A

N
T
E
N
N
A Monopole Antenna
T
H
E
O
Lecture
R
Y
& Dr Sanjeev Kumar Mishra
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Monopole Antenna
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Monopole and dipole
T
E
N
N
A

T
H Z in  36.5  j 21.25  equivalent to 73  j 42.5
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E • The radiation pattern of monopole antennas above a ground plane are
N
also known from the dipole result.
N
A • The only change that needs to be noted is that the impedance of a
monopole antenna is one half of that of a full dipole antenna.
T
H • For a quarter-wave monopole (L=0.25* ), the impedance is half of that
E
of a half-wave dipole, so Zin = 36.5 + j21.25 Ohms.
O
R • This can be understood since only half the voltage is required to drive
Y
a monopole antenna to the same current as a dipole (think of a dipole
&
D as having +V/2 and -V/2 applied to its ends, whereas a monopole
E
antenna only needs to apply +V/2 between the monopole antenna and
S
I the ground to drive the same current).
G
• Since Zin = V/I, the impedance of the monopole antenna is halved.
N
A
N
T
E
N • The directivity of a monopole antenna is directly related to that
N
of a dipole antenna.
A
• If the directivity of a dipole of length 2L has a directivity of D1
T
[decibels], then the directivity of a monopole antenna of length L
H
E will have a directivity of D1+3 [decibels].
O
• That is, the directivity (in linear units) of a monopole antenna is
R
Y twice the directivity of a dipole antenna of twice the length.
&
• The reason for this is simply because no radiation occurs below
D
E the ground plane; hence, the antenna is effectively twice as
S
"directive".
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
Input impedance of a vertical λ/2 dipole above a flat lossy electric conducting surface.
A
N Image Theory
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Image Theory
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
Applications:
T
 High Resolution Radar and Imaging System
E
 Ground penetrating radars and wall imaging
N
 Position and Location Tracking
N
 Medical imaging, communication and measurement system
A
 Civilian Band Radio
 Cellular Telephone
T
 Rooftop automobile antenna
H
 Amateur antenna
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A LOOP ANTENNA
T
H
E
O
R Lecture
Y
& Dr Sanjeev Kumar Mishra
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Introduction
T
E • Loop antennas take many different forms such as rectangle, square,
N
N ellipse, circle etc.
A • Popularly used because of the simplicity in analysis &, construction,

T versatile and inexpensive.

H • Poor radiator because Rr< RL. [Seldom employed for transmission in
E
O radio communication].
R • Usually used
Y
& • for receiving mode in portable radios and pagers, where
D antenna efficiency is not as important as the signal to-noise
E
S ratio.
I • as probes for field measurements and
G
N • as directional antennas for radio wave navigation.
A
N
T
E • Classification
N • Electrically small (C < 0.1)
N
A • Electrically large (Circumference (C)~ )

T • Application
H
• Directional antennas for radio-wave
E
O navigation
R
• Popularly used: HF (3-30MHz), VHF
Y
& (30-300MHz) and UHF (300MHz-3GHz)
D
• Usually used in receiving mode
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E • A small loop (circular or square) is equivalent to an infinitesimal
N magnetic dipole whose axis is perpendicular to the plane of the loop.
N
A • The field pattern of electrically small antennas of any shape (circular,
elliptical, rectangular, square, etc.) is similar to that of an infinitesimal
T
H dipole with a null perpendicular to the plane of the loop and with its
E maximum along the plane of the loop.
O
R • As the overall length of the loop increases and its circumference
Y approaches one free-space wavelength, the maximum of the pattern
&
D shifts from the plane of the loop to the axis of the loop which is
E perpendicular to its plane.
S
I • The fields radiated by an electrically small circular or square loop are of
G the same mathematical form as those radiated by an infinitesimal
N
magnetic dipole.
A
N
T
E • The radiation resistance of the loop can be increased:
N • by increasing (electrically) its perimeter and/or the number of turns.
N
A • Ferrite loop: Insertion of ferrite loops within its circumference or
perimeter: a ferrite core of very high permeability which will raise the
T
H magnetic field intensity and hence the radiation resistance.
E • Electrically large loops are used primarily in directional arrays, such as
O
R in helical antennas, Yagi-Uda arrays, quad arrays, and so on.
Y • For these and other similar applications, the maximum radiation is
&
D directed toward the axis of the loop forming an end-fire antenna.
E • To achieve such directional pattern characteristics, the circumference
S
I (perimeter) of the loop should be about one free-space wavelength.
G • The proper phasing between turns enhances the overall directional
N
properties.
A
N Small circular loop antenna
T
Geometrical arrangement for the field analysis of a loop antenna is to
E
N position the antenna symmetrically on the x-y plane, at z = 0, as shown in
N
Figure.
A
The wire is assumed to be thin and the current spatial distribution is given
T
by: Iϕ = I0.
H
E where I0 is constant
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
**This type of current distribution is accurate only for a loop antenna with a very small circumference, a
more complex distribution makes the mathematical formulation quite cumbersome.
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E The field radiated by the loop can be calculated:
N
N
A

T Where, R is the distance from any point on the loop to the observation point and
H
dl’ is an infinitesimal section of the loop antenna.
E
O Ie (x’,y’,z’) the current spatial distribution [cylindrical to rect]]
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E For the circular loop, the current is flowing in the φ direction (Iφ) so that Ie
N
reduces to
N
A

T
H
E
O
R The distance R, from any point on the loop to the observation point, can
Y
& be written as
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E Then,
N
N
A
For small loops, the function
T
H
E
O which is part of the integrand can be expanded in a Maclaurin series in a using
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E Then,
N
N
A

T
H
E In a similar manner, the r- and θ-components of equn can be written as
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N which when integrated reduce to zero.
A
N
T
E Thus,
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
I 0l cos  1   jkr
E DipoleEr   1  jkr  e  0, E  0
S 2r 2  
I
G kI0l sin   1 1   jkr
N E  j 1   2
e
4r  jkr kr  
A
N Power Density and Radiation Resistance
T
E The fields radiated by a small loop, are valid everywhere except at the
N
N origin.
A
For the infinitesimal dipole, the power in the region very close to the
T
H antenna (near field, kr<< 1) is predominantly reactive and in the far field
E
O (kr >> 1) is predominantly real.
R
Y To illustrate this for the loop, the complex power density
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D For small values of kr (kr<<1), the second term within the brackets of () is
E dominant which makes the power mainly reactive.
S
I In the far field (kr>>1), the second term within the brackets diminishes,
G which makes the power real.
N
A
N
T
E For the infinitesimal dipole, the radial power density in the near field is
N capacitive, and for the small loop it is inductive.
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E If the loop antenna has N turns wound so
S
that the magnetic field passes through all
I
G the loops, the radiation resistance is equal
N
to that of single turn multiplied by N2.
A
N Radiation Intensity and Directivity
T
E
N
N
A
The maximum value occurs at θ = π/2, and it is given by
T
H
E
O and its maximum effective area as
R
Y
&
D Example: The radius of a small loop of constant current is λ/25. Find the
E physical area of the loop and compare it with its maximum effective aperture.
S Solution:
I
G
N Electrically the loop is about 24 times larger than its physical size, which should not be
surprising. To be effective, a small loop must be larger electrically than its physical size.
A
N Small loop: infinitesimal magnetic dipole
T
E For the infinitesimal magnetic dipole indicates that they have similar
N
forms.
N
A In fact, the electric and magnetic field components of an infinitesimal
magnetic dipole of length l and constant “magnetic” spatial current Im are
T
H given by
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E Using duality, from the fields of an infinitesimal electric dipole, they
N
N indicate that a magnetic dipole of magnetic moment Iml is equivalent to a
A small electric loop of radius a and constant electric current I0 provided

T that
H
E
O
R
Y Thus, for analysis purposes, the small electric loop can be replaced by a
& small linear magnetic dipole of constant current.
D
E The geometrical equivalence is illustrated in Figure where the magnetic
S dipole is directed along the z-axis which is also perpendicular to the
I
G plane of the loop.
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
& Three-dimensional amplitude patterns of a circular loop with constant current distribution
D
E
S
I
G
N
A Radiation resistance and Directivity for a constant current circular-loop antenna
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Circular Loop with Non-uniform Current
T
E • The analysis in the previous sections was based on a uniform current, which
N would be a valid approximation when the radius of the loop is small electrically
N (usually a < 0.016λ).
A
• As the dimensions of the loop increase, the current variations along the
T circumference of the loop must be taken into account.
H • A better distribution would be to represent the current by a Fourier series
E
O Where, ’ is measured from the feed point
R of the loop along the circumference.
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
Magnitude Phase
A
N
T
E • A complete analysis of the fields radiated by a loop with non-uniform current
N distribution is somewhat complex, laborious, and quite lengthy.
N • The maximum of the pattern for a loop antenna shifts from the plane of the
A
loop (θ = 90°) to its axis (θ = 0°, 180°) as the circumference of the loop
T approaches one wavelength, assuming that simultaneously the current
H changes from uniform to non-uniform.
E
O • Based on the non-uniform
R current distribution, the
Y directivity of the loop
&
D along θ = 0° has been
E computed, and it is
S plotted in Figure versus
I
G the circumference of the
N loop in wavelengths.
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
Radiation resistance (Rr) and maximum directivity (D0) of a circular loop with
G
constant current distribution. (S. V. Savov, “An Efficient Solution of a Class of
N Integrals Arising in Antenna Theory,” IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine,
Vol. 44, October 2002).
A
N Other Configuration of Loop Antenna
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y Square Triangular
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
Rectangualr Rhombic
A
N Square Loop Antenna
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R The field in the y-z plane is
Y
&
D
E
S
I For small values of a(a < λ/50)
G
N
A
N Mobile Communication System Application
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
Input impedance, real and imaginary parts of a wire folded loop mounted
I vertically on a conducting mobile hand-held unit (SOURCE: K. D. Katsibas, et.
G al., “Folded Loop Antenna for Mobile Hand-Held Units,” IEEE Transactions
N Antennas Propagat., Vol. 46, No. 2, February 1998, pp. 260–266.
A
N Ferrite Loop
T
E The radiation resistance, and in turn the antenna efficiency, can be raised
N
by increasing the circumference of the loop or number of turns.
N
A Ferrite Loop: Another way to increase the radiation resistance, without
increasing the electrical dimensions of the antenna, would be to insert
T
within its circumference a ferrite core that has a tendency to increase the
H
E magnetic flux, the magnetic field, the open-circuit voltage, and in turn the
O radiation resistance of the loop.
R
Y The ferrite material can be a rod of very few inches in length.
& The radiation resistance of the ferrite loop is given by
D
E Where, Rf = radiation resistance of ferrite loop
S Rr = radiation resistance of air core loop
I
μce = effective permeability of ferrite core
G
N μ0 = permeability of free-space
μcer = relative effective permeability of ferrite core = μce / μ0
A
N
T
E For a single-turn small ferrite loop can be written as:
N
N
A and for an N-turn loop,

T
H
E
O
R where D is the demagnetization factor which has been found experimentally for
Y different core geometries.
& For most ferrite material, the relative intrinsic permeability μfr is very large, so that
D the relative effective permeability of the ferrite core μcer is approximately inversely
E proportional to the demagnetization factor, or μcer ∼ 1/D = D−1.
S In general, the demagnetization factor is a function of the geometry of the ferrite
core.
I
For example, the demagnetization factor for a sphere is D = 1/3 while that for an
G ellipsoid of length 2l and radius a, such that l >> a, is
N
A
N
T
E Example 1
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
Example 2
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
Usually it is assumed that the loss resistance at high frequency of a
N
N small loop is the same as that of a straight wire whose length is equal
A
to the circumference of the loop.
T
H
E
O
R
Y Where, P is the perimeter of the cross section of the rod (P = C = 2πb
& for a circular wire of radius b),
D
E Rs is the conductor surface resistance,
S ω is the angular frequency,
I
G μ0 is the permeability of free-space, and
N σ is the conductivity of the metal
A
N
T
E Although this assumption is adequate for single-turn loops, it is not
N valid for multi-turn loops.
N
A In a multi-turn loop, the current is not uniformly distributed around the
wire but depends on the skin and proximity effects.
T
H The total ohmic resistance for an N-turn circular-loop antenna with loop
E radius a, wire radius b, and loop separation 2c, shown in Figure.
O
R Where,
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E The ratio of Rp/R0 is a function of the spacing c/b for loops with 2 ≤ N ≤
N 8 and it is shown plotted in Figure. It is evident that for close spacing
N
A the ohmic resistance is twice as large as that in the absence of the
proximity effect (Rp/R0 = 0).
T
H Solution 2
E The loss resistance for a single turn
O
R
Y
&
D
E The loss resistance for N=8 turns
S
From Figure N=8, c/b=2
I
G
N-turn circular loop and ohmic resistance due to proximity
N effect. (SOURCE: G.S. Smith, “Radiation Efficiency of
Electrically Small Multiturn Loop Antennas, IEEE TAP 1972
A
N
T
E A circular loop, of loop radius λ/30 and wire radius λ/1000, is used as a
N
transmitting/receiving antenna in a back-pack radio communication system at 10
N
A MHz. The wire of the loop is made of copper with a conductivity of 5 .7 × 10 7 S/m.
Assuming the antenna is radiating in free space, determine the
T
(a) radiation resistance of the loop;
H
E (b) loss resistance of the loop (assume that its value is the same as if the wire
O were straight );
R
(c) input resistance;
Y
& (d) input impedance;
D (e) Radiation efficiency.
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Arrays
T • Two of the most popular arrays of loop antennas are the helical antenna and
E
N the Yagi-Uda array.
N • The loop is also widely used to form a solenoid which in conjunction with a
A
ferrite cylindrical rod within its circumference is used as a receiving antenna

T and as a tuning element, especially in transistor radios.

H • The helical antenna possesses in general elliptical polarization, but it can be
E
designed to achieve nearly circular polarization. There are two primary modes
O
R of operation for a helix, the normal mode and the axial mode.
Y • The helix operates in its normal mode when its overall length is small
&
compared to the wavelength, and it has a pattern with a null along its axis and
D
E the maximum along the plane of the loop.
S • This pattern (figure-eight type in the elevation plane) is similar to that of a
I
dipole or a small loop.
G
N
A
N
T
E • A helical antenna operating in the normal mode is sometimes used as a
N monopole antenna for mobile cell and cordless telephones, and it is usually
N covered with a plastic cover.
A
• This helix monopole is used because its input impedance is larger than that of
T a regular monopole and more attractive for matching to typical transmission
H lines used as feed lines, such as a coaxial line.
E
O • The helix operates in the axial mode when the circumference of the loop is
R between 3/4λ < C < 4/3λ with an optimum design when the circumference is
Y
nearly one wavelength.
&
D • When the circumference of the loop approaches one wavelength, the
E maximum of the pattern is along its axis. In addition, the phasing among the
S
turns is such that overall the helix forms an end-fire antenna with attractive
I
G impedance and polarization characteristics.
N • In general, the helix is a popular communication antenna in the VHF and UHF
A
N
T
E • The Yagi-Uda antenna is primarily an array of linear dipoles with one element
N serving as the feed while the others act as parasitic. However this arrangement
N has been extended to include arrays of loop antennas, as shown in Figure.
A
• As for the helical antenna, in order for this array to perform as an end-fire
T array, the circumference of each of the elements is near one wavelength.
H • A special case is the quad antenna which is very popular amongst ham radio
E
O operators.
R
Y • It consists of two square loops, one
& serving as the excitation while the
D other is acting as a reflector; there
E
S are no directors. The overall
I perimeter of each loop is one
G wavelength.
N
A
N Reference
T
E
1. C A Balanis, Antenna Theory and Design, 3rd Edition, Wiley, 2005.
N
N 2. G S N Raju, Antennas and Wave Propagation, Pearson publication, 2005.
A
3. R K Shevgaonkar, Electromagnetic Waves, 2006
T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N