S2 Q3 Reading and Writing Skills alongside, amidst

Lesson 1.1 around, away from, back of, behind, below,

PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT
beneath, beside

between, beyond, by, down, farther, here, in

NARRATION, DESCRIPTION, DEFINITION, COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
in front of, inside, into, near, off, on, on top of
● In writing, it refers to the particular strategy that
onto, opposite to, outside, over, throughout, to the
writers use to develop ideas. right, under
● It is the logical arrangement of thoughts.

● Consider the difference between the general

1) NARRATION and specific, and abstract and concrete
● Is a story written to explain what, when and expressions below to see what a difference
who. the right words can make:
● It reveals what a reader should learn.
● Narration paragraphs use the past form of
the verb and are usually written in Specific General
chronological order. blue hamster pet
● Therefore, narrative paragraphs are
characterized by words that show action banana squash vegetable
and words that show sequence.
● Remember: red and white umbrella
rain gear
with a broken spoke
● A narrative paragraph tells a part of a
story in the first person.
● It shows a sequence of events Concrete Abstract
connected by transitional words.
● Action verbs are used to indicate He kissed her and
He loved her.
movement. smiled into her eyes.
● Words related to narration: story, skill,
event, narrate, and vivid. Her hands were
shaking and she was
● Some of the common transitional expressions She was scared.
afraid her knees would
used in narrative writing are: not support her.

Signal words for Narration As the sun passed

under the horizon, the
meanwhile eventually first sky turned hot pink and
It was a beautiful
gold, and rays of
finally in addition later sunset.
brighter gold fanned
across the sky into the
also furthermore moreover high clouds above.

2) DESCRIPTION Concrete and Specific Detail:

● Provides details on the idea by using either a
sensory or spatial pattern.
● Through a sensory pattern, ideas are
arranged based on one or all of the five
senses.
● Remember:
● The descriptive paragraph tells the
features or characteristics of
someone/something with the use of
concrete and specific details.
● Words related to description: detail, quality,
sensory, look, and realistic.
● Some of the common transitional expressions
used in description writing are:
Description pattern signal words
above, across, adjacent to, against, along,
● Details help readers to connect to the
world the author envisions.
● The concrete and specific expressions
get a reader's attention far more
effectively than the abstract and general
expressions do.
● A reader can imagine specific things far
more readily than general concepts.
● Part of your revision process should
include finding concrete and specific
expressions for your ideas.
Two Types of Description:
a. Objective Description
- Where the writer presents an
impartial and actual picture of the
subject without biases and
excluding personal impressions of
 the subject just like when you give ● a writer must identify the term being
your description of an experiment in defined,
class. ● provide a basic or general definition,
● and then provide clear detail to support
b. Subjective Description the definition.
- Where the writer gives a personal A definition can be developed in a number
impression of what is observed. of ways.
- This is often used in making fiction
stories. The term could be emphasized by the
- For instance, when you are asked to following:
write about a place you visit during 1. Characteristics or features
summer vacation, you tend to give 2. Function
your personal judgment of how you 3. Effect
experience the place. 4. Origin

3) DEFINITION 4) COMPARISON AND CONTRAST

● Explains not just what something means or
is, but also,
● what something does,
● what something is used for,
● what something looks like, etc.
● Remember:
● In definition:
● Your main purpose is to explain to
readers your understanding of a key term
or concept;
● While your secondary purpose is to
persuade them that your definition is a
legitimate one.
● Words related to definition: meaning,
enlighten, inform, elaborate, and controversy.
● Some of the common transitional expressions
used in definition writing are:
● Organizes ideas based on how events,
places, people, things, and concepts are
similar to or different from one another.
● Remember:
● To compare subjects is to show the
similarities between them, while to
contrast them is to point out their
differences.
● Compare → similarities
● Contrast → differences
● Comparison and contrast can both be
used in the development of a text or
paragraph depending on your purpose.
● Words related to comparison and contrast:
similarity, element, difference and choice.
● Some of the common transitional expressions
used in comparison and contrast writing are:

Signal words for Definition Signal words for Signal words for
Comparing Contrasting
is defined as means to define
also, as, both, although, and yet, as
as defined refers to to illustrate opposed to, but,
conversely, counter to

- It defines concepts in equally, in a similar despite, even so, even

the most factual way,
Scientific
which is often used in
Definition
scientific, proper, or
real-world facts.
- It defines the objects in
a more personal way.
- It is usually derived
from the author's own
experiences and
Subjective
opinion.
Definition
- Often used by a writer
to state something from
the point of view of
the characters or in
relation to the setting.
fashion, in though, in contrast, in
comparison, spite of, in the meantime
in the same way, like, instead, however,
likewise, nevertheless,
nonetheless, on the
contrary, on the other
hand
similarly, compare otherwise, still, the fact
remains, unlike, whereas,
yet
Two Methods Compare and Contrast:
a. Separately (Block Method)
- involves describing one item first
followed by the second item.

b. Side-by-side (Point-by-point Method)

How to write a definition paragraph?
- involves discussing both items based
To write a definition paragraph (or essay),
on each point of comparison.
Lesson 1.2 as much as, one much that

PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT
reason

owing to (the fact), so that, therefore, thus

CLASSIFICATION AND EXEMPLIFICATION, CAUSE AND EFFECT, seeing that, since
PROBLEM-SOLUTION, PERSUASION

5) CLASSIFICATION AND EXEMPLIFICATION There are three different ways to use the
Exemplification cause-and-effect pattern in writing:
● Provides examples and illustrations in order ● Cause to effect
to further clarify or explain the concept or ● Effect to cause
subject matter. ● Consecutive cause and effect
● Presents the general statement and then
provides specific and concrete examples to a. Cause to Effect
expound on the main idea. - The cause, which can be an event or
● Example action, can be stated right at the
● Illustration beginning of a paragraph, followed by
sentences stating the effects.
Classification - This type of organization is best for
● Divides things into groups, classes, or explaining a single cause with different
categories. effects.
● Organizes ideas into divisions based on
criteria or standards.
● Criteria
● Category

Signal words for Signal words for

Exemplification Classification

afterall, as an example, another, another kind b. Effect to Cause

consider the following,
for example
for instance, in other
words, in particular, in
short
namely, put another way,
specifically, stated
differently
- The effect can be stated at the beginning
of the text, followed by sentences and
classified as, final type paragraphs that expound on the causes.
- This type of organization is best for
presenting a single effect with different
causes.
one kind, the first
category

that is, to be specific, to the last group, the next

clarify, to illustrate part

6) CAUSE AND EFFECT

● Explains why something happens or what
c. Consecutive Cause and Effect
results a particular event produces.
● Words related to cause and effect: explain, - In this type of organization, the causes,
fishbone, connection, consequence, critical, each with its corresponding effect, are
and reason. tackled one by one in a few sentences or
a paragraph.
Signal words for Signal words for Effect - The writer explains each cause and
Cause effect completely before moving on to the
next cause and effect.
as, because of (the accordingly, as a
fact), being that, due to consequence, as a
(the fact) result (of this), because
(of this)

for, for the reason that, consequently, for this

in that reason, hence

in view of (the fact), in in consequence, so, so

7) PROBLEM-SOLUTION 8) PERSUASION
● Focuses on either a problem or solution in a ● Persuasion means to convince someone that
particular area or situation. your opinion on a subject is the right one.
● Words related to problem-solution: ● There are many forms of persuasion; you
concern, cause, and scientific. might not even know you are being
persuaded.
Signal words for Problem-Solution ● For example, advertisements are
persuading you to buy a certain product.
but the problem one solution is ● Or your family is always trying to convince
you to do something or that they are
first, second the solution one way is always right.
● It is important to consider the audience as
nonetheless one reason for
you write persuasively.
the
● Directing your paragraph toward a
particular audience can be helpful.
The following variations of the ● Consider what kind of evidence this
problem-solution pattern are: audience would respond to. When you
● Problem-Solution take your audience into consideration, you
● Problem-Cause-Solution will make your persuasive paragraph more
● Problem-Process-Solution convincing.
● Persuasive text can be in the form of an:
a. Problem-Solution ● argument,
● discussion,
- The problem-solution pattern is a
● exposition,
straightforward approach.
● review or
- The problem is expressed in a simple
● even an advertisement.
statement, and a possible solution is
● Words related to persuasion: convince,
given.
persuade, and opinion.

How to develop your own persuasive text?

1. A writer must first state the issue.
● This will serve as a background
information about the topic.
b. Problem-Cause-Solution
2. It should be followed by a clear, strong and
- In a problem-cause-solution pattern, the specific argument.
cause of the problem is identified and ● An argument is one’s claim or position that
analyzed before a possible solution is can either support or reject the issue
presented. previously stated.
● Arguments shall be supported with
well-researched evidence, which will give
details on how and why it supports the
argument.

3. It shall be supported with well–researched

c. Problem-Process-Solution
- In a problem-process-solution pattern, the
process or procedure is discussed
extensively.
- In the discussion, the problem is
addressed; the readers are led to the
solution.
evidence.
● It can be factual, logical, statistical or
anecdotal in nature.
● It can also explain counterarguments not
because the writer wants to prove which
claims are wrong or right but to enlighten
the readers about other positions.
[Some information is not included in the given powerpoints (check
the ppts to see comparison), but the examples are what I
remembered that was included during the discussion. There are
also additional info for better understanding. So it is up to you if
you will review it or not. Give credits if you will add them.]
Lesson 2.1
PROPERTIES OF A
WELL-WRITTEN TEXT
ORGANIZATION, COHESION AND COHERENCE
● In academic terms, a text is defined as written
material or piece of writing such as an article,
essay, book, magazine, or newspaper.
● Knowing the properties of well-written text is
very important in writing because it organizes
ideas and helps the reader to really understand
the text.
● For a paragraph or any composition to be
effective, it must always consider the four
properties of a well-written text which
includes organization, cohesion and coherence,
language use, and mechanics.
1) ORGANIZATION
● It is the way a text is organized that helps to
guide the reader logically through it.
● This property makes a text readable and its
message clear.
● Organization can be achieved through the
following (3) techniques:
1.1 Physical Format
○ The format is an aspect of the
organization that is immediately
apparent to the reader.
○ It is seen in how the text physically
appears like headings and subheadings,
bullet points or font emphasis.
○ However, use this technique with
discretion as improper or superfluous
formatting can be confusing.
○ Example:
Marxist ideology has three main theories.
Historical materialism purports that all
the features of society can historically be
traced back to economic activity. Social
class in capitalist societies is what
procedures unjust structures of power that
exist today. Socialism would be the next
rational step for the development of
human society.
1.2 Signal Words
○ Signal words are textual cues that
readers can use to follow a text.
○ They can “signal” the transition from one
point to another, the ordering of events
and concepts, or the writer’s chosen text
type (e.g., linear narration, question and
answer).
○ Example:
Chuck Palahniuk’s novel Fight Club
greatly influenced me as a fictional writer.
First, his use of the unreliable narrator
fascinated me, and I have written similar
characters in my works. Second, the
theme of patriarchal oppression can also
be found in the stories I write. Third, the
novel’s stunning twist is something that I
have been trying to recreate. Thus, I am
extremely grateful to have encountered
Palahnuik’s genius early in my writing
career.
1.3 Structure
○ The structure provides the framework
upon which the text is organized.
○ It consists of the following:
■ Beginning: introduction, thesis
statement, hook
■ Middle: supporting details
■ End: conclusion, summary, final
message
○ Example: Ancient philosophies believe
that a person has an “aura,” this appears
as a rainbow of light around the body that
can be seen by individuals with
clairvoyant abilities. The colors change
depending on one’s mood, health, and
thoughts. Some scientists believe that the
existence of the aura has something to do
with the electromagnetic fields produced
by cells and tissues in the human body.
Whether auras are real or not, the fact
remains that there are forces everywhere
that are real even though we cannot see
them.
Text organization makes a text easy to read.
It prevents the reader from becoming
confused by a jumble of words, sentences,
and paragraphs that are in no particular
order.
2) COHERENCE AND COHESION
Coherence
● Coherence occurs when ideas are connected
at the conceptual level.
● Also, coherence is the quality of being
logical, clearly organized, not rumbling or
confusing.
● The details of a coherent paragraph follows a
certain logical order; the connections between
the ideas are reinforced by transitional
devices.
● Example:
He is the smartest person I have ever met.
He knows a lot about any subject, yet he
remains humble and kind. What’s more, he
 is helpful enough to teach us about any topic
that confuses us without any complaints. Of
course, he is not just exceptional with
academics. He is also an excellent dancer
and orator. Surprisingly, he has an eye for
film direction and photography. The world
definitely needs more people like him.
Cohesion
● Cohesion is the connection of ideas at
sentence level.
● Cohesion is the connection or relation of
ideas which make them unified and coherent.
○ Unity is achieved when a composition is
focused on one idea. In a unified text, all
supporting ideas are relevant to the main
thought. Without unity, text will be
confusing.
● Every detail in a paragraph should support the
main idea.
● Did it use pronouns properly? Did it use
transitions? Did it do repetition of the subject
matter?
Coherence Cohesion
- Coherence is the - Cohesion is the
connection of the relationship of
ideas to a central ideas between
concept of a text. sentences.
The concepts of coherence and cohesion are
interrelated to each other, but they have
distinct functions and uses.
Cohesion without coherence
○ A text with cohesion has a central concept
or “glue” that holds all the different ideas
together.
○ Although without coherence, there is no
apparent logic to the way these ideas are
presented.
○ The writer appears to move on to another
related idea without proper transition from
the previous idea.
○ A text with cohesion but no coherence is
difficult to follow.
○ Examples:
Cubism is an avant-garde art movement that
started in the early 20th century in Europe. A
famous Filipino cubist painter is Vicente
Manansala. He is a National Artist of the
Philippines in Visual Arts. Did you know that
visual arts have different forms including
architecture, video, and textile.
My favorite color is blue. Blue sports cars go
very fast. Driving in this way is dangerous
and can cause many car crashes. I had a
car accident once and broke my leg. I was
very sad because I had to miss a holiday in
Europe because of the injury.
Coherence without Cohesion
○ A text coherence has ideas that are
logically sequenced in a way that is easy
to follow for the reader.
○ Although without cohesion, no central
concept links all these ideas together.
○ The main point of the text remains unclear
for readers.
○ A text with coherence but no cohesion has
no definite point.
○ Examples:
My favorite painting is “The Weeping
Woman” by Pablo Picasso, which is an
intriguing painting that symbolizes suffering.
As a result, I love bright primary colors, so I
wear a lot of shocking yellows, blues, and
reds. Also, as an outgoing person, I enjoy
performing for large crowds. In the end,
people should not judge an artist’s talent
based on one standard.
My favorite color is blue. I’m calm and
relaxed. In the summer I lie on the grass and
look up.
Cohesion and Coherence
○ A text with both cohesion and coherence is
logically sequenced and stays on topic
○ Example:
My favorite color is blue. I like it because it is
calming and it relaxes me. I often go outside
in the summer and lie on the grass and look
into the clear sky when I am stressed. For
this reason, I’d have to say my favorite color
is blue.
○ To achieve coherence and cohesion, one
technique is to use signal devices which hint
readers on how the points in your paragraph
are a progression. This can be shown in the
paragraphs using transitions, repetitions,
synonyms, pronouns, and parallel
structures.
1. Transitions
- Refer to the words that connect one
idea to another, making the writer’s
ideas flow smoothly.
Category Transition Words
causation thus, therefore, since, on account
of, hence, for that reason,
consequently, because, and so, as
a result, accordingly
time first, afterward, before, after,
earlier, eventually, then,
meanwhile, now, next, also
sequence furthermore, moreover, next, also,
 finally, last, besides, additionally
contrast after all, otherwise, though, yet,
notwithstanding, nonetheless, in
contrast, however, despite,
conversely
comparison in like manner, in similar fashion,
in the same way, likewise, still, in
comparison, too
example as an illustration, to demonstrate,
to illustrate, for instance, for
example, specifically, that is
location above, adjacent to, wherever,
there, peripherally, opposite to,
nearby, here, centrally, beyond
importance Primarily, of less importance,
foundationally, critically, chiefly,
most importantly
intensification In fact, without doubt, undoubtedly,
surely, to repeat, of course,
indeed, no, yes
concession granted, it is true, naturally, to be
sure, of course
purpose to this end, so that, in order that,
for this purpose
summary to sum up, to summarize, in
summary, in short, in sum, in brief
conclusion to conclude, in the end, in
conclusion, lastly, finally, thus,
therefore
2. Repetitions
- Include a word, phrase, or a full
sentence repeated to highlight its
importance in the entire text.
- The repetition of the main idea keeps
continuity and helps the readers remain
focused and headed in the right
direction.
- Examples:
- The president said, “Work, work, and
work,” are the keys to success.
- If you think you can make it, you can
make it.
- Most students are intimidated by the
works of William Shakespeare. They
believe Shakespeare’s sonnets and
plays are far too complicated to read
and understand.
3. Synonyms
- Synonyms are words in meaning to
important words or phrases.
- This technique is used if direct
repetition is too obvious.
- Example:
- Teenagers face an enormous amount
of peer pressure from friends. Hence,
many young adults are showing signs
of great stress or depression at an
early age.
4. Pronouns
- Pronouns are used to connect
sentences by referring to preceding
nouns and pronouns.
- They can also help create paragraphs
readable by removing wordiness and
unnecessary repetition.
- Examples:
- Rodrigo R. Duterte is the 16th
President of the Republic of the
Philippines. Moreover, he also served
as Davao City’s Mayor for a long
period of time. He is also known by
many as a strong leader.
- Mrs. Gomez approved to have a
meeting with the workers’ union
before she signed the contract. She
was willing to hear their concerns
about the newly proposed
amendments in the company.
5. Parallel Structures
- Include the use of matching words,
phrases, clauses, or sentence
structures to express similar ideas.
- It allows the reader to understand the
connections between ideas and to flow
smoothly from one idea, sentence, or
paragraph to the next.
- Example:
- In the conference hall the students
attended a lecture where the speaker
demonstrated how to properly wear a
PPE. They also attended a lecture
where their school nurse explained
how to keep one’s health protected
from COVID-19.
OR
2.1 Transitional Devices
○ Here are examples of transitional devices
which were already introduced in your
previous topic.
Category Transition Words
Emphasis indeed, importantly, in fact,
furthermore, and moreover
Contrast in contrast, conversely, compared
to, another point
Summarizing finally, overall, lastly, to sum up,
and in conclusion
Examples for instance, for example, namely,
such as
 Lesson 2.2
Similar points similarly, likewise, again, and also
PROPERTIES OF A
WELL-WRITTEN TEXT
2.2 Pronouns
○ Examples of pronouns are: he, she, it,
they, them, their, etc. Here is an example LANGUAGE USE, MECHANICS
for you wherein the pronoun ‘they’ is
referring to the word “people.” 3) LANGUAGE USE
○ People are excited to receive financial
● Using proper language is one of the clearest
assistance from the government. At least,
indicators and signs of a well-written text.
they have something to eat in times of
○ It refers to the appropriateness of word or
crisis.
vocabulary used in a text.
● This enables the author and the writer to
2.3 Coordinators and Subordinators
communicate more to the readers (without
○ Examples of coordinators are: for, and,
confusion).
nor, but, or, yet, so (FANBOYS) while
● Proper language use allows you to capture
some of the examples of subordinators
the message that you want to convey to your
are: when, since, although, so that, until,
readers.
before, unless, when, whenever, etc.
○ It is important to make correct choices
when it comes to language use because
2.3 Lexical Patterning
how you use language affects the tone and
○ Lexical patterning means changing the
the text and the readers’ interpretation of it.
function of the word into another part of
● Before writing, you have to think and consider
speech.
your target audience.
○ Example:
Heroism does not need to be recognized
TWO KINDS OF LANGUAGE
by all people nor becoming superior to
1. Formal Language
others. One can do heroic deeds by doing
○ Formal language is used in writing
small acts of kindness to the needy even if
academic, business, and official text.
nobody noticed it.
○ Formal language is generally the
- Notice in the sentences below that the
accepted standard and is widely used
word “heroism” is a noun and related
in books, magazines, newspapers,
concept is used in another sentence
research papers, and journals.
“heroic” which functions not as a noun
○ This is the language that subscribes to
but as an adjective.
the conventions in writing in which the
tone, choice of words, and the way
words are put in a less personal way.
○ Example: We requested that the
secretary contact the professor and
obtain her permission for us to
continue our research.

2. Informal Language
○ Informal language is usually used in
writing for oneself or in writing to
family, friends, and colleagues.
○ Informal language is more casual and
spontaneous which may include slang,
local expression, or even text
messaging style of writing.
○ The tone of informal language is more
friendly and personal.
○ It is what you usually use when you
are talking to a friend, a family
member, or someone you consider
close to you.
○ Example: We asked the secretary to
call the professor and get her
permission for us to continue our
research.
 Language Use as a Writer police often use the term to mean a
■ As a writer, you need to determine when it violent killing. Which is the opposite
is appropriate to use formal language or from its traditional English meaning. It
when informal language is acceptable. comes from the Spanish word “salvage”
■ When you write, you should also make that has a similar meaning to savage.
sure that the language you use is direct Thus, if the writer produces this text for
and simple rather than complicated so that a Filipino audience, the meaning that
readers would easily understand the text. they intended would be lost. Using the
■ You should also be sensitive enough to use word “saved” or “rescued” would
unbiased language so that you will not remedy the issue.
offend any individual or any particular
group of people. c. Technical or Highfalutin Words
- Some writers want to sound smart by
A teacher should make it a point to using words that are very technical or
motivate her students. (pronoun) have deep meanings.
- Though some genres require the use of
Teachers should make it a point to motivate such words, writers should still be
their students. careful about using them since they
make readers work harder to
In writing academic and formal texts, the understand texts.
following should be observed: - Example: There is an ongoing
- Always use Standard English. discourse about the
- Avoid using contractions e.g. antidisestablishment assemblage and
shouldn‘t must be should not the administrative political body.
- Incorrect: Don‘t press the Escape - Correct way: There is an ongoing
key. discussion between the opposition and
- Correct: Do not press the Escape the government.
key.
4) MECHANICS
● Mechanics is the last property of a
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY WRITERS
well-written text that deals with the technical
a. Misused Words
aspect of writing.
- Words might be used incorrectly by
● These are conventions that have to be
writers, and this occurs when the word
considered in writing. Some of these
does not mean what he/she thinks it
conventions are punctuation, capitalization,
does.
and spelling.
- Example: There are many behaviors
○ To prevent confusion, it is necessary to
that past societies considered legal but
know and follow these conventions in
are now deemed amoral including
writing.
slavery, sexism, and racism.
● In this property, the writer should focus on the
- Explanation: Amoral is used instead of
correct spelling, abbreviations, punctuations,
immoral. Amoral means neither moral
and capitalizing a composition.
nor immoral without moral quality. The
meaning of words can be distinguished
4.1 Spelling
by prefixes such as a- and im-.
○ When you write, always make sure that
you are consistently using one
b. Words with Unwanted Connotations
standard regarding the spelling of your
- There are words that take on a
words.
meaning specific to a context.
○ Remember that there are slight
- Some writers might not be aware of
differences in American English spelling
these connotations, so they end up
and British English spelling.
using language that is unintentionally
confusing, comical, or even offensive to
the readers. American Spelling British Spelling
- Example: The coast guard salvaged
airplane aeroplane
Priscilla and her sister after their fishing
analyze analyse
boat was damaged in the storm. anesthesia anaesthesia
- Explanation: The word salvage means aging ageing
to save usually from the wreckage of a color colour
marine vessel. However in the defense defence
Philippines, the Philippine media and learned learnt
 organize organise CORRECT MECHANICS OF THE ACTIVITY
theater theatre About a hundred years ago, there lived a great
traveled travelled general whose name was Napoleon Bonaparte. He
was the leader of the French army and France was
at war with nearly all the countries around. He
4.2 Punctuation
wanted very much to take his soldiers into Italy, but
○ Punctuation is the act of using a system
between France and Italy there are high mountains
of symbols such as the comma, period,
called the Alps, the tops of which are covered with
quotation marks, question marks, etc. that
snow.
are used to give structure to and
organize a text.
“Is it possible to cross the Alps?” said Napoleon.
○ The use of punctuation guides the reader
regarding how the text should be read.
The men who had been sent to look at the passes
// punctuation marks and their uses are in the next page
over the mountain shook their heads. Then one of
them said, “It may be possible, but”—
4.3 Capitalization
○ Capitalization, like punctuation, helps “Let me hear no more,” said Napoleon. “Forward to
express details. Italy!”
○ Capitalization is the act of writing in which
the first letter of a word is in uppercase People laughed at the thought of an army of sixty
while the rest of the letters are in thousand men crossing the Alps where there was
lowercase. no road. But Napoleon waited only to see that
○ However, using capitalization merely to everything was in good order, and then he gave the
make a word appear or sound significant order to march.
is not right.
○ There are rules in capitalization that one The long line of soldiers and horses and cannon
has to remember. stretched for twenty miles. When they came to a
steep place where there seemed to be no way to
go farther, the trumpets sounded “Charge!” Then
Proper Nouns Alex, Manila
every man did his best, and the whole army moved
Proper adjectives Canadian right onward.
Days of the week Sunday, Monday Soon they were safe over the Alps. In four days,
Months of the year January, February they were marching on the plains of Italy.

Specific Course Theater 101 “The man who has made up his mind to win,” said
Titles Napoleon, “will never say impossible.”
Kinship names Grandma, Dad, Aunt Paz,
used in place of Uncle Alvin
personal name and
are followed by
personal names
Adjectives, verbs, Through the Looking-Glass,
adverbs, nouns, and What Alice Found There
and pronouns in a (literature), And I Am Telling
title and the first You I’m Not Going (song)
and last word in a
title
Historical periods, Great Depression, the
events, documents Renaissance, the
Constitution
 Punctuation Marks Uses

1. Commas , a. Use a comma to separate items in a series. If all items in the series are followed by and or or, use a
comma.
Example: Squirrel, rabbit, and venison are the three kinds of meat originally in a burgoo.

b. Use a comma to separate two complete sentences joined by a conjunction (and, but, or, nor, or for, and
sometimes yet and so).
Example: We ran out of gas, so I went to the nearest gas refilling station.

c. Use commas to set off dates and addresses.

Examples: January 08, 2021/ Davao City, Philippines

2. Semicolons ; a. Use a semicolon to separate two sentences when there is no coordinating conjunction such as and, but,
or, nor, or for.
Example: Class was canceled today; Mr. Diaz was homesick.

b. If the two sentences are joined by a conjunctive adverb, such as however, consequently, therefore, or
moreover, use a semicolon before the conjunctive adverb and a comma after it.
Example: Leaves fell from the trees in multiple colors; consequently, we have a big job ahead for us raking
them into compost piles.

c. Use a semicolon to separate two sentences joined with coordinating conjunction when commas are
contained within either of the sentences.
Example: Leaves fell from the trees in red, gold, yellow, and brown; and it looked like snow with a rainbow.

d. Use a semicolon to separate items in a series if there are commas within the items
Example: Ms. Dapar, my friend; Mr. Diaz, my neighbor; and Ms. Lastimosa, my MAPEH teacher all
pledged to support the program.

3. Colon : a. Use colon for conventional items: giving the time, separating chapter from a verse in Bible references,
separating volume from a page in bibliography references, and writing a salutation in a business letter.
Examples: 5:30 a.m./ Luke 4:17-28/ Dear Madam:

b. Use a colon to introduce a formal list. Words such as the following or as follows frequently signal a formal
list.
Example: The attendant made the following checks on my car: oil level, transmission fluid level, battery,
tire pressure, and windshield washer fluid.

4. Apostrophe ‘ An apostrophe is used as a substitute for a missing letter or letters in a word (as in the contraction cannot =
can't), to show the possessive case (Jane's room), and in the plural of letters, some numbers and
abbreviations. Note: groups of years no longer require an apostrophe (for example, the 1950s or the 90s).

5. Dash — A dash is used to separate parts of a sentence.

The dash is also known as an "em dash" because it is the length of a printed letter m — it is longer than a
hyphen.

6. Ellipsis ... An ellipsis (three dots) indicates that part of the text has been intentionally left out. Example: 0, 2, 4, ... , 100

7. Exclamation point ! An exclamation point is used to show excitement or emphasis.

Example: It is cold!

8. Hyphen - A hyphen is used between parts of a compound word or name. It is also used to split a word by syllables to
fit on a line of text.
Example: The sixteen-year-old girl is a full-time student

9.`Parentheses () Parentheses are curved lines used to separate explanations or qualifying statements within a sentence (each
one of the curved lines is called a parenthesis). The part in the parentheses is called a parenthetical remark.
Example: This sentence (like others on this page) contains a parenthetical remark.

10. Period . A period is used to note the end of a declarative sentence.

Example: I am busy.

11. Question mark ? A question mark is used at the end of a question.

Example: Where are you?

12. Quotation mark “ Quotation marks are used at the beginning and end of a phrase to show that it is being written exactly as it
was originally said or written.
Example: She said, "Let's eat."
Lesson 3 CLAIM
EXPLICIT, IMPLICIT & CLAIMS ■ Claim is the writer’s point or position
regarding a specific topic.
CLAIMS OF FACT, CLAIMS OF POLICY, & CLAIMS OF VALUE
■ It is the central argument in the text where the
writer tries to prove by providing explanation,
EXPLICIT INFORMATION IMPLICIT INFORMATION justification, and evidence.

- Information or - Information or
TYPES OF CLAIM
statement directly statement indirectly
stated in the text. stated in the text. 1) CLAIM OF FACT
- They are written and - They are only ● Claim of fact is a statement that reports,
explained to avoid implied or describes, predicts, and makes causal
confusion for the suggested in a text. claims.
readers. - Readers would use ● It asserts that something has existed, exists,
clues to make or will exist based on the data.
inferences. ● It relies on reliable sources or systematic
procedure to be validated through science or
Examples: Examples: history.
- In a TV commercial, - Every one of the
a voice says, “This beautiful models in a CHARACTERISTICS OF CLAIM OF FACT
shampoo will make TV commercial for 1. Arguable or Debatable
your hair look smooth shampoo has long, 2. Objectively Proven
and shiny.” shiny, curly hair. 3. Based on Reasonable Inference
- A magazine ad for a - The model pictured 4. Justified and Validated
beauty product in the ad with a focus
claims, “Great skin on anti-aging beauty Based on the definition and characteristics of
plus SPF.” products looks to be the claim of fact, let us consider the following
about 25 years old. examples.
- In a TV commercial, - In a TV commercial, 1. The death penalty does not deter crime.
the viewer is asked to there is a picture of a - It reports
donate money to captive bear in a - It can be refuted and justified
save the animals and cage wearing a - It can be proven
stop animal cruelty. harness and muzzle. 2. Violence on television influences children
to behave violently.
- It makes causal claim
EXPLICIT - It can be validated
● According to Stephanie Mitchell (2013), the - It can be proven
word "explicit" means clear and fully expressed. 3. Pandemic level diseases come from
● If something is explicit, there is no question as to viruses found in wildlife.
what it means, no hidden connotations and no - Arguable/debatable
room for misunderstanding. - Can be objectively proven
● If a fact is explicit in a reading comprehension
passage, it is stated outright. 2) CLAIM OF POLICY
● Claim of policy is a specific statement on
IMPLICIT procedures or laws that need to be modified
● If something is implicit, it is not expressly based on certain issues or conditions.
stated, but the reader understands it anyway ● It suggests that specific actions should be
through other clues in the text. done or chosen as a solution to a particular
● For example, if a story begins with "The trees problem.
were swaying wildly outside Anne's window as ● Most of the time, claims of policy ask for
she prepared for bed, and the gutters were plans of action to solve current problems.
overflowing," ○ It proposes that an action be taken or
○ The reader can infer that it is probably dark, discontinued.
stormy and at night even though these facts ○ It defends actionable plans, usually answers
are not explicitly stated. “how” questions.
● Implicit facts in reading comprehension also ○ It contains auxiliaries such as “should,
often involve the motivations of the characters ought to, must”.
(Mitchell, 2013).
 EVALUATING CLAIM OF POLICY
1. Does the claim suggest a specific remedy
to solve the problem?
2. Is the policy clearly defined?
3. Is the need for the policy established?
4. Is the policy the best one? For Whom?
According to whose standard?
5. How does the policy solve the problem?
GUIDELINES TO DEFEND YOUR CLAIM OF POLICY
1. State your proposal clearly.
2. Support your claim with enough evidence.
3. Prove that the current conditions are less
desirable and that they should be changed.
4. Show the suggested law or policy is the
best one that they need to adopt.
3) CLAIM OF VALUE
● Claims of Value attempt to prove that some
things are more or less desirable than
others.
● It expresses approval or disapproval or
taste and morality.
● It makes a judgement and attempts to prove
some action, belief, or condition is right or
wrong, good or bad.
● Claim of Value can be attacked or defended
on the basis of standards that measure worth
of an action, belief, or object.
● These are decided based on establishing the
merits of preferable modes of behavior
(instrumental values) or ultimate goals
(terminal values).
● Also called claim of judgment because the
reader has to decide whether the argument is
right or wrong or has to be accepted or
rejected.
- In formulating value claims,
- you should be prepared to ask and
answer questions about the way in which
your value claims and those of others
have been arrived at.
- Although you cannot make someone believe
what you believe, you can give good
reasons to express your opinion.
- Claims of value depend on acceptance of
the value by the audience and their
agreement to the relative evaluation level
assigned to the subject/object.
PROOF REQUIRES
- Establishing standards of evaluation (i.e. a
warrant that defines what constitutes
instances of the relevant value)
- Note the priority of the value in this instance.
- Establish the advantage (practical or moral)
of your standards.
- Use examples to clarify abstract values,
- Use credible authorities for support.
“Extraordinary claims require extraordinary
evidence.” — Carl Jagan
- Same level of claim and back-up.

TWO GENERAL AREAS IN WHICH PEOPLE MOST OFTEN

DISAGREE ABOUT MATTERS OF VALUE
3.1 Aesthetics
○ Study of beauty and the fine arts.
○ Controversies over works of art range
fiercely among experts and laypeople
alike.

3.2 Morality
○ Value claims about morality express
judgements about the rightness or
wrongness of conduct or belief.

QUESTIONS ANSWERING
- Is it good or bad? How bad? How good? Of
what worth is it? Is it moral or immoral? Who
thinks so? What do those people value?
What values or criteria should I use to
determine its goodness or badness? Are my
values different from other people’s values
or from the author’s values?
Lesson 4
CONTEXT OF TEXT DEVELOPMENT
“Being a critical reader involves understanding that
texts are always developed with a certain context.”
— Tiongson & Rodriguez, 2016
CONTEXT
● Defined as the social, cultural, political, historical,
and other related circumstances that
surround the text.
● Form that terms from which it can be better
understood and evaluated.
● Knowledge of the text’s context helps in
appreciating the text’s message more deeply.
● Questions you may ask to discover the reading
context:
○ When was the work written?
○ What were the circumstances that produced
it?
○ What issues does it deal with?
TECHNIQUES IN ANALYZING THE CONTEXT
1) INTERTEXTUALITY (INTERTEXT)
● Is a connection between language, image,
characters, themes, or subjects depending on
their similarities.
● Is borrowing and transforming a prior text,
or when you read one text and you reference
another.
● Is influenced by previous texts and in turn
anticipate future texts.
● Contains many layers of cultural, historical,
and social knowledge.
● Dialogue among different texts and
interpretations of the writer, audience, and the
current and earlier cultural contexts.
● The definition of intertextuality was created by
the French semiotician Jullia Kristeva in the
1960s.
● She created the term of the Latin word
intertexto, which means “to intermingle
while weaving.”
● She argued that all works of literature being
produced contemporarily are intertextual with
the works that came before it.
○ Intertextuality is the shaping of a text's
meaning by another text.
○ It is the interconnection between similar or
related works of literature that reflect and
influence an audience's interpretation of
the text.
● Example:
○ JK Rowling’s "Harry Potter Series" and JRR
Tolkien’s "Lord of the Rings Trilogy."
- Both texts use wise wizards as the
protagonist’s mentors (Gandalf in LOTR
and Dumbledore in Harry Potter), this is
an example of intertextuality.
2) HYPERTEXT (HYPERTEXTUALITY)
● Is a new way of reading a text online.
● Connects topics on a screen to related
information, graphics, videos, and music
information is not simply related to text.
● Appears as links and usually accessed by
clicking: Gateway to a wider horizon of
information.
● Hypertextuality, according to K. Amaral, 2010
is simply a non-linear way of presenting
information.
● It also refers to the use of hyperlinks (or
simply “links”) to present text and static
graphics.
○ Hypertext is a digital text in which the reader
may navigate related information through
the embedded hyperlinks.
○ What happens when we shift to different
texts? One good thing that hypertext does is
allow readers to shift to different web pages
almost instantly.
● Example:
CREDIBLE SOURCES IN THE INTERNET
Who is the author?
Who - If there is an about page, read it.
- Is this person or organization an expert?
What kind of information is provided?
What - If the site provides only general facts,
you should find better site/s.
Where is this site on the web?
.com – hosted by a company, often a
site for profit (be careful on the biased)
.org – hosted by non-profit organization,
information depending on the
Where
background.
.edu – hosted by educational institution,
typically reliable and expert information
.gov – hosted by government institution,
typically reliable and expert information
When When was it published?
What is the goal in publishing? It must
Why
provide information not to sell a product.