Infinitesimal Dipole

1
E and H in Spherical Coordinates
……………… (1-a)

……………… (1-b)

……………… (2-a)

……………… (2-b)

……………… (2-c)

2
Power Density

……………… (3-a)

……………… (3-b)

3
Far-Field (kr >> 1) Region

4
 Radiation pattern
Radiation pattern – variation of the field intensity of an antenna as an
angular function with respect to the axis

Three-dimensional representation of the

radiation pattern of a dipole antenna

5
Radiation pattern

6
Radiation pattern

7
Radiation pattern

8
 Antenna Parameters
Antenna – structure or device used to collect or radiate electromagnetic waves
Array – assembly of antenna elements with dimensions, spacing, and illumination sequency
such that the fields of the individual elements combine to produce a maximum intensity
in a particular direction and minimum intensities in other directions
Beamwidth – the angle between the half-power (3-dB) points of the main lobe, when
referenced to the peak effective radiated power of the main lobe
Directivity – the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction from the antenna to the
radiation intensity averaged over all directions
Effective area – the functional equivalent area from which an antenna directed toward the
source of the received signal gathers or absorbs the energy of an incident electromagnetic
wave
Efficiency – ratio of the total radiated power to the total input power
Far field – region where wavefront is considered planar
Gain – ratio of the power at the input of a loss-free isotropic antenna to the power supplied to
the input of the given antenna to produce, in a given direction, the same field strength at
the same distance

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Isotropic – radiates equally in all directions
Main lobe – the lobe containing the maximum power
Null – a zone in which the effective radiated power is at a minimum relative to
the maximum effective radiation power of the main lobe
Radiation pattern – variation of the field intensity of an antenna as an angular
function with respect to the axis
Radiation resistance – resistance that, if inserted in place of the antenna,
would consume that same amount of power that is radiated by the antenna
Side lobe – a lobe in any direction other than the main lobe
Peak Side Lobe Level (PSLL): Maximum value of side lobe with respect to
main beam maximum.

10
 Antenna arrays
Antenna array composed of several similar radiating elements (e.g.,
dipoles or horns).
Element spacing and the relative amplitudes and phases of the
element excitation determine the array’s radiative properties.

Linear array examples

Two-dimensional array of
microstrip patch antennas

11
12
13
Two Element Arrays

14
Far-field Observations

15
The total field of the array is equal to the field of a single element positioned at
the origin multiplied by a factor which is widely referred to as the array factor.
Thus for the two-element array of constant amplitude, the array factor is given by

16
The far-zone field of a uniform two-element array of
identical elements is equal to the product of the field of a
single element, at a selected reference point (usually the
origin), and the array factor of that array.

E(total) = [E (Single element at reference point)] X [Array Factor]

17
 • Fnd the nulls of the total field of two element array when d = λ/4 and
a) ß = 0 b) ß =+π/2 c) ß = - π/2
Kd= (2π/λ)*(λ/4)
= π/2
Soln: a) ß = 0

The normalized field is given by

Etn = Cos Cos (  cos  )
4
Thus the nulls are obtained by setting total field equal to zero
Etn = Cos Cos (  cos  ) | =n = 0
4
0  cos  ) | = = 
Cos n = 0   n = 90 Or
Cos (
4  = n
0 cos
2
 cos  = 2 Does not exist
The only null occurs at θ = 90 and is due to the pattern of the individual
elements. The array factor does not contribute any additional nulls because
there is not enough separation between the elements to introduce a phase
difference of 180 between the elements, for any observation angle.
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b) ß =+π/2

The normalized field is given by

Etn = Cos Cos[  (cos  + 1)]
4
Thus the nulls are obtained by setting total field equal to zero
Etn = Cos Cos[  (cos  + 1)] | = n = 0
4
Cos n = 0   n = 900
Cos[  (cos  + 1)] | = n = 0
4
 (cos  + 1) =    = 0  (cos  + 1) = − 
4 n 2
4 n 2 n
 cos  n + 1 = −2
 cos  n = −3   n = does not exist

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20
c) ß = - π/2

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22
23
Example: 2-element array
Isotropic radiators

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Example: 2-element array
Half-wave dipole radiators

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Example: 2-element array
Half-wave dipole radiators

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 Antenna arrays
The far-field radiation characteristics Sr(, ) of an N-element array
composed of identical radiating elements can be expressed as a product of
two functions:

Sr (,) = Fa (,) Se (,)

Where Fa(, ) is the array factor, and Se(, ) is the power directional pattern
of an individual element.
This relationship is known as the pattern multiplication principle.
The array factor, Fa(, ), is a range-dependent function and is therefore
determined by the array’s geometry.
2
N −1
( )
Fa ,  =  Ai e − jkr i

i =0
The elemental pattern, Se(, ), depends on the range-independent far-field
radiation pattern of the individual element. (Element-to-element coupling is
ignored here.)

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 Antenna arrays
In the array factor, Ai is the feeding coefficient representing the
complex excitation of each individual element in terms of the
amplitude, ai, and the phase factor, i, as
Ai = ai e j i
and ri is the range to the distant observation point.

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Antenna arrays

Back to N
element Arrays
29
 Antenna arrays
For a linear array with equal spacing d between adjacent
elements, which approximates to

ri  R − nd cos
For this case, the array factor becomes
2
N −1
Fa ( ,  ) = Fa ( ) =  n e
a e
n= 0
j n j n k d cos

Note that the e-jkR term which is common to all of the

summation terms can be neglected as it evaluates to 1.

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 Antenna arrays
By adjusting the amplitude and phase of each
elements excitation, the beam characteristics can
be modified.

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N-ELEMENT LINEAR ARRAY: UNIFORM
AMPLITUDE AND SPACING

(6-a)

……………… (6-b)

This can be re-written as

………………(7-a)

……………… (7-b)

Go to Array
Diagram
32
Multiplying both sides of (7) by ejψ it can be written as

……… (8)

Subtracting (7) from (8) reduces to

……… (9)

which can also be written as

……… (10)

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 If the reference point is the physical center of the array, the array factor
of (10) reduces to

……… (11)

For small values of ψ, the above expression can be approximated by

……… (12)

The maximum value of (11) or (12) is equal to N. To normalize the array factors
so that the maximum value of each is equal to unity, (11) or (12) are written
in normalized form as
……… (13)

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Or,

……… (14)

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 Nulls of the array factor
Nulls of the array are obtained by equating (13) or (14) to zero.

……… (15)

Since

For n = N, 2N, 3N,..., (13) attains its maximum values because it reduces
to a sin(0)/0 form. The values of n determine the order of the nulls (first,
second, etc.). For a zero to exist, the argument of the arccosine cannot
exceed unity. Thus the number of nulls that can exist will be a function of
the element separation d and the phase excitation difference ß.

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 The maximum values of Array Factor

The maximum values of (13)

occur when

……… (16)

The array factor of (14) has only one maximum and occurs when m =
0 in(16). That is,

……… (17)

It makes the observation angle ψ = 0.

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The 3-dB point of the array factor
The 3-dB point for the array factor of (14) occurs when

……… (14)

……… (15)

See the function “Sin x / x”

Eqn (15) Can also be written as

……… (16)

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39
For large values of d(d >> λ), it reduces to

……… (17)

The half-power beam-width h can be found once the angles of the

first maximum (θm ) and the half-power point (θh) are determined. For a
symmetrical pattern

h = 2  m −  h ……… (18)

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 Secondary maxima (maxima of minor lobes)
In (14), secondary maxima (maxima of minor
lobes) occur approximately when the
numerator attains its maximum value. That is,

……… (18)

Eqn (19) can also be written as

……… (19)
For large values of d (d >> λ), (19) reduces to

……… (20)
Maximum Sidelobe of Large Uniformly Excited Linear Arrays

The maximum of the first minor lobe of (13) occurs approximately when

……… (13)

( )
N
2
=  2s +1 
2 s =1
……… (21)

Therefore, ……… (22)

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 • At that point, the magnitude of (14) reduces to

……… (23)

In dB, (23) is equal to

……… (24)

Thus the maximum of the first minor lobe of the array factor of
(14) is 13.46 dB down from the maximum at the major lobe.

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 Broadside Array
The maximum radiation of an array directed normal to the axis
of the array [broadside; θ0 = 900 of Figure ]
ψ = kd cos θ + ß = 0
Since, it is desired to have the first maximum
directed toward θ0 =900
ψ = kd cos θ + ß| θ =90
Then ß = 00

Thus, it is necessary that all the elements

must have the same phase excitation (in
addition to the same amplitude excitation).

N.B.: The condition for the broadside array

is independent of inter-element spacing
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 Grating Lobes
To ensure that there are no principal maxima in other directions, which
are referred to as grating lobes, the separation between the elements
should not be equal to multiples of a wavelength (d = nλ, n = 1, 2, 3 ...)
when ß = 0.
If d = nλ, n = 1, 2, 3,... and ß = 0, then

Thus, with ß = 0 and d = nλ, in addition to having the maxima along θ0 =

900, there are additional maxima directed along the axis (θ0= 00, 1800) of
the array (end fire radiation).
To avoid any grating lobe, the largest spacing between the
elements should be less than one wavelength (d <λ)
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 Example of Grating Lobes
In order to illustrate, let us consider the array factor of a 10-element (N =
10) uniform array with ß = 0 and d = λ/4. The plot of the array factor is
shown Fig.(a).

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47
 Ordinary End-Fire Array
To direct the first maximum toward θ = 00

If the first maximum is desired toward θ = 1800

To have only one end-fire maximum and to avoid any grating lobes,
the maximum spacing between the elements should be less than
dmax<λ/2.

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Three-dimensional amplitude patterns for end-fire arrays toward θ = 0
and 180 (N = 10, d = λ/4).

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 Phased (Scanning) Array
Let us assume that the maximum radiation of the array is
required to be oriented at an angle θ0 . To
accomplish this, the phase excitation ß between the
elements must be adjusted so that

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 Hansen-Woodyard End-Fire Array

Necessary Conditions for

the increased Directivity

51
 Necessary Conditions for the increased directivity in
Hansen-Woodyard End Fire Array
…………..1(a)

…………..1(b)

For maximum radiation along θ = 00

…………..2(a)
|ψ|=|kd cos θ + ß|θ=0 = π/N and |ψ|=|kd cos θ + ß|θ=180 ≈ π

For maximum radiation along θ = 1800 …………..2(b)

|ψ|=|kd cos θ + ß|θ=180 = π/N and |ψ|=|kd cos θ + ß|θ=0 ≈ π

For an array of N elements, the condition of |ψ| ≈ π is satisfied by using 1(a)

or 1(b) and choosing for each a spacing of

Or,

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 Directivity Calculation of N-element
Linear Array
1. Broadside Array

59
60
61
 Example
1. Given a linear, broadside, uniform array of 10
isotropic elements (N = 10) with a separation
of λ/4(d = λ/4) between the elements, find the
directivity of the array.

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 Null Directions for Arrays of N Isotropic
Point Sources of Equal Amplitude and Spacing.

AF = 1 +

1 − e jN
AF =
1 − e j
AF=0, rovided that the denominator of the equation is not zero and
when jN
e =1  =
2

2 n
d cos  +  = d r cos  +  = 
N
N = 2 n 2
dr = d


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 2 n
d r cos  +  = 
N
 2 n 
  1 …………….(1)
n = arccos   −  
 N  dr 
In a broadside array, β=0.
Therefore, for the this case (1), becomes

 2 n   
n = arccos    = arccos   n  …………….(2)
  Nd 
 Ndr 

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• Example: Determine the null directions for a broadside array of four
isotropic elements with inter-element spacing of λ/2.


Soln: N = 4, d = and  = 0
2
 n 2   n
n = arccos     = arccos   
 4   2

For, n=1, θn=± 60°and ±1200 ,and

for n=2 , θn=0°and 1800.These are
the six null directions for this array.

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 We have, 2 2 n
 = d cos  +  = d r cos  +  = 
 N
 2 n   n 

 n = arccos    = arccos    …………….(1)
  
 Nd r  Nd
If θ is replaced by its complementary
angle (say, γ), eqn (1) becomes
 n 
n = arcsin   
 Nd 
If the array is long, so that Nd >> nλ,

n
n 
Nd

The first nulls either side of the maximum occur for
n=1.These angles will be designated as , γ1 . Therefore,
 01 
Nd
The total beam width of the main lobe between first nulls for broadside array is then
2
2 01 
Nd
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 Nulls for the end fire Array
 2 n 
  1 …………….(1)
n = arccos   −  
 N  dr 
The condition for ordinary end fire array is that  = −dr
Then, (1) becomes,

 2 n 
  1
n = arccos   + dr    2n 
 N  dr  n = 2 arcsin   
2n  Nd r 
cos  n − 1 = 
Nd r  n 
n = 2 arcsin   
n  2n   2 Nd 
= arcsin   
2  Nd r 
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Example: Determine the null directions for an endfire array
of four isotropic elements with inter-element spacing of λ/2.


N = 4, d = and  = -
2

 n
n = 2arcsin   
 4

For n=1, θn=± 60° and for n=2, θn= ±900 etc.

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If the array is long, so that Nd >> nλ,

 n  n 2n
 n =  n = 2arcsin    2 
 2 Nd 2 Nd Nd
 

2
 01 
Nd

2
2 01 2
Nd

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 Nulls for Hansen Woodyard End Fire
Array with increased Directivity
The condition for ordinary end fire array is that  = −(d +  )
r N
Thus for this case,
 n
 = dr cos +  = dr cosn − (dr + ) = dr cos(n − 1) − = 2
N N N

2n  
cos  n − 1 = + = ( 2n − 1)
Nd r Nd r Nd r
n      
= arcsin   ( 2 n − 1)   n = 2 arcsin   ( 2n − 1) 
2  2 Nd 
r  2 Nd r 
  
 n = 2 arcsin   ( 2n − 1) 
 4 Nd 
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If the array is long , so that Nd >> nλ,

  
 n = 2 arcsin   ( 2n − 1) 
 4 Nd 


 01 
Nd


2 01 2
Nd

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 Example
• For a five-element uniform linear array with
half wave-length spacing, find the width of the
main beam for (a) broadside operation, and (b)
end fire operation.

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