Chapter two

2. The components of water balance

2.1 Precipitation:

 Precipitation is the fall of water in various forms on the earth from the cloud.

 The usual forms of precipitation are rainfall, and snow (soft solid ice crystals), although it
may also occur in the form of sleet (melting snow), glaze (falls as rain but freezes when
striking the ground), hail (irregular lumps of ice with a diameter of 5 mm or more).

 Of all forms of precipitation, rain and snow make the greatest contribution to our water
supply.

2.1.1 Rainfall parameters

 Adequate data on rainfall of the area provide basic information required for management of
land and water resources.

 In this context, the important rainfall parameters are: rainfall amount, duration, intensity,
recurrence interval.

Rainfall amount: The depth to which rain water would stand on the ground on horizontal surface
under condition of no infiltration, on runoff and evaporation is known as the amount of rainfall.

 It may be either from on particular rainstorm or for a specified period of observation like a
day, week, moth or a year.

 It is expressed in terms of linear unit, ie. in mm (Millimeter) or cm (Centimeter).

Rainfall duration and intensity:

 The period during which the rainfall occurs is known as the duration of rainfall. It has units of
time (seconds, minutes, hours).

 While rainfall intensity is defined as the rate at which rainfall takes place that is the amount of
rainfall per unit time. It is expressed in units of mm/hr or cm/hr.

 Timing and rate of precipitation are critical factors affecting runoff. High intensity storms will
cause more runoff than low intensity storms.

 For example, considerable runoff may occur on a site that receives 50 mm of rain in one or
two short, severe storms versus if the same volume of rain was to fall on the same site over
the course of a week in several intermittent showers.

 The rainfall intensity plays a great role in soil conservation works since the greater the
intensity, the more the runoff and hence, the more damaged done to unprotected soils.
Intensity of rainfall may be classified as:

1. Light intensity =  2.5 mm/hr

2. Moderate intensity =2.5 mm/hr – 7.5 mm/hr

3. Heavy intensity =  7.5 mm/hr

2.1.2 Rainfall Measurement:

 Measurement of rainfall is a process of sampling where in the rain gauges are located at
predetermined points in the watershed.

 Rainfall measured at a rain gauge station is called point rainfall.

Types of Rain Gauges:

 The purpose of the rain gage is to measure the depth and intensity of rain falling on a flat
surface. Rain gages generally used are vertical, cylindrical containers with top openings.

 Point precipitation usually is expressed in depth units (volume divided by collector cross-
sectional area). Point measurement devices are generally of two types: non-recording
(storage) gages and recording gages.

The first category includes simple wedge- or funnel-shaped containers to collect precipitation over a
period of time between observations.

 Most precipitation gages are equipped with windbreak devices or shields to minimize the
measurement error caused by disruption of the airflow pattern around the gage.

 Recording Gage: tipping bucket – measures time distribution of rainfall 1 or 5 min Intervals”

Non-recording Rain gages: The commonly used rain gauge is non-recording rain gauge is
considered as standard rain gauge for measurement of rainfall.

 They record only the total amount of rainfall at a given station. Non Recording Station: rain
gage measures millimeters (mm) of rainfall.

 They do not give the intensity of rainfall. But they are economical, requiring servicing only
after rains, and are relatively free from maintenance.

 The water from the catch area is funneled into the inner cylinder which is 1/10th of the cross-
section of the catch area.

 This is to amplify the depth of the rainfall to be measured i.e. this provides a magnification of
10 times the depth of the water and makes it possible to measure to the nearest 0.25mm.

 If the measuring tube is not graduated, the collected rainfall is measured by a graduated
cylinder.
Recording Rain gages:

 There are two common types of recording precipitation gages, weighing and tipping bucket
gages.

. Tipping bucket rain gauges: Tipping bucket gages consist of a container with a funnel at the top
leading to a pair of small "buckets" attached to a fulcrum.

 When one bucket fills with water, it tips, emptying the water and moving the other bucket
beneath the outlet of the funnel.

 The device records the time at which the bucket tips, and so the time over which a certain
amount of precipitation fall (e.g., 0.25 mm for a bucket of a certain size) is recorded.

B. Weighing Rain Gages: Weighing gages collect precipitation, typically through a funnel, in a
bucket placed (above the recording mechanism) and records the weight of precipitation as a function
of time.

 The weight of the water places a tension on the spring. The amount of displacement is
recorded through an appropriate linkage on a chart placed on a clock-driven drum.

 The recording mechanism has shown which allows the pen to traverse the chart, gives a large
vertical scale and makes possible a more accurate reading of the chart.

 There are other types of recording rain gages, most of them using either the tipping bucket or
the float-and –siphon principle.

Layout of Rain gauges:

 To accurately measure rainfall, the catchment area for each rain gauge should be as small as
possible, depending upon economic, topographic, instrument accessibility and other factors.

 The density of rain gauge in different zones and regions as recommended by world
Metrological Organization (WMO).
 Specific recommended number of rain gauges for different catchment sizes

Optimum number of Rain Gauges Stations:

 The number of rain gauge stations depends up on the type of problem which the rainfall data
is going to be analyzed.

 The optimum number of rain gauges stations (N) for a catchment is approximated by the
following formula.

2
 Cv 
N 
  
  -------------------------------------------- (2-1)

Where, CV= Coefficient of variation of rainfall at m stations (%)

S
C
V
 *100 ---------------------------------------- (2-2)
P

 
m 2
 Pi  P -------------------------------------- (2-3)
S i 1

m 1
In which s is the standard deviation of rainfall values

 is the allowable error in mean rainfall (%), usually taken as 10%;

m is the number of rain gauge stations in the catchment

Pi
 is the rainfall at a particular station;

P is the mean rainfall (average rainfall

N M is additional number of rain gauges

Selection of site for Rain gages: The rainfall catch is mainly affected by the surrounding exposures
of the rain gauge. The effect of exposures on rainfall measurement within the limit can be maintained
by proper installation of the rain gauge. The following points should be kept in view for
installation of rain gauge.

1. The ground surface must be level. Generally, the places such as sloppy ground, terrace wall or
roof are avoided for locating the rain gages.

2. The Rain gages should be located at places being representative of the whole area.

3. The site should be open.

4. The gauge should be installed at least at the distance of twice the height of tallest (2h)
obstruction.

5. Wind affected areas should be avoided to minimize the effect of wind velocity; a wind break
should be set up at a minimum distance of 2 times the height of the trees planted. Fencing
controls the wind effect on precipitation catch.

6. Location of rain gauge should be avoided in the valley or at the ridge point of the area.

7. The surface over which the rain gauge is to be installed should be such that the receiver’s
height is about 75 cm above the ground surface.

8. Rain gauge should be installed in vertical position.

Location of rain gauge should be in easily accessible area

2.1.3 Errors in Rainfall Measurement

 Many errors in measurement result from carelessness in handling the equipment and in
analyzing data.

 This may increase or decrease the amount of rainfall. Errors characteristic of the non-
recording rain gages include water creeping up on the measuring stick, evaporation, leaks in
the funnel or can, and denting of the cans.

 Another class of errors is due to obstructions such as trees, buildings, and uneven topography
by affecting the exposure of the rain gauge.

 These errors, errors caused by obstructions, can be minimized by proper location of the rain
gages. The gages are normally placed with the opening about 760 mm above the surface of
the ground.

 They should be located so as to minimize turbulence in the wind passing across the gage. The
wind velocity also affects the amount of water caught.
Estimation of missing data

 Given the annual precipitation values P1. P2, P3, ……Pn at neighboring M station 1, 2, 3,
…..M respectively, it is required to find the missing annual precipitation Px at station X not
included in the above M stations.

 Further, the annual precipitation N1, N2, N3, ….. Ni at each of the above (M +1) stations
including X are known.

 If the normal annual precipitation at various stations are within about 10% of the normal
annual precipitation at station X, then a simple arithmetic average procedure is followed to
estimate Px.
PX 
1
P1  P2  ....... Pm 
M

 If the normal precipitation varies considerably, then Px is estimated by weighing the

precipitation at the various stations by the ratios of normal annual precipitations. This is
known as the normal ratio methods.

N X  P1 P2 P 
Px     ......... m 
M X  N1 N 2 Nm 

2.1.4 Average rainfall of an area

 The precipitation measured by rain gauge, represents the depth of rainfall that has been
occurred at a particular point (i.e. point precipitation); not the areal rainfall.

 When only one rain-gauge is available in the catchment, the rainfall is applied over the entire
area.

 Hydrologists frequently need to determine the rainfall distribution over an area with multiple
rain gauges. The mean areal rainfall is required for computing the runoff of catchment area.
Average rainfalls are computed on the basis of point rainfalls.

 There are three methods commonly used to determine the average rainfall amount from a
series of rain gauges.

 1. Arithmetic mean method

 2. Thiessen polygon method and

 3. Isohyetal method

 The mean values of rainfall depth obtained by these methods are also known as equivalent
uniform depth (EUD).

1. Arithmetic Mean Method:

 The Arithmetic Mean Method is the average of the rainfall data collected over an area at
different stations located within its boundary.
  In other words, where a gauging network has been established or records are available for a
given watershed, the average of point rainfalls applicable for determining the average depth
of precipitation over an area.

P1  P2      Pn Where
P P = mean rainfall and n is number of recording stations
n

P1 , P2 , P3 ,  Pn = respective rainfall values in a given period at n stations within the catchment.

 The result is quite satisfactory if:

 Stations are uniformly distributed

 Rainfall rate does not vary.

 There is less topographical difference.

 Where several gages are available, the simplest method is to take the arithmetic mean. Since
each gage may not represent equal areas, it leads to larger errors. Other methods often give
greater accuracy.

 Advantage:

  It is quick & easy to use.

  It can accommodate any number of stations.

 Disadvantage:

  It ignores spacing between the rain gauge stations.

  It ignores orographical effects such as topography.

  It disregards information available from nearby stations.

The value of average depth of the rainfall at the various gauges stations & their areas are given in
table below. Compute the average areal rainfall by the Arithmetic Mean Method.

Station Observed rainfall within or close to the area (mm or in)

P2 20.0

P3 30.0

P4 40.0

P5 50.0

total 140.0

Average rainfall = 140.0/4 = 35.0 mm or in

2. Thiessen Method:

 This method computes the weighted average of rainfall data based on the weightage given to
the area closest to the gauging station. The location of the rain gages is plotted on a map of
the watershed.

 Straight lines are then drawn between the rain gages. Perpendicular bisectors are then
constructed on these connecting lines in such a way that the bisectors enclose areas referred to
as Thiessen polygons.

 All points within one polygon will be closer to its rain gage than to any of the others.

 The rain recorded is then considered to represent the precipitation within the appropriate
polygon area.

The average precipitation over a watershed can be determined by using the equation

Where represents the average depth of rainfall in a watershed of area A and P1,P2,……Pn represent
the rain fall depth in the polygon having areas A1,A2…An within the watershed.

A1, A2, - - -, An are respective areas of Thiessen’s polygon.

A= A1+ A2 + A3 + - - - + An = Total area of the catchment

Example: A storm on the watershed illustrated in the figure above produces rainfall at the various
gage stations are given. The areas represented by the various rain gauges are determined with a
Planimeter & given as, A1 = 65 sq.unit, A2 = 150 sq.unit, A3 = 269 sq.unit, A4 = 216 sq.unit, A5 = 56
 sq.unit, A6 = 186 sq.unit. Compute the average precipitation as determined by the arithmetic mean and
Thiessen methods.

 Solution: By the arithmetic mean method the average depth is 50 mm (1.97 in). By the
Thiessen method, the areas represented by the various rain gages are determined with a
Planimeter and substituted in the Eq. 2.12.

p
6546  15055  26957  21655  5641  13646
892

P = 46 mm (2.08 in.)

 Example 2: A storm on the watershed is illustrated in this figure produces rainfall at the
various gauge stations and the areas represented by the various rain gauges are determined
with a Planimeter & given as shown in the table. Compute the areal average rainfall by the
Thiessen method.

2
Station Observed rainfall (mm Area (km or Weighted Rainfall (mm
or in) 2 or in)
mi )

P1 10.0 0.22 2.2

P2 20.0 4.02 80.4

P3 30.0 1.35 40.5

P4 40.0 1.60 64.0

P5 50.0 1.95 97.5

 9.14 284.6
compute areal average rainfall by the Thiessen method.

Average rainfall (P ) = 284.6/9.14 = 31.1 mm or in

Advantage of Thiessen mothed :

 The method uses data from nearby stations located outside the catchment.

 It allocates the importance of measurements according to station spacing.

 It is easily adaptable on computers.

 Station weights remain constant when the same numbers of stations are used.

Disadvantage Thiessen mothed

 The method ignores the orographic effects.

 Whenever a new station is added, the Thiessen’s polygon should be reconstructed.

. Isohyetal Method:

 The Isohyetal method consists of recording the depth of rainfall at the locations of the various
rain gages and plotting isohyets.

 An isohyte is a line joining places of equal rainfall depths on a rainfall map of the basin. Once
the Isohyetal map is constructed, the area Aj between each pair of isohyets within the
watershed is measured and multiplied by the average Pi of the rainfall depths of the two
boundary isohyets to compute the areal average precipitation.

This method calculates the weighted average of rainfall by considering the area between two
consecutive isohyets.

This method consists of:

 Plotting the depth of rainfall at the location of the various rain gages

Plotting Isohyetal by the method used in drawing topography maps

 Draw the Isohyetal lines using the rainfall measured at each station as a guide and
interpolating between these values.

 Find the area enclosed by the successive isohyetal lines and the boundary of the basin.

 Find the average rainfall of two consecutive isohyetal lines

 pp   p p   p  p   p  p 
A2  
An   
n


A1  1
2
2 
 2
2

3 n 1
2
n
 Or 
i 1
Ai 1 
i 1
2
i

p        
A1  A2      An
n

A
i 1
i 1
Isohyets Area enclosed Average rainfall Rainfall volume
2 2
(mm or in) (Km or mi ) (mm or in)
0.88 5 4.4
10
1.59 15 23.9
20
2.24 25 56.0
30
3.01 35 105.4
40
1.22 45 54.9
50
0.20 53 10.6
9.14 255.2

Estimated Average rainfall = 255.2/9.14 = 27.9 mm or in

 The Isohyetal method is flexible, and knowledge of the storm pattern can influence the
drawing of the isohyets.

 Depth-area curves, where needed, can be constructed from Isohyetal maps. This method is
more accurate than the other two methods if Isohyets are best done. Isohyetal method corrects
all possible errors.

 Advantage:

  The method uses data from nearby stations located outside the catchment.

  It allocates space according to station spacing as well as rainfall.

   It yields information regarding areal distribution between measurements

  It considers orographical effects.

  It is well adapted for pictorial representations.

Disadvantage:

  The method is very tedious to apply.

  It needs more time compared to other methods.

  It is not well suited for computer application.

 Choice of Methods

 The choice of the method of analysis will depend partly on the area of the watershed, the
number of rain gages, the distribution of the rain gages, topography of the catchment, and in
some situations, the character of the rainstorm.

1. Network of Stations

 Sufficient number of stations: Use the Isohyetal method, Thiessen’s Polygon and Arithmetic
Mean Method in the order given.

 Limited number of stations: Use arithmetic mean, Thiessen Polygon in the order give

 Single station: The point rainfall will be the average rainfall of the whole area.

1. Area of the Basin

 Large Catchment area (over 3000km2): Use Isohyetal method

 Intermediate basin (750-3000km2): Use Thiessen’s polygon Method

 Small basin(less than 750 km2): use Arithmetic Mean Method

1. Topography of the basin:

 Topography plays an important role in the distribution of -rainfall.

 Mountainous area (hilly and rugged area): Use Isohyetal method

 Flat areas: Use Thiessen’s Polygon, arithmetic mean method in the order

2.1.4. Moving average and return period

 Return periods refer to the amount of time that passes on average between consecutive events
of similar magnitude for a given location.

 “The famous 100-year flood is the flood that’s exceeded on average once every 100 years,”
meaning “it has a 1 percent chance of occurring in any given year,” says Richard Vogel, a
hydrologist at Tufts University in Medford, Mass
1.2.2. Interception and depression storage

 Due to surface vegetation is hold by plant leaves and other physical structures on earth.

 Interpretation storage is high in the beginning of storms and gradually decreases.

 If irregular shape of land features, there will be ponding of water in the depression.

Interception is:

 Storage of water above the ground surface, mostly in vegetation

 Where vegetation is present, precipitation consists of

o gross rainfall measured above the canopy or in openings in a forest

o through fall: water that falls between plants,

o drip page: of water from the plants to the grounds, and

o stem flow: flow of water down stems and trunks

 Therefore, interception significantly reduces precipitation intensity as water is first

temporarily sorted and much is lost interception loss that part of the precipitation on the
canopy that doesn't reach the ground, because it evaporates from the canopy (canopy
interception loss) and from near-ground plants and leaf litter (litter interception loss) or, to a
lesser extent, is absorbed by plants

1.2.3. Evaporation

 Conversion of water to vapor and its transport away from the evaporating surface or the rate
of evaporation is defined as the amount of water evaporated from a unit surface area per unit
of time.

 This parameter is an important indicator of the need for water of agricultural areas and also
for hydrologists to monitor the water balance of an area.

 In agricultural context evapotranspiration, meaning the combined evaporation of the soil

and the transpiration of plants. According to delta’s law, the rate of evaporation depends upon
the difference between the saturation vapor pressure and the vapor pressure in the air thus:

E = K (ew – ea)

Where:

 E = the rate of evaporation (cm/day)

 ew = saturated vapour pressure at the surface of water

 ea = the vapor pressure in the air at about 2 m above the water surface

 K = coefficient that depends upon barometric pressure, wind velocity, etc

More general form of the above equation is given by:

E = K’ (ew – ea)(a + bv)

Where: K’, a, b = constant and V = wind velocity.

Solar radiation is the main driving source

 Losses of water occurs from:

 Water accumulated on plant surfaces – evaporation

 Loss from plant stomata – transpiration

Loss from water and soil surfaces –evaporation Significance

ET Principles

 ET losses are regulated primarily through Meteorological conditions and Availability of

water/moisture

Potential ET

 when ET proceeds at its maximum rate (water is not limiting) Potential evaporation and
Potential evapotranspiration will be occur.

 Actual ET

 when water limits the ET loss that means the amount of evapotranspiration that actually
occurs when water is limited

Factors affecting ET

1. Primary meteorological factors affecting ET:

1. Radiation

2. Vapor Pressure

3. Wind speed

4. Air & water temperature

5. Relative Humidity

6. Salinity of the water

7. Surface area exposed

. Atmospheric factors affecting transpiration

 The amount of water that plants transpire varies greatly geographically and over time. There
are a number of factors that determine transpiration rates:
 A. Temperature:

 Transpiration rates go up as the temperature goes up, especially during the growing season,
when the air is warmer due to stronger sunlight and warmer air masses.

 Higher temperatures cause the plant cells which control the openings (stoma) where water is
released to the atmosphere to open, whereas colder temperatures cause the openings to close.

B. Relative humidity:

 As the relative humidity of the air surrounding the plant rises the transpiration rate falls. It is
easier for water to evaporate into dryer air than into more saturated air.

C. Wind and air movement:

 Increased movement of the air around a plant will result in a higher transpiration rate. in that
as water transpires from a leaf, the water saturates the air surrounding the leaf.

 If there is no wind, the air around the leaf may not move very much, raising the humidity of
the air around the leaf. Wind will move the air around, with the result that the more saturated
air close to the leaf is replaced by drier air.

D. Soil-moisture availability:

 When moisture is lacking, plants can begin to senesce (premature ageing, which can result in
leaf loss) and transpire less water.

E. Type of plant:

 Plants transpire water at different rates. Some plants which grow in arid regions, such as cacti
and succulents, conserve precious water by transpiring less water than other plants.

Methods for Estimating ET:

A. Pan Evaporation

B. Lysimeters

C. Water Balance

D. Empirical method

A. Evaporation pan:

 Floating pan 90 cm square and 45 cm deep are mounted on a raft floating in water.

 The volume of water lost due to evaporation in the pan is determined by knowing the volume
of water required to bring the level of water up to the original mark daily and after making
allowance for rain fall, if there has been any.

Evaporation = Pan Coefficient x pan evaporation

lake evaporation
pancoefficient 
pan evaporation
And the experimental values for pan coefficient ranges from 0.67 to 0.82 with an average of 0.75

B. Lysimeters

 most commonly measure evaporation by change of containers filled with the soil, to which
water is added. Loss by evaporation is then calculated.

C. Water Balance

 Approach (applied to a lake/water body) -Very difficult to get accurate estimates of inputs
and outputs

 E = P + SWin + GWin – SWout – GWout – ΔV

 SW – SW surface water

 GW – Ground water

 ∆V- Change in volume

D. Empirical method: Commonly used the following equations

1. Blaney-criddle Equation

2. Thornthwoite Equation

Blaney-Criddle-depends on:

-Mean monthly T0

-Monthly sunshine hour (Monthly daylight hours)

E=0.254*Kc*P*(32+1.8Tm), Where:

E-monthly potential evapotranspiration

T-is mean month temperature

Kc-is seasonal crop coefficient

P-ratio of mean day time hours for a given month to the total day time hours (in year as a percentage)

 Transpiration is evaporation from the vascular system of plants into the atmosphere

 - Transpiration is a physical process (not metabolic) driven by water content gradients

“Direct” Measurement of ET

Water-balance approaches

Lysimeters

 Artificially enclosed volumes of soil that have a representative vegetative cover, outflows and
inflows of water can be measured, and changes in storage can be measured by weighing
  accurate for low-lying vegetation, but very difficult for large (e.g. forest vegetation)

Soil moisture Balance

 Total ET is monitored by precise measurement of rainfall and soil water content throughout
the root zone

 can be useful for larger vegetation and is more natural than lysimeters, however obtaining
accurate soil moisture profiles is difficult..

Land-Area Water Balance

 - Problems in accurate assessment of components and ensuring storage change is negligible

 error associated with storage change is minimal when mostly soil water involved Review
Dingman’s evapotranspiration chapter’s section on Turbulent Transfer Methods

Rainfall Infiltration

 When water falls on a given formation, a small part of all absorbed by the top thin layer of
soil, so as to replenish the soil moisture deficiency. Thereafter, excess water moves down
ward, when it is trapped in void and becomes ground water.

 Infiltration is the passage of water into the soil surface and is distinguished from
percolation, which is the movement of water through the soil profile.

 Infiltration is the sole source of soil water to sustain the growth of vegetation and of the
ground water supply of wells, springs, and streams. Accounting for infiltration is fundamental
to understanding and evaluating the hydrologic cycle.

 Infiltration capacity: the ground water stored in the underground depends mainly upon the
number of voids present in the soil.

 Therefore, different soils have different number of voids, and hence, different capacity to
absorb water.

 The maximum rate at which a soil in any given condition is capable of absorbing water is
called its infiltration capacity.

 Infiltration rate: It is evident that the rain will enter the soil at full capacity rate (f) only
during the periods when the rainfall rate exceeds the infiltration capacity.

 When the rainfall intensity is less than the infiltration capacity, the prevailing infiltration rate
is approximately equal to the rainfall rate. Hence, the actual prevailing infiltration rate may be
equal to or less than the infiltration capacity.

 This actually prevailing rate at which the water will enter the given soil at any given time is
known as infiltration rate.

 If the rain intensity (p) exceeds the infiltration capacity (f) the difference is called the excess
rain rate (pe), this excess water is fist of all, accumulated on the ground as surface detention
(D) and the flows over land into the streams.
2.10. The water balance equation

 In the natural environment, water is almost constantly in motion and is able to change state
from liquid to a solid or a vapour under appropriate conditions.

 Conservation of mass requires that, within a specific area over a specific period of time, water
inflows are equal to water outflows, plus or minus any change of storage within the area of
interest.

 Put more simply, the water entering an area has equal to leave the area or being stored within
the area. The simplest formula of water balance equation is as follows:

P = Q + E ± ∆S

 Where, P is precipitation, Q is runoff, E is evaporation and ∆S is the storage in the soil,

aquifers or reservoirs.

 Precipitation is the fall of water in various forms on the earth from the cloud (P);

 Conversion of water to vapor and its transport away from the evaporating surface or the rate
of evaporation is defined as the amount of water evaporated from a unit surface area per unit
of time (E);

 The amount of runoff indifferent forms with in a hydrologic unit/system (Q)

 Water accumulates in low spots/soil and rocks and is essentially stationary (∆S)

Runoff (Q): There are four paths by which water precipitated onto a catchment ultimately can be
discharged into a stream channel.

 The four flow paths are:

1. direct precipitation (or through fall) onto an active stream channel;

2. overland flow;

3. shallow subsurface storm flow; and

 4. groundwater flow.

5. Between precipitation events

6. (Fig. (a)), stream flow is maintained by groundwater discharge (base flow). Runoff is
enhanced during and after precipitation events.

7. Direct precipitation onto stream channels or overland flow (Fig. b contributes directly to
enhanced surface runoff. Infiltrating rainwater that reaches the groundwater system can
enhance base flow or provide return flow in saturated areas (Fig.(b)).

8. Saturation of permeable soil horizons also can produce shallow lateral flow called subsurface
storm flow (Fig. (c)). So, based on the time delay between rainfall and runoff, it may be
classified into surface runoff, sub-surface runoff, and base flow.

Types of runoff

a. Surface runoff:

 It is that portion of rainfall which enters the stream immediately after the rainfall.

 It occurs when all losses are satisfied and if rain is still continued, with the rate greater than
infiltration rate, then excess water makes a head over the ground surface (surface detention)
which tends to move from one place to another, known as overland flow.

 This overland flow joins the stream channel or oceans, termed as surface runoff.

b. Sub-surface Runoff:

 That part of rainfall, which first leaches into the soil and moves laterally without joining the
water-table, to the streams, rivers or oceans, is known as sub-surface runoff.

 Sometime sub-surface runoff is treated as surface runoff due to reason, that it takes very little
time to reach the river or channel in comparison to ground water.
c. Base flow:

 it is delayed flow and is defined as that part of rainfall, which after falling on the ground
surface, infiltrated into the soil and meets to the water-table.

 The movement of water in this type of runoff is very slow. It takes a long time to join the
rivers or oceans. Sometimes base flow is also known as ground water flow.

Thus, Total Runoff = Surface runoff + Base flow (Including sub-surface runoff)

 Water balance analysis can be used to assess the current status and trends in water resource
availability in an area over a specific period of time.

 It helps to strengthen water management decision-making, by assessing and improving the

validity of visions, scenarios and strategies.

 Water balance estimates are often presented as being precise. In fact, there is always
uncertainly, arising from inadequate data capture networks, measurement errors and the
complex spatial and temporal heterogeneity that characterises hydrological processes.

 Consequently, uncertainty analysis is an important part of water balance estimation as is

quality control of information before used.

 When the data sources are imprecise, it is often possible to omit components that do not affect
changes.

 For example, it is possible to omit storage from an annual water balance if year-on-year
storage changes (such as reservoirs) are negligible.

 Techniques for carrying out water balance estimation ranges from very simple estimates to
highly complex computer-based models.

 It is often advisable for a project or programme to employ the services of a specialist to

produce water balance estimates or, at the very last, to provide specialist advice as and when
it is needed.

 Access to a quality-controlled information base is a good starting point for water balance
estimation.

 2.1.1 Methods of estimation

 Step 1: Define boundaries of the area of interest and period over which water balance is to be made.

 Step 2: Undertake a needs assessment of the water balance information that is required among
stakeholders. This should be used as a starting point for listing and defining the water balance
components that are of particular interest.

 Step 3: Produce a simply schematic diagram that shows storage, inflows and outflows from the area of
interests. Use the diagram as a basis for drafting a water balance equation. Check that no components
are missing and that is no double counting of flows or storage.

 Step 4: Identify a source(s) of quality-controlled information. Ensure that the information is relevant to
the area and time period you are interested in.
 Step 5: Carry out uncertainty and sensitivity analysis on this information. If there are inadequacies in
the information (almost always the case), redefine the boundaries of the water balance and/or modify
the water balance equation.

 Step 6: Produce water balance estimates in a format that is useful for visioning, scenario
building and planning with the community.

 Step 7: Control these estimates regarding their quality before they are disseminated, using quality
control methods described in this chapter.