UNIT III ANTENNA ARRAYS 9

N element linear array, Pattern multiplication, Broadside and End fire array –Concept of Phased
arrays, Adaptive array, Basic principle of antenna Synthesis-Binomial array
 UNIT III
ANTENNA ARRAYS
N ELEMENT LINEAR ARRAY
In this case n-isotropic point sources of equal magnitude and spacing arranged as a linear
array. Where n is any positive integer. The total field E at a large distance P is given by

E0 aaj ψ +E0 e1 jψ + E0 e 2 jψ +E 0 e 3 jψ +. .. E0 e( n−1) jψ

jψ 2 jψ 3 jψ ( n−1 ) jψ
E = ¿ E0 [1+e +e +2 e +. .. .+e ]

Where Ψ is the total phase difference of the field from adjacent sources as given by
Ψ = 2п /λ cos θ + α radian.
Where α is the phase difference of adjacent sources means source-2 with respect to 1 and 3 with
respect to 2, etc. Since the above eqn is a geometric series and each represents a phasor, therefore,
the amplitude of total field E and its phase angle can be obtained by addition. Now multiplying the
eqn E by e jψ.
E ejΨ= E0 (e jψ + e j2ψ + e j3ψ + e j4ψ + e j5ψ ……..+ e jnψ)
Subtracting the above eqn
E (1-ejψ ) = E0 (1-ejnΨ)
E = E0 [1-ejnψ] / [1-ej Ψ]
The above eqn may also obtain by the submission formula of geometric series as follows:
x = 1 + x + x2+ x3+…….xn-1
Y = 1-xn/1-x
And now rewrite the eqn E.
= E0 [1-ejnψ/2. ejn ψ/2] / [1-ej ψ/2.ejψ/2]
= E0 e –jnψ/2(e-jnψ/2- e +jnψ/2)
e-jψ/2 (e-jψ/2-e-j ψ/2)
= E0 e j (n-1) ψ/2 (ejnψ/2- e -jnψ/2)2j
2j (ejψ/2-e-j ψ/2)
= E0 e j (n-1) ψ/2 (sin n Ψ /2) / sin Ψ /2
The maximum value of sin n Ψ /2 / sin Ψ /2 will be n. Hence, the maximum value for field is given
by │E │ = n E0
Therefore, normal field for total far field at point P is given by

Enorm = E = 1/n Sin n Ψ /2

│E│max Sin Ψ /2

PATTERN MULTIPLICATION
PRINCIPLE OF MULTIPLICATION PATTERN:
“The total field pattern of array of non-isotropic but similar sources is the
multiplication of the individual source patterns and the pattern of an array of isotropic point
sources each located at the phase centre of individual source and having the relative amplitude and
phase, whereas the total phase pattern is the addition of the phase pattern of the individual sources
and that of the array of isotropic point sources”.
Individual source either it is in the array or isolated, it is assumed that pattern will
remain the same. The phase centre of array is the reference point for total phase pattern
Let E = total field
Ei (θ, Φ) = field pattern of individual source
Ea (θ, Φ) = field pattern of array of isotropic point source
Epi = phase pattern of individual source
Epa = phase pattern of array of isotropic point source
Then the total field pattern of an array of non-isotropic but similar source, may be written as
E = {Ei (θ, Φ) x E a(θ, Φ)} x. {Epi (θ, Φ) + E pa (θ, Φ)}
(Multiplication of (Addition of
Field pattern phase pattern))
The angle θ and Φ respectively, represent the,” polar and azimuth” angles. The principle of
multiplication of pattern is true for any number of similar sources. For two dimensional cases, the
resultant pattern is given by
E = 2E cos Ψ/2
E = 2E sin θ cos Ψ/2
Or E = E (θ).cos Ψ/2
E is a function of E (θ).The total field pattern in this case, is multiplication of field pattern known
as primary and cos Ψ/2 the secondary pattern or array factor that the principle is equally applicable
 3-dimensional case also. The principal of multiplication of pattern is a speedy method, for
sketching the pattern of complicated arrays, only by inspection and, therefore, the principle is
useful tool in designing of antenna arrays. Let us now use the principle to solve some typical cases.
Radiation Pattern of 4-Isotropic Element Fed in Phase, Spaced λ /2 Apart
The 4-elements of isotropic (non-directive) radiators are in a linear arrays in which elements
are placed at a distance of λ /2 and are fed in phase, i.e,. α = 0.We can find the radiation pattern of
array by two methods one of them is principle of multiplication.

Now consider element 1 and 2 as one unit is placed between the mid-way of the element and same
for element 3 and 4 as another unit as shown in figure.
Hence 4 elements spaced λ /2 have been replaced by two unit spaced λ, so problem now convert
into the determination of radiation pattern of two antennas spaced λ apart. Now by the multiplication
of pattern, the resultant radiation pattern of 4 elements is obtained by multiplying the radiation
pattern of individual element and array of two unit spaced λ.
The radiation pattern of is modified whether array is replaced by non-
isotropic antenna (i.e., directional antenna) in place of isotropic antennas (non-directional antennas).
Individual (unit pattern) Group pattern due to array Resultant pattern of 4
due to two individual of two isotropic point isotropic elements element source
Radiation pattern of 8-Isotropic Elements Fed In –Phase, Spaced λ/2 Apart.
The multiplication of pattern principle can be applied to broad side linear arrays of 8-
isotropic element.Inthis case 4-isotropic elements are assumed to be one unit and spaced 2λ apart.
The radiation of two isotropic antennas spaced 2λ apart fed in phase can be calculated as follows:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
 (a)

λ/4 λ/2 λ/2 λ/2 λ/4

2λ
(b)
(a) Linear array of 8-isotropic elements spaced λ/2
(b) Equivalent two units array spaced 2λ
700
600

400

Thus the radiation pattern of 8-isotropic element is obtained by multiplying the unit pattern
of 4 individual elements and group pattern of two isotropic radiator spaced 2λ and hence the
resultant is given below.
The important features of resultant pattern are as follows:
(i) The width of the principle lobe (between nulls) is the same as the width of the
corresponding lobe of the group pattern.
(ii) The sum of nulls in the unit and group pattern gives the number of nulls in the
resultant pattern assuming none of the nulls are coincident.
(iii) The number of secondary lobes in the resultant pattern can be determined from the
number of nulls in the resultant pattern.
END FIRE ARRAY
 An arrangement in which the principle of direction of radiation coincides with the
direction of array axis.
 It feed with same magnitude of current and out of phase.
 Unidirectional radiation pattern.
 Maximum radiation direction is parallel to the axis.
Ψ = βd cos θ + α
For BSA Ψ = 0, α = 0
For EFA Ψ = 0, α = - βd
= - (2п / λ) (λ/2)
Therefore α=-п
d =λ/4 α = - (2п / λ) (λ/4) = - п /2
Maximum direction is at θ =00 (or) 1800
Direction of pattern maxima:
Maxima direction of minor lobe is obtained by equating the numerator of the equation
ET = E0 Sin n Ψ/2
Sin Ψ/2 is to maximum value.
The maximum value occurs when Sin n Ψ/2 = + 1
Sin n Ψ/2 = 1
n Ψ/2 = Sin-1 (1)
n Ψ/2 = + (2N+1) п/2
Ψ = + (2N+1) п/n
βd cos θ + α = + (2N+1) п/n
Sub α = - βd
 βd (cos θ – 1) = + (2N+1) п/n
(Cos θ – 1) = + (2N+1) п
βdn
Cos θ = + (2N+1) п +1
βdn

(θmax)minor = Cos-1 + (2N+1) п +1

βdn

Put n=4, β = 2п /λ, d = λ/2 then

(θmax) minor = Cos-1 + (2N+1) п +1
2п /λ. 4. λ/2
= Cos-1( + (2N+1) п+1)
4п
= Cos-1 ( + (2N+1)+1) N =1, 2, 3,..
4
When N = 1 (θmax) minor = 75.50
N=2 (θmax) minor = 104.47 0
N=3 (θmax) minor = 138.59 0
Direction of pattern minima:
The minimum value obtained by equating Sin n Ψ/2 to its minimum.
Sin n Ψ/2 = 0
n Ψ/2 = + N п
Ψ = + 2N п / n
βd Cos θ + α = + (2N п) / n
α = -βd
βd (Cos θ – 1) = + 2N п/n
(Cos θ – 1) = + 2пN
βdn 1- Cos 2 θ = sin2 θ
2 Sin2 (θ/2) = + 2пN 2
βdn 2 sin2 θ = 1- Cos 2 θ
 Sin2 (θ/2) = + 2пN Cos 2 θ = 1-2 sin2 θ
2. (2п /λ) d n Cos θ = 1-2 sin2 θ/2
Sin (θ/2) = + (N λ / 2nd)

(θ/2) = Sin- 1 + Nλ
2nd

(θmin)minor= 2 Sin - + Nλ

2nd

N=1, 2, 3...
Put n = 4, d = λ/2
(θmin) minor= 2 Sin -1 + Nλ
2.4. λ/2
= 2 Sin -1 + N/4

When N =1 (θmin) minor = + 600

N=2 (θmin) minor = + 90 0
N=3 (θmin) minor = +120 0
Beam width of the minor lobe
BWFN = 2 x angle between first null and maximum of minor lobe.
BEFN =2xθ1
θ1 = θ min which is equal to 2 Sin -1 + (Nλ /2nd)
Sin θ min= θ min
θmin =2 Sin -1 + (Nλ/ 2nd)
Sin θ = θ
θmin = Sin -1 + (Nλ/ 2nd) θmin /2 = + (Nλ/ 2nd)
2
Sin (θ min / 2) = + (Nλ/ 2nd) θmin = 2 + (Nλ/ 2nd)
 θ 1 =+ 2Nλ =+ 4Nλ/ 2nd
nd
Length of array L = (n-1) d
L ~ nd
θ1 = + 2λ
L
=+ 2
(L/λ)

FNBW =2x + 2 radians Rad to deg =1800/п

L/λ Deg to rad = п/1800

FNBW = 114.6 + 2 radians

L/λ

FNBW = 162.1
L/ λ
BROAD SIDE ARRAY
An array of “n” isotropic sources is said be a broadside a broadside array if the phase
angle is such that it makes maximum radiation in a direction perpendicular to the line of array. The
phase angle is given by
Ψ = βd cos θ + α
In broadside array the elements or sources are in phase hence α =0 then the phase angle can be
written as Ψ = βd cos θ
To find the principal maxima the phase angle “Ψ” should also be zero.
Ψ = βd cos θ
βd cos θ = 0
Cos θ = 0
 θ = 900 or 2700
The principle maxima occurs when θ = 900 or 2700direction.
Pattern Maxima Directions
The total Electric field vector
Et = E0 sin nΨ/2 is maximum when the numerator is
Sin Ψ/2 maximum (i.e.)
Sin n Ψ/2 = 1
n Ψ/2 = +(2N+1) п/2 where N =1 ,2, 3….
Ψ/2 = +(2N+1) п/2n
Substitute Ψ = βd cos θ then
βd cos (θmax) = +(2N+1) п/n

(θmax) =cos-1 1/ βd + (2N+1) п/n

Where this θmaxrefers to the maximum of minor lobe.

For example- Consider linear array of 4 elements which are λ/2 apart.
Then (θmax) minor = Cos-1 1 + (2n+1) п/4
2п/λ.λ/ 2

If N=1 then (θmax) min = Cos + 3/4

(θmax) min = Cos-1 ( + 0.7500)
(θmax) min = + 41.40 or 138.60.

Minor lobe maxima of array of four isotropic sources are +41.40, +138.60,
-41.40, -138.60 only four maximas is exist because for
N = 2Cos (θmax) min= + 5/4 >1 but the Cosine function always <1.
Direction of pattern minima:
Et = minima when sin n ψ/2 = 0
Sin n ψ/2 = 0
n ψ/2 = sin-1(0)
 n ψ/2 = + 2 N п
n

Ψ/2 ψ= =+ 2 N +п 2 N п
n
n
W.k.t Ψ = βd cos θn+ α
βd cos θ + α = + 2 N п
n
Cos (θmin) minor = 1 + 2N п- α
βd n
Minimum direction of minor lobe

(θmin) minor = Cos-1 1 ( + 2N п -α )

βd n
Put α = 0, n =4, d = λ/2
(θmin) minor = Cos-1 1 (+ 2N п -0 )
2п/λ .λ/2 4
(θmin) minor = cos-1( + N/2)
N =1, 2, 3 …
When N =1 (θmin) minor = 600 (or) 1200
For N =2
(θmin) minor = 00 (or) 1800
The minor lobe minimas for four isotropic radiator are 00, 60 0,180 0, 1200,-600,-1200 .
Beam width of the Major Lobe:
Beam width of the major lobe is defined as the angle between the first null or double angle
between first null and major lobe of maximum direction. This may be denoted as complementary
angle γ = 900-θ because the beam width of major lobe is usually small.

BWFN = 2 x angle between first null and maximum of major lobe.

BEFN =2x γ
Complimentary angle is obtained from pattern minima angle
(90 – γ) = θ min = Cos-1 (+ Nλ/nλ)
Cos (90 – γ) = Sin γ = + Nλ/nd
Sin γ = γ if γ is very small
γ = + Nλ/nd
First null occurs when N = 1
γ1 = + λ/nd
Beam width = 2 x γ1
If L is the total length of the array ~ nd
BWFN = 2 γ1 = 2 λ/nd = 2 radians.
L/ λ
If d = λ/2
BWFN = 2 x λ/L x 57.3 degrees

HPBW = BWFN = 57.3 λ degree (or) 57.3 degrees

2 L L\ λ

PHASED ARRAY
Phased array usually means an electronically scanned array, a computer-controlled array of
antennas which creates a beam of radio waves that can be electronically steered to point in
different directions without moving the antennas. [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8] In an array antenna, the radio
frequency current from the transmitter is fed to the individual antennas with the correct phase
relationship so that the radio waves from the separate antennas add together to increase the
radiation in a desired direction, while cancelling to suppress radiation in undesired directions. In
a phased array, the power from the transmitter is fed to the antennas through devices called phase
shifters, controlled by a computer system, which can alter the phase electronically, thus steering
the beam of radio waves to a different direction. Since the array must consist of many small
antennas (sometimes thousands) to achieve high gain, phased arrays are mainly practical at the
high frequency end of the radio spectrum, in the UHF and microwave bands, in which the
antenna elements are conveniently small.
Phased arrays were invented for use in military radar systems, to scan the radar beam quickly
across the sky to detect planes and missiles. These phased array radar systems are now widely
used, and phased arrays are spreading to civilian applications. The phased array principle is also
used in acoustics, and phased arrays of acoustic transducers are used in medical ultrasound
imaging scanners (phased array ultrasonics), oil and gas prospecting (reflection seismology), and
military sonar systems.
The term is also used to a lesser extent for unsteered array antennas in which the phase of the
feed power and thus the radiation pattern of the antenna is fixed. [6][9] For example, AM broadcast
radio antennas consisting of multiple mast radiators fed so as to create a specific radiation pattern
are also called "phased arrays".

A passive phased array or passive electronically scanned array (PESA) is a phased array in
which the antenna elements are connected to a single transmitter and/or receiver, as shown in the
animation at top. PESAs are the most common type of phased array.
An active phased array or active electronically scanned array (AESA) is a phased array in which
each antenna element has its own transmitter/receiver unit, all controlled by the computer. Active
arrays are a more advanced, second-generation phased-array technology which are used in
military applications; unlike PESAs they can radiate multiple beams of radio waves at multiple
frequencies in different directions simultaneously.
A conformal antenna is a phased array in which the individual antennas, instead of being
arranged in a flat plane, are mounted on a curved surface. The phase shifters compensate for the
different path lengths of the waves due to the antenna elements' varying position on the surface,
allowing the array to radiate a plane wave. Conformal antennas are used in aircraft and missiles,
to integrate the antenna into the curving surface of the aircraft to reduce aerodynamic drag.
ADAPTIVE ARRAY

Smart antennas (also known as adaptive array antennas, digital antenna arrays, multiple antennas
and, recently, MIMO) are antenna arrays with smart signal processing algorithms used to
identify spatial signal signatures such as the direction of arrival (DOA) of the signal, and use
them to calculate beamforming vectors which are used to track and locate the antenna beam on
the mobile/target. Smart antennas should not be confused with reconfigurable antennas, which
have similar capabilities but are single element antennas and not antenna arrays.
Smart antenna techniques are used notably in acoustic signal processing, track and scan radar,
radio astronomy and radio telescopes, and mostly in cellular systems like W-CDMA, UMTS, and
LTE.
Adaptive antenna array is an array of multiple antenna elements that continuously adjusts its own
pattern with time by collecting feedback from the surrounding environment to keep the array in
optimum state. The principal purpose of an adaptive array sensor system is to enhance the
detection and reception of certain desired signals. In addition to shape the pattern and steer the
beam towards desired direction in space by applying the amplitude and phase weighting of the
array elements, the adaptive arrays sense the interference sources from the environment and
suppress them automatically by implementing advanced signal processing techniques. Hence the
adaptive array provides improved QoS. The major reason for the progress in adaptive arrays is
their ability to automatically respond to an unknown interfering environment by steering nulls
and reducing the sidelobe level in the
direction of interference, while keeping the desired beam characteristics. Adaptive antenna
arrays are commonly equipped with signal processors which can automatically adjust, by a
simple adaptive technique, the variable antenna weights of a signal processor so as to maximize
the signal to noise ratio.
Basic Working mechanism:
 Adaptive arrays utilize sophistic ated signal-processing algorithms to continuously distinguish
between desired signals, multipath, and interfering signals, as well as calculate their Directions
of Arrival (DOA). Basically, the DOA computes the direction of
arrival of all signals by computing the time delays between the antenna elements. This approach
updates its transmit strategy continuously based on changes in both the desired and interfering
signal locations. Lastly the adaptive algorithm, using a cost function, computes the appropriate
weights that result in an optimum radiation pattern. As a result, a beam is steered in the direction
of the desired signal and the user is continuously tracked, as he moves while placing nulls at
interfering signal directions by constantly updating the complex weights. As discussed
previously the direction of radiation of the main beam in an array depends upon the phase
difference between the elements of the array. Therefore it is possible to continuously steer the
main beam in any direction by adjusting the progressive phase difference between the elements.
The same concept forms the basis in adaptive array systems in which the phase is adjusted
beamform
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF ANTENNA SYNTHESIS
Antenna array in circular polarization is studied. A particular focus is made on the synthesis
objective defined on an axial ratio objective and not on the radiation pattern. A synthesis method to
design multielement antennas with couplings is presented. The main objective is to perform a
rigorous determination of the electromagnetic characteristics involved in the design, especially
with arrays of moderate sizes. The aim is to conceive jointly and efficiently the antenna and the
circuits to connect (feed distribution network, power amplifiers, reactive loads, etc.). The
subsequent objective is to improve the understanding and capabilities of strongly coupled antennas.
As a whole, the synthesis procedure is then applied to different antenna architectures in order to
show its efficiency and versatility. A focus on some antenna concepts where the management of
couplings is a key factor to improve the performances is presented. After describing the synthesis
procedure, the first category of coupled multielement antenna studied concerns radiating arrays in
linear or circular polarization. A design including couplings effects on an active array is also
presented. Then, the method is applied to parasitic antenna arrays and a specific investigation on
reflectarray antenna is performed as they can be considered as a particular case of parasitic arrays.
Several approaches have been investigated for radiating arrays, and especially for large arrays. The
easiest way to determine the radiation pattern consists in the product of an isolated element and an
array factor . However, it neglects both couplings and edge effects. A better and widely used
approach is based on the calculation of an active element pattern (AEP), which takes into account a
particular state of coupling . It corresponds to the behavior of a neighbored element when the
others are terminated in matched loads. The radiation pattern of the whole array is then calculated
with the array factor and this active pattern, assumed to be same whatever the element location on
the panel. Even if it does not account for edge effects and different coupling states, the results are
efficient provided the array is large enough. In order to overcome these edge effects, improvements
have been performed by considering an original induced element pattern Method (OIEPM) which
consists in considering an interior element group and two edge element groups to constitute a
subarray .Both edge effects and a better approximation of couplings are accounted provided that
the number of elements contained in the edge element group is enough and has been well defined.
In fact, the authors have shown that this choice has a strong impact on results. As they directly
impact the performances of the antennas in multibeam telecommunications, direct radiating arrays
(DRAs), radar, or in direction-of-arrival (DOA) estimations, mutual couplings have been widely
studied in the literature. Apart from the above methods, several formalisms directly refer to mutual
couplings and array synthesis. Circuit theory from has been extensively used and allows estimating
the effects of couplings with a relative easiness. More recently, detailed studies dedicated to mutual
coupling of antenna arrays operating in transmitting and receiving modes have been presented. The
authors consider the antenna array in receiving mode with an external plane wave excitation.
Moreover, the antenna elements are terminated with known impedances contrary to where open-
circuit terminations are considered in transmitting mode. This method, known as receiving-mutual-
impedance-method (RMIM), has proven a good efficiency for mutual coupling compensation in
DOA estimation. A recent review of other methods.Other formalisms have been developed to
design large array. The Floquet modal analysis is a very fast way to determine the radiation pattern
of a neighbored element considered in an infinite and periodic lattice . However, it supposes that
couplings are identical whatever the radiating element location, that is, that they are identical. The
edge effects are also neglected. Some extensions of this formalism have been presented in to
extract an active element pattern and the array scattering matrix.
BINOMIAL ARRAY
The excitation amplitude distribution can be obtained easily by the expansion of the binome in
Making use of Pascal’s triangle,
1
11
121
13 31
14 6 41
1 5 10 10 5 1
..............................
the relative excitation amplitudes at each element of an (N+1)
-element array can be determined. An array with a binomial distribution of the excitation
amplitudes is called a binomial array
. The excitation distribution as given by the binomial expansion gives the relative values of the
amplitudes. It is immediately seen that there is too wide variation of the amplitude, which is a
disadvantage of the BAs. The overall efficiency of such an antenna would be low. Besides, the
BA has relatively wide beam. Its HPBW is the largest as
compared to the uniform BSA or the Dolph –Chebyshev array.
1. It is an array in which the amplitudes of the antenna elements in the array are arranged
according to the coefficients of the binomial series and An array with non uniform
amplitude.
2. The amplitudes are arranged in such a way that the resultant radiation pattern has no
minor lobes.
3. Binomial arrays implement directive beams having different phase patterns in
comparison with each other. These beams can then be used to optimize the receiver
system. In the designing of the binomial array, a genetic algorithm is used that generates
the excitation amplitudes of the antenna array.
4. three distributions (uniform, binomial, and Tschebyscheff), a uniform amplitude array
yields the smallest half-power beam width. It is followed, in order, by the Dolph-
Tschebyscheff and binomial arrays. In contrast, binomial arrays usually possess the
smallest side lobes followed, in order, by the Dolph-Tschebyscheff and uniform arrays.
As a matter of fact, binomial arrays with element spacing equal or less thanλ/2 have no
side lobes. It is apparent that the designer must compromise between side lobe level and
beam width. A criterion that can be used to judge the relative beam width and side lobe
level of one design to another is the amplitude distribution (tapering) along the source. It
has been shown analytically that for a given side lobe level the Dolph-Tschebyscheff
array produces the smallest beam width between the first nulls. Conversely, for a given
beam width between the first nulls, the Dolph-Tschebyscheff design leads to the smallest
possible side lobe level. Uniform arrays usually possess the largest directivity. However,
super directive (orsuper gain as most people refer to them) antennas possess directivities
higher than those of a uniform array. Although a certain amount of super directivity is
practically possible, super directive arrays usually require very large currents with
opposite phases between adjacent elements. Thus the net total current and efficiency of
each array are very small compared to the corresponding values of an individual
element.An array of an even number of isotropic elements 2M (where M is an integer) is
positioned symmetrically along the z-axis, as shown in Figure (a). The separation
between the elements is d, an dM elements are placed on each side of the origin.