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• Isotropic:- A hypothetical, lossless antenna having equal radiation intensity in all direction.
• Any conducting structure can launch waves – or radiate – but when the “structure”
is designed to radiate efficiently with directional and polarisation properties suitable
for the intended application – that “structure” is called an antenna.
• Regardless of antenna type – all involve the same basic principle that radiation is
produced by accelerated (or decelerated) charge.
What makes a short dipole?
Length L is very short compared to wavelength (L<<).
Carries uniform current I along the entire length L. To allow such
uniform current, we attach plates at the ends of the dipole as +q
capacitive load. However, we assume the plates are small that their
radiation is negligible.
The dipole may be energized by balanced transmission line. However,
it is assumed that the transmission line does not radiate. L
The diameter “d” of the dipole is small compared to its length (d<<L). I
R
I = Imcos t- Instead of Im cos t
c
Retarded
current
Retardation
time
Types of radiating structures
Field regions
Reactive near
field region, or
No abrupt changes in
Radiating near the field
field (Fresnel) configurations are
region noted as the
boundaries are
antenna crossed – but there
are distinct
differences between
the fields
Intermediate /transition region
Id e− j R
Normalized E = sin E = j ( )0 sin
4 R
• This is the E-plane pattern function of Hertzian dipole. For any given Φ, the above equation
represents a pair of circles as shown below:
Typical H-patterns (in polar coordinate, rectangular coordinate, Decibel scale)
Characteristic Parameters of Antenna Pattern
U = R 2 Pav (W/sr)
• The total time-average radiated power is:
1
Pav = Re{E H *}
Prad = P
s
av • ds = Ud
s
(w) 2
U ( , ) 4 U ( , )
GD ( , ) = =
U av
Pr / 4 Ud s
• The directive gain of isotropic or Omnidirectional antenna (an antenna that radiates
uniformly in all directions) is unity. But practically there exists no isotropic
antenna.
U max 4 U max
D= = (Dimentionless)
U av Pr
4 f ( , )
2
D= 2
(dimentionless)
f ( , ) sin d d
2
0 0
• For example: Find the directive gain and the directivity of a Hertzian dipole.
Id e− j R
H = j ( ) sin
• The time-average poynting vector is given by: 4 R
1 1
Pav = Re E H* = E H * Far-zone field due to E-dipole
2 2
• Radiation Intensity become,
Id e− j R
E = j ( )0 sin
( Id )2 4 R
U = R Pav =
2
sin 2
32 2 0
4 sin 2 3 D= 2
GD ( , ) = 2 = sin 2 f ( , ) sin d d
2
(sin )sin d d 2
2 0 0
0 0 OR
• The directivity is the maximum value of GD(ө, Φ): U ( , )
U av
D = GD ( , ) = 1.5
2
• Which corresponds to 10Log(1.5) or 1.76 (dB)
• A measure of antenna efficiency is the power gain. The power gain or simply the gain,
Gp of an antenna referred to an isotropic source is the ratio of its maximum radiation
intensity to the radiation intensity of lossless isotropic source with same power input.
• Due to the lossy nature of antenna as well as the nearby lossy structure including ground,
the radiated power is less than the total input power. We have
Pi = Pr + P 4 U max
• The power gain of an antenna is then: Gp =
Pi
• The ratio of the gain to the directivity of an antenna is the radiation efficiency, ηr
GpPr
r = = (Dimensionless)
D Pi
2
1
R sin d d
• For no ohmic loss, the time-average power
radiated by Hertzian dipole for an input
Pr = E H * 2
2 0 0
time-harmonic current with an amplitude
“I” is given by
2
• Using the expressions in red color, we get ( Id ) 2
Pr = d d
2 3
sin
32 2 0
0 0
2 2
( Id ) 2 I d
I 2 Rr = 0 = 80
2 2
Pr = 12 2
2
• Since 0 = 120
Compare
2
• We obtain the radiation resistance of short =
Hertzian dipole
2
d
Rr = 80 2
• Consider, If dl=0.01λ, Rr =0.08Ω, an
extremely small value. Hence a short
dipole antenna is a poor radiator of
electromagnetic power
• Example: Now we will find the radiation
efficiency of an isolated Hertzian dipole
made of a metal wire of radius a, length d,
and conductivity σ. 2
d
Rr = 80
2
2
2
Rr = 80 2
= 0.079
200
• And
0.079
r = = 58%
0.079 + 0.057
• The range of frequencies within which the performance of the antenna, with respect
to some characteristic, conforms to a specified standard
• Normally expressed as a fraction of centre frequency
• Normally used standards - Impedance bandwidth; Gain bandwidth; Radiation
pattern bandwidth; side lobe level; beamwidth; polarization; beam direction
Polarization (of an antenna)
• In a given direction from the antenna, the polarization of the wave transmitted by
the antenna
• Polarization of a wave describes the shape and locus of the tip of the E vector at a
given point in space as a function of time.
• General locus is ellipse – elliptically polarized
• Under certain conditions – ellipse becomes a circle – circular polarization, or
straight line – linear polarization.
Polarization of a wave