Explain and Evaluate The View of Human Nature of Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud was a big influence in the psychodynamic approach and had a very large influence

on how we see the human mind and its behaviours. His work centred around the concepts of the id,

ego and superego and how these all develop in early life. It also looked at the unconscious, pre-

conscious and conscious mind. Moreover, he developed key theories on psychosexual stages of

development (Reeves, 2018 PP. 58-62). He came up with theories of defences we put up as humans

and the idea of transference and countertransference.

The id:

The id can be simply summed up as the base drive in humans to have sex, acquire food and be

aggressive. It is of course more than this and is also the need to be gratified. A baby screaming that

it wants food and it does not care that it has woken its mother at three in the morning. This is the id

in play (Sanders, 2003 P.20). Becoming sexually attracted to somebody and having no control over

your feelings would also be a demonstration of the id at work. For myself the id would be evident in

when I drive my car and am cut up. Immediately the aggression of the id comes out and I'm

swearing to myself about the other driver. Things I say can be embarrassing to me as I say them.

That is where the superego comes in.

The super-ego:

The superego is the judge and can be called the conscience of the mind. It polices the id and its

urges (Reeves, 2018 P.61). It could also be looked at as a judging parent. Whereas the id might want
a big nice steak with chips and a nice cake for afters, the superego will be judging and telling the

person thinking of ordering it that it will make them fat and is very bad for them. What a person

ultimately decides when such a conflict comes up is down to a third factor which comes into play,

the ego.

The ego:

In modern times, when it is said that somebody has a big ego it can be thought that they are full of

themselves, so the ego could be seen as the self. However, for Freud it was different and according

to Storr (2001, P. 63) 'The ego, therefore, is unusually poised between three agencies: the external

world, the id, and the super-ego, each of which may be urging a different course'. So, the ego could

be called the self choosing which route it wants to take. Does it listen to the demands of the id or

does it go along with the super-ego or even external factors? The ego must regulate and mediate

between it all and choose what it feels is the option it wants.

The goal of therapy:

For Freud the goal of therapy was in the unconscious where repressed or suppressed thoughts and

feelings occur. These thoughts and feelings came out as neuroses (stress, depression, anxiety).

Freud wanted to bring these thoughts and feelings to the fore of the mind. In doing this he thought

the symptoms of neuroses would go and then the ego could also be stronger as a result

(mentalhelp.net, 2020) and (Storr, 2001).

Defences:
'Freud Suggested that the ego develops a range of defences to stave off difficult feelings like anxiety

and depression' (Dykes, Postings, Kopp, 2017 P. 173). A selection of some of the defences which

humans have developed are presented here:

Repression: Working at an unconscious level to stop thoughts and feelings coming to the fore.

Projection: Projecting uncomfortable thoughts and feeling on to another person. A good example for

me personally is that I cannot admit that I dislike somebody so I convince myself they do not like

me instead. I have done this before, yet I just disliked them all along without really knowing them.

Denial: Is a blocking out of what is happening and refusing to accept it.

Displacement: Being angry about something and taking it out on somebody who had nothing to do

with it. I am certainly guilty of this in my lifetime and try to watch myself very carefully.

Transference and Countertransference:

Transference is when we experience another person 'as if' they were

some important figure from our past. We are not conscious of this

until the therapist draws attention to it. Countertransference is either

our response to the transference happening in the session or our

own thoughts, feelings or associations triggered by the client.

(Reeves, 2018 P68)

From this it can be inferred that people can be viewed almost unconsciously as a different figure

from somebodies’ past. For example, for myself, I used to work with a Man called Andy. Years ago,

I remember quite clearly one day realising that I saw him as a father figure to me and respected his

views as I would my own fathers. This led to some favouritism to him, which he had done nothing

to earn. I put a stop to it and realised he was nothing like my father and in fact I did not even respect

a lot of Andy's views.

Explain and Evaluate The View of Human Nature of C. Rogers
Carl Rogers established the Person-Centred approach to counselling. In doing this he moved away

from some of the established mainstream psychology of the time which was dominated by Sigmund

Freud and others views (Merry, T, 1995, P. 3). In order to come to his conclusion about the Person-

Centred approach, he came to a different view of the nature of humans. It will be shown in the

following text some of Rogers theories of human nature and in some cases, show how they relate to

me. The subjects are, Locus of evaluation, conditions of worth, self-concept, self-actualisation and

core conditions for constructive personality change.

Locus of evaluation:

The locus of evaluation can be termed as a guide or system of judgement of ourselves. When

individuals have an external locus of evaluation it literally means; external – outside yourself, locus

– Latin for 'place', evaluation – making a judgement about something. This means looking for a

place outside of yourself to make a judgement about something (Dykes B, Postings T, Kopp B,

2014, P. 182).

When people make an 'internal locus of evaluation', they will look inside themselves to make a

judgement.

If a person often looks at things from an external locus, they can be seen to often be looking to

others to be judged or validated in what they have done or should do. It is preferred to move to an

'internal locus of evaluation', so that the person can trust their experiences and feelings. This would

be moving towards a fully formed human being. I can relate this to myself in that often through life,

I would look to others to tell me if I had taken the correct course of action as opposed to trusting my

own experiences. This has changed recently and in taking this course, I trusted my own 'internal'

locus.

Conditions of worth:
Conditions of worth can be tied to a locus of evaluation in that we look for approval from others.

Conditions of worth are often passed down from childhood and society in general.

Conditions of Worth are the conditions we think we must meet in

order for other people to accept us as worthy of their love or

positive regard. As children, we learn that there are certain things

we do that please our parents or caregivers, and we strive to do

those things. As we grow up, we also learn what our teachers,

friends, and society in general seem to expect from us. Eventually,

we internalize the conditions of worth imposed upon us, and live

our life according to those conditions. This may result in

unhappiness and a lack of self-worth as we strive to satisfy

conditions that may be unrealistic. According to Alleydog.com

(2020).

This quote suggests that people pick up these conditions throughout life and act how they feel it

should be expected for them to act. This is often in order to be accepted or liked. In doing this they

cannot always be true to themselves. In this regard I find I can often behave how I believe others

want me to behave. To agree with somebody I disagree with in order to feel liked, or to be humble

when feeling celebratory so I do not wish to feel as if I have showed off.

Self-Concept:

This consists of the person somebody may think they are which is made up of the experiences they

have during life and introjected values they have accumulated. This is opposed to the organismic

self which could be called a person’s true self. The organismic self in early childhood knows what it
wants e.g. food, drink etc. For example, an individual can see themselves as a person who needs to

be the life of the party, due to an introjected value put upon them by others that in order to be liked

people have to be outgoing and constantly out there. Maybe in reality they do not like having to do

it, this creates an imbalance in the self. This also links heavily to conditions of worth. When the

person can align the self-concept towards their organismic self as much as possible this is the

optimum way to be and can contribute to self-actualisation (Counselling Tutor, 2011).

Self-Actualisation:

Self-actualisation can be seen as an ongoing process which an individual strives to attain. All things

have an actualising tendency and according to Carl Rogers would strive towards becoming their

potential self. This can be seen as an urge to develop and mature as a person (Rogers, C, 1961, P.

351). When people can do this, they have self-actualised. However, this is usually an ongoing

process all our lives and is seldom attained for long, as people are always growing and changing.

Core Conditions for Constructive Personality Change:

There are 6 core conditions in therapy which according to Carl Rogers were necessary for a client to

achieve change. Rogers (1957, quoted in Merry T, 2020, P. 59) says;

1. Two persons are in psychological contact.

2. The client is in a state of incongruence.

3. The therapist or listener is congruent.

4. The therapist has unconditional positive regard for the client.

5. The therapist displays empathy for the client.

6. The client receives the empathy from the therapist.

What does this mean? That the client forms a meaningful contact with their therapist. That the client

is in a state of incongruence, that is to say a state of distress. That the therapist is congruent, that is

to say in touch with themselves and aware of themselves and their feelings. The therapist has

unconditional positive regard, no judgement to their client. That the therapist in being empathetic

tries to feel what the client feels and put themselves in the client’s shoes. Lastly that the client is

aware of this from the therapist. If these things happen then Carl Rogers believed that an area for

positive personality change would take place and the client would move towards positive self-

actualisation.

Explain and Evaluate The View of Human Nature of C. Jung

Carl Jung was a friend of Sigmund Freud and initially followed his views of psychoanalysis for a

while before they eventually fell out. Jung went on to establish his own views in the field he would

come to call analytical psychology which he used to distinguish his work from (Snowden R, 2017 P.

xiv). The following text will attempt to explain some of Jung’s key ideas.
Individuation:

'Jung called the journey towards wholeness the Process of individuation' (Storr A, 1998 P 19). This

can be seen as a discovery of self which is the realisation or a fulfilment of a person’s unique being.

Simply put it would be becoming your full potential. Part of the process of this is being aware of the

unconscious messages sent in dreams or fantasies and using them to enrich or heal one’s life. Part of

the process is also coming to terms with one’s own shadow, which is a part of the human psyche

which people do not want to look at or consciously admit to. The shadow is an unfavourable aspect

which is not liked. (Snowden R, 2017 P. 87). If we can do these things, a person can become their

whole self and achieve the process of individuation. I have started to do this in my own life by

initially coming to terms with my own shadow. Recognising that I myself have the ability to do the

bad things I abhor and that I also have negative thoughts about people at times. Allowing myself to

acknowledge them and be aware that they are part of me is freeing and makes me feel more in

control of them.

Archetypes:

Simply put an archetype is a pattern or model, however for Jung:

Archetypes are images and themes which have universal meanings

across cultures which may show up in dreams, literature, art or

religion. Jung believes symbols from different cultures are often

very similar because they have emerged from archetypes shared by

the whole human race which are part of our collective

unconscious. For Jung, our primitive past becomes the basis of the
 human psyche, directing and influencing present behaviour. Jung

claimed to identify a large number of archetypes but paid special

attention to four. Jung labelled these archetypes the Self, the

Persona, the Shadow and Anima/Animus. McLeod S (2018, Para

17 – 20).

The Self archetype will be explored in detail later in this document. The persona in Latin means 'an

actors mask'. It is our public face and can be used to conceal what we feel is our true nature. It is

what we use when we relate to others (Snowden R, 2017 P72-73). It could be summed up that Jung

saw the shadow as the negative side of personality which people like to hide. (Storr A, 1998 P 87).

The shadow whilst being negative is seen as something important to be aware of. Finally, the

anima/animus is the archetype used in relating to the opposite sex. 'Jung called this contrasexual

archetype animus in women and the anima in men' (Stevens A, 2001 P 71).

There are more archetypes that Jung spoke of including the hero, the trickster, the sage and

caregiver to name a few (exploringyourmind.com, 2020). I find I try to split myself between the

caregiver and sage archetypes. Appearing knowledgeable to friends and simultaneously caring is an

image I strive to attain and one that resonates with me the most. It can put pressure on me, but I feel

most at home being the caregiver.

The Collective Unconscious:

The collective unconscious is thought by Jung to be inherited as opposed to acquired and is

common in everybody no matter the culture. It holds the archetypes within it previously described

along with instincts which are the innate biological drives that determine behaviour. Examples

being the sex drive, hunger and aggression (Snowden R, 2017 P 64). Everybody has an idea of what

the archetypes are no matter their culture. The themes are recurring in many legends.
The Self:

The Self is the archetype of wholeness of the psyche which transcends the ego. 'Its goal is

wholeness, the complete realisation of the blueprint for human existence within the context of the

life of the individual' (Stevens, 2001 P61). The self can be explained as the whole being or a higher

self and everything we are.

Symbols:

For Jung symbols were an important part of his work. The symbolism of dreams and fantasies and

what occurred in them were clues as to the workings of the unconscious. By often discussing

symbols Jung found he could bring the unconscious to conscious awareness. Many symbolic

messages also turned out to be archetypal in nature (Snowden R, 2017 P 174).

Images:

These comprised mostly of Mandalas. The centre of mandalas were seen as a representation of the

Self for Jung. For Jung his mandalas enabled him to give form to the psychic transformations he

underwent from day to day (Stevens A, 2001 P 32-34).

 Explain and evaluate the view of human nature of CBT

Cognitive behaviour therapy or as it is more commonly abbreviated CBT is a form of therapy which

focuses on the way people think and act in order to help them with their emotional or behavioural

problems (Branch, Wilson, 2020 P 9). Cognitive is a mental process e.g. how people think,

behaviour is the things you do, including what you say or how you solve or avoid problems.

Finally, therapy is a word used to describe a systematic approach to combating a problem (Branch,

Wilson, 2020 P 11).

Prominent names in CBT are Albert Ellis and Aaron Beck who really helped to drive the therapy

forward. However, it's roots can be traced back to Pavlov, Skinner and Watson amongst others

(KlearMinds, 2015). CBT posits that all behaviour is learned and can thus be unlearned.

Learned Habits:

Habit formation is something which we automatically do. Habits are built through repetition of the

same action or thought over and over again. These can be positive or negative (PsychologyToday,

2020). For example, with regards to myself the habit of having a cup of coffee in the morning is

something I have acquired. The repetition every morning for 30 years is an ingrained part of my

morning routine. To go without one and have a tea instead is unthinkable.

Stimulus / Response:

In CBT the stimulus for a negative thought is called an Activating event, followed by the Belief and

Consequences (ABC). CBT therapists can use a form for this abbreviated to the ABC form in CBT

therapy. Following on from me being unable to have a coffee in the morning, this being my

activating event, I believe I cannot have a good morning if I do not have coffee. The result is that

my morning will be a bad one. The consequence / response is that I then can be in a bad mood and

act out a bad morning to confirm my belief. (Dykes, Postings, Kopp, 2017 P 186).

Behaviour Modification:

In order to modify a person’s behaviour, it could be posed that one would have to break free from

the learned habits and thought patterns and therefore the responses to them. In order to modify a

behaviour, it would be suggested to become more objective about the thought and to create more
constructive alternatives (Branch, Wilson, 2020 49).

Memory:

Learned behaviours and patterns are due to the memory of an individual. For example, if a person

remembers a particularly traumatic event then they may avoid that type of event. Memories are

made via neural synaptic connections. That is to say, a part of the brain fires a neuron into another

neuron and makes a connection. These connections bind and can create a memory, experience, idea,

concept or more. From a CBT perspective people can change these ideas and memories from a

negative way to a positive way via thinking differently about memories of past events and ideas

(Coaching that works, 2016).

Cognitive distortions:

Past events from memories can contribute towards cognitive distortions which are also known as

automatic negative thoughts. ‘Cognitive distortions are habitual ways of thinking that are often

inaccurate and negatively biased’ (Stanborough, 2019). This infers that people can automatically

have a negative thought about a situation or idea. These thoughts are habitually formed. It could be

said there is no reasoned thought behind them due to the fact they are habitual and automatic. If a

person can become aware of this, then they can take steps towards change.

Metacognition:
The process a person goes through thinking about their own thoughts, the process behind it and in

doing so becoming aware of them is called metacognition. Essentially it is thinking about thinking.

There is a form of therapy within CBT called metacognitive therapy. Metacognitive therapy is a

form of therapy in which the client is helped to stop thinking about thinking ‘This process of

refusing to engage with the thought is called detached mindfulness. Like any therapy technique, it

takes practice and repetition to see the benefit (Worfolk, 2017).

Word Count with quotes: 3,380.

Word Count without quotes: 3,111.

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