Biology Life on Earth with Physiology

10th Edition Audesirk Solutions Manual

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CHAPTER 9 THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE:
CELLULAR REPRODUCTION

LECTURE OUTLINE

Case Study: Body, Heal Thyself

9.1 Why Do Cells Divide?

A. Cells Reproduce by Cell Division, Giving Rise to Daughter Cells
B. Cell Division Transmits Hereditary Information to Each Daughter Cell
1. DNA is the hereditary information of all living cells
a. DNA is made up of four nucleotides: adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C)
(Figure 9-1)
b. DNA is replicated into two identical copies before cell division
C. Cell Division Is Required for Growth and Development
1. After cell division, daughter cells may differentiate, becoming specialized
a. The cell cycle is the process by which cells divide, grow, and possibly differentiate
2. Most multicellular organisms have three categories of cells
a. Stem cells can self-renew and differentiate into a variety of cell types
b. Cells in the bodies of embryos, juveniles, and adults can divide, but only differentiate into one or
two cell types
c. Some cells differentiate and never divide again
D. Cell Division Is Required for Sexual and Asexual Reproduction
1. Sexual reproduction in eukaryotic organisms occurs when offspring are produced by the fusion of
gametes, sperm and egg, from two adults
2. Asexual reproduction is when offspring are produced from a single adult (Figure 9-2)
a. It produces offspring called clones that are genetically identical to the parent
3. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have cell cycles

9.2 What Occurs During the Prokaryotic Cell Cycle? (Figure 9-3)
A. The DNA of a Prokaryotic Cell Is Contained in a Circular Chromosome
1. The prokaryotic cell cycle consists of growth during which the DNA replicates, and is followed by a
type of cell division called prokaryotic fission
a. The DNA is attached at one point to the plasma membrane
b. DNA is replicated during the growth phase
c. Points of attachment move apart after DNA is replicated
d. The cell becomes constricted, eventually dividing
e. The plasma membrane fuses, forming two identical cells
2. Prokaryotic cells can divide as often as every 20 minutes

9.3 How Is the DNA in Eukaryotic Chromosomes Organized?

➢ Lecture Activity 9.1: Chromosome Kit for Mitosis/Meiosis
A. Eukaryotic Chromosomes Are Separated from the Cytoplasm in a Membrane-Bound Nucleus
1. Eukaryotic cells always have multiple chromosomes
B. The Eukaryotic Chromosome Consists of a Linear DNA Double Helix Bound to Proteins
1. DNA is very long and totals about 6 feet in each human cell
2. The linear DNA molecule is bound to packaging proteins called histones (Figure 9-4)
a. Proteins are required to package it efficiently
b. DNA becomes folded into a dense structure during cell division

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94 Instructor Guide Biology: Life on Earth

C. Genes Are Segments of the DNA of a Chromosome

1. Genes are sequences of DNA hundreds to thousands of nucleotides long
a. Each gene occupies a specific place on a chromosome called a locus (Figure 9-5a)
2. Telomeres are long stretches of repeated nucleotide sequences at the tips of chromosomes
a. These structures protect the ends of chromosomes from damage
3. Centromeres are another specialized region of the chromosome
a. These structures have two functions
i. They hold the DNA double helices together after replication
ii. They are the attachment sites for microtubules that move the chromosomes during cell
division
D. Duplicated Chromosomes Separate During Cell Division
1. Two duplicated DNA helices remain attached after replication
a. Sister chromatids are the two copies of DNA that remain attached (Figure 9-5b)
b. Sister chromatids will separate during division (Figure 9-5c)
E. Eukaryotic Chromosomes Usually Occur in Pairs Containing Similar Genetic Information
1. A karyotype is an entire set of stained chromosomes from a cell (Figure 9-6)
2. Members of a given pair share certain characteristics
a. Size, shape, and staining pattern
b. Members of a pair carry the same genes in the same order
i. These are called homologous chromosomes
c. Cells with pairs of homologous chromosomes are called diploid
3. There are 23 pairs of chromosomes in humans
a. The 22 autosomes are similar in appearance
b. One pair of sex chromosomes, X and Y, are quite different in appearance
i. They differ in size and genetic composition
ii. They behave as a pair during division
4. Homologous chromosomes are usually not identical
a. Cells may make mistakes when the DNA is copied
b. Mutations, changes in the sequence of nucleotides in DNA, may occur also
i. Mutations that are inherited generation after generation are called alleles, and are alternate
forms of a gene (Figure 9-7)
5. Not all cells have paired chromosomes
a. Most cells in our bodies are diploid and contain the same complement of paired chromosomes
b. Gametes (sperm and eggs) have half the number of chromosomes
i. They are considered haploid
ii. When a sperm fertilizes an egg, the chromosomes combine to form a diploid cell
c. In biological shorthand, the number of chromosomes in a species is called the haploid number
i. It is designated by the letter n
ii. This number is characteristic of a given species
iii. Some species are not diploid: n, 4n, 6n, or more

9.4 What Occurs During the Eukaryotic Cell Cycle?

A. The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle Consists of Interphase and Mitotic Cell Division (Figure 9-8)
1. During interphase, a cell grows in size, replicates its DNA, and often differentiates
a. Interphase contains three subphases
i. During G1, a cell grows, it may specialize, and may divide in response to external signals
ii. During the S phase, the cell duplicates its DNA
iii. During G2, the cell may continue growing and synthesize materials needed for division
2. Mitotic cell division consists of nuclear division and cytoplasmic division
a. Mitosis, the division of the nucleus, gives rise to two genetically identical daughter cells
b. Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm
c. Meiotic cell division is a prerequisite for sexual reproduction
i. Meiosis gives rise to four genetically unique daughter cells that can become gametes
➢ Case Study Continued: Body, Heal Thyself

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 Chapter 9 The Continuity of Life: Cellular Reproduction 95

9.5 How Does Mitotic Cell Division Produce Genetically Identical Daughter Cells? (Figure 9-8)
A. After Interphase, Mitotic Cell Division Can Occur
1. The four phases of mitosis occur on a continuum, with each phase merging into the next (Figure 9-9)
B. During Prophase, the Chromosomes Condense, the Spindle Microtubules Form, the Nuclear Envelope
Breaks Down, and the Chromosomes Are Captured by the Spindle Microtubules (Figures 9-9b, c)
1. The duplicated chromosomes condense
2. The spindle microtubules form from the centrioles
a. The centrioles migrate to opposite poles of the cell
3. The nuclear envelope disintegrates
4. The chromosomes become attached to the spindle at the kinetochore, near the centromere
a. The kinetochore on each sister chromatid attaches to the microtubule originating from the
opposite pole of the cell
C. During Metaphase, the Chromosomes Line Up Along the Equator of the Cell (Figure 9-9d)
1. The two kinetochores of each pair are connected to spindle microtubules that lead to opposite poles
of the cell
D. During Anaphase, Sister Chromatids Separate and Are Pulled to Opposite Poles of the Cell
(Figure 9-9e)
1. Sister chromatids separate and travel toward opposite poles of the cell
a. Polar microtubules lengthen to elongate the cell
E. During Telophase, a Nuclear Envelope Forms Around Each Group of Chromosomes (Figures 9-9f, g)
1. The following events occur during telophase
a. Spindle disappears
b. Nuclear envelopes re-form
c. Chromosomes expand again
d. Nucleolus reappears
e. Usually, cytokinesis occurs
F. During Cytokinesis, the Cytoplasm Is Divided Between Two Daughter Cells (Figure 9-9h)
1. During telophase in animal cells, the following events occur
a. Microfilaments around equator contract
b. This constricts the cell’s equator
c. Eventually, they pinch the cell in two
2. Cytokinesis in plant cells is quite different (Figure 9-10)
a. A stiff cell wall means a different mechanism is required
b. Carbohydrate-filled vesicles accumulate at equator and fuse to form a cell plate
c. The cell plate grows at the edges, eventually partitioning cell
➢ Case Study Continued: Body, Heal Thyself
➢ Lecture Activity 9.2: Stages of Mitosis Time Crunching

9.6 How Is the Cell Cycle Controlled?

A. The Activities of Specific Proteins Drive the Cell Cycle
1. In most cases, a cell will divide only if it receives signals from growth factors
2. The cell cycle is controlled by a family of proteins called cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks)
3. If a person cuts his or her skin, a series of events will occur to replace the damaged cells (Figure 9-11)
a. latelets in the blood release growth factors that bind to nearby cells
b. The binding stimulates the cells to produce cyclin proteins
c. The cyclins bind to Cdks, which send the cell into the cell cycle
B. Checkpoints Regulate Progress Through the Cell Cycle
1. There are three major checkpoints in the eukaryotic cell cycle (Figure 9-12)
a. G1 to S
b. G2 to mitosis
c. Metaphase to anaphase
➢ Health Watch: Cancer—Running Through the Stop Signs at the Cell Cycle Checkpoints (Figure E9-1)

9.7 Why Do So Many Organisms Reproduce Sexually?

A. Asexual Reproduction Seems to Work Well—Why Bother with Sex?
1. Sexual reproduction produces genetically unique offspring

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96 Instructor Guide Biology: Life on Earth

B. Sexual Reproduction May Combine Different Parental Alleles in a Single Offspring

1. Some combinations are better than others
2. Consider two individuals, each with a desirable trait
a. Through sexual reproduction, some offspring may carry both traits
b. Although mutations create new alleles, combining alleles through sexual reproduction allows for
more rapid evolution

9.8 How Does Meiotic Cell Division Produce Haploid Cells?

➢ Lecture Activity 9.3: Meiosis Walk
A. The Key to Sexual Reproduction in Eukaryotes Is Meiotic Cell Division
1. This process consists of meiosis and cytokinesis
2. Meiosis is similar to mitosis, but there are some important differences
a. DNA replication in meiosis is followed by two nuclear divisions (Figure 9-13)
i. The DNA is not replicated before the second division (Figure 9-13a)
b. The first division separates the homologous chromosomes, but each chromosome still consists
of two sister chromatids (Figure 9-13b)
c. The second division separates the sister chromatids
d. At the end of meiosis there are four haploid daughter cells (Figure 9-13c)
i. his is important so that when haploid sperm and egg fuse, the resulting offspring are diploid
again (Figure 9-14)
B. Meiosis I Separates Homologous Chromosomes into Two Haploid Daughter Nuclei
1. The phases of meiosis have the same names as those in mitosis (Figure 9-15)
2. During prophase I, homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange DNA (Figures 9-15a and 9-16)
a. Homologous chromosomes pair up
i. Maternal and paternal homologues exchange DNA
ii. Chiasmata form at sites of crossing over, where the exchange occurred, sometimes leading to
recombination, the formation of new combinations of alleles on chromosomes
b. Other events are similar to those of mitosis
i. Nuclear envelope dissolves
ii. Chromosomes condense
iii. Spindle forms
3. During metaphase I, paired homologous chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell
(Figure 9-15b)
a. One member of the pair is attached to the microtubules from one pole
i. The other member is attached to the other pole
b. The arrangement of paternal and maternal homologues is random
4. During anaphase I, homologous chromosomes separate (Figure 9-15c)
a. Sister chromatids remain attached and move together
b. Homologues separate from each other
5. During telophase I, two haploid clusters of duplicated chromosomes form (Figure 9-15d)
a. Chromosomes cluster at each pole
i. Each pole contains a haploid complement of chromosomes
ii. Each still consists of sister chromatids attached at the centromere
b. Cytokinesis usually occurs at this time
c. There is no replication of DNA between meiosis I and meiosis II
C. Meiosis II separates sister chromatids into four daughter nuclei
1. The stages of meiosis II are almost identical to those of mitosis
a. Prophase II
i. Spindle re-forms (Figure 9-15e)
ii. Chromosomes attach as in mitosis
b. Metaphase II: individual chromosomes line up at equator (Figure 9-15f)
c. Anaphase II (Figure 9-15g)
i. Centromeres split
ii. Daughter chromosomes move to opposite poles
d. Telophase II: nuclear envelopes re-form; cytokinesis occurs (Figure 9-15h)
e. Four haploid daughter cells are produced (Figure 9-15i)
2. A comparison between mitosis and meiosis shows similarities and differences (Table 9-1)

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 Chapter 9 The Continuity of Life: Cellular Reproduction 97

9.9 When Do Mitotic and Meiotic Cell Division Occur in the Life Cycles of Eukaryotes?
A. The Life Cycles of Almost All Eukaryotic Organisms Have a Common Overall Pattern
1. The fertilization of haploid gametes brings together genes from different parental organisms
2. At some point, meiotic cell division produces haploid cells
3. At some point in the life cycle, mitotic cell division produces a multicellular organism
4. The differences between life cycles are caused by variations in three aspects:
a. The interval between meiotic cell division and the fusion of haploid cells
b. At what point in the life cycle mitotic and meiotic cell division occur
c. The relative proportions of the life cycle spent in the diploid and haploid states
B. In Diploid Life Cycles, the Majority of the Cycle Is Spent as Diploid Cells (Figure 9-17)
C. In Haploid Life Cycles, the Majority of the Cycle Is Spent as Haploid Cells (Figure 9-18)
D. In Alternation-of-Generations Life Cycles, There Are Both Diploid and Haploid Multicellular Stages
(Figure 9-19)

9.10 How Do Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction Produce Genetic Variability?

A. Shuffling of Homologues Creates Novel Combinations of Chromosomes
1. This happens during metaphase I of meiosis (Figure 9-20)
➢ Lecture Activity 9.4: Random Assortment Card Trick
B. Crossing Over Creates Chromosomes with Novel Combinations of Genes
C. Fusion of Gametes Adds Further Genetic Variability to the Offspring

Case Study Revisited: Body, Heal Thyself

KEY TERMS
allele daughter cell meiotic cell division
anaphase deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) metaphase
asexual reproduction differentiate mitosis
autosome diploid mitotic cell division
cell cycle duplicated chromosome mutation
cell division gamete nucleotide
cell plate gene prokaryotic fission
centriole growth factor prophase
centromere haploid recombination
checkpoint homologous chromosome sex chromosome
chiasma (plural, chiasmata) homologue sexual reproduction
chromatid interphase spindle microtubule
chromosome karyotype stem cell
clone kinetochore telomere
crossing over locus (plural, loci) telophase
cytokinesis meiosis

LECTURE ACTIVITIES

Lecture Activity 9.1: Chromosome Kit for Mitosis/Meiosis

Estimated Time to Complete: Variable; 5–20 minutes

Section References
9.5 How Does Mitotic Cell Division Produce Genetically Identical Daughter Cells?
9.8 How Does Meiotic Cell Division Produce Haploid Cells?

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98 Instructor Guide Biology: Life on Earth

Introduction
Students often have difficulty following the events of mitosis and meiosis, particularly if the only way these topics
are presented involve text and static figures. Although video presentations help to convey the dynamic nature of
these processes, watching videos is still a passive learning method. In this activity, you will have your students
construct a set of model chromosomes that they can manipulate to demonstrate the behavior of chromosomes
during cell division. They can use these models at home, or you can have them follow along in class.

Materials Needed
• Pipe cleaners (two different colors)

Procedures
1. Distribute pipe cleaners to the students. Each student should receive four pipe cleaners of each of the two
colors, for a total of eight pipe cleaners per student.
2. Instruct the students to create two sets of homologues. They need two long and two short pipe cleaners
of each color. Provide wire cutters for the students to use for shortening the pipe cleaners. Alternatively,
provide the pipe cleaners already cut to appropriate lengths.
3. To create a chromosome consisting of two sister chromatids, lightly twist two chromosomes of the same color
and length together to represent the centromere. The twist should be at any one point along the length of the
chromosome; the position of the twist should be the same for the two homologues. Avoid twisting the pipe
cleaners too tightly, so that they will last for several demonstrations without breaking. Alternatively, you could
use beads with holes of the appropriate size to represent the centromeres. In either case, it helps if you use a
marker such as a Sharpie to color the positions of the centromeres.
4. There are many ways to use the chromosome kit. Here are some suggestions:
• The students can use the kit at home when they are studying, re-creating the arrangements of
chromosomes during the various stages of mitosis and meiosis.
• The instructor can demonstrate in front of the class, while the students follow along with their own kits.
This is best done by manipulating the chromosomes on the glass of an overhead projector, or using a
document camera. The document camera would show the colors of the homologues better.
• To demonstrate the large number of configurations of homologues possible with even a few
chromosomes, have students work in groups of four, pooling their chromosomes to simulate meiosis in
an organism with a haploid number of 8. For each homologous pair, have them determine the
arrangement of paternal and maternal homologues by flipping a coin. Two or three runs of this should
convince the students that the number of possible arrangements is large (256 in this example).
• It is possible to simulate crossing over with the kit, but each kit could then be used only once. Have the
students simulate making chiasmata by twisting the chromosomes at the points of crossing over. Then,
use wire cutters to clip the pipe cleaners at the chiasmata; twist the swapped pieces together to represent
the recombined chromosomes.

Assessment Suggestions
During an exam, the instructor could include a “practical” component. The students would individually come to the
instructor with their kits and demonstrate specific chromosomal arrangements of either meiosis or mitosis.
The instructor could assign homework problems that would use the chromosome kits. For example, a classic
question involves asking the students to identify the number of chromosomes present during each stage of mitosis
or meiosis.
This is the sort of question for which the chromosome kit would be useful.

Lecture Activity 9.2: Stages of Mitosis Time Crunching

Estimated Time to Complete: 10 minutes

Section Reference
9.5 How Does Mitotic Cell Division Produce Genetically Identical Daughter Cells?

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 Chapter 9 The Continuity of Life: Cellular Reproduction 99

Introduction
Students often find learning the phases of mitosis tedious, as they often see no use for the information. In this
activity, students will calculate how long the various stages of the cell cycle last in a rapidly dividing cell. To
determine this, they will need to identify the stage of the cell cycle for a large number of cells. By determining the
proportion of cells in each stage, they can estimate the amount of time spent in each of those stages. This exercise
reinforces the stages of mitosis and demonstrates one way of knowing how these stages can be applied.

Materials Needed
The instructor will need images of tissues undergoing mitosis to provide about 200 cells to evaluate. If 35-mm slides
of onion root tip are available, they can be projected for the class to see. Ideally, each slide will show only about
25 or 30 cells, so that the individual cells are large enough when projected to be seen and evaluated clearly.
Alternatively, handouts could be prepared of a high-quality micrograph showing at least 100 cells. These could be
provided to students, who would work off the sheets at their desks.
Finally, if using an image is not practical, the exercise can be done using data provided by the instructor. This is less
desirable, as learning to recognize the stages in actual cells is one of the more valuable learning goals of this activity.

Procedures
1. Explain the concept underlying this activity to the students: that a micrograph represents a frozen moment in
time, and the proportion of cells in any given stage will be roughly equivalent to the proportion of time that a
cell will spend in that stage of the cell cycle.
2. Draw a table on the board as follows, and instruct the students to do the same in their notebooks. Be sure that
the table cells are big enough that you can enter several numbers into each one.

Total number of cells examined Percentage of cells

Number of cells in this stage in this stage

Interphase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

3. Project the first image. Point to several cells, one at a time, and ask the students to identify the stage of the cell
cycle they are in. Most cells will be in interphase, so you should be sure to select examples of all five stages.
With practice, the students should become fairly good at identifying the stage.
4. Once the students are proficient at identifying the stages, have them count the numbers of cells in each stage.
Hint: Because most of the cells will be in interphase, it is usually easiest to count all the other stages, then
count the total number of cells in the view, and determine the number of interphase cells by subtraction.
5. Record the numbers in the cells of the table. There should be enough room to accumulate counts from more
than one image within one table cell.
6. Continue as previously with the rest of the images. When you have counted at least 100 cells, preferably more
(200 to 300 is a good number), complete the table by adding all the counts for individual images together.
Note: each cell in the third column, labeled “total number of cells examined in this stage,” should have the
same number—this redundancy merely makes the calculation of the percentage (column 4) more convenient.
7. Have the students calculate the percentage of cells in each stage (column 4). This is just the number in the
second column divided by the number in the third column, multiplied by 100. Wrap up by asking students to
interpret these results in terms of the amount of time spent in each stage. One possibility is to provide an
average generation time for dividing cells, such as 120 minutes.

Assessment Suggestions
An exam question could be constructed using either a good-quality (one that will survive photocopying)
micrograph, or one projected on a screen in the exam room. Alternatively, the instructor could prepare a drawing of
a section of tissue, with the stages drawn by hand. The students could be asked to construct an appropriate table for
compiling the results, and to calculate the percentage of time spent in each stage of the cell cycle.

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100 Instructor Guide Biology: Life on Earth

Lecture Activity 9.3: Meiosis Walk

Estimated Time to Complete: 15–20 minutes

Section Reference
9.8 How Does Meiotic Cell Division Produce Haploid Cells?

Introduction
This activity will engage students in acting out the events of meiosis. Each student will play the role of a sister
chromatid. The students will act out the motions of the chromosomes during both meiotic divisions, with the
ultimate production of four daughter cells with unique collections of chromosomes. This activity reinforces the
mechanics of meiotic division.

Materials Needed
• Armbands or bandanas. You will need 16 total, four each of four different colors.

Procedures
1. You need 16 students to simulate meiosis in a cell having four pairs of chromosomes. If you wish
(and you have the space), you can modify this for larger numbers of students, but it doesn’t work well with a
smaller number of students. Students who are watching should be able to see the process (they can encircle
the area in which the “chromosomes” will be moving), and they typically enjoy the simulation.
2. Give each student an armband; those having the same color should find each other and pair up. Members of a
pair will link arms to represent sister chromatids linked by a centromere (the linked arms). Ideally, each
foursome will have two men and two women; the two men would link arms to represent a paternal
chromosome, the two women to represent the maternal chromosome.
3. Once you have eight chromosomes (four pairs of homologues), begin the simulation as follows:
• Have the students cluster in the middle of the room, representing the nucleus. They can wander around,
with homologous pairs not spending any more time near each other than near other chromosomes.
Designate a line to serve as the equator of the cell, and two points to serve as poles.
• Announce that the cell is entering prophase I. The students should find their homologues (the other
chromosome with the same color armband), and remain near each other.
• Announce that the cell is at metaphase I. The students should line up at the equator (an imaginary
line), with homologues paired and oriented at random with respect to maternal and paternal
homologues.
• Announce that the cell is entering anaphase I. The homologues should move away from each other,
toward the poles. Be sure that arms are still linked!
• Announce that the cell is entering telophase I. The chromosomes should be at their respective poles.
You should now designate new equators and poles for the second division.
• Announce that the cells are entering prophase II. The students can just wander about, and you may
want to point out that there is no homologue to pair up with.
• Announce that the cells are at metaphase II. The chromosomes will line up at the equators of their
respective cells.
• Announce that the cells are entering anaphase II. Finally, arms will be unlinked, and sister chromatids
will separate and move to opposite poles.
• As soon as the students reach the poles, announce that the cells are at telophase II. The students should
now be in four clusters, representing the nuclei of four daughter cells.
4. Once the process is complete, have the students examine the armbands of the cells in each nucleus. There
should be one of each color. If you were able to specify maternal and paternal homologues, make notice of
their random assortment.
If time permits, you can run this one or two more times, perhaps with different students. If you do this with
the same students, it should reinforce the random assortment of homologues during meiosis.

Assessment Suggestions
Standard questions on an exam relating to the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis should be adequate for
assessing this activity.

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 Chapter 9 The Continuity of Life: Cellular Reproduction 101

Lecture Activity 9.4: Random Assortment Card Trick

Estimated Time to Complete: 10 minutes

Section Reference
9.10 How Do Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction Produce Genetic Variability?

Introduction
Students often have a hard time realizing the vast number of possible arrangements of paternal and maternal
homologues for a relatively small number of chromosomes. This exercise reinforces the concept of independent
assortment during meiosis, with particular emphasis on the large number of possible outcomes. Although the
procedure describes this exercise as a demonstration, it can easily be adapted as an in-class exercise done by the
students themselves.

Materials Needed
• Two decks of playing cards, with backs of two contrasting colors or patterns. If you do this as a student
exercise rather than a demonstration, you will need more decks—two pairs of decks for every four students or
groups.

Procedures
1. Introduce this topic to the students by explaining that a relatively small number of chromosome pairs can
produce a huge number of possible configurations at metaphase I of meiosis. The instructor should review the
math behind this, which is a simple exponential relationship. Perhaps begin by relating the story of the
peasant who was offered either 1000 shillings per day for one month’s work, or one shilling on the first day,
two on the second, four on the third, and so on. The peasant, should he choose this second option, would
demonstrate his wisdom, as he would become a very wealthy man long before the end of the month.
2. Create a deck representing the chromosome set of an organism having 13 pairs of chromosomes by removing
all the cards of one suit from both decks and combining them. There are enough cards in two decks of cards to
create four such sets. (If you wish, you can create sets of 46 cards to represent the chromosome complements
of humans.) This preparation should be done before class. The deck of 26 cards represents 13 pairs of
chromosomes. The maternal and paternal versions of each chromosome are represented by the different
colors or patterns of the backs.
3. When you have shuffled the deck, turn it so the cards are face up. Deal the cards from the top. You will create
two rows of 13 cards, one above the other. There is no need to place the cards in numerical order.
Alternatively, create several such decks, and have the students perform this exercise in groups of two to four.
4. Because there are two of each card in this deck (with the only difference being the color or pattern on the back
of the cards), you will eventually turn up a second card of each pip value. When the first such duplicate
(homologue) card is reached, start the second row by placing the card above its match in the first row.
5. Continue in this manner, placing the first homologue to turn up in the first row, and the second one in the
second row, until the deck is depleted.
6. Once the cards are dealt, turn them over. The random arrangement of the maternal and paternal homologues
should be evident.
You can do this several times. If you do so, it may be useful to record the results on the board, so that students
can see that the combinations of homologues obtained with each shuffling are strikingly different.

Assessment Suggestions
Standard questions on an exam relating to the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis should be adequate for
assessing this activity.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.