See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/28578937

nD modelling – A driver or enabler for construction improvement?

Article · January 2006

Source: OAI

CITATIONS READS

43 3,511

7 authors, including:

Angela Lee Ghassan Aouad

University of Salford Applied Science University
76 PUBLICATIONS 1,511 CITATIONS 199 PUBLICATIONS 4,239 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Rachel F. D. Cooper Changfeng Fu

Lancaster University University of West London
231 PUBLICATIONS 5,324 CITATIONS 36 PUBLICATIONS 452 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Project management View project

Design Against Crime View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Rachel F. D. Cooper on 21 July 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

RICS nD modelling – a driver or enabler for
Research
RICS construction improvement?
Research
RICS
Research

RICS Research paper series

Volume 5, Number 6
April 2005

Ghassan Aouad, Rachel Cooper,

Changfeng Fu, Angela Lee,
Amanda Marshall-Ponting,
Joseph Tah, Song Wu

University of Salford
Dr Angela Lee is a Research Fellow
at the University of Salford. She
leads and works on several research
projects including ‘From 3D to nD
Modelling’, ‘nD Game’, ‘PeBBu
Thematic Network’ and ‘Revaluing
Construction’. Her research interest
lies in performance measurement,
process management, performance-
based building and process and
product modelling. She has
published extensively in both
journal and conference papers in
these fields. She completed a BA
(Hons) in Architecture from the
University of Sheffield and has a
PhD from the University of Salford.
The 3D to nD Modelling Project at
the University of Salford is led by
Professor Ghassan Aouad, who is
Head of the only 6* rated UK
university School of Construction
and Property Management. He is
also Director of the EPSRC funded
Salford Centre for Research and
Innovation (SCRI). The 3D to nD
project brings together a focussed
research team from the University
of Salford, comprising Professor
Rachel Cooper, Professor Joseph
Tah, Dr Song Wu, Ms Amanda
Marshall-Ponting, Dr Angela Lee
and Mr Changfeng Fu, who are
endeavouring in the project to bring
about the widespread adoption and
use of nD-enabled construction.
April 2005

Volume 5, Number 6

nD modelling - a
driver or enabler for
construction
improvement?

Angela Lee, Song Wu, Amanda Marshall-Ponting,

Ghassan Aouad, Joseph Tah, Rachel Cooper and
Changfeng Fu

School of Construction and Property Management,

University of Salford
United Kingdom
© RICS Aims and scope of the The RICS Research Paper Michael Hoxley
Anglia Polytechnic University
April 2005 RICS Research Paper Series England
ISSN 1464-648X Series Editor Will Hughes
ISBN 184 2192 000 University of Reading
Professor Les Ruddock England
The aim of the RICS Research
School of Construction and
Published by Paper Series is to provide an outlet Property Management Eddie Hui
for the results of research relevant University of Salford Hong Kong Polytechnic
Salford University
RICS to the surveying profession. Lancs M7 1NU Hong Kong
12 Great George Street Papers range from fundamental United Kingdom
Norman Hutchison
London SW1P 3AD, UK research work through to University of Aberdeen
Tel: +44 (0) 161 295 4208
publishing@rics-foundation.org innovative practical applications of Fax: +44 (0) 161 295 5011 Scotland
new and interesting ideas. Papers Email: I.ruddock@salford.ac.uk
Ramin Keivani
The views expressed by the combine academic rigour with an Oxford Brookes University
author(s) are not necessarily those England
emphasis on the implications in
Panel of referees
of the RICS nor any body practice of the material presented. Richard Laing
conneected with it. Neither the Akintole Akintoye Robert Gordon’s University
Glasgow Caledonian University Scotland
author(s), nor the RICS accept any For more information on the Scotland
liability arising from the use of this RICS Research Paper Series, S M Lo
Ghassan Aouad City University of Hong Kong
publication. please contact: University of Salford Hong Kong
England
David Lowe
Copies of this report can be made Stephen Brown David Baldry University of Manchester
free of charge for teaching and Head of Research University of Salford England
England
research purposes, provided that RICS William McCluskey
12 Great George Street Malcolm Bell University of Ulster
Leeds Metropolitan University Northern Ireland
• the permission of the RICS is London SW1P 3AD
England
sought in advance United Kingdom John Mansfield
Alistair Blyth Nottingham Trent University
• the copies are not sbrown@rics.org
University of Westminster England
subsequently resold England
• the RICS is acknowledged Jacob Opadeyi
Tel: +44 (0)20 7695 1568
Thomas Bohn The University of the West Indies
Fax: +44 (0)20 7334 3722 University of Leipzig Trinidad and Tobago
Germany
Rob Pickard
Paul Bowen Northumbria University
University of Cape Town England
South Africa
David Proverbs
Terry Boyd Wolverhampton University
Queensland University of England
Technology
Australia Rainer Schulz
University of Aberdeen
David Chapman Scotland
University College London
England Martin Sexton
University of Salford
Charles Cowap England
Harper Adams University College
England Low Sui Pheng
National University of Singapore
Hoffie Cruywagen Singapore
University of Pretoria
South Africa Thomas Uher
University of New South Wales
Tim Dixon Australia
College of Estate Management
England Clive Warren
University of Queensland
Christopher Fortune Australia
Heriot-Watt University
Scotland Christine Whitehead
London School of Economics
Andy Hamilton England
University of Salford
England Peter Wyatt
University of the West of England
Barbara Haward England
University of Portsmouth
England
Contents

Introduction 7

From 3D to nD modelling 8

Methodology 16

Workshop findings 17

Conclusion 38

References 41
nD modelling - a driver or enabler for
construction improvement?

Angela Lee, Song Wu, Amanda Marshall-Ponting, Ghassan Aouad, Joseph Tah, Rachel Cooper and
Changfeng Fu
University of Salford

Abstract

The terms ‘nD modelling’ and ‘nD CAD’ are becoming escalating idioms associated with ICT-based
(information communication technologies) building design; a concept which has been heightened by the
£0.5 million funded 3D to nD modelling project at the University of Salford. An nD model is an
extension of the building information model that incorporates multi-aspects of design information required
at each stage of the lifecycle of a building facility. This paper will explore the concept of nD modelling, lay
out the nD modelling opportunities and barriers for implementation within a business context, and
conclude by examining whether it can be applied industry-wide or remain a PR tool for the big players in
the industry. The issues surrounding nD-enabled construction are not just technological, but also and
cultural, human and process related. The paper suggests that the nD modelling approach is ideal, but not
achievable in the short term, largely due to the industry’s unwillingness to work together in an
interdisciplinary way.

Contact
Angela Lee
School of Construction and Property Management
University of Salford
Bridgewater Building
Meadow Road
Salford
Lancs M7 1NU
United Kimgdom

Tel: +44 (0)161 295 5855

Email: a.lee@salford.ac.uk
 nD modelling - a driver or enabler for construction improvement

Introduction

o ne of the main challenges facing the

construction industry today is how to
improve the efficiency and effectiveness of
the nD modelling opportunities and barriers
for implementation, and concludes by
examining whether it can be a practical
the integrated design and construction proposition with industry wide applicability
process. Moreover, what contribution can the or whether it’s merely a buzzword destined to
effective use of information technology make remain a PR tool for the big players in the
to this? A concept that has recently been industry.
forefronted as a solution to solve the ills of
construction is nD modelling/ nD CAD.
One of the main challenges facing
An nD model is an extension of the building the construction industry today is
information model, which incorporates multi- how to improve the efficiency and
aspects of design information required at effectiveness of the integrated
each stage of the lifecycle of a building design and construction process.
facility (Lee et al, 2003). nD is unlike
traditional 2D and 3D CAD systems
whereby the building design is represented
in multiple files made up of lines, arcs and
circles, and the building information is
contained within several document formats
such as spreadsheets and word processing
applications. The nD database is constructed
with intelligent ‘objects’ which represent
building elements like walls, doors and
windows. From this central database,
different views of the information can be
generated automatically; views that
correspond to traditional design documents
such as plans, sections, elevations, schedules
etc. As the documents are derived from the
same central database, they are all
coordinated and accurate – any design
changes made in the central model will be
automatically reflected in the resultant
drawings, ensuring a complete and consistent
set of documentation (Graphisoft, 2003).

This paper explores the concept of nD

modelling, presents the current development
of the 3D to nD modelling project, lays out

www.rics.org RICS Research
7

From 3D to nD modelling
2D and 3D modelling/ CAD
2D and 3D modelling/ CAD in the
construction industry takes its precedence
from the laws governing the positioning and
dimensions of a point or object in physics,
whereby a three number vector represents a
point in space: the x and y axes describing
the planar state and the z axis depicting the
height (Lee et al, 2003). However, 3D
modelling in construction goes beyond the
object’s geometric dimensions and replicates
visual attributes such as colour and texture.
This visualisation is a common attribute of
many AEC design packages, such as 3D
Studio Max and ArchiCAD, which enable
the simulation of reality in all its aspects or
allow a rehearsal medium for strategic
planning.
4D modelling/ CAD
Combining time sequencing and visual
environments with the 3D geometric model
(x, y, z) is commonly referred to as 4D CAD
(Rischmoller et al, 2000). Using 4D
modelling/ CAD, the processes of building
construction can be demonstrated before any
real construction activities occur (Kunz et al,
2002). This will aid the identification of
possible mistakes and conflicts at the early
stage of a construction project, and enable
stakeholders to predict the construction
schedule. 4D modelling/ CAD is the subject
of many research programmes around the
world and commercial packages have started
to emerge. In the USA, the Centre of
Integrated Facility Engineering (CIFE) at
Stanford University has implemented the
8
RICS Research
concept of the 4D model on the Walt Disney
Concert Hall project. In the UK, the
University of Teesside’s VIRCON project
integrates a comprehensive core database
designed with Standard Classification
Methods (Uniclass) with a CAD package
(AutoCAD 2000), a Project Management
Package (MS Project) and Graphical User
Interfaces as a 4D/ VR model to simulate
construction processes of an £8 million, 3
storey development for the University’s
Health School (Dawood et al, 2002).
Commercial packages are also now available,
such as 4D Simulation from VirtualStep,
Schedule Simulator from Bentley, and 4D
CAD System from JGC Corporation.
nD modelling
nD modelling builds upon the concept of 4D
modelling by further integrating an nth
number of design dimensions into a holistic
model, thus enabling users to portray and
visually project the building design over its
complete lifecycle (Lee et al, 2003). nD
modelling is based upon the building
information model (BIM), a concept first
introduced in the 1970s and the basis of
considerable research in construction IT ever
since. A BIM is a computer model database
of building design information, which may
also contain information about the building’s
construction, management, operations and
maintenance (Graphisoft, 2003). The idea
evolved with the introduction of object
oriented CAD; the ‘objects’ in these CAD
systems (e.g. doors, walls, windows, roofs)
can also store non-graphical data about the
building in a logical structure. The BIM is a
 nD modelling - a driver or enabler for construction improvement?

repository that stores all the data ‘objects’
with each object being described only once.
Both graphical and non-graphical
documents, such as drawings and
specifications, schedules and other data
respectively, are included. Changes to each
item are made in only one place and so each
project participant sees the same information
in the repository. By handling project
documentation in this way, communication
problems that slow down projects and
increase costs can be greatly reduced (Cyon
Research, 2003).
use IFCs to create applications that use
universal objects based on the IFC
specification. Currently, most of the major
CAD systems provide support for IFC export
and this will ensure that the data is consistent
and co-ordinated. Furthermore, this shared
data can continue to evolve after the design
phase and throughout the construction and
occupation of the building.
nD modelling tool prototype
development

The 3D to nD research project at the

Leading CAD vendors such as AutoDesk,
University of Salford is developing a holistic
Bentley and Graphisoft have started to
nD modelling tool using IFCs, to help
heavily promote BIM. However, as these
improve the decision-making process and
solutions are based on different, non-
construction performance by enabling true
compatible standards, an open and neutral
‘what-if’ analysis to be performed to
data format is required to ensure data
demonstrate the real cost in terms of the
compatibility across the different
variables of the design issues (see Figure 1).
applications. Industry Foundation Classes
Therefore, the trade-offs between the
(IFCs), developed by the International
parameters can be clearly envisaged, which
Alliance for Interoperability (IAI), can
will help to: -
provide such capabilities. IFCs provide a set
of rules and protocols that determine how
• Predict and plan the construction process
the data representing the building in the
• Determine cost options
model are defined and the agreed
• Maximise sustainability
specification of classes of components
• Investigate energy requirements
enables the development of a common
• Examine people’s accessibility
language for construction (IAI, 2004). IFC-
• Determine maintenance needs
based objects allow project models to be
• Incorporate crime deterrent features
shared whilst allowing each profession to
• Examine the building’s acoustics
define its own view of the objects contained
in that model. This leads to improved
The objective of the nD modelling tool is to
efficiency in cost estimating, building services
enable an informed design decision based on
design, construction, and facility
a variety of design perspectives. Traditionally,
management: IFCs enable interoperability
a whole host of construction specialists are
between the various AEC/FM software
involved in instigating the design of modern
applications allowing software developers to

www.rics.org RICS Research
9

 buildings. With so much information and
from so many experts, it becomes very
difficult for the client to visualise the design,
any changes applied, and subsequent impacts
on the time and cost of the construction
project. Changing and adapting the design,
planning schedules and cost estimates to aid
client decision-making can be laborious, time
consuming and costly. Each of the design
parameters that the stakeholders seek to
consider will have a host of social, economic
and legislative constraints that may be in
conflict with one another. Furthermore, as
each of these factors vary – in the amount
and type of impacts they can have – they will
have a direct impact on the time and cost of
the construction project. The criteria for
successful design therefore will include a
measure of the extent to which all these
factors can be co-ordinated and mutually
satisfied to meet the expectations of all the
parties involved.
Specialist design criteria input is usually
undertaken in a sequential step-by-step
fashion whereby the design undergoes a
number of changes; after satisfying the legal
requirements, it then proceeds to the next
consultant who in turn makes a number of
design recommendation changes. Design
changes are made in isolation from each
other in an over-the-wall manner, whereby

Changing and adapting the design, planning schedules and cost estimates to aid client
decision-making can be laborious, time consuming and costly.

10
RICS Research
 nD modelling - a driver or enabler for construction improvement?

Figure 1: What-if analysis indexes of the 3D to nD modelling project

each discrete change plays little or no regard
to the next (see Figure 2). Therefore, it is
often difficult to balance the design between
aesthetics, ecology and economism – a three
dimensional view of design that
acknowledges its social, environmental and
economic roles – in order to satisfy the needs
of all the stakeholders. These problems are
mainly attributed to the vast amount of
information and knowledge that is required

Figure 2: Sequential over the ‘brick wall’ approach to design and construction

www.rics.org RICS Research
11

to bring about good design and construction
co-ordination and communication within a
traditionally fragmented supply-chain. The
complexity of the problem increases with the
fact that this information is produced by a
number of construction professionals of
different backgrounds. Therefore, without
effective implementation of IT and processes
to control and manage this information, the
problem will only intensify as construction
projects become more and more complex,
and as stakeholders increasingly enquire
about the performance of buildings
(sustainability, accessibility, acoustic, energy,
Figure 3: System architecture of the nD modelling prototype tool
12
RICS Research
maintainability, crime etc).
The nD prototype’s key feature is its ability
to incorporate numerous design perspectives
in one system, and its subsequent capacity to
systematically assess and compare the
strengths and weaknesses of different design
scenarios presented by the nD knowledge
base. The system architecture is illustrated in
Figure 3. The tool builds on the concept of
BIM, and is IFC-based:
• nD knowledge base: a platform that
provides information analysis services for
 nD modelling - a driver or enabler for construction improvement?

www.rics.org RICS Research
13

Figure 4: Screenshot of nD prototype tool, displaying AHP technique for
determining suitable building material in accordance to lifecycle costing,
acoustics and environmental impact factors

Figure 5: Screenshot of nD prototype tool, for determining lifecycle cost

options using the MCDA technique

14
RICS Research
 nD modelling - a driver or enabler for construction improvement?

the design knowledge related to the

various design perspective constraints of
the nD modelling (i.e. accessibility
requirements, crime deterrent measures,
sustainability requirements etc).
Information from various design
handbooks and guidelines on the
legislative specifications of building
component will be used together with
physical building data from building
information model to perform individual
analysis

• Decision support: multi-criteria decision

analysis (MCDA) techniques have been
adopted for the combined assessment of
qualitative criteria (i.e. criteria from the
Building Regulations and British Standard
documents that cannot be directly
measured against in their present form)
and quantitative criteria (e.g. expressed in
geometric dimensions, monetary units
etc). Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) is
used to assess both qualitative criteria (i.e.
criteria that cannot be directly measured)
and quantitative criteria (e.g. expressed in
dimensions, monetary units, etc)

So far, the nD prototype tool (see Figures 4

and 5) incorporates whole-lifecycle costing
(using data generated by Salford’s Life-Cycle
costing research project), acoustics (using the
Rw weighted sound reduction index) and
environmental impact data (using BRE’s
‘Green Guide to Specification’ data).

www.rics.org RICS Research
15

 Methodology
A series of workshops were conducted to
gain consensus a the boundaries of the nD
modelling concept. The workshops were used
to define, develop and validate the
proposition of nD modelling project over a
period of 18 months and included an
academic research team workshop, a national
and an international workshop.
The first academic workshop set about
defining the need and scope of nD
modelling using a case study exemplar. To
identify the similarities and differences in
design requirements between various
disciplines, a provisional plan of an office
space for 10 researchers was circulated with
instructions that improvements and
developments should be made to the design
based on individuals’ disciplines (client, end-
user, accessibility, sustainability,
maintainability, maintainability, crime,
acoustics and energy). Various designs were
suggested which clearly emonstrated that it
was extremely difficult to accommodate all
stakeholders during the design process. It
also drew attention to the problem of
decision trade-offs between conflicting design
issues. For instance, from a crime prevention
perspective, windows should be small, open
inwards and positioned near the ceiling to
reduce intruder access whereas from an
access perspective, windows should be large,
glare-free and positioned lower to enable a
wide range of users to operate it.
The purpose of the national workshop was to
gain support for nD modelling and to ensure
that these were in line with the demands and
requirements of the UK’s wider academic
and industrial communities. The attendees
16
RICS Research
View publication stats
included contractors, clients, suppliers and
architects, ranging from one person
organisations to large multi-national
organisations. The spectrum of participants
was to reduce any inherent exclusion of
industry players in the development of nD,
and to gain interest and acceptance of the
work. The aims were to be achieved by
asking the group to discuss three questions:
‘how may IT support integrated design and
construction in the future, in both 5 and 20
years time’; and ‘what are the barriers and
opportunities for implementation?’
Finally, the international workshop brought
together leading players from around the
world, again from both industry and
academia. It was envisaged that this event
would augment the findings from the
previous workshops.
The detailed findings of the academic
workshops have been reported elsewhere –
see Lee et al (2003) for further details and
additional references. The workshops of most
relevance to the question of the practicality
of the nD modelling vision’s propositions are
the national and international workshops as
these are focussed, not upon the vision of the
‘ideal’ construction industry, but upon the
practicality of that vision’s propositions in
dealing with the problems and issues that the
industry stakeholders actually experience. It
is consideration of these contextual aspects –
the opportunities, and barriers to
implementation – which will determine
whether the technology will eventually be
taken up.