FUNDAMENTAL PARAMETERS OF ANTENNAS

1) RADIATION PATTERN:-
• A mathematical function or a graphical representation of the radiation
properties of the antenna as a function of space coordinates. Radiation
properties include power flux density, radiation intensity, field strength,
directivity, phase or polarization.

• A trace of the received electric (magnetic) field at a constant radius is called

the amplitude field pattern. On the other hand, a graph of the spatial
variation of the power density along a constant radius is called an
amplitude power pattern.
 z
antenna 
Radiation Far field (Fraunhofer) region
pattern r
radiating near field(Fresnel) region
H
E Reactive near
field region
H
D
R1

x E
R2

y


Fig:- Omni directional antenna pattern Fig:- Field regions of an antenna

BEAM AREA OR BEAM SOLID ANGLE:-

The measure of a plane angle is radian, but the measure of a solid angle is
steradian.
One steradian is solid angle with its vertex at the center of a sphere of radius r that is
subtended by a spherical surface area equal to that of a square with each side of
length r as shown

a) Steradian b) Radian

Fig:- Geometrical arrangement for defining a radian and steradian.

 the area of a sphere of radius r is A = 4 r 2 . The infinitesimal area on the
surface of sphere of radius r is given by,

dA = sin  d d ……(3)

The element of solid angle of a sphere can be written as,

dA
d  = 2 = sin  d d …….(4)
r
2) RADIATION POWER DENSITY:-
Poynting vector is defined as,
S = EH ……..(5)
S= Instantaneous Poynting vector (W/m2)
E = Instantaneous electric-field intensity (V/m)
H= Instantaneous magnetic-field intensity (A/m)

P=  S
S
ds =  S .nda
S
……….(6)

Pn = instantaneous total power (W)

= unit vector normal to the surface
da = infinitesimal area of the closed surface (m2)
Now the complex fields E and H are related with their instanteneous field
intensities as

E ( x, y, z; t ) = Re E ( x, y, z ) et 
H ( x, y, z; t ) = Re  H ( x, y, z ) et  …….(7)
Now Poynting vector can be written as,
1 1
S = E  H = Re E  H  + Re E  He 2t  …….(8)
2 2
The time average Poynting vector(average power density) can be written as,
1
Sav ( x, y, z ) = Re E  H  ……….(9)
2
The average power radiated by an antenna(radiated power) can be written as,

1
Prad = Pav =  Srad  ds =  Sav  nda =  Re(E  H* )  ds
S S
2 S ……(10)
3) RADIATION INTENSITY:-
The power radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle is called the radiation
intensity, U
Prad =
U max …......(11)

U = r Wrad 2
……..(12)
Where,
U = radiation intensity (W/unit solid angle)
Wrad = radiation density (W/m 2)

2 
Prad =  Ud  =

  U sin  d d 
0 0
…….(13)

Where,
d = element of solid angle = sin  d d 
4) DIRECTIVITY:-

The ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction from the antenna to
the radiation intensity averaged over all directions. The average radiation
intensity is equal to the total power radiated by the antenna divided by 4π. If
the direction is not specified , the direction of maximum radiation intensity
is implied
U 4 U
D = = .......(14)
U0 Prad

If the direction is not specified, it implies the direction of maximum

radiation intensity (maximum directivity) expressed as
U max 4 U max
Dmax = D0 = =
U0 Prad …….(15)
5) BEAMWIDTH:-
It is the angular separation between two identical points on opposite side of the
pattern maximum.

Half-Power Beamwidth (HPBW):- In a plane containing the direction of the

maximum of a beam, the angle between the two directions in which the radiation
intensity is one-half value of the beam.

First-Null Beamwidth (FNBW):-

The angular separation between the first nulls of the pattern.

Major lobe

FNBW

HPBW

Side lobe
 RADIATION INTEGRALS AND AUXILIARY
POTENTIAL FUNCTIONS
VECTOR POTENTIAL A FOR AN ELECTRIC CURRENT
SOURCE J:-
Vector identity:  B = 0 (1)    A = 0 (2)
Where A is an arbitrary vector (vector potential)
B A =  H A =  A (3) H =
1
 A (4)

A

Substituting this in Maxwell’s curl equation we get,

 EA = − j H A == − j A   ( E A + j A) = 0 (5)
Using the Vector Identity   (− e ) = 0 (6)
 e represents an arbitrary electric scalar potential which is a
function of position.
E A = − e − j A (7)
Using Vector Identity
 A = (. A) −  2 A (8)

  H A = (. A) −  2 A (9)
From Maxwell’s Equation
 H A = J + j EA (10)
E A = − e − j A
(11)
From (9) & (10)

Combining (7) & (11)

(12)

Where, (13)
 Helmholtz theorem: Any vector field due to a finite
source is specified uniquely if both the curl and the
divergence of the field are specified.
Lorentz gauge condition
1
 A = − je  e = −  A
j
Helmholtz - wave equation (14)
2 A + k 2 A = −  J
From equation (7)
E A = − e − j A
1
E A = − e − j A = − j A − j  ( A) (15)

 (16)

E A = − e − j A

 e + k e = −
2 2

(17)
 ELECTRIC VECTOR POTENTIAL F FOR A MAGNETIC CURRENT
SOURCE M:-
The magnetic field is a solenoidal field, i.e., ∇⋅B = 0, because there are no
physically existing magnetic charges. Therefore, there are no physically existing
magnetic currents either. However, the fictitious (equivalent) magnetic currents
(density is denoted as M) are a useful tool when applied with the equivalence
principle. These currents are introduced in Maxwell’s equations in a manner dual to
that of the electric currents J. Now, we consider the field due to magnetic sources
only i.e., field generated by a harmonic magnetic current in a homogeneous
region, with J = 0, ρ = 0 but, M ≠ 0.
Therefore, ∇ · D = 0.
1 (1)
Hence, EF can be pressed as EF = −   F

From Maxwell’s curl equation   H F = j EF (2)

(3)

m is arbitrary magnetic scalar potential which is a function of position

Taking curl in (1) (4)

 Equating (4) with Maxwell’s Eqn  EF = − M − j H F (5)

Combining (4) and (5) (6)

From (3), Substituting in (6)

(7)

Applying Lorenz gauge condition

1
 F = − jm  m = −  F (8)
j

 2 F + k 2 F = − M (9)

j
H F = − j F − ( F ) (10)

 ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS FOR ELECTRIC (J) AND
MAGNETIC (M) CURRENT SOURCES:-
Auxiliary potential functions A and F generated, respectively, by J and M, the
corresponding electric and magnetic fields have to determine. The total fields
will then obtain by the superposition of the individual fields due to A and F (J
and M). The steps to find the fields are as follows:
1. Specify J and M (electric and magnetic current density sources).

2.(a) Find A (due to J) using

(b) Find F (due to M) using

3. (a) Find HA and EA from A.

EA can also be found using Maxwell’s equation of  H A = J + j EA with J = 0.

b. Find EF and HF from F.

HF can also be found using Maxwell’s equation of  E = −M − j H with M = 0.

F F
4. The total fields are then determined by

1 1
E = E A + EF = − j A − j ( A) −  F
 

Or

1 1
H = H A + HF =  A−   EF
 j

Or
 SOLUTION OF THE INHOMOGENEOUS VECTOR POTENTIAL
WAVE EQUATION
It has been indicated that
the solution of the 2 A + k 2 A = −  J (1)
inhomogeneous vector
wave equation as in (1) is (2)
given (2).

To derive let us assume that an infinitesimal source, is placed at the origin.

Since the current density is directed along the z-axis (JZ) , only an AZ component will exist.
ELECTRIC FIELD ORIENTATION
 Thus, with current source J 𝛻 2 𝐴𝑧 + 𝑘 2 𝐴𝑧 = − 𝜇𝐽𝑧 (3)

with source - free 𝛻 2 𝐴𝑧 + 𝑘 2 𝐴𝑧 = 0 (4)

Since in the limit the source is a point, it requires that AZ is not a function of
direction (θ and φ); in a spherical coordinate system, AZ = AZ(r).

Thus, (5)

Which when expanded reduces to

(6)

It has two independent solution

outwardly traveling wave (7)
(in the radial direction)
inwardly traveling wave (8)
(assuming an eiωt time variation)
The source is placed at the origin with the radiated fields traveling in the
outward radial direction. Therefore, the solution of (7) is taken, or

(7)

In the static case ω = 0, k = 0. Thus (7) reduces to

(9)

Thus at points removed from the source, the time-varying and the static solutions of
(7) and (9) differ only by the e-jkr factor; or the time-varying solution of (7) can be
obtained by multiplying the static solution of (9) by e-jkr

In the presence of the source (JZ ≠ 0) and k = 0, the wave equation (3) reduces to

𝛻 2 𝐴𝑧 = − 𝜇𝐽𝑧 (10)

Eqn (10) is in the form of Poisson’s equation

 2 𝜌 (11)
𝛻 ∅=− 𝜀
Solution of (11) is well-known as
1 𝜌 ′ (12)
∅= 4𝜋𝜀 ‫𝑟 ׮‬
𝑑𝑣
Similar (11), the solution of (10) can be written as
𝜇 𝐽𝑧
𝐴𝑧 = 4𝜋 ‫׮‬ 𝑟
𝑑𝑣 ′ (13)
The time-varying solution of (3) can be obtained by multiplying the
static solution by e-jkr. Hence,

𝜇 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑟
𝐴𝑧 = 4𝜋 ‫׮‬ 𝐽𝑧
𝑟
𝑑𝑣 ′ (14)
If the current densities were in the x- and y-directions (Jx and Jy ),
the wave equation for each would reduce to
𝛻 2 𝐴𝑥 + 𝑘 2 𝐴𝑥 = − 𝜇𝐽𝑥 (15)
𝛻 2 𝐴𝑦 + 𝑘 2 𝐴𝑦 = − 𝜇𝐽𝑦
(16)
The corresponding solutions are
𝜇 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑟
𝐴𝑥 = 4𝜋 ‫ 𝑣𝑑 𝑟 𝑥𝐽 ׮‬′ (17)
𝜇 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑟 (18)
𝐴𝑦 = 4𝜋 ‫׮‬ 𝐽𝑦
𝑟
𝑑𝑣 ′

The solution of the vector wave equation is

𝜇 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑟
𝐴= 4𝜋 ‫׮‬ J
𝑟
𝑑𝑣 ′ (19)
If the source is located other than the origin of the coordinate system
at position (x’, y’, z’), the solution can be written as

𝜇 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑅
𝐴(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 4𝜋 ‫׮‬ J(x′ ,y′ ,z′ )
𝑅
𝑑𝑣 ′ (20)
 DUALITY THEOREM

Two equations describing the behavior of two different

variables with the same mathematical form, provides identical
solutions.

The variables in the two equations that occupy identical

positions are known as dual quantities and a solution of one
can be formed by a systematic interchange of symbols to the
other. This concept is known as the duality theorem.
 RECIPROCITY THEOREMS

In any network composed of generator linear, bilateral,

lumped elements, if one places a constant current
(voltage) between two nodes (in any branch) and places a
voltage (current) meter between any other two nodes (in
any other branch), and makes observation of the meter
reading, then interchanges the locations of the source
and the meter, the meter reading will be unchanged.
The internal impedance of the generator Zg is assumed to be the conjugate of the
impedance of antenna #1 (Zg = Z1 = R1 − jX1)
The load impedance ZL is equal to the conjugate of the impedance of antenna #2
(ZL = Z2 = R2 − jX2).

The power delivered by the generator to the antenna 1

If the transfer admittance of the combined network consisting of the generator

impedance, antennas, and load impedance is Y21, the current through the load is
VgY21 and the power delivered to the Antenna 2 is
 The power ratio of P /P is2 1

In a similar manner, we can show that when antenna #2 is

transmitting and #1 is receiving, the power ratio of P1/P2 is

given by

Under conditions of reciprocity (Y12 = Y21), the power delivered in

either direction is the same.
 REFERENCES

▪ E. C. Jordan & K. G. Balmain, Electromagnetic Waves and Radiatin

Systems, PHI,2nd edition,2002,New Delhi,India.
▪ MATTHEW N.O. SADIKU, Elements of Electromagnetics, Oxford
University Press,4th edition,2007,New Delhi, India.
▪ CONSTANTINE A. BALANIS, Antenna Theory Analysis And
Design,WILLEY STUDENT EDITION, 2nd edition,1997,Noida, India.
▪ D. CHATTOPADHYAY & P.C. RAKSHIT,ELECTRICITY AND
MAGNETISM,Books and Allied (P) Ltd.,1st edition,1989,Kolkata, India.