenna is,
• For a λ/4 wave monopole antenna, calculate the power
radiated for a peak value equal to 1A
• The total phase difference of the fields from adjacent
sources is 30 degree, calculate the phase angle
difference for 5 isotropic sources with the resultant
vector will be,
Thank You