Antenna array(as point

source concept)
Bablu K. Ghosh
Propagation mode adapter

In free space the waves spherically expand following Huygens principle:

each point of an advancing
wave front is in fact the
center of a fresh disturbance
and the source of a new train of waves.

Within the sensor, the waves are guided within a transmission line or
waveguide that restricts propagation to one axis.

2
 Antenna array composed of several similar radiating elements
(e.g., dipoles or horns).
Element spacing and the relative amplitudes and phases of the
element excitation determine the array’s radiative properties.

Linear array examples

Two-dimensional array of
microstrip patch antennas

3
 Antenna Arrays
Antenna arrays are formed by
assembling identical (in most cases)
radiating elements such as dipoles
for example.

In the diagram below is shown an

antenna array with its elements along
the z axis such that the distance between
each two successive elements is equal to
d.

Antenna arrays are characterized by their

array factor which is given by the formula
Antenna Arrays: Benefits

• Possibilities to control electronically

• Direction of maximum radiation
• Directions (positions) of nulls
• Beam-width
• Directivity
• Levels of side lobes
using standard antennas (or antenna collections)
independently of their radiation patterns
• Antenna elements can be distributed along straight lines,
arcs, squares, circles, etc.
Antenna arrays

• Consist of multiple (usually identical) antennas (elements)

‘collaborating’ to synthesize radiation characteristics not available with
a single antenna.
• They are able
• to match the radiation pattern to the desired coverage area
• to change the radiation pattern electronically (electronic scanning)
through the control of the phase and the amplitude of the signal
fed to each element
• to adapt to changing signal conditions
• to increase transmission capacity by better use of the radio
resources and reducing interference

• Complex & costly

 Antenna arrays

It is not always possible to design a single antenna with the radiation pattern
needed.

 An antenna array is a cluster of antennas arranged in a specific physical

configuration (line, grid, etc.).
 Each individual antenna is called an element of the array.
 The excitation (both amplitude and phase) applied to each individual element
may differ.
 The far field radiation from the array in a linear medium can be computed by
the superposition of the EM fields generated by the array elements.

• Say, a linear array (elements are located in a straight

line) consisting of two elements excited by the signals
with the same amplitude but with phases shifted by .
 Antenna arrays

The individual elements are characterized by

their element patterns F1(,).

i.. At an arbitrary point P, taking into account

the phase difference due to physical
separation and difference in excitation, the
total far zone electric field is:
E (r )  E1 (r )e j 2  E2 (r )e  j 2

Field due to antenna 1 Field due to antenna 2

Here:   kd cos   
The phase center is assumed at the array center. Since the elements are identical
e j 2  e  j 2
 whereE1=E2
E (r )  2 E1 (r )  2 E1 (r ) cos
2 2
Relocating the phase center point only changes the phase of the result but not its
amplitude.
array

If no phase difference then, δ=0, then Ψ= kd Cosθ. To normalized or to make

a maximum value unity; 2E1(r) = 1,
Then E (r) = Cos{(kd Cosθ)/2}; if the source is λ/2 apart or d= λ/2, then

E (r) = Cos(Π /2Cosθ) , since k=2Π/λ, wave vector.

The plot of the field pattern of E

versus θ is represented as
follows in fig-a. The parallel
shift of the point source to
maintain respective distance the
same will show the same pattern
array

ii. But when the source of one ref. E1 and other E1 ejΨ then
the total field from the two sources as given

E = E1 + E1 ejΨ = 2E1 ejΨ/2 CosΨ/2 where Ψ= kd Cosθ

Now normalizing the value 2E1 =1, we get

E= ejΨ/2 CosΨ/2 = CosΨ/2 angle(Ψ/2)

iii. But when they are in opposite phase the previous equ. Become

E = E1 ejΨ/2 - E1 e-jΨ/2
= 2jE1 Sin {(kd Cosθ)/2} ; Now normalized or to make a maximum value
unity; 2E1 = 1, j operator shows 90ο shift from the reference field as shown in
fig.(b) in previous page.
Array

Then E = Cos{(kd Cosθ)/2}; if the source is λ/2 apart or d= λ/2, then

E = Sin(Π /2Cosθ)
The direction of field pattern, θm maximum field are obtained when Π/2
Cos θm = ±(2k +1)Π/2 where k= 0,1,2 ….. For k=0 and θm = 0ο and 180 ο ,
the null direction θ0 are given by

Π/2 Cos θm = ± kΠ

For k=0 and θ = ± 90 ο , the half power direction are given by

Π/2 Cos θ = ±(2k +1)Π/4,

For k=0 and θ = ± 60 ο , 120 ο , the figure for field pattern is shown before
in fig-b.
 Antenna arrays
The radiation pattern can be written as a product of the radiation pattern of an
individual element and the radiation pattern of the array (array pattern):
F ( ,  )  F1 ( ,  )  Fa ( ,  )
where the array factor is:
 kd cos    
Fa ( ,  )  cos  
 2 
Here  is the phase difference between two antennas. The array factor depends
on the array geometry and amplitude and phase of the excitation of individual
antennas. If no phase difference then, δ=0
• The total far-field radiation pattern |E| of the array (array pattern) consists of the
original radiation pattern of a single Hertzian dipole multiplying with the magnitude
of the array factor |AF|.
• This is a general property of antenna arrays and is called the principle of pattern
multiplication.
 Antenna arrays: Example

Example 10.7: Find and plot the array factor for 3 two-element antenna arrays,
that differ only by the separation difference between the elements, which are
isotropic radiators. Antennas are separated by 5, 10, and 20 cm and each
antenna is excited in phase. The signal’s frequency is 1.5 GHz.
The separation between elements is normalized by the wavelength via
  kd 2   d 
The free space wavelength:
c 3 108
   20cm
f 1.5 109
Normalized separations
are /4, /2, and . Since
phase difference is zero
( = 0) and the element
patterns are uniform
(isotropic radiators), the
total radiation pattern F()
= Fa().
 Antenna arrays

Another method of modifying the radiation pattern of the array is to change

electronically the phase parameter  of the excitation. In this situation, it is
possible to change direction of the main lobe in a wide range: the antenna is
scanning through certain region of space. Such structure is called a phased-
array antenna.
We consider next an antenna array with more identical elements.
There is a linearly progressive
phase shift in the excitation
signal that feeds N elements.
The total field is:
E (r )  E0 (r ) 1  e j  ...  e j ( N 1) 

Utilizing the following relation:

N 1
1 qN

n 0
n
q 
1 q
Antenna arrays

the total radiated electric field is

1  e jN
E  E0
1  e j
Considering the magnitude of the electric field only and using
j j 2  
1 e  2 je sin  2sin
2 2
we arrive at
 N   
E ( )  E0 sin   sin  
 2  2
where   kd cos   
 is the progressive phase difference between the elements. When  = 0:

E ( )  Emax  NE0
Antenna arrays

The normalized array factor:

 N 
sin  
 2 
Fa ( ) 
 
N sin  
2
The angles where the first null occur in the numerator of above equation define
the beam width of the main lobe. This happens when

   k 2 N ,k isinteger
Similarly, zeros in the denominator will yield maxima in the pattern.
Antenna arrays

Another method to analyze behavior of a phase-array is by considering a non-

uniform excitation of its elements.

Let us consider a three-element array shown. The elements are excited in phase
( = 0) but the excitation amplitude for the center element is twice the amplitude
of the other elements. This system is called a binomial array.

Because of this type of excitation, we can assume that this three-element array
is equivalent to 2 two-element arrays (both with uniform excitation of their
elements) displaced by /2 from each other. Each two-element array will have a
radiation pattern:
 
F1 ( )  cos  cos  
2 
 Antenna arrays

Next, we consider the initial three-element binomial array as an equivalent two-

element array consisting of elements displaced by /2 with radiation patterns of
previous equ. The array factor for the new equivalent array is also represented by
the equ. Therefore, the magnitude of the radiated field in the far-zone for the
considered structure is:
 
F ( )  F1 ( ) FA ( )  cos 2  cos  
2 

No sidelobes!!
Element pattern F1() Array factor FA() Antenna pattern F()
Implementation
Antenna arrays

19
 Antenna arrays (Example)

Example 10.8: Using the concept of multiplication of patterns (the one we just
used), find the radiation pattern of the array of four elements shown below.

This array can be replaced with an array of two elements containing three sub-
elements (with excitation 1:2:1). The initial array will have an excitation 1:3:3:1
and will have a radiation pattern as:
     
F ( )  cos  cos   cos 2  cos    cos3  cos  
2  2  2 

Array factor Antenna

array
pattern
Element
pattern
Alternative-N element array
N element……
N element….
N array contd….
array
Array…
 Array of isotropic point sources – beam shaping
Field Pattern of 2 isotropic sources
Power pattern of 2 isotropic sources
90 Power pattern of 2 isotropic sources
90
120 60 90
120 60
120 60
1.5
150 30
150 30 1
150 30
E i 0.5
Pn
180 0 0 Pn
180 0
180 0

210 330
210 330
y 210 330

240 300
240 300
270 240 300
270 i
 270

 
d1   0 deg 
2 x d1   45 deg
2
Field Pattern of 2 isotropic sources
Power pattern of 2 isotropic sources 90 d Power pattern of 2 isotropic sources
90 120 60 90
120 60 120 60
1.5
150 30
1
150 30 150 30
E i 0.5
Pn 180 0 0 Pn
180 0 180 0

210 330
210 330 210 330

240 300
240 300 270 240 300
270 i 270
 
 
d1   90 deg d1   135deg
2 2
Antenna Arrays

• 1 - Start the applet by clicking on the button "click here to start". On the left
panel, you may use any of the sliders to change N the number of elements
making the array, d the distance between the elements and the phase .

2 - Set d = 0.25 (this 0.25*wavelength) , to 0 and increase N slowly. Note

that the array is more directional.

End-Fire Array
3 - Set N = 10, d = 0.25 (this is 0.25*wavelength) and = kd = 2*Pi*0.25 =
0.5Pi. The main beam (maximum radiation) is directed toward = 180
degrees along the z axis which is also the axis of the array. If you change to -
0.5Pi, the main beam is directed toward 0 degrees along the z axis. For
these values of we have end-fire radiation.
 Endfire Array

Main Beam along the Array

90
5
120 60
4

3
150 30
2

180 0

x 210 330

240 300
270
Array of isotropic point sources – end-fired
y
2d
 ( )  cos   1  
 n
 n  
sin   x
   2 
En ( )  sin  
 2n  sin   
d

  0    
2
end-fired array,n elements power pattern

Field End-fired, n isotropic sources

90
120 60
0.8
150 0.6 30
0.4
Ef i 0.2
180 0 0

210 330

240 300 ( X  Y  Z)
270
i
n  10 d  0.25

n  10   108deg d1
4
 A  0.713 D  17.627
Antenna Arrays

• Broadside Array

4 - Set N = 10, d = 0.25 (this 0.25*wavelength) and = 0 . The main beam

(maximum radiation) is directed toward = 90 degrees normal to the z
axis which is also the axis of the array. For this value of we have
broadside radiation.

Change Phase For Scanning

5 - Set N = 10, d = 0.25 (this 0.25*wavelength) and change slowly

starting from 0. Note that the direction of maximum radiation changes.
The maximum radiation can be oriented in any direction. This is the basic
principle of electronic scanning using antenna arrays.
 Broadside Array

Main Beam orthogonal to the Array

90
5
120 60
4

3
150 30
2

180 0

x
210 330

240 300
270
Examples: 16-Antenna Array
• Uniform Array: mag.= 1, progressive phase = β, uniform spacing
• We only need phase shifters!
N = 16
Broadside: β = 0 kd = π Isotropic
radiators
D=12 dB
Phased: β=-kd cos(60°)

D=12 dB
Number of Antennas
• Directivity = D0=Umax/U0 ~ AFmax2 = N
• Half Power Beamwidth(HPBW) ~ 2*arccos(1-λ/Nd)
• Nulling of interferers reduces main beam gain (a little).
• Physical size of antenna array is not an issue
• Circuit complexity grows as N
D0

N D0 HPBW
4 6 dB 26º
HPBW
8 9 dB 10º
12 10.8 dB 9º
16 12 dB 7º
32 15 dB 3.5º
(Uniform Array)