A

N Beamwidth
T
It can be defined as “angular separation between two identical points on
E
N opposite side of the pattern (main lobe)”
N •HPBW (Half Power Beamwidth): “angular separation between two half
A
power (3 dB) points”.
T •FNBW (First Null Beamwidth): “angular separation between the first
H
E nulls of the pattern”. Approx.  2 HPBW
O
R Intensity
Y Main Lobe
&
D HPBW
E Side Lobe
S Back Lobe
FNBW
I
G  /2 /2  Angle
N
A
N Directivity (D)
T
E It can be defined as “the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction
N
from the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions”
N
A U U 4U
D  
U 0 Prad / 4 Prad
T
H D(dB)  10 log10 [ D(dim ensionless)]
E
O Where, D = directivity (dimensionless)
R U = radiation intensity (W/ unit solid angle)
Y
& U0= radiation intensity of isotropic source (W/ unit solid angle)
D Prad= total radiated power (W)
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
4 4
E D0  
N  A 1r 2 r
N Where, D = directivity (dimensionless)
A
ΩA = beam solid angle)
T θ1r= HPBW in one plane (radian)
H
E θ2r= HPBW in a plane at a right angle to other (radian)
O If beamwidth in degrees, equation can be written as:
R 4 4
D0  
Y 1r 2 r  
& 1d ( ) 2 d ( )
180 180
   41253
D 2
E 4 180
 
S
I
1d 2 d 1d 2 d
G For a planar arrays, a better approximation is
N 32400
D0 
1d  2 d
A
N Directional pattern
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Omni-directional pattern
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Antenna efficiency
T
E
N
N
A

T
H e0  er ec ed
E
O  er ec d
 e0  (1   )ec d
2
R
Y
Where, e0 = total antenna efficiency (dimensionless)
&
D ecd = antenna radiation efficiency (dimensionless)
E
: used to relate the gain and directivity
S
I er = reflection (mismatch) efficiency (dimensionless)
G
ec = conduction efficiency (dimensionless)
N
ed = dielectric efficiency (dimensionless)
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O Z L  ZC
R 
Y Z L  ZC
&
D Where, ZL= Antenna impedance
E
S ZC = characteristic impedance
I
G
N
A
N Gain (G)
T
E radiationint ensity
Gain 
N total  input(accepted) power
4U  ,  
N
A  (dim ensionless)
Pin
T
4U  ,   4U  ,  
H  Gain    Prad  ecd Pin
E Pin Prad / ecd
O 4U  ,  
R  ecd  ecd D(dim ensionless)
Y Prad
& 4U  ,  
Re lativeGain  (dim ensionless)
D Pin (isotropicsource)
E
Where, D = directivity (dimensionless)
S
U = radiation intensity (W/ unit solid angle)
I
Pin= total input power (W)
G
Prad= total radiated power (W)
N
ecd= antenna radiation efficiency (dimensionless)
A
N Beam efficiency
T
E power _ transmitted (received) within _ cone  angle
Beam _ efficiency 
N power _ transmitted (received)by _ the _ antenna
N
A 2 1

T
  U ( ,  ) sindd
BE  0 0
2 
(dim ensionless)
H
E   U ( ,  ) sindd
O 0 0

R
Y
& Where, BE = beam efficiency (dimensionless)
D U(θ,ϕ) = radiation intensity
E
S (W/ unit solid angle)
I θ1= half angle of the cone within which the percentage of
G
N total power to be found
A
N Bandwidth (2.1)

T
E Bandwidth of the antenna is defined as the range of frequencies within
N
N which the performance of the antenna provides desired characteristics.
A • Generally, Impedance BW when S11  -10dB [VSWR  2]
T The frequency bandwidth of an antenna can be expressed
H
E
Absolute Bandwidth (ABW) ABW  f H  f L
O Fractional Bandwidth (FBW). FBW  2 f H  f L
R fH  fL
Y
& Where, fH and fL denote the upper edge and the lower edge of the antenna
D bandwidth, respectively.
E
S For broadband antennas, the bandwidth can also be expressed as the
I ratio of the upper to the lower frequencies, where the antenna performance
G
N is acceptable
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Polarization (2.1)

T
E Polarization is defined as “the electric field vector of an antenna oriented
N in space as a function of time”.
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S Electromagnetic Wave
I
G
N
A
N Polarization (2.1)

T
E
N Polarization is defined as “the electric field vector of an antenna oriented
N in space as a function of time”.
A
The polarization of a radiated wave is the property of an electromagnetic
T
H wave describing the time varying direction and relative magnitude of the
E electric-field vector at a fixed location in space, and the sense in which it
O
R is traced, as observed along the direction of propagation.
Y
& There are three classifications of antenna polarization:
D
• Linear polarization,
E
S • circular polarization and
I
• Elliptical polarization.
G
N #Circular and linear polarizations are special cases of elliptical polarization
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I (a) Rotation of plane electromagnetic wave and
G
N (b) its polarization ellipse at z =0 as a function
of time
A
N
T
E
N The instantaneous field of a plane wave, travelling in the negative z
^ ^
N
A
direction, can be written as. E ( z; t )  a x E x ( z; t )  a y E y ( z; t )
Where,
T
H Ex ( z; t )  Re[Ex e  (t  kz ) ]  Re[Ex 0e (t  kz x ) ]  Ex 0 cos(t  kz  x )
E (t  kz  y )
O E y ( z; t )  Re[ E y e (t  kz ) ]  Re[E y 0e ]  E y 0 cos(t  kz   y )
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Linear polarization (2.1)

T
E A time harmonic wave is linearly polarized at a given point in space if the
N
N electric field (or magnetic field) vector at that point is always oriented
A along the same straight line at every instant of time.

T The necessary and sufficient conditions to accomplish, if the field vector

H
E possesses:
O
R
a. only one component, i.e. E x 0  0, E y 0  0
Y orEx 0  0, E y 0  0
&
D
E
S b. two orthogonal components that are in time phase or 180o out
I of phase.
G    y  x  n , where, n  0,1,2,......
N
A
N Circular polarization (2.1)

T
E A time harmonic wave is circularly polarized at a given point in space if
N the electric field (or magnetic field) vector at that point traces a circle as a
N
A function of time.

T This is accomplished if the field vector possesses:

H
E a. the field must have two orthogonal linear components and
O must have same magnitude.
R Ex0  E y0
Y b. two orthogonal components must have a time phase difference
&
D of odd multiples of 900.
1
E  (  2n) , where, n  0,1,2,...... forCW ( RH )
S
I
   y   x  { 2
1
G  (  2n) , where, n  0,1,2,...... forCCW ( LH )
N
2
# if the direction of wave propagation is reversed (i.e. +z direction), then the phases for
rotations for CW and CCW must be interchanged.
A
N Elliptical polarization (2.1)

T
E A time harmonic wave is elliptically polarized at a given point in space if
N the electric field (or magnetic field) vector at that point traces an elliptical
N
A locus as a function of time. This is accomplished if the field vector
possesses:
T
H a. the field must have two orthogonal linear components and
E
O that can be same or different magnitude. Ex0  E y0
R
1
Y b.  (  2n) , where, n  0,1,2,...... forCW ( RH )
&    y   x  { 2
1
D  (  2n) , where, n  0,1,2,...... forCCW ( LH )
E 2
S
n  0, where, n  0,1,2,...... forCW ( RH )
I OR,    y   x   {
G 2  0, where, n  0,1,2,...... forCCW ( LH )
N
A
N
T
E The ratio of the major axis to the minor axis is referred to as the axial
N ratio (AR), and it is equal to
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y The tilt of the ellipse, relative to the y axis,
& is represented by the angle τ given by
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N Polarisation states for a z-directed plane wave
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Polarization Loss Factor
T
E The amount of power extracted by the antenna from the incoming signal
N will not be maximum because of the polarization loss.
N
A Polarization loss factor (PLF) is defined based on the polarization of the
antenna in its transmitting mode, as
T
2
H ^ ^
E PLF   w .  a
O
R 2

Y
 cos p
&
D
E
S Assuming that the electric field of the incoming wave can be written as
I
G The polarization of the electric field of the receiving antenna can be
N
expressed as
A
N Polarization Efficiency
T
E The ratio of the power received by an antenna from a given plane wave
N of arbitrary polarization to the power that would be received by the same
N
A antenna from a plane wave of the same power flux density and direction
of propagation whose state of polarization has been adjusted for a
T
H maximum received power.
E inc 2
O
This is similar to the PLF and it is expressed as le  E
R
e  2 inc 2
Y
le E
& where
D
E le = vector effective length of the antenna
S Einc = incident electric field
I
G
N
Note : Both the PLF and pe lead to the same answers
A PLF for transmitting and receiving aperture and
N
T
Linear wire antennas
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E • The polarization loss must always be taken into account in the link
N
N calculations design of a communication system because in some
A cases it may be a very critical factor.

T • Link calculations of communication systems for outer space

H explorations are very stringent because of limitations in spacecraft
E
O weight. In such cases, power is a limiting consideration.
R • The design must properly take into account all loss factors to ensure a
Y
& successful operation of the system
D NOTE: Since the polarization of an antenna will almost always be
E
S defined in its transmitting mode, according to the IEEE Std 145-1983,
I “the receiving polarization may be used to specify the polarization
G
N characteristic of a nonreciprocal antenna which may transmit and
receive arbitrarily different polarizations.”
A
N
T
E Question: The electric field of a linearly polarized electromagnetic wave given by
N Ei = ˆaxE0(x, y)e −jkz is incident upon a linearly polarized antenna whose electric-
N
field polarization is expressed as Ea  (ˆax + ˆay)E(r, θ, φ). Find the polarization
A
loss factor (PLF).
T
H Solution: For the incident wave ˆρw = ˆax
E and for the antenna ρa = 1/√ 2 (ˆax + ˆay)
O The PLF is then equal to
R
Y PLF = |ˆρw · ˆρa|2 = |ˆax · 1 /√2(ˆax + ˆay)|2 = ½=0.5
& which in dB is equal to
D PLF (dB) = 10 log10 PLF (dimensionless) = 10 log10(0.5) = −3 dB
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Group delay (2.1)

T
E
N In wideband technology, group delay is a more precise and
N useful measure of phase linearity of the phase response and it can
A
be defined as:
d d
T g   
H d 2df
E
O The variations in group delay cause signal distortion where as constant
R
Y group delay shows perfect signal transmission.
&
D UWB antenna should show an excellent and negligible group delays in the
E order of nanosecond and the phase responses should be almost linear.
S
I #Even though in mathematically, the group delay is directly related to the phase but it is
G
impossible to visually observe directly from the phase plot, but well from the magnitude plot
N
A
N Transfer function (2.1)

T
E A system transfer function is defined to describe the ratio between the
N received signal (voltage) at the output of the receive antenna and the
N
A source signal (voltage) at the input of transmit antenna .

T Pr ( ) Z load  j ( )
S ( )  Vr ( ) / Vt ( )  e
H Pt ( ) 4Z t
E
O  S ( ) e  j ( )
R
Y Where, Pt : transmitted power,
& Pr : received power,
D
E Zt : transmit antenna impedance,
S Zload : receiver load,
I
G S(ω) and (ω) : the magnitude and phase responses of
N system transfer function.
A
N
T
E Antenna Features
N
N
A

T
H
E
O 3.1GHz 5.6GHz
R R r g Lg Wg L W
S11 Vs frequency
Y 10.2 4 0.25 12.7 20.4 10.2 10.2

&
D
E
S
I
G 8.1GHz 10.6GHz
N 12/31/202 Current distribution
Gain Vs frequency Efficiency Vs frequency
0
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O (i) Radiation Patterns at Φ = 0˚
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I (ii) Radiation Patterns at Φ = 90˚
G
N 3.1 GHz 5.6 GHz 8.1 GHz 10.6 GHz
12/31/202
0 31
A
N
T
E
Printed vs metal plated UMPA
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R Smith Chart S11 Vs frequency
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N 12/31/202 Gain vs frequency Efficiency vs frequency
0 32
A
N
T
E
N Printed UMPA
N
A

T
H
E
O
R Source pulse Radiated pulse Received pulse Group delay S21 Vs frequency
Y Parallel metal plated UMPA
&
D
E
S
I
G
N 12/31/202
Source pulse Radiated pulse Received pulse Group delay S21 Vs frequency
0 33
A
N
T
E Fabricated and Measured Results
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R Printed UMPA VSWR vs Frequency
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N Metal plated UMPA S11 Vs frequency
12/31/2020 34
A
N Input impedance (2.1)

T
E “impedance presented by the antenna at its terminals” or “the ratio of
N the voltage to current at a pair of terminals” or “the ratio of appropriate
N components of electric to magnetic fields at a point”.
A

T
H
E
O
R Transmitting antenna
Y Z A  R A  jX A
&
D Z A  ( Rr  RL )  jX A
E
S Where, ZA : antenna impedance at terminals a-b (ohms),
I RA : antenna resistance at terminals a-b (ohms)
G XA : antenna reactance at terminals a-b (ohms)
N RL : loss resistance of the antenna
Rr : radiation resistance of the antenna
A
N (2.1)

T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R Thevenin equivalent Norton equivalent
Y
&
D Z A  Rg  jX g
E
S Where, Zg : generator impedance (ohms),
I
G Rg : resistance of generator impedance (ohms)
N Xg : reactance of generator impedance (ohms)
A
N
T
E The current developed within the loop
N
N which is given by
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
where Vg is the peak generator voltage.
E
S The power delivered to the antenna for radiation is given by
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A The remaining power is dissipated as heat on the internal resistance Rg

T of the generator, and it is given by

H
E
O
R
Y The maximum power delivered to the antenna occurs when we have
& conjugate matching; that is when
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
Then, we can write
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y The relation between these powers
&
D
E
S
I The power supplied by the generator during conjugate matching is
G
N
A
N
T
• The power that is provided by the generator: [when conjugate matching].
E
N • half is dissipated as heat in the internal resistance (Rg) of the
N generator and
A
• the other half is delivered to the antenna.
T • part is radiated through the mechanism provided by the
H
radiation resistance [Radiation efficiency] and
E
O • the other is dissipated as heat which influences part of the
R overall efficiency of the antenna [Loss efficiency]
Y
& • If the antenna is lossless and matched to the transmission line (e0 = 1),
D then half of the total power supplied by the generator is radiated by
E
S the antenna during conjugate matching, and the other half is
I dissipated as heat in the generator.
G
• Similarly, the antenna in the receiving mode, the incident wave impinges
N
upon the antenna, and it induces a voltage VT which is analogous to Vg
A
N Antenna in Receiving Mode (2.1)

T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R Thevenin equivalent
Y
Z T  RT  jX T
&
D Z T  ( Rr  RL )  jX T
E
S Where, ZT : antenna impedance at terminals a-b (ohms),
I RT : antenna resistance at terminals a-b (ohms)
G XT : antenna reactance at terminals a-b (ohms)
N RL : loss resistance of the antenna
Rr : radiation resistance of the antenna
A
N
T
E In the receiving mode under conjugate matching
N (Rr + RL = RT and XA = −XT ).
N
A The powers delivered to RT, Rr, and RL are given, respectively, by

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E The induced (collected or captured) is
S
I
G
N
A
N Antenna Factor
T
E
• The antenna factor is defined as the ratio of the electric field strength
N
N to the voltage V (units: V or µV) induced across the terminals of a
A
antenna.
T • For an electric field antenna, the field strength is in units of V/m or
H
µV/m and the resulting antenna factor AF is in units of 1/m:
E
O AF= Eincident/Vreceived
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I • In a 50 Ω system, the antenna factor is related to the antenna gain G and the
G
wavelength λ via: AF= [9.73/ (λ*G1/2)]
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Antenna Vector Effective Length and Equivalent Area
T
E • These equivalent quantities are used to describe the receiving
N characteristics of an antenna, whether it be a linear or an aperture
N
A type, when a wave is incident upon the antenna.
• The effective length of an antenna [also known as effective height], is a
T
H quantity that is used to determine the voltage induced on the open-
E circuit terminals of the antenna when a wave impinges upon it.
O
R • The vector effective length (le) for an antenna is usually a complex
Y vector quantity represented by
&
D
E • The effective length represents the antenna in its transmitting and
S Voc
 E .le  le  i
receiving modes can be expressed i
I Voc
G
E
N Where, Voc = open-circuit voltage at antenna terminals, Ei = incident electric field,
le = vector effective length.
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N Dipole antenna in receiving mode
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N Aperture antenna in receiving mode
A
N Antenna Equivalent Areas
T
E • The equivalent areas is the effective area (aperture), which in a given
N direction is defined as “the ratio of the available power at the terminals
N
A of a receiving antenna to the power flux density of a plane wave
incident on the antenna from that direction, the wave being
T
H polarization-matched to the antenna.
E • If the direction is not specified, the direction of maximum radiation
O 2
R intensity is implied. I T RT
Pt 2 .
Y • In equation form it is written as Ae  
& Wi Wi
D
E where
S Ae = effective area (effective aperture) (m2)
I
G PT = power delivered to the load (W)
N W i = power density of incident wave (W/m2)
A
N
T
E • The effective aperture is the area which when multiplied by the incident
N power density gives the power delivered to the load.
N 2
A • We can write I T RT
Ae  2 .
Wi
T
H
E
O
R
Y Under conditions of maximum power
& transfer (conjugate matching), Rr + RL =
D Thevenin equivalent
E RT and XA = −XT, the effective area
S reduces to the maximum effective
I
G aperture [Aem], given by
N
A
N
T
E • The scattering area (AS) is defined as the equivalent area when
N multiplied by the incident power density is equal to the scattered or
N
A reradiated power.
• Under conjugate matching this is written, similar to:
T
H
E • The loss area (AL) is defined as the equivalent area, which when
O multiplied by the incident power density leads to the power dissipated
R
Y as heat through RL.
& • Under conjugate matching this is written, similar to:
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E • Finally the capture area (AC) is defined as the equivalent area, which
N when multiplied by the incident power density leads to the total power
N
A captured, collected, or intercepted by the antenna.
• Under conjugate matching this is written, similar to
T
H
E
O
R
Y In general, the total capture area is equal to the sum of the other three, or
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E The aperture efficiency ap of an antenna, is defined as the ratio of the
N maximum effective area Aem of the antenna to its physical area Ap.
N
A

T
H • For aperture type antennas, [such as waveguides, horns, and
E reflectors]:
O
R • (Aem ≤ Ap or 0 ≤ ap ≤ 1) since the maximum effective area
Y cannot exceed the physical area but it can equal it.
&
D • maximum ap cannot exceed unity (or 100%).
E • For a lossless antenna (RL = 0), the maximum value of As = Ap.
S
I • Therefore the aperture efficiency is greater than 50%, for a lossless
G antenna under conjugate matching only half of the captured power is
N
delivered to the load and the other half is scattered.
A
N Fidelity Factor
T
E
N
N The cross correlation between the source pulse St(t) and the radiated pulse
A Sr(t) is then evaluated by the fidelity factor using

T
H
E
O
R
Y
& It is found that the fidelity factors in various configurations are > 80%, which
D reveals that the antenna imposes negligible effects on the transmitted pulses.
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Envelope Correlation Coefficient (ECC)
T
E Since ECC greater than 0.5, that can typically degrade the diversity
N
performance. The ECC of the proposed antenna is calculated using
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Friis transmission equation
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
& The Friis Transmission Equation relates the power received to the
D power transmitted between the two antennas, as given in equation
E
S
Pr  
  
2
  
^ ^ 2

 1  t   1  r   Gt  Gr   p   p   
I 2 2

G Pt   t r  4R 
N
A
N
T
E Where Pt is the time average input power of the transmitting antenna
N Pr is the time average output power of the receiving antenna
N t, r is return loss at the input of the transmitting antenna
A and the output of the receiving antenna
Gt, Gr is gain of the transmitting antenna and the receiving antenna
T 2
^ ^
H pt pr polarization matching factor between the transmitting and
E receiving antennas
O  is the operating wavelength and
R R is the distance between the two antennas
Y
& For reflection and polarization-matched antennas aligned for
D maximum directional radiation and reception, equation reduces to:
E
S
Pr     
2
I  Gt  Gr   
G Pt    4R 
N
A
N Radar range equation
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Pr   Gt  Gr     
2
Y   
& Pt   4  4R1 R2 
D
 R1  R2  R
E
S Pr   Gt  Gr  2
 
I Pt   ( 4 ) 3 R 4
G
Gt  Gr  2 Pt  
N  R 4

(4 ) 3 Pr  
A
N Radar cross section
T
E
Radar Cross Section (RCS) is a function
N
N shape of the target (Geometry)
A
material properties of target
T polarization of incident wave
H
angle of incidence of incident wave
E
O observation angle of incident wave
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Summary
T
E
The following definitions are applicable to all antennas:
N
N
A 1. Power Density w = Re{S}
2.Total Radiated Power P 3. Radiation Resistance Rr
T 4. Antenna Impedance ZA
H 5. Equivalent Circuit
E 6. Load matching
O
R
7. Effective Length le
Y
& 8. Effective Area Ae
D
E 9. Radiation Intensity U 12. Directivity D
S 13. Radiation Efficiency (e)
10. HPBW / Bandwidth
I 14. (Power) Gain (G)
11. Directive Gain (D)
G
N
A
N Design constraints in antenna design (2.1)

T
E (i) A suitable antenna should offer a desired impedance bandwidth
N
N (ii) The performance of a wideband antenna is required to be
A consistent over the entire operational frequency band. The
radiation patterns, gain and impedance bandwidth of the antenna
T should be stable over the entire band.
H (iii) An antenna should have these features: low profile, easy to
E fabricate, compact and easy to integrate with other Printed Circuit
O Board (PCB) based systems.
R
Y (iv) A good design of antenna should be optimal for the performance of
& overall system. Thus, the overall device complies with the
D mandatory power emission mask given by the FCC or other
E regulatory bodies.
S (v) An antenna is required to realize good time domain characteristics.
I It means that there is minimum pulse distortion in the received
G waveform. It is a primary concern of a suitable wideband antenna
N because the signal is the carrier of useful information
A
N
T
E A 1-m long dipole antenna is driven by a 150 MHz source having a source
N
resistance of 50 ohms and a voltage of 100 V. If the ohmic resistance of the
N
A antennas is given by RL = 0.625 ohms, find the:
(a) Current going into the antenna (Iant)
T
(b) Power dissipated by the antenna
H
E (c) Power radiated by the antenna
O (d) Radiation efficiency of the antenna
R
Y An antenna has a maximum effective aperture of 2.147 m2 at its operating
&
frequency of 100 MHz. It has no conduction or dielectric losses. The input
D
E impedance of the antenna itself is 75 ohms, and it is connected to a 50-ohm
S transmission line. Find the directivity of the antenna system (“system” meaning
I
includes any effects of connection to the transmission line). Assume no polarization
G
N losses.