EC6602 ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION LTPC3003

OBJECTIVES:
To give insight of the radiation phenomena.
 To give a thorough understanding of the radiation characteristics of different types of
antennas
 To create awareness about the different types of propagation of radio waves at different
frequencies
UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION 9
Definition of antenna parameters –Gain, Directivity, Effective aperture, Radiation Resistance, Band
width, Beam width, Input Impedance. Matching –Baluns, Polarization mismatch, Antenna noise
temperature, Radiation from oscillating dipole, Half wave dipole. Folded dipole, Yagi array.
UNIT II APERTURE AND SLOT ANTENNAS 9
Radiation from rectangular apertures, Uniform and Tapered aperture, Horn antenna , Reflector
antenna , Aperture blockage , Feeding structures , Slot antennas ,Microstrip antennas –Radiation
mechanism –Application ,Numerical tool for antenna analysis
UNIT III ANTENNA ARRAYS 9
N element linear array, Pattern multiplication, Broadside and End fire array –Concept of Phased arrays,
Adaptive array, Basic principle of antenna Synthesis-Binomial array
UNIT IV SPECIAL ANTENNAS 9
Principle of frequency independent antennas –Spiral antenna, Helical antenna, Log periodic. Modern
antennas-Reconfigurable antenna, Active antenna, Dielectric antennas, Electronic band gap structure
and applications, Antenna Measurements-Test Ranges, Measurement of Gain, Radiation pattern,
Polarization, VSWR
UNIT V PROPAGATION OF RADIO WAVES 9
Modes of propagation , Structure of atmosphere , Ground wave propagation , Tropospheric
propagation , Duct propagation, Troposcatter propagation , Flat earth and Curved earth concept Sky
wave propagation –Virtual height, critical frequency , Maximum usable frequency –Skip distance,
Fading , Multi hop propagation
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
Upon completion of the course, students will be able to
Explain the various types of antennas and wave propagation.
Write about the radiation from a current element.
Analyze the antenna arrays, aperture antennas and special antennas such as frequency independent
and broad band
TEXT BOOK:
1.John D Kraus,” Antennas for all Applications”, 3rd Edition, Mc Graw Hill, 2005.
REFERENCES:
1. Edward C.Jordan and Keith G.Balmain” Electromagnetic Waves and Radiating Systems”
Prentice Hall of India, 2006
2. R.E.Collin,”Antennas and Radio wave Propagation”, Mc Graw Hill 1985.
3. Constantine.A.Balanis “Antenna Theory Analysis and Design”, Wiley
Student Edition, 2006.
4. Rajeswari Chatterjee, “Antenna Theory and Practice” Revised Second Edition New Age
International Publishers, 2006.
5. S. Drabowitch, “Modern Antennas” Second Edition, Springer Publications, 2007.
6. Robert S.Elliott “Antenna Theory and Design” Wiley Student Edition,
2006.
7.H.Sizun “Radio Wave Propagation for Telecommunication Applications”, First Indian
Reprint, Springer Publications, 2007
UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION 9

Definition of antenna parameters –Gain, Directivity, Effective aperture, Radiation Resistance, Band
width, Beam width, Input Impedance. Matching –Baluns, Polarization mismatch, Antenna noise
temperature, Radiation from oscillating dipole, Half wave dipole. Folded dipole, Yagi array.

UNIT I
FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION
 An antenna (or aerial) is an electrical device which converts electric power into radio waves, and vice
versa. It is usually used with a radio transmitter or radio receiver. In transmission, a radio transmitter
supplies an oscillating radio frequency electric current to the antenna's terminals, and the antenna
radiates the energy from the current as electromagnetic waves (radio waves). In reception, an antenna
intercepts some of the power of an electromagnetic wave in order to produce a tiny voltage at its
terminals, that is applied to a receiver to be amplified.
 Antennas are essential components of all equipment that uses radio. They are used in systems such
as radio broadcasting, broadcast television, two-way radio, communications receivers, radar, cell
phones, and satellite communications, as well as other devices such as garage door openers, wireless
microphones, bluetooth enabled devices, wireless computer networks, baby monitors, and RFID tags
on merchandise.
 Typically an antenna consists of an arrangement of metallic conductors ("elements"), electrically
connected (often through a transmission line) to the receiver or transmitter.
 Antennas act as transformers between conducted waves and electromagnetic waves propagating
freely in space.
 Their name is borrowed from zoology, in which the Latin word antennae is used to describe the
long, thin feelers possessed by many insects.
 In wireless communication systems, signals are radiated in space as an electromagnetic wave by
using a receiving transmitting antenna and a fraction of this radiated power is intercepted by using a
receiving antenna.
 An antenna is a device used for radiating or receiver radio waves. An antenna can also be thought of
as a transitional structure between free space and a guiding device (such as transmission line or
waveguide). Usually antennas are metallic structures, but dielectric antennas are also used now a day.
 a rigid metallic structure is called an "antenna" while the wire form is called an "aerial"

Types of Antennas:
Wire antennas:
o dipole, monopole, loop antenna, helix
o Usually used in personal applications, automobiles, buildings, ships, aircrafts and spacecrafts.
Aperture antennas:
o horn antennas, waveguide opening
o Usually used in aircrafts and space crafts, because these antennas can be flush-mounted.
Reflector antennas:
oparabolic reflectors, corner reflectors
o These are high gain antennas usually used in radio astronomy, microwave communication and
satellite tracking.
Lens antennas:
o convex-plane, co vex-convex , convex-concave and concave-plane lenses
o These antennas are usually used for very high frequency applications.
Microstrip antennas:
o rectan gular, circular etc. shaped metallic patch above a ground plane
o Used in aircraft, spacecraft, s atellites, mis siles, cars, mobile phones etc.
Array antennas:
o Yagi-Uda antenn a, microstrip patch array, aperture array, slotted waveguide array.
o Used for very high gain applications with added advantage, such as, controllable radiation pattern.

DEFINITION OF ANTENNA PARAMETERS:

Dual Characteristics of an Antenna
The duality of an antenna specifies a circuit device on one band and a space device on the other hand.
Figure shows the schematic diagram of basic antenna parameters, illustrating dual characteristics of an
antenna.
Most practical transmitting antennas are divided into two basic classifications, HERTZ ANTENNAS
(half-wave) and MARCONI (quarter-wave) ANTENNAS. Hertz antennas are generally installed some
distance above the ground and are positioned to radiate either vertically or horizontally. Marconi
antennas operate with one end grounded and are mounted perpendicular to the earth or a surface acting
as a ground. The Hertz antenna, also referred to as a dipole, is the basis for some of the more complex
antenna systems used today. Hertz antennas are generally used for operating frequencies of 2 MHz and
above, while Marconi antennas are used for operating frequencies below 2 MHz.All antennas,
regardless of their shape or size, have four basic characteristics: reciprocity, directivity, gain, and
polarization.
Isotropic Radiator:An antenna does not radiate uniformly in all directions. For the sake of a
reference, we consider a hypothetical antenna called an isotropic radiator having equal radiation in all
directions.
Directional Antenna: A directional antenna is one which can radiate or receive electromagnetic waves
more effectively in some directions than in others.

GAIN:
Gain is a parameter which measures the degree of directivity of the antenna's radiation pattern. A high-
gain antenna will preferentially radiate in a particular direction. Specifically, the antenna gain, or
power gain of an antenna is defined as the ratio of the intensity (power per unit surface) radiated by the
antenna in the direction of its maximum output, at an arbitrary distance, divided by the intensity
radiated at the same distance by a hypothetical isotropic antenna.
As we mentioned earlier, some antennas are highly directional. That is, they propagate more energy in
certain directions than in others. The ratio between the amount of energy propagated in these directions
and the energy that would be propagated if the antenna were not directional is known as antenna
GAIN. The gain of an antenna is constant. whether the antenna is used for transmitting or receiving.
Directivity function D( , )describes the variation of the radiation intensity. The directivity function D
(, )is defined by
D (, )= Power radiated per unit solid angle /Average power radiated per unit solid angle -

If Pr is the radiated power, the dP r/ d  gives the amount of power radiated per unit solid angle. Had
this power beam uniformly radiated in all directions then average power radiated per unit solid angle is
P r /4.

D (, )= dP r/ d / P r /4.

The gain of the antenna is defined as G( , )= 4πRadiated power per unit solid angle / input power
Gain: is defined as the ratio of maximum radiation intensity in a given direction to the
maximum radiation intensity from a reference antenna, produced in the same direction and with the
same power input.
Directive Gain: can be defined as the ratio of power density (pointing vector) in a
particular direction at a given point, to the power which would be radiated at the same distance by an
isotropic antenna, radiating the same total power.
Power Gain: is the ratio of radiation intensity in a given direction to the average total input
power.

DIRECTIVITY

The DIRECTIVITY of an antenna or array is a measure of the antenna‘s ability to focus the energy in
one or more specific directions. You can determine an antenna‘s directivity by looking at its radiation
pattern. In an array propagating a given amount of energy, more radiation takes place in certain
directions than in others. The elements in the array can be arranged so they change the pattern and
distribute the energy more evenly in all directions. The opposite is also possible. The elements can be
arranged so the radiated energy is focused in one direction. The elements can be considered as a group
of antennas fed from a common source.
It is defined as the ratio of maximum radiation intensity of subject or test antenna to the radiation
intensity of an isotropic antenna.
(or)
Directivity is defined as the ratio of maximum radiation intensity to the average radiation intensity.
Directivity (D) in terms of total power radiated is,
D = 4π x Maximum radiation intensity/ Total power radiated
EFFECTIVE APERTURE
The receive power of an antenna is the effective area or effective aperture. Assume that a plane wave
with the same polarization as the receive antenna is incident upon the antenna. Further assume that the
wave is travelling towards the antenna in the antenna's direction of maximum radiation (the direction
from which the most power would be received).
Then the effective aperture parameter describes how much power is captured from a given plane wave.
Let p be the power density of the plane wave (in W/m^2). If P_t represents the power (in Watts) at the
antennas terminals available to the antenna's receiver, then:

Hence, the effective area simply represents how much power is captured from the plane wave and
delivered by the antenna. This area factors in the losses intrinsic to the antenna (ohmic losses,
dielectric losses, etc.).
A general relation for the effective aperture in terms of the peak antenna gain (G) of any antenna is
given by:

Effective aperture or effective area can be measured on actual antennas by comparison with a known
antenna with a given effective aperture, or by calculation using the measured gain and the above
equation.
Effective aperture will be a useful concept for calculating received power from a plane wave. To see
this in action, go to the next section on the Friis transmission formula.
The power received by antenna ,PR is then
PR=STAeR=PTDTAeR/4πR2,
where
AeR is the effective aperture of antenna
Rearranging this equation gives
DTAeR=PRPT(4πR2)
If we now let antenna transmit PT and we look at the received power at antenna , which - by virtue of
reciprocity - is equal to
PR, we find
DRAeT=PRPT(4πR2)
so
DTAeT=DRAeR
If we now assume that in the two-antenna system, the transmitting antenna is an
isotropic radiator, then DT= 1 and the above equation transforms into
AeTISO=AeRDR
which means that the effective aperture of an isotropic radiator is equal to the ratio of effective aperture
and directivity of any antenna
.
If we take, for example, a short dipole, we may relatively easy calculate the effective
area and directivity as Ae=38πλ2
D=32,
Where λ is the used wavelength. Therefore the effective area of an isotropic radiator
Is AeISO=λ24π and thus for any antenna λ24π=AeD
This gives us the sought after relation between effective aperture, Ae, and directivity,D, of an antenna
D=4πAeλ2

RADIATION RESISTANCE:
The radiation resistance of an antenna is defined as the equivalent resistance that would
dissipate the same amount power as is radiated by the antenna. For the elementary current element we
have discussed so far. we find that radiated power
It is a fictitious resistance which when substituted in series with the antenna will consume the same
power as is actually radiated.
Radiation resistance is both the most useful and the least useful antenna-related term. Radiation
resistance can easily be misused and rendered useless. This is because radiation resistance has multiple
poorly-defined meanings. When a term has several nebulous meanings or uses, it is only natural that
misuse or mixing of terms appear. Lack of a firm, single, well-accepted, definition allows the term
"radiation resistance" to slip from one definition into another. This often results in well-intentioned, but
totally erroneous conclusions, that seem to follow accurate, logical, thought!
Common Uses
There are two commonly-used "correct" meanings of radiation resistance, and one totally incorrect
use. The "correct" uses are:
1. The resistive part of an antenna's feedpoint impedance that is created solely by radiation from
the antenna
2. The total power radiated in all directions divided by the square of maximum net (or effective)
current causing the radiation
Neither of the above definitions include loss resistances of any type! The moment loss resistance is
included, we have a third commonly-used (but totally useless) definition. This definition, which
includes losses, could be considered "incorrect" because it includes resistances that have nothing to do
with radiation. The misused, or nearly useless, definition is:
    3.   The simple real (or resistive) part of an antenna's feedpoint impedance, wherever that feedpoint
is in relationship to the radiating current maximum.
The correct name for number 3's "radiation resistance" is actually the antenna feedpoint resistance. It
is not radiation resistance at all! 

BANDWIDTH
The system is designed for specific frequency; i.e. at any other frequency it will not be one-half
wavelength. The bandwidth of an antenna is the range of frequencies over which the antenna gives
reasonable performance. One definition of reasonable performance is that the standing wave ratio is
2:1 or less at the bounds of the range of frequencies over which the antenna is to be used.
Bandwidth is another fundamental antenna parameter. Bandwidth describes the range of frequencies
over which the antenna can properly radiate or receive energy. Often, the desired bandwidth is one of
the determining parameters used to decide upon an antenna. For instance, many antenna types have
very narrow bandwidths and cannot be used for wideband operation.
Bandwidth is typically quoted in terms of VSWR. For instance, an antenna may be described as
operating at 100-400 MHz with a VSWR<1.5. This statement implies that the reflection coefficient is
less than 0.2 across the quoted frequency range. Hence, of the power delivered to the antenna, only 4%
of the power is reflected back to the transmitter. Alternatively, the return loss S11=20*log10(0.2)=-
13.98 dB.
Note that the above does not imply that 96% of the power delivered to the antenna is transmitted in the
form of EM radiation; losses must still be taken into account.
Also, the radiation pattern will vary with frequency. In general, the shape of the radiation pattern does
not change radically.
There are also other criteria which may be used to characterize bandwidth. This may be the
polarization over a certain range, for instance, an antenna may be described as having circular
polarization with an axial ratio< 3dB (less than 3 dB) from 1.4-1.6 GHz. This polarization bandwidth
sets the range over which the antenna's operation is approximately circularly polarized.
The bandwidth is often specified in terms of its Fractional Bandwidth (FBW). The FBW is the ratio of
the frequency range (highest frequency minus lowest frequency) divided by the center frequency. The
antenna Q also relates to bandwidth (higher Q is lower bandwidth, and vice versa).
To give some concrete examples of bandwidth, here is a table of the bandwidths for common antenna
types. This will answer such questions as "what is the bandwidth of a dipole antenna?" and "which
antenna has a higher bandwidth - a patch or a spiral antenna?". For a fare comparison, we set the center
frequency for each antenna to 1 GHz (1000 MHz).

BEAMWIDTH
In a radio antennapattern, the half power beam width is the angle between the half-power (-3 dB)
points of the main lobe, when referenced to the peak effective radiated power of the main lobe. See
beam diameter. Beamwidth is usually but not always expressed in degrees and for the horizontal
plane.
The beamwidth can be computed for arbitrary antenna arrays. Defining the array manifold as the
complex response of the element antenna array as , where is a matrix with rows, the beam pattern is
first computed as: P=B2

The half power beamwidth (HPBW) is then found as the range of θ where P=0.5Pmax.
Note that other definitions of beamwidth exist, such as the distance between nulls and distance
between first side lobes.

The main beam is the angular region where primarily the radiation goes. The effective width of the
antenna main beam called the HPBW is defined as the angular separation between directions where the
field reduces to 1/√2 of its maximum value. Since the power density of a wave is proportional to the
square of the electric field, when the electric field reduces to 1/ √2 of its maximum value, the power
density reduces to 1/2 of its maximum value. That is, the power
density reduces by 3-dB. The HPBW therefore is also referred to as the 3-dB Beam width. There two
HPBWs, one for the E-plane pattern and other for the H-plane pattern. he E-plane HPBW is 90 and the
H-plane HPBW is not defined since the radiation pattern is constant in the H-plane. The HPBW is a
 better measure of the effective width of the main beam of the antenna compared to BWFN because
there are situations when the effective width of the antenna beam changes but
the BWFN remains same.
Side-Lobe Level (SLL)
The local maxima in the radiation pattern are called the side-lobes of the radiation pattern.Since ideally
the antenna should radiate along the direction of the main beam the side-lobes essentially indicate the
leakage of power in undesired directions. The side-lobes in general is an undesirable feature in a
radiation pattern.
The ratio of the main beam to the highest side-lobe is called the SSL of the radiation pattern. For a
good communication antenna the SLL lies in the range of 30-40 dB

INPUT IMPEDANCE:

Generally in audio and hi-fi, components have input impedance several times higher than the output
impedance connected to them. This is called voltage bridging or impedance bridging. In this case,
Zload>>Zsource
In general, this configuration will be more resistant to noise (particularly power line hum). The best
circuits are created by using a voltage follower in the source with the pull-up (load) resistor at the
signal receiver.
Antenna impedance is the impedance at the point where the transmission line carrying RF power from
the transmitter is connected
Since at this point input to the antenna is supplied, it is also called as Antenna Input Impedance.
Since at this point the RF power from the transmitter is fed, it is also called as Feed Point
Impedance.
Also at this impedance the transmission line operates, so this is known as Driving Point Impedance
or Terminal Impedance.
Self impedance:
Self impedance is defined as its input impedance when all other antennas are completely removed
from it. Self impedance can be represented by
Z11= R11 + j X11
Where,
Z11 = self impedance
R11 = self resistance (or) Radiation Resistance
X11 = self reactance
The impedance offered by antenna to the transmission line can be represented by a two terminal
network. The entire antenna system can be replaced by an equivalent impedance Z L.

Antenna

Antenna Terminals  Transmission line Terminal

Transmission line ZL
Equivalent Load

If the antenna is lossless and isolated then the antenna terminal impedance is same as the self impedance
of the antenna (i.e.) ZL=Z11
Mutual Impedance:
In circuit theory, Mutual impedance is defined as the negative ratio of the voltage induced in one circuit
to the current in the second circuit, with all the circuits open circuited except the second circuit.
Now consider two coupled antennas instead of 2 coupled circuits, where two antennas are separated by a
fraction of wavelength and are parallel to each other.
Let a current I1 in antenna 1 induces a voltage E21 at the open terminals of antenna2.
1 2
Mutual Impedance

~ Z21= - E 21 / I1
I1 E21

Let a current I2 in antenna 2 induces a voltage E12 at the open terminals of antenna1.
1 2
Mutual Impedance
~

Z12 = - E 12 / I2
E12 I2

By reciprocity theorem Z21 = Z 12 =Zm

Zm = E 21 / I1 = E 12 / I2
In an antenna array, the input (or) driving point impedance not only depends on the self
impedance of an antenna but also on the mutual impedance between the antennas.
Actual impedance of an antenna element is the sum of its self impedance and its mutual

MATCHING –BALUNS

Antenna systems requiring antenna tuners or matching networks often have very high voltages or
currents on transmission lines and baluns, even at modest power. In many cases, voltage and current
are not in phase with each other.The LP antenna will have a polarization mismatch loss of 0.5 (-3dB),
no matter what the angle the LP antenna is rotated to. Therefore: The Polarization Loss Factor is
sometimes referred to as polarization efficiency, antenna mismatch factor, or antenna receiving factor.

Polarization of an electromagnetic wave refers to the orientation of the electric field component of the
wave. For a linearly polarized wave, the orientation stays the same as the wave moves through space.
If we choose our axis system such that the electric field is vertical, we say that the wave is vertically
polarized. If our transmitting antenna is vertically oriented, the electromagnetic wave radiated is
vertically polarized since, as we saw before, the electric field is in the direction of the current in the
antenna. The convention is to refer to polarization with reference to the surface of the earth. Precise
orientation is less problematic than one might think, since waves bounce of the ground and other
objects so do not maintain their original orientation anyway. In space, horizontal and vertical lose their
meaning, so alignment of linearly polarized sending and receiving antennas is more difficult to
achieve. These difficulties are somewhat circumvented by circular polarization of waves. With circular
polarization, the tip of the electric field vector traces out a circle when viewed in the direction of
propagation.
Vertical and horizontal are the simplest forms of polarization and they both fall into a category known
as linear polarization. However it is also possible to use circular polarization. This has a number of
benefits for areas such as satellite applications where it helps overcome the effects of propagation
anomalies, ground reflections and the effects of the spin that occur on many satellites. Circular
polarization is a little more difficult to visualize than linear polarization. However it can be imagined
by visualizing a signal propagating from an antenna that is rotating. The tip of the electric field vector
will then be seen to trace out a helix or corkscrew as it travels away from the antenna. Circular
polarization can be seen to be either right or left handed dependent upon the direction of rotation as
 seen from the transmitter. Another form of polarization is known as elliptical polarization. It occurs
when there is a mix of linear and circular polarization. This can be visualized as before by the tip of the
electric field vector tracing out an elliptically shaped corkscrew. However it is possible for linearly
polarized antennas to receive circularly polarized signals and vice versa. The strength will be equal
whether the linearly polarized antenna is mounted vertically, horizontally or in any other plane but
directed towards the arriving signal. There will be some degradation because the signal level will be 3
dB less than if a circularly polarized
A Balun is used to "balance" unbalanced systems - i.e. those where power flows from an unbalanced
line to a balanced line (hence, balun derives from balance to unbalanced). As an example, consider a
coaxial cable connected to a half-wave dipole antenna

An unbalanced transmission line (coaxial cable) connected to a dipole antenna.

In Figure 1, a coaxial cable is connected to a dipole antenna. For a dipole antenna to operate properly,
the currents on both arms of the dipole should be equal in magnitude. When a coaxial cable is
connected directly to a dipole antenna however, the currents will not neccessarily be equal. To see this,
note that the current along a transmission line should be of equal magnitude on the inner and outer
conductors, as is typically the case. Observe what happens when the coax is connected to the dipole.
The current on the center conductor (the red/pink center core of the coax, labeled IA) has no where else
to go, so must flow along the dipole arm that is connected to it. However, the current that travels along
the inner side of the outer conductor (IB) has two options: it can travel down the dipole antenna, or
down the reverse (outer) side of the outer conductor of the coaxial cable (labeled IC in Figure 1).
Ideally, the current IC should be zero. In that case, the current along the dipole arm connected to the
outer conductor of the coax will be equal to the current on the other dipole arm - a desirable antenna
characteristic. Because the dipole wants equal or balanced currents along its arms, it is the balanced
section. The coaxial cable does not necesarily give this however - some of the current may travel down
the outside of the outer coax, leading to unbalanced operation - this is the unbalanced section.
The solution to this problem, however you come up with it, is a balun. A balun forces an unbalanced
transmission line to properly feed a balanced component. In Figure 1, this would be done by forcing IC
to be zero somehow - this is often called choking the current or a current choke.

POLARIZATION MISMATCH
Linear Polarization

A plane electromagnetic (EM) wave is characterized by electric and magnetic fields traveling in a single direction (with
no field variation in the two orthogonal directions). In this case, the electric field and the magnetic field are perpendicula
to each other and to the direction the plane wave is propagating. As an example, consider the single frequency E-field
given by equation (1), where the field is traveling in the +z-direction, the E-field is oriented in the +x-direction, and the
magnetic field is in the +y-direction.
 In equation (1), the symbol is a unit vector (a vector with a length of one), which says that the E-field "points" in the x
direction.

Polarization is the figure that the E-field traces out while propagating. As an example, consider the E-field observed at
(x,y,z)=(0,0,0) as a function of time for the plane wave described by equation (1) above. The amplitude of this field is
plotted in Figure 2 at several instances of time. The field is oscillating at frequency f.

Observed at the origin, the E-field oscillates back and forth in magnitude, always directed along the x-axis. Because the
E-field stays along a single line, this field would be said to be linearly polarized. In addition, if the x-axis was parallel t
the ground, this field could also be described as "horizontally polarized" (or sometimes h-pole in the industry). If the fiel
was oriented along the y-axis, this wave would be said to be "vertically polarized" (or v-pole).

A linearly polarized wave does not need to be along the horizontal or vertical axis. For instance, a wave with an E-field
constrained to lie along the line shown in Figure 3 would also be linearly polarized.

The E-field in Figure 3 could be described by equation (2). The E-field now has an x- and y- component, equal in
magnitude.

Circular Polarization

In this case, the x- and y- components are 90 degrees out of phase. If the field is observed at (x,y,z)=(0,0,0) again as
before, the plot of the E-field versus time would appear as shown in Figure 4.

The E-field in Figure 4 rotates in a circle. This type of field is described as a circularly polarized wave. To have circula
polarization, the following criteria must be met:
Criteria for Circular Polarization
 The E-field must have two orthogonal (perpendicular) components.
 The E-field's orthogonal components must have equal magnitude.
 The orthogonal components must be 90 degrees out of phase.
If the wave in Figure 4 is travelling out of the screen, the field is rotating in the counter-clockwise direction and is
said to be Right Hand Circularly Polarized (RHCP). If the fields were rotating in the clockwise direction, the
field would be Left Hand Circularly Polarized (LHCP).

Elliptical Polarization

If the E-field has two perpendicular components that are out of phase by 90 degrees but are not equal in magnitude,
the field will end up Elliptically Polarized. Consider the plane wave travelling in the +z-direction, with E-field,
travels in the counter-clockwise direction, and if travelling out of the screen would be Right Hand Elliptically
 Polarized. If the E-field vector was rotating in the opposite direction, the field would be Left Hand Elliptically
Polarized.

In addition, elliptical polarization can be defined by its axial ratio, which is the ratio of the major and minor axis
amplitudes. For instance, the axial ratio of the wave given by equation (4) is 1/0.3 = 3.33. Elliptically polarized
waves are further described by the direction of the major axis. The wave of equation (4) has a major axis given by
the x-axis. Note that the major axis can be at any angle in the plane, it does not need to coincide with the x-, y-, or z-
axis. Finally, note that circular polarization and linear polarization are both special cases of elliptical polarization.
An elliptically polarized wave with an axial ratio of 1.0 is a circularly polarized wave; an elliptically polarized wave
with an infinite axial ratio is a linearly polarized wave.

PPPolarization of Antennas

Now that we are aware of the polarization of plane-wave EM fields, antenna polarization is straightforward to
define.

The polarization of an antenna is the polarization of the radiated fields produced by an antenna, evaluated in the far
field. Hence, antennas are often classified as "Linearly Polarized" or a "Right Hand Circularly Polarized Antenna".

This simple concept is important for antenna to antenna communication. First, a horizontally polarized antenna will
not communicate with a vertically polarized antenna. Due to the reciprocity theorem, antennas transmit and receive
in exactly the same manner. Hence, a vertically polarized antenna transmits and receives vertically polarized fields.
Consequently, if a horizontally polarized antenna is trying to communicate with a vertically polarized antenna, there

will be no reception.In general, for two linearly polarized antennas that are rotated from each other by an angle ,
the power loss due to this polarization mismatch will be described by the Polarization Loss Factor (PLF):

PLF=COS2Φ

Hence, if both antennas have the same polarization, the angle between their radiated E-fields is zero and there is no
power loss due to polarization mismatch. If one antenna is vertically polarized and the other is horizontally
polarized, the angle is 90 degrees and no power will be transferred.As a side note, this explains why moving the cell
phone on your head to a different angle can sometimes increase reception. Cell phone antennas are often linearly
polarized, so rotating the phone can often match the polarization of the phone and thus increase reception.

Circular polarization is a desirable characteristic for many antennas. Two antennas that are both circularly polarized
do not suffer signal loss due to polarization mismatch. Another advantage of circular polarization is that a RHCP
wave will reflect off a surface and be LHCP. This is advantageous because an antenna designed to receive RHCP
waves will have some immunity to the signal-fading effects of reflected waves interfering with the desired wave.
These are some of the reasons GPS signals from satellites are RHCP. Suppose now that a linearly polarized antenna
is trying to receive a circularly polarized wave. Equivalently, suppose a circularly polarized antenna is trying to
receive a linearly polarized wave. Recall that circular polarization is really two orthongal linear polarized waves 90
degrees out of phase. Hence, a linearly polarized (LP) antenna will simply pick up the in-phase component of the
circularly polarized (CP) wave. As a result, the LP antenna will have a polarization mismatch loss of 0.5 (-3dB), no
matter what the angle the LP antenna is rotated to.

ANTENNA NOISE TEMPERATURE

Antenna Temperature ( ) is a parameter that describes how much noise an antenna produces in a given
environment. This temperature is not the physical temperature of the antenna. Moreover, an antenna does
not have an intrinsic "antenna temperature" associated with it; rather the temperature depends on its gain
pattern and the thermal environment that it is placed in. Antenna temperature is also sometimes referred to
 as Antenna Noise Temperature.

To define the environment (and hence give the full definition of antenna temperature), we will introduce a
temperature distribution - this is the temperature in every direction away from the antenna in spherical
coordinates. For instance, the night sky is roughly 4 Kelvin; the value of the temperature pattern in the
direction of the Earth's ground is the physical temperature of the Earth's ground. This temperature
distribution will be written as . Hence, an antenna's temperature will vary depending on whether it
is directional and pointed into space or staring into the sun.

For an antenna with a radiation pattern given by , the noise temperature is mathematically defined
as:

This states that the temperature surrounding the antenna is integrated over the entire sphere, and weighted
by the antenna's radiation pattern. Hence, an isotropic antenna would have a noise temperature that is the
average of all temperatures around the antenna; for a perfectly directional antenna (with a pencil beam),
the antenna temperature will only depend on the temperature in which the antenna is "looking".

The noise power received from an antenna at temperature can be expressed in terms of the bandwidth
(B) the antenna (and its receiver) are operating over:

In the above, K is Boltzmann's constant (1.38 * 10^-23 [Joules/Kelvin = J/K]). The receiver also has a
temperature associated with it ( ), and the total system temperature (antenna plus receiver) has a
combined temperature given by . This temperature can be used in the above equation to find
the total noise power of the system. These concepts begin to illustrate how antenna engineers must
understand receivers and the associated electronics, because the resulting systems very much depend on
each other.

A parameter often encountered in specification sheets for antennas that operate in certain environments is
the ratio of gain of the antenna divided by the antenna temperature (or system temperature if a receiver is
specified). This parameter is written as G/T, and has units of dB/Kelvin [dB/K].

Finally, note that many RF engineers like to use the term Noise Figure (or Noise Factor, NF) to describe
systems. This is the ratio of the input SNR (signal to noise ratio) to the output SNR. Basically, all RF
devices (like mixers and amplifiers) add some noise. Antenna temperature doesn't really relate to a Noise
Figure, as the signal level power input varies greatly with the desired signal's direction of arrival, while the
noise added is a constant.

RADIATION FROM OSCILLATING DIPOLE

SHORT ELECTRIC DIPOLE

  Any linear antenna may be considered as large number of very short conductors connected
in series and hence it is essential to consider the radiation of such short conductor, called
as short electric dipole.
 A short electric dipole is assumed to be of length L << λ and is placed in coincide with the
Z-axis with its centre at the origin.
 Since it is so short, the current which is flowing through the dipole is assumed to be
constant throughout its length.
 The effect of this current is not felt instantaneously at a distant point P, but only after an
interval equal to the time required for the wave to propagate over the distant r,called
retardation time .
Retarded vector potential;

I = Im Sinωt Im – maximum current

I = instantaneous current
[I] =Im Sin ω (t-r/c) ω = 2пf

r – Distance Retarded time represented by phase angle ωr/c

c – Velocity of propagation

Consider a uniform plane wave in +Z direction.

[I] = Im Sin (ωt – βz)

= ImSin (ωt – βr) β =2п/λ ω =2пf
= ImSin ω (t- βr/ ω) f =c/ λ ω =2пc/ λ
= ImSin ω (t- r/c) βr/ ω = 2пr/ λ = r/c
2пc/ λ
[I] =Im ejω (t-r/c) =Im ej(ωt-βr) Amp.
[J] =Jm ejω (t-r/c) =Jm ej(ωt-βr) Amp/m2
While considering the distance
[A] = μ/4п ∫ v [I] /r dv
[A] = μ/4п ∫ vJm ejω (t-r/c) dv
r
[A] = μ/4п ∫ v J (t-r/c) dv dv = ds.dl
r
= μ/4п ∫ v J (t-r/c) ds.dl ∫ J.ds = I
r
= μ/4п ∫ v I (t-r/c) dl
r
= μ/4п ∫ v Im Sin ω (t- r/c) dl
r
Scalar potential:
[v] = 1/4пε ∫ v[ρ] dv =1/4пε ∫ vρ0 ejω (t-r/c) dv
r r
[v] = Retarded scalar potential V- in volts
[ρ] = ρ0 ejω (t-r/c) Retarded charge density,cm -3

Dipole is of length, coincide with z- axis and centre is at origin

Medium – air, E – field components are: Er ,Eθ,Eφ
r – Distance from origin to distant point P
Current in the dipole I = Im ejωt
Propagation time or retardation time by Lorenz equation.
[I] = Im ejω (t –r/c) = Imej (ωt-βr) ωr/c = 2πfr/c radians = 3600fr/c radiations.
(t-r/c) is used to represent the retarded potential at distant point.
Electric field Intensity in terms of scalar and vector potential is
E = - ∆v - ∂A /∂t V/m
V – Electric scalar potential at point P in volts
A – Vector potential at point p in wb/m

Magnetic field:
∆ x A =B = μ0 H H = 1/ μ0 [∆ x A] A/m
By using retarded potential, the eqn can be written as
E = - ∆ [v] - ∂A /∂t = -∆ [v] – jω [A] V/m (∂ /∂t = j ω)
H = 1/ μ0 [∆ x A] A/m

Where V = 1/4πε0 ∫ v[ρ] dv =1/4пε0 ∫ vρmejω (t-r/c) dv volts

r r
A = μ0/4π ∫ vJ/r dv = μ0/4π ∫ v Jm ejω (t-r/c) dv wb/m
r
Electric field depends on currents and charges.
Magnetic field depends only currents.
Determination of Retarded vector potential [A]:-
The dipole is placed along the Z- axis direction .Hence the current in Z-direction is the result. So, it has
only Z- component.
l/2
[A] = AZ = μ0/4π ∫ [I] / S dz where [I] =Im ejω (t –r/c)
-l/2
Z – Distance to a point on dipole
Im – peak value in time on current
μ0 - permeability of free space = 4 π x 10-7 H/m
ω - Radiation frequency 2 f where f is frequency in Hz
l/2 l/2
AZ = (μ0/4πs) Im ejω (t –r/c) ∫ dz = (μ0/4πs) Im ejω (t –r/c) [z]
-l/2 -l/2
AZ = (μ0/4πs) Im l ejω (t –r/c)
When r >>l and λ >>l
AZ = (μ0/4πr) Im l ejω (t –r/c)

Determination if retarded scalar potential: [v]

V = 1/4πε0 ∫ v[ρ] dv
S
[ρ] = ρm ejω (t-r/c)
Retarded charge dv = infinitesimal volume element
ε0 = Permitivity of free space = 8.854 x 10 -2 F/m
Potential can be given as in terms of charge and distance.

V = 1/4πε0 [Q] - [Q]

S1 S2 we know that dQ/dt = I and Q = ∫ [I] dt

The retarded charge [Q] =∫ [I] dt

S1 = r-l/2 cos θ S1 = r+l/2 cos θ

Now V = 1/4πε0 ∫ [I] dt - ∫ [I] dt

S1 S2

V = 1/4πε0 ∫Im ejω (t –S1/c) dt _ ∫Im ejω (t –S2/c) dt

S1 S2

By integrating with respect to t

∫ejω dt = ejωt
V = 1/4πε0 Im ejω (t –S1/c) _ Im ejω (t –S2/c)
S1jω S2jω

Substitute S1 and S2 values

 ejω(t – (r-l/2 cosθ)) _ ejω(t – (r+l/2 cosθ) )
V = I m
cc

4πε jω r- l/2 cosθ r + l/2 cos θ

r >>l and neglect (l/2 Cosθ)2 after rearrange

= Im ejω(t-r/c )
(r+l /2 cosθ). e(jωlcosθ)/2c _ (r-l/2 cosθ)e(-jωlcosθ)/2c
4πε0 jω
r2 - (l cos θ )2
Neglect

= Im ejω (t-r/c) (r+l /2 cosθ). e(jωlcosθ)/2c _ (r-l/2 cosθ)e(-jωlcosθ)/2c

4πε0 jωr2
e = cosθ +j sinθ
jθ

Similarly e(jωlcosθ)/2c= cos (ωl cosθ/2c) + j sin (ωl cosθ/2c)

For small values of Cos(ωl cosθ/2c) approximately equal to 1.
For small values of Sin (ωl cosθ/2c) approximately equal to ωl cosθ/2c
= Im ejω(t-r/c) (r+l /2 cosθ). (1+j ωl cosθ)_ (r- l/2 cosθ)(1-jωl cosθ)
4πε0 jωr 2
2c 2c

= Im ejω (t-r/c) r+l /2 cosθ. + j ωl cosθ + jωl2 cos2θ-r+ l/2 cosθ + jωl cosθ - jωl2 cos2θ
4πε0 jωr2 2c 4c 2c 4c

= Im ejω (t-r/c) l cos θ + jωl cosθ

4πε0 jωr2 c

= Im l cos θejω (t-r/c) 1 + r

4πε0 jωr2 cr

= Im l cos θejω (t-r/c) c + 1 (take out c)

4πε0 c jωr2 r
V = Im l cos θejω (t-r/c) 1 + c volts.
4πε0 c r j ωr2

Determination of Electric field components [Er, E θ, E φ]:

E = jωA - ∆V
Vector potential can be written as in terms of polar coordinates and its unit vectors.
A = Arar + Aθaθ + Aφaφ

Scalar potential
∆V = ar ∂v/∂r + aθ 1/r (∂v/∂θ) + aφ1/r Sin θ (∂v/∂φ)
The field has only Z- component. So, the vector potential can be written as
Aφ = 0 Ar = Az Cos θ Aθ = - Az Sin θ Aθ
Az
We know Az = μ0 Im l ejω (t- r/c) Ar
4πr
Now the electric field equation becomes θ
arEr+aθEθ +aφEφ = - jω (Arar + Aθaθ +Aφaφ) – ar ∂v/∂r-aθ 1/r(∂v/∂θ)
 - a φ1/r Sin θ (∂v/∂φ)
Form the above field components Er, E θ, E φ can be written as
Er = - jωAr - ∂v/∂r
Eθ = - jωAθ - 1/r (∂v/∂θ)
Eφ = - jωAφ- 1/r Sin θ (∂v/∂φ)

Er component
Er = - jωAr - ∂v/∂r

Eφ Component:
Eφ = - jωAφ – 1/Asinθ (∂v/∂φ)

E φ=0

Because there is no Aφ component and no

term with ‘φ’available in ‘V’ equation.
Determination of Magnetic field components: (Hr, Hθ, Hφ)

ar μ0Hr + aθ μ0Hθ + aφ μ0Hφ = ar (∆ x A)r + aθ (∆ x A) θ + aφ (∆ x A) φ

ar μ0Hr = (∆ x A) r = 0 H r= 0
aθ μ0Hθ = (∆ x A) θ = 0 Hθ = 0

Hφ component:
aφ μ0Hφ = aφr sinθ ∂/∂r (rAθ) - ∂/∂θ (Ar)
r sinθ
2

Hφ = 1/μ0r ∂/∂r (rAθ) - ∂/∂θ (Ar)

∂/∂r (rAθ) = ∂/∂r (– rA zsinθ)

= -∂/∂r + r μ0 Im lejω (t- r/c) sinθ

4πr
= -∂/∂r μ0 Im l ejω (t- r/c) sinθ
4π

Now Hφ = 1/μ0r ∂/∂r (rAθ) - ∂/∂θ (Ar)

= 1/μ0r jω μ0Iml sinθ ejω (t- r/c) + μ0Iml sinθ ejω (t- r/c)

Results: Er = Im l cosθejω (t- r/c) 1 + 1

2π ε0 cr2jωr3
Eθ = Im l sinθe jω (t- r/c)
jω + 1 + 1
4π ε0 c2 r cr2jωr3
Hφ = Iml sinθ e jω (t- r/c)
jω + 1
4π cr r2

HALF WAVE DIPOLE ANTENNA

Elementary dipole is the simplest practical antenna. It is a centre fed antenna having a length that is
very short in wavelength. The current amplitude is maximum at centre and decreases uniformly, at the
ends the current amplitude is zero. A dipole antenna is defined as a symmetrical antenna in which the two
ends are at equal potential relative to mid point.
Half wavelength dipole antenna is the fundamental radio antenna of metal rod or thin wire which
has a physical length of half wavelength in free space at the frequency of operation. The half wavelength
 dipole is employed as an element of an antenna arrays. Half wave dipole antenna produces maximum
radiation in the plane normal to the axis.

+h P Distant point
R = r-z cos

r
I m Sin (h-z)

l =2h Z=0

I m Sin (h+z)

-h
To calculate the radiation field of a half wave dipole, at a point P distribution is assumed as shown in
figure.
I = Im Sin (h-z) for Z > 0
I = Im Sin (h+z) for Z < 0
Im – maximum current
h
0 μ Idze− jβR μ Idze− jβR
∫ dA z =∫−h 4 πR
+∫
4 πR
0
R = r – z cos
And Z>0 I = Im Sin (h-z)
Z<0 I = Im Sin (h+z)
0
μI m sin β (h+z )e− jβ ( r− z cosθ) h
μI m sin β( h−z)e− jβ ( r−z cosθ )
∫ 4 π (r −zcos θ )
dz +∫
4 π (r−z cosθ )
dz
= −h 0
h
μI m sin β (h−z )e− jβ( r−z cosθ )
∫ 4 π (r −z cos θ)
dz
−0
Az = μIm e-j β r ∫ Sin (h+z) e+j β z cosθ dz + ∫ Sin (h-z) e+j β z cosθ dz
4π -h r-z cosθ 0 r-z cosθ
r-z cosθ ≈ r in denominator. z cosθ is small distance compared to r.
0 h
AZ = μIm e-j β r ∫ Sin (h+z) e+j β z cosθ dz + ∫ Sin (h-z) e+j β z cosθ dz
4πr -h 0
l = 2h =λ/2
h = λ/4 = π/2
Sin (h-z) and Sin (h-z) is given as
Sin (π/2-z) and Sin (π/2+z) = Cos z

Then 0 h
AZ = μIm e-j β r ∫ Cos z e+j β z cosθ dz + ∫ Cos z e+j β z cosθ dz
4πr -h 0
Change the order of Integration –h and 0 to 0 and h.
Cos (-z) = Cos z and e-j β z cosθ
h h
AZ = μIm e-j β r ∫ Cos z e-j β z cosθ dz + ∫ Cos z e+j β z cosθ dz
4πr 0 0
h
AZ = μIm e-j β r ∫ Cos z ej β z cosθ + e-j β z cosθ dz
4πr 0
h
= μIm e-j β r ∫ 2 Cos z Cos (β z cosθ) dz
4πr 0
We know 2 CosA CosB = Cos (A-B) +Cos (A+B)
So h
AZ = μIm e -j β r
∫ Cos (z -β z cosθ) + Cos (z + β z cosθ) dz
4πr 0
h
= μIm e-j β r ∫ Cos z (1-cosθ) + Cos z (1 +cosθ) dz
4πr 0 h
= μIm e-j β r Sin z (1-cosθ) + Sinz (1 +cosθ) dz
4πr (1-cosθ) (1+cosθ)
0 h
= μIm e-j β r (1+cosθ) Sin z (1-cosθ) + (1-cosθ) Sinz (1 +cosθ)
4πβr 1-cos 2θ 0
h
= μIm e-j β r Sin z (1-cosθ) + Sinz (1-cosθ) cosθ +
4πβr Sinz (1+cosθ) - Sinz (1+cosθ) cosθ
Sin 2 θ 0

Sin (z -z cosθ) = Sin (h -h cosθ) h = λ/4

= Sin (π/2 - π/2cosθ) = cos (π/2cosθ) h = 2π / λ. λ/4
Similarly = π /2
Sin (z -z cosθ) = Sin (π/2 +π/2cosθ) = cos (π/2cosθ)

AZ = μIm e-j β r Sin z (1-cosθ) + Sinz (1-cosθ) cosθ +

4πβr Sinz (1+cosθ) - Sinz (1+cosθ) cosθ
Sin 2 θ
Cos (π/2cosθ) + Cos (π/2cosθ) - Cos (π/2cosθ) cosθ +
= μIm e-j β r Cos (π/2cosθ)

4πβr Sin 2θ

= μIm e-j β r 2 Cos (π/2cosθ)

4πβr Sin2θ

AZ = μIm e-j βr Cos (π/2cosθ

2πβr Sin 2θ

Far Field Components:

Magnetic field component H φ:
From Maxwell Equation
∆xA=μH
μ Hφ = (∆ x H) φ = 1/r ∂/∂r (Aθ.r) - ∂/∂θ (Ar)

By considering only radiation field, ∂/∂θ (Ar) is neglected.

μHφ = 1/r ∂/∂r (-Az Sinθ .r)

= 1/r ∂/∂r - μIm e-j βr r.Sinθ2 Cos (π/2cosθ

 4πβr Sin 2θ

= 1/r - μImSinθ∂/∂r (e-j βr) 2 Cos (π/2cosθ)

4πβ Sin 2θ
= - μImSinθ e-j βr (-j β) 2 Cos (π/2cosθ)
4πβr Sin 2θ
μHφ = + j βμImSinθe -j βr
2 Cos (π/2cosθ)
4πβr Sin2θ
Hφ = + j Ime . Sinθ 2 Cos (π/2cosθ)
-j βr

4πr Sin2θ

Hφ = Im.Sinθ Cos (π/2cosθ) j = 1, e -j βr = 1

2πr Sin2θ

Hφ = Im Cos (π/2cosθ) Amp/m2

2πr Sinθ
Electric field components:
We know that E θ and Hφ can be related as

Eθ = ηHφ
Eθ = 120π
Hφ
Eθ = 120π Hφ
= 120π Ime-j βr 2 Cos (π/2cosθ)
4πr Sinθ
E θ = 30 Ime-j βr 2 Cos (π/2cosθ)
r Sinθ
E θ = 60Im Cos (π/2cosθ) Volts/meter
r Sinθ

Average power calculation:

The maximum power flow is obtained from pointing vector method
Pmax= E θ Hφ
From maximum power the average power flow is given by
P (average) = Pmax = E θ x Hφ
2
√2 √2
P (average) = 1/2 (E θHφ)

= 1 60 Im Cos (π/2cosθ) Im Cos (π/2cosθ)

2 r Sinθ 2πr Sinθ

SHORT DIPOLE
Step 1:
If the surface integral of the average pointing vector is taken over any surface enclosing an antenna,
the total power radiated is the result.
W = ∫ Pav ds.
Where W = power radiated in watts.
Pav = Average pointing vector in W/m2
Ds = Surface area in m2
Step 2:
We know in general the power can be given as
W = Irms2 R Irms- rms value of current.
Otherwise
 W = (Im / √2)2R = 1/2 Im2 R Im – max current, Irms = Im /√2
We use this base equation to compare with step 1 result to be calculated in the following steps.
Step 3:
The average pointing vector is given by
Pav = 1/2 Re (E x H*)
Step 4:
Substitute the far field components in P av equation such as Eθ, Hφ and the result is given as power
radiated
Pr = 1/2 Re (Eθ .Hφ*)
Step 5:
The E and H field components are related by
Eθ / Hφ = η0 = 120 π = √μ0 /ε 0
Now, Pr = 1/2 Re(Eθ .Hφ*) is given as
Pr = 1/2 Re(η0 Hφ Hφ*) Eθ = η0 Hφ
= 1/2 Hφ2Re (η0 )

= 1/2 Hφ 2 120 π
= 60 π Hφ 2
Step 6:
Calculation of total power by integrating the power radiated.
W = ∫ Pr ds.
Step 7:
Substitute the surface area and the limits.
2π π 2π π
W = ∫ ∫ Pr ds = ∫ ∫ Pr.r2Sinθ dθ dφ
00 0 0

Step 8:
Integral calculation.2π π
W = ∫ ∫ 60π Hφ2.r2Sinθ dθ dφ
00
We know Hφ = ω0 Im l Sinθ
Hφ 4πcr
(From Hφ = Im l Sinθ ejω (t-r/c) jω + 1 and taking modules and neglecting the
4π cr r 2 induction field we will get

2π π 4πcr
W = ∫ dφ ∫ 60π ω02 Im2 l 2Sin2θ r2 Sinθ dθ
0 0 π 16 π2 c2 r2
= 2π 60π ∫ ω02 Im2 l 2 Sin3θdθ
16 π2 0 c2
π
= 120 ω02 Im2 l 2 ∫Sin3θdθ π/2
16 c2 0
π/2 ∫Sin 3θdθ = 3-1/3 = 2/3
= 2 x 120 ω02 Im2 l2 ∫Sin3θdθ 0
16 c2 0

Step 9:
Equate the result with 1/2 Im2Rr or Irms2Rr
W = 1/2 Im2Rr
= 40 π Im2 (l/λ) 2
2

So 1/2 Im2Rr = 40 π2 Im2 (l/λ) 2

Step 10: Rr= 80π2 (l/λ) 2

Radiation resistance value
Rr = 80 x (3.1416)2 (l/λ) 2 π = 3.1416
= 80 x 9.8696 (l/λ)2
= 789.57204(l/λ)2

Rr≈ 790 (l/λ) 2Ω

FAR FIELDS COMPONENTS OF A SHORT DIPOLE ANTENNA (OR) OSCILLATING

ELECTRIC DIPOLE

Any linear antenna may be considered as large number of very short conductors connected in
series and hence it is essential to consider the radiation of such short conductor, called as short electric
dipole.
 A short electric dipole is assumed to be of length L << λ and is placed in coincide with the
Z-axis with its centre at the origin.
 Since it is so short, the current which is flowing through the dipole is assumed to be
constant throughout its length.
 The effect of this current is not felt instantaneously at a distant point P, but only after an
interval equal to the time required for the wave to propagate over the distant r,called
retardation time .

Retarded vector potential; Distance point

I = Im Sinωt Im – maximum current
I = instantaneous current
[I] =Im Sin ω (t-r/c) ω = 2пf
r – Distance Retarded time represented by phase angle ωr/c
c – Velocity of propagation
Consider a uniform plane wave in +Z direction.
[I] = Im Sin (ωt – βz)
Distance point P
= ImSin (ωt – βr) β =2п/λ ω =2пf
= ImSin ω (t- βr/ ω) f =c/ λ ω =2пc/ λ
= ImSin ω (t- r/c) βr/ ω = 2пr/ λ = r/c θ r- Distance
2пc/ λ dl
[I] = Im ejω (t-r/c) = Imej(ωt-βr) Amp.
[J] = Jm ejω (t-r/c) = Jm ej(ωt-βr) Amp/m2
While considering the distance
I current flow in z-direction
[A] = μ/4п ∫ v [I] /r dv
[A] = μ/4п ∫ v Jm ejω (t-r/c) dv
r
[A] = μ/4п ∫ v J (t-r/c) dv dv = ds.dl
r
= μ/4п ∫ v J (t-r/c) ds.dl ∫ J.ds = I
r
= μ/4п ∫ v I (t-r/c) dl
r
= μ/4п ∫ v Im Sin ω (t- r/c) dl
r
Scalar potential:
[v] = 1/4пε ∫v[ρ]dv = 1/4пε ∫vρ0 ejω (t-r/c) dv
r
 r
[v] = Retarded scalar potential V- in volt
[ρ] = ρ0 ejω (t-r/c) Retarded charge density, cm -3

Er

Eθ

P(r, θ,φ )

Dipole length l

Fields of Short Dipole

Dipole is of length, coincide with z- axis and centre is at origin

Medium – air, E – field components are: Er ,Eθ,Eφ
r – Distance from origin to distant point P
Current in the dipole I = Im ejωt
Propagation time or retardation time by Lorenz equation.
[I] = Im ejω (t –r/c) = Imej (ωt-βr) ωr/c = 2πfr/c radians = 3600fr/c radiations.
(t-r/c) is used to represent the retarded potential at distant point.
Electric field Intensity in terms of scalar and vector potential is
E = - ∆v - ∂A /∂t V/m
V – Electric scalar potential at point P in volts
A – Vector potential at point p in wb/m

Magnetic field:
∆ x A =B = μ0 H H = 1/ μ0 [∆ x A] A/m
By using retarded potential, the eqn can be written as
E = - ∆ [v] - ∂A /∂t = -∆ [v] – jω [A] V/m (∂ /∂t = j ω)
H = 1/ μ0 [∆ x A] A/m

Where V = 1/4πε0 ∫v[ρ] dv =1/4пε0 ∫v ρm ejω (t-r/c) dv volts

r r
A = μ0/4π ∫vJ/r dv = μ0/4π ∫ v Jm ejω (t-r/c) dv wb/m
r
Electric field depends on currents and charges.
Magnetic field depends only currents.
Determination of Retarded vector potential [A]:-
The dipole is placed along the Z- axis direction .Hence the current in Z-direction is the result. So, it has
only Z- component.
l/2
[A] = AZ = μ0/4π ∫ [I] / S dz where [I] =Im ejω (t –r/c)
-l/2
Z – Distance to a point on dipole
Im – peak value in time on current
μ0 - permeability of free space = 4 π x 10-7 H/m
ω - Radiation frequency 2 f where f is frequency in Hz
l/2 l/2
AZ = (μ0/4πs) Im ejω (t –r/c) ∫ dz = (μ0/4πs) Im ejω (t –r/c) [z]
-l/2 -l/2
AZ = (μ0/4πs) Im l e jω (t –r/c)

When r >>l and λ >>l

AZ = (μ0/4πr) Im l ejω (t –r/c)
Determination if retarded scalar potential: [v]
V = 1/4πε0 ∫v[ρ] dv
S
[ρ] = ρm ejω (t-r/c)
Retarded charge dv = infinitesimal volume element
ε0 = Permittivity of free space = 8.854 x 10 -2 F/m
Potential can be given as in terms of charge and distance.
V =1/4πε0 [Q] - [Q] we know that dQ/dt = I and Q = ∫ [I] dt
S1 S2
The retarded charge [Q] =∫ [I] dt
S1 = r-l/2 Cos θ S1 = r+l/2 Cos θ

Now V = 1/4πε∫ [I] dt - ∫ [I] dt

S1 S2
V = 1/4πε0 ∫Im ejω (t –S1/c) dt _ ∫Im ejω (t –S2/c) dt ∫ejωdt = ejωt
S1 S2 jω
By integrating with respect to t
r >>l and neglect (l/2 Cosθ) 2 after rearrange

= Im ejω (t-r/c) (r+l /2 cosθ). e(jωlcosθ)/2c _ (r-l/2 cosθ)e(-jωlcosθ)/2c

4πε0 jω r 2 - (l cos θ)2

Neglect
= Im e (r+l /2 cosθ)e
jω (t-r/c)
/ _ (r-l/2 cosθ)e(-jωlcosθ)/2c
(jωlcosθ) 2c

4πε0 jωr2
ejθ = Cosθ +j Sinθ
Similarly e(jωlcosθ)/2c= cos (ωl cosθ/2c) + j sin (ωl cosθ/2c)
For small values of Co s (ωl cosθ/2c) approximately equal to 1.
For small values of Sin (ωl cosθ/2c) approximately equal to ωl cosθ/2c

= Im ejω (t-r/c )
(r+l /2 cosθ). (1+j ωl cosθ)_ (r- l/2 cosθ)(1-jωl cosθ)
4πε0 jωr2 2c 2c

= Im ejω (t-r/c) r+l /2 cosθ. + j ωl cosθ + jωl2 cos2θ-r+ l/2 cosθ + jωl cosθ - jωl2 cos2θ
4πε0 jωr2 2c 4c 2c 4c

= Im ejω (t-r/c) l cos θ + jωl cosθ

4πε0 jωr2 c

= Im l cos θejω (t-r/c) 1 + r

4πε0 jωr2 cr

= Im l cos θejω (t-r/c) c + 1 (take out c)

4πε0 c jωr2 r

V = Im l cos θejω (t-r/c) 1 + c volts.

4πε0 c r j ωr2
Determination of Electric field components [Er, E θ, E φ]:

E = jωA - ∆V
Vector potential can be written as in terms of polar coordinates and its unit vectors.
A = Arar + Aθaθ + Aφaφ

Scalar potential
∆V = ar ∂v/∂r + aθ 1/r (∂v/∂θ) + aφ1/r Sin θ (∂v/∂φ)
The field has only Z- component. So, the vector potential can be written as
Aφ = 0 Ar = Az Cos θ Aθ = - Az Sin θ Aθ
Az
We know Az = μ0 Im l ejω (t- r/c) Ar
4πr
Now the electric field equation becomes θ
arEr+aθEθ +aφEφ = - jω (Arar + Aθaθ +Aφaφ) – ar ∂v/∂r-aθ 1/r(∂v/∂θ)
- a φ1/r Sin θ (∂v/∂φ)
Form the above field components Er, E θ, E φ can be written as
Er = - jωAr - ∂v/∂r
Eθ = - jωAθ - 1/r (∂v/∂θ)
Eφ = - jωAφ- 1/r Sin θ (∂v/∂φ)

Er component

Er = - jωAr - ∂v/∂r
V = Im l cos θejω (t-r/c) 1 + c
4πε0 cr jωr2

=
Im l cos θe jϖ( t−r/c )
4 πε 0 c [
jω 1 1 2 c
− − 2− 2−
cr r r jωr 3 ]
=
4 πε 0 c
− − 2−
[
Im l cosθe jϖ( t−r/c ) jω 2 2 c
cr r jωr 3 ]
[ ]
jϖ( t−r/c )
δv Im l cos θe jω 2 2 c
+ +
- δr =
4 πε 0 c cr r 2 jωr 3

_j Ar = - jAzcos  = - j
[ μ0 I m le jω( t−r/c ) ] 41πr ( cosθ )
− j ωμ0 I m l cosθe jω( t−r /c )
= 4 πr

Er =
− j ωμ0 I m l cos θe
4 πr
jω( t−r /c )

+
I m lcos θe jω (t−r /c )
4 πrε0 c [ jω 2 2 c
+ +
cr r 2 jωr 3 ]
=
4π r [
I m lcos θe jω (t−r /c ) j ωμ 0 1 jω 2 2 c
+ + +
ε 0 c cr r 2 jωr 3[ ]]
Relation between 0, 0 and c is given as
 1 1 μ= 1
C= √ 0 0
0
μ ε c =
2 μ 0 ε 0 c2 ε0

[ [ ]]
jω (t −r /c )
I m lcos θe − jω jω 2 1 c
2
+ 2 + 2
+ 3
4π rc ε 0 c ε 0 r ε 0 c r jωr
=

[ 1 1
]
jω (t−r /c )
I m lcos θe +
Er = 2 πε 0 cr jωr 3
2

Eθ Component;
Eθ = - jωAθ - 1/r (∂v/∂θ)
V = Im l Cos θejω (t-r/c) 1 + c
4πε0 cr jωr2
∂V/∂θ = Im l e jω (t-r/c)
1+ c
4πε0 cr jωr2 ∂/∂θ (Cos θ)

-jωAθ = -jω (-AzSinθ) = + jωAzSinθ

= jω μ0 Im l ejω (t- r/c) Sinθ

4πr
= jωμ0 Im l Sinθejω (t- r/c)
4πr
Eθ = jωμ0 Im l Sinθejω (t- r/c) +Iml Sinθ ejω (t- r/c) 1 + c
4πr 4πε 0 crr jωr2

Eφ Component:
Eφ = - jωAφ – 1/Asinθ (∂v/∂φ)

Eφ = 0
Because there is no Aφ component and no
term with ‘φ’available in ‘V’ equation.

Determination of Magnetic field components: (Hr, Hθ, Hφ)

ar μ0Hr + aθ μ0Hθ + aφ μ0Hφ = ar (∆ x A)r + aθ (∆ x A) θ + aφ (∆ x A) φ

ar μ0Hr = (∆ x A) r = 0
aθ μ0Hθ = (∆ x A) θ = 0

Results: Er Im l cosθejω (t- r/c) 1 + 1

2π ε 0 cr2jωr3
Eθ = Im l sinθe jω (t- r/c)
jω +1 + 1
4π c 2 r cr2 jωr3
Hφ = Iml sinθ ejω (t- r/c) jω + 1
4π cr r 2

Radiation resistance of Half wave Dipole Antenna.

Elementary dipole is the simplest practical antenna. It is a centre fed antenna having a length that is
very short in wavelength. The current amplitude is maximum at centre and decreases uniformly, at the
 ends the current amplitude is zero. A dipole antenna is defined as a symmetrical antenna in which the two
ends are at equal potential relative to mid point.
Half wavelength dipole antenna is the fundamental radio antenna of metal rod or thin wire which
has a physical length of half wavelength in free space at the frequency of operation. The half wavelength
dipole is employed as an element of an antenna arrays. Half wave dipole antenna produces maximum
radiation in the plane normal to the axis.

To calculate the radiation field of a half wave dipole, at a point P distribution is assumed as shown in
figure.
I = Im Sin (h-z) for Z > 0
I = Im Sin (h+z) for Z < 0
Im – maximum current
h
0 μ Idze− jβR μ Idze− jβR
∫ dA z =∫−h 4 πR
+∫
4 πR
0
R = r – z cos
And Z>0 I = Im Sin (h-z)
Z<0 I = Im Sin (h+z)
0
μI m sin β (h+z )e− jβ ( r− z cosθ) h
μI sin β( h−z)e− jβ ( r−z cosθ )
∫ 4 π (r −zcos θ )
dz +∫ m
4 π (r−z cosθ )
dz
= −h 0
h
μI m sin β (h−z )e− jβ( r−z cosθ )
∫ 4 π (r−zcos θ)
dz
−0
0 h
Az = μIm e-j β r ∫ Sin (h+z) e+j β z cosθ dz + ∫ Sin (h-z) e+j β z cosθ dz
4π -h r-z cosθ 0 r-z cosθ

r-z cosθ ≈ r in denominator. z cosθ is small distance compared to r.

0 h
AZ = μIm e-j β r ∫ Sin (h+z) e+j β z cosθ dz + ∫ Sin (h-z) e+j β z cosθ dz
4πr -h 0
l = 2h =λ/2
h = λ/4 = π/2
Sin (h-z) and Sin (h-z) is given a s
Sin (π/2-z) and Sin (π/2+z) = Cos z

h
AZ = μIm e-j β r ∫ Cos z ej β z cosθ + e-j β z cosθ dz
4πr 0
h
= μIm e-j β r ∫ 2 Cos z Cos (β z cosθ) dz
4πr 0
We know 2 CosA CosB = Cos (A-B) +Cos (A+B)
So h
AZ = μIm e-j β r ∫ Cos (z -β z cosθ) + Cos (z + β z cosθ) dz
4πr 0
h
= μIm e-j β r ∫ Cos z (1-cosθ) + Cos z (1 +cosθ) dz
4πr 0 h
= μIm e-j β r Sin z (1-cosθ) + Sinz (1 +cosθ) dz
4πr (1-cosθ) (1+cosθ)
0
 = μIm e-j β r (1+cosθ) Sin z (1-cosθ) + (1-cosθ) Sinz (1 +cosθ)
4πβr 1-cos 2θ

= μIm e-j β r Sin z (1-cosθ) + Sinz (1-cosθ) cosθ +

4πβr Sinz (1+cosθ) - Sinz (1+cosθ) cosθ
Sin 2 θ

Sin (z -z cosθ) = Sin (h -h cosθ) h = λ/4

= Sin (π/2 - π/2cosθ) = cos (π/2cosθ) h = 2π / λ. λ/4
Similarly = π /2
Sin (z -z cosθ) = Sin (π/2 +π/2cosθ) = cos (π/2cosθ)

AZ = μIm e-j β r Sin z (1-cosθ) + Sinz (1-cosθ) cosθ +

4πβr Sinz (1+cosθ) - Sinz (1+cosθ) cosθ

Sin 2 θ

Cos (π/2cosθ) + Cos (π/2cosθ) - Cos (π/2cosθ) cosθ +

= μIm e-j β r Cos (π/2cosθ)
4πβr Sin2θ

= μIm e-j β r 2 Cos (π/2cosθ)

4πβr Sin2θ

AZ = μIm e-j βr Cos (π/2cosθ

2πβr Sin2θ

Far Field Components:

Magnetic field component H φ:
From Maxwell Equation
∆xA=μH
μ Hφ = (∆ x H) φ = 1/r ∂/∂r (Aθ.r) - ∂/∂θ (Ar)

Hφ = Im.Sinθ Cos (π/2cosθ) j = 1, e -j βr = 1

2πr Sin2θ

Hφ = Im Cos (π/2cosθ) Amp/m2

2πr Sinθ
Electric field components:
We know that E θ and Hφ can be related as

E θ = ηHφ
E θ = 120π
Hφ
Eθ = 120π Hφ

= 120π Ime-j βr 2 Cos (π/2cosθ)

4πr Sinθ
E θ = 30 Ime-j βr 2 Cos (π/2cosθ)
r Sinθ

E θ = 60 Im Cos (π/2cosθ) Volts/meter

r Sinθ
Average power and Radiation Resistance of λ/2 Dipole Antenna.

Average power calculation:

The maximum power flow is obtained from pointing vector method
Pmax= E θ Hφ
From maximum power the average power flow is given by
P (average) = Pmax = E θ x Hφ
2 √2 √2
P (average) = 1/2 (E θHφ)

= 1 60Im x Cos (π/2cosθ) Im x Cos (π/2cosθ)

2 r Sinθ 2πr Sinθ
Pave= 1 60Im2 Cos (π/2cosθ) 2
2 2πr2 Sinθ
Pave = 30 I2rmsCos (π/2cosθ) 2 w/m2
πr2 Sinθ

Radiation Resistance of λ/2 Dipole Antenna:

The radiation resistance is calculated from the total power radiated which is nothing but surface integral of
average power. The elemental area of the spherical shell is given by
ds = 2πr2 Sinθ dθ
W = 60 I2 rms x 1.219
W = 73.140 I2 rms
From the general power equation
W = RI2 rms
From the above two eqn the radiation resistance is found to be 73.140Ω

Rr = 73Ω

YAGI- UDA ANTENNA

0.1λ 0.1λ

0.45λ
0.55λ0.5λ Direction of
desired beam radiation

Reflector length = 500 / f (MHz) feet

Driven element length = 475 / f (MHz) feet
Director length = 455 / f (MHz) feet

Working principle:
  A typical 3 elements Yagi antenna suitable for TV reception of moderate field strength.Futher
addition of directors can be done at intervals of 0.15λ i.e. to increase the gain even up to 12db
as is required in for fringe area reception. For example, 11 elements Yagi antenna the lengths
of D2, D3, D4, D5, D6 D7, D8, D9 are respectively 0.427 λ,0.40λ,0.38λ,0.36λ ,0.32λ,0.304 λ and
0.29λ.
 The spacing between elements and the lengths of the parasitic elements determine the phases
of the currents. Parasitic antenna in the vicinity of radiating antenna is used either to reflect or
to direct the radiated energy so that a compact directional antenna system could be obtained.
 Impedance of the director is capacitive and the phase of the current leads the induced emf.
 Impedance of the reflector is inductive and the phase of the current lags those of the induced
emfs.
 The total phase of the currents in the directors and reflectors is determined by their lengths and
spacing to the adjacent elements.
Thus, by properly adjusting length and spacing of the elements, Yagi-Uda array supports a
traveling wave whose performance is determined by the current distribution in each element and the
phase velocity of the traveling wave.
General characteristic:
1. If three elements array (one reflector, one driven and one director) is used, then such type of Yagi-uda
antenna is generally referred to as beam antenna.
2. It has unidirectional beam of moderate directivity with light weight, low cost and simplicity in feed
system design.
3. With spacing of 0.1λ to 0.15λ, a frequency band width of the order of 2% is obtained.
4. It provides gain of the order of 8db or front to back ratio of about 20 db.
5. It is also know as super directive or super gain antenna due to its high gain and beam-width per unit
area of the array. An antenna or array which provides directive gain, appreciable greater than that
obtainable from uniform distribution is known as super directive or super gain antenna.
Voltage and current relations in Parasitic Antennas.
One or more passive elements coupled magnetically to driven element is known as parasitic
antenna. The presence of parasitic element effects the directional pattern. The effect on the directional
pattern produced depends upon the magnitude and phase of the induced current in the parasitic elements
i.e. on the spacing of the antenna and tuning of the parasitic antenna.
The quantitative relations between voltages and currents of an antenna system involving parasitic
antennas can be given by considering the general equation.
V1 = I1 Z11 +I2 Z12 +I3Z13 +……..+InZ1n …….. (a)
V2 = I1 Z21 +I2 Z22 +I3Z23 +……..+InZ2n …….. (b)
V3 = I1 Z31 +I2 Z32 +I3Z33 +……..+InZ3n …….. (c)
…………………………………………………………….
Vn = I1 Zn1 +I2 Zn2 +I3Zn3 +……..+InZnn …….. (d)
V1,V2,V3 ,….Vn = Voltage applied to antenna no. 1, 2 3 …n
I1, I2, I3,……In = Current applied to antenna no. 1, 2 3 …n
Z11, Z22, Z33 …….Znn= Self- impedance of antenna no. 1, 2 3 …n
Z12, Z21, Z13 …….Z31 = Mutual impedance between antennas of subscript i.e. Z in means mutual impedance
between antenna no 1 and n.
If the individual antennas are not excited corresponding applied voltages e.g. V 1,V2,V3etc are zero.
Thus in an antenna system involving parasitic antennas, the voltages are zero in case of transmitting
while in receiving case these applied voltage are the voltages induced in each parasitic antenna by the
electromagnetic waves.

I2 I1
I1 I3
l2 l1 I2
l1
R DR
R DR D
a) Driven element with one parasitic b) driven element with two parasitic

V1 = I1Z11 +I2 Z12:V2 = I1 Z21 +I2 Z22

V1 = I1 Z11+I2 Z12
0 = I1Z12 +I2 Z22
Or I1 Z12 = -I2 Z22; I2 = - I1 (z12 /z22)
X 12
∠ tan−1
R12
( R12 + jX 22 ) X 22
‖ ‖ ∠ tan−1
I2 = - I1 ( R22 + jX 22 ) R22
Substitute the value of I2 in the above equation V1
V1 = I1 Z11–I1 (z12 /z22)
Z12 = I1 (Z11 - Z122/Z22 )
Or
VV1 1 V1
I1=

( )
ZZ 2 −V 1 ( Z 12) Z Z
ZZ11− − 122 12 Z12− 11 22
I2 = - I1 (z12 /z22) = -
11
Z 22Z 22 Z Z −Z 2
(z12 /z22) = 11 22 12 I2 =
Z 12
From the above I1 and I2, the input impedances of driven and parasitic elements are is given by
V1 Z 2
12
Z 1=
The above two =Z11indicate
equations − the presence of parasitic elements modifies input impedance of driven
I1 Z 22
elements as the mutual impedance
FOLDED DIPOLE V2 Z 11 Z 22
Z
A folded dipole
= =Z
2 is a dipole−
12 antenna with the ends folded back around and connected to each other,
I2 Z 12
forming a loop as shown in

A Folded Dipole Antenna of length L.

Typically, the width d of the folded dipole antenna is much smaller than the length L.
Because the folded dipole forms a closed loop, one might expect the input impedance to depend on the
input impedance of a short-circuited transmission line of length L. However, you can imagine the
folded dipole antenna as two parallel short-circuited transmission lines of length L/2 (separated at the
midpoint by the feed in Figure 1). It turns out the impedance of the folded dipole antenna will be a
function of the impedance of a transmission line of length L/2.
Also, because the folded dipole is "folded" back on itself, the currents can reinforce each other instead
of cancelling each other out, so the input impedance will also depend on the impedance of a dipole
antenna of length L.
Letting Zd represent the impedance of a dipole antenna of length L and Zt represent the impedance of a
transmission line impedance of length L/2, which is given by:

The folded dipole antenna is resonant and radiates well at odd integer multiples of a half-wavelength
(0.5 , 1.5 , ...), when the antenna is fed in the center as shown in Figure 1. The input impedance
of the folded dipole is higher than that for a regular dipole, as will be shown in the next section.
The folded dipole antenna can be made resonant at even multiples of a half-wavelength ( 1.0 , 2.0
,...) by offsetting the feed of the folded dipole in Figure 1 (closer to the top or bottom edge of the
folded dipole).
Half-Wavelength Folded Dipole
The antenna impedance for a half-wavelength folded dipole antenna can be found from the above
equation for ZA; the result is ZA=4*Zd. At resonance, the impedance of a half-wave dipole antenna is
approximately 70 Ohms, so that the input impedance for a half-wave folded dipole antenna is roughly
280 Ohms.
Because the characteristic impedance of twin-lead transmission lines are roughly 300 Ohms, the folded
dipole is often used when connecting to this type of line, for optimal power transfer. Hence, the half-
wavelength folded dipole antenna is often used when larger antenna impedances (>100 Ohms) are
needed.