X CLASS MATHEMATICS FUNDAMENTALS

WORKSHEET ON FUNDAMENTALS
CLASS : X (CBSE)
SUBJECT : MATHEMATICS
1. REAL NUMBERS
Fundamental theorem of Arithmetic : “Every composite number can be expressed (Factorised) as a
product of primes, and this factorisation is unique apart from the order in which the prime factors
occur”.
Example : For the composite number 250
250 = 2 × 125
= 2 × 5 × 25
= 2 × 5 × 5 × 5 = 21.53
Note 1: The prime factorisation of 250 can be shown as a factor tree as follows

250

2 125

5 25 ∴ 250 = 21.53

5 5

Note 2 : Every natural number (> 1), N, can be expressed as

n n n n
i) N = P1 1 .P2 2 .P3 3 ...Pk k where P1, P2, ...., PK are distinct primes and n1, n2, ..., nk ∈N.
ii) N = 2 n1.3n2 .5n3 ... where n1, n2, .... ∈ W
H.C.F and L.C.M by prime factorisation method :
Given two positive integers M and N possessing the following prime factorisations
M = 2 m1.3m2 .5m3 ...
N = 2 n1 .3n2 .5n3 ...
min{m1 ,n1 } min{m2 ,n 2 } min{m3 ,n3 }
Then H.C.F (M,N) = 2 .3 .5 ....
and L.C.M (M, N) = 2max{m1 ,n1}.3max{m2 ,n 2}.5max{m3 ,n3 } ...
Note : This concept can similarly be extended for three or more positive integers.
Example : Given numbers : 12, 15 and 21
Applying prime factorisation, we get
12 = 22. 31. 5°.70
15 = 20. 31. 51.70
21 = 20. 31. 50.71
∴ H.C.F (12, 15, 21) = 20. 31. 50. 70 = 3
and L.C.M (12, 15, 21) = 22. 31. 51. 71 = 420
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FUNDAMENTALS X CLASS MATHEMATICS
Important points
1) For any two positive integers, product of their H.C.F and L.C.M. is equal to the product
of numbers.
i.e., H.C.F (a, b) × L.C.M. (a, b) = a × b
Where a, b are positive integers.
2) The above result is not necessarily true for three or more natural numbers.
3) For every positive integers a, b
H.C.F (a, b) is a factor of L.C.M (a, b)

p
Ø Rational Number : A number which can be expressed in the form of where p, q are integers
q
and q ≠ 0 and (p, q are co - primes) is called a rational number.
3 1 −4 1
Examples : ,4 , , −1 , −0.12 , 32.1737373 .. etc
2 7 5 2
p
Ø Irrational Number : A number which cannot be expressed in the form of where p, q are
q
integers and q ≠ 0 is called an irrational number.
(or) A real number which is not rational is called irrational number.
(or) A number whose decimal expansion is non - terminating and non - recurring is called irrational
number.
Example : 2, 3, 5, 6, Π, etc
Ø Theorem : “Let p be a prime number. If p divides a2 then p divides a, when a is a positive integer”
Theorem : “If p is a prime then p is irrational.”

DECIMAL EXPANSIONS OF RATIONAL NUMBERS

Ø Every rational number has a terminating decimal expansion or non-terminating recurring decimal
expansion.
Ø Condition for terminating decimal expansion :
p
Let x = be a rational number where p, q are integers, q ≠ 0 and p, q are coprimes, Then x has
q
terminaing decimal expansion if and only if the prime factorisation of q is of the form 2m. 5n where
m,n are non negative integers.
p
Note : Let x = is a rational number where p, q are coprime integers and q ≠ 0 . If x has termi-
q
nating decimal expansion and q = 2m.5n for some non negative integers m,n then the number of
digits in decimal point is max. {m, n}.
11
Example : For rational number
40
3 1
40 = 2 × 5 and 11,40 are coprimes
∴ max {3, 1} = 3

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X CLASS MATHEMATICS FUNDAMENTALS

11
∴ Number of digits in decimal part of is 3
40
Alternately,
11 11 11.52 11 × 25
= 3 1= 3 1 2 = 3 3
40 2 .5 2 .5 .5 2 .5
275 275
= 3 = = 0.275
10 1000
∴ There are 3 digits in decimal part.

Ø Period and periodicity of recurring decimals : A non - terminating recurring decimal such as
32.7181831831... can be expressed in short as 32.71831 . Here, 831 is called period and it has 3
digits representing its periodicity
In a non-terminating recurring decimal, the group of digits in decimal part which is repeating is
called period. The number of digits in the period is called periodicity.
The concept of period and periodicity is useful in expressing a non-terminating recurring decimal
p
in the form of where p, q are integers and q ≠ 0 .
q
Example : Let us take the real number
32.71831

Let x = 32.71831
∴ x = 32.71831831831 .....
Here periodicity = 3
Multiply 103 (ie, 1000) on both sides
∴ 1000 x = 1000 × 32.71831831831 ...
⇒ 1000 x = 32718.31831831 ....
But x = 32.71831831 ....
∴ On subtracting,
999x = 32685.6
326856
⇒ x=
9990
326856
∴ 32.71831 =
9990
Shortcut : If x = AB. CDEFGFGFG ....
i.e., x = AB. CDEFG

ABCDEFG − ABCDE
then x =
(10 − 1) .10
2 3

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FUNDAMENTALS X CLASS MATHEMATICS

43192 − 431
Example : 43.192 =
(10 − 1) .10
2 1

42761
=
990

2. POLYNOMIALS
Ø Introduction : In our previous classes, we studied about definition and types of polynomials. In
this chapter, we shall study the geometrical (graphical) representation of linear and quadratic
polynomials and geometrical meaning of their zeroes. We will also study the relationship between
zeroes and coefficients of the polynomials and division algorithm for polynomials.
Ø Polynomial : An algebraic expression in which the exponents of the variable(s) are non - negative
integers, is called a polynomial.
Examples : i) 7x2 + 8x – 9 is a polynomial in the variable x.
ii) 8 + x + x2 is not a polynomial
Ø Standard form of a Polynomial : Let x be a variable, n be a positive integer and a0, a1, a2,...,an
be constants (real numbers). Then standard form of a polynomial is
f(x) = anxn + an–1 x n–1 + an–2 xn–2 + ...+ a1x1 + a0 , an ≠ 0.
Note : In this polynomial, ‘n’ is called degree of polynomial.
Ø Degree of a Polynomial : The highest exponent of variable in a polynomial is called its degree of
polynomial.
1
Examples :i) For polynomial f ( x ) = 3 x + , degree = 1
2
7 3
ii) For polynomial g( x ) = x - x 2 + 8 - x 3 , degree =3.
2 2
Ø Constant Polynomial : A polynomial with degree zero is called a constant polynomial.
Example : f(x) = 7 is a constant polynomial.
Ø Zero Polynomial : A polynomial with the coefficients of all the terms as zeroes, is called zero
polynomial.
f(x) = 0.xn + 0.xn–1 + 0.xn–2 +...0.x1 + 0
The degree of zero polynomial is not defined.
Note : An nth degree polynomial has atmost ‘n’ zeroes.
Ø Linear Polynomial : A polynomial of degree 1 is called a linear polynomial. It’s general form is
f(x) = ax + b, a ≠ 0.
Examples : f(x) = 2x – 3 is linear polynomial.
Ø Quadratic Polynomial : A polynomial of degree 2 is called a quadratic polynomial.
It’s general form is f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0.
Example : i) f(x) = 2x2 + 3x – 1 ii) g(x) = x2 – 5
Ø Cubic Polynomial : A polynomial of degree 3 is called a cubic polynomial.
It’s general form is f(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx+ d, a ≠ 0.
Example : f(x) = 2x3 – x2 + x + 9

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X CLASS MATHEMATICS FUNDAMENTALS
Ø Bi-quadratic polynomial : A polynomial of degree 4 is called a bi-quadratic or quartic polynomial.
Its general form is f(x) = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e, a ≠ 0
Example : f(x) = 5x4 + 4x3 + 3x2 + 2x1 + 1
Ø Zero of Polynomial : A real number k is said to be zero of a polynomial f(x), if f(k) = 0
Example : For polynomial p(x) = x2 – 3x– 4,
p(4) = 42 – 3.4 – 4 = 16 – 16 = 0
and p(–1) = (–1)2 – 3(–1) – 4 = 1 + 3 – 4 = 0
∴ 4 and –1 are zeroes of p(x).
− b − (constant term)
Note : The zero of a linear polynomial f(x) = ax + b, a ≠ 0 is =
a coefficient of x
Ø Geometrical Representation of a Polynomial and its zero(es) : For a polynomial f(x), let y =
f(x). Then for every real value of x, there is a unique real value of y giving rise to the ordered pair
(x, y). This ordered pair (x, y) represents a point on coordinate plane. The set of all such points
gives us the graph of polynomial or geometrical representation of the polynomial.
The zero(es) of a polynomial f(x) is / are the x - coordinate (s) of intersecting points of graph of
y = f(x) and x - axis.
Ø Graph of Constant Polynomial : Let us take the constant polynomial f(x) = 4.
Y

5
4 y = f(x) = 4
3
2
x 1 0 -1 1
y= f(x) 4 4 4 X' X
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1

Y'
The graph is a straight line parallel to x - axis. This line does not meet x - axis So its zeroes does not
exist.
Ø Graph of Linear Polynomial : Let us take the linear polynomial f(x) = 2x + 3.
Y
5
y = f(x) = 2x + 3
4
3

x 2
0 1 -1 ⎛ 3 ⎞
⎜⎝ − , 0⎟⎠ 1
y= f(x) 3 5 1 2
X' X
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1
Y'
⎛ −3 ⎞ −3
The graph is a straight line. This line meets x - axis at a point ⎜⎝ , 0⎟⎠ . So its zero = .
2 2

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FUNDAMENTALS X CLASS MATHEMATICS
Ø Graph of Quadratic Polynomial : Let us take the quadratic polynomial f(x) = x2 – 3x – 4.

x –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y = f(x) 6 0 –4 –6 –6 –4 0 6

Y
7
6
5
4
3 y = f(x) = x2 – 3x – 4
2
1
(–1,0) (4, 0)
X' X
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7
–8
Y'

The graph of a curve is called parabola. It meets x - axis at two points (–1, 0) and (4, 0).
∴ Zeroes of this quadratic polynomial are –1 and 4.
Note : For the quadratic polynomial, f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0., the graph is a parabola.
i) It opens upwards shaped like a when a > 0
ii) It opens downwards, shaped like when a < 0.
Ø The number of zeroes of a polynomial is the number of times its graph intersects x - axis.

DIVISION ALGORITHM FOR POLYNOMIALS

The division of polynomials satisfies the division algorithm stated given below.
Dividend = Divisor × Quotient + Remainder (or)
If f(x) and g(x) are any two polynomials with g(x) ≠ 0, then we can always find polynomials q(x)
and r (x) such that f(x) = g(x) × q(x) + r (x), where r (x) = 0 or degree r(x) < degree of g(x)
Note : If r(x) = 0, then polynomial g(x) is a factor of polynomial f(x).

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3. PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES
Ø Introduction : In our previous classes, we have studied about linear equations in one variable and
two variables along with their graphs and solutions. In this chapter, we shall study about systems of
linear equations in two variables, solution of such systems by graphical and algebraic methods. We
will also study the applications of linear - equations in two variables in solving problem from different
fields.
Ø Simultaneous Linear Equations in Two variables : A pair of linear equations in two variables
is said to form a system of simultaneous linear equations.
Examples: i) 2x – 3y = 1 ii) x + y = 5
1
x+ y=3 x–y=1
2
Note : The general form of a pair of linear equations in two variables x and y is
a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and
a2x + b2y + c2 = 0, where a1, b1, c1, a2, b2, c2 are real numbers and a12 + b12 ≠ 0 and a22 + b22 ≠ 0 .
Ø Solution : A pair of values of the variables x and y satisfying each one of the equations in a given
system of two simultaneous linear equations in x and y is called a solution.
Example: For the pair of linear equations
3x – 2y = 4 and 2x + y = 5,
x = 2, y = 1 is a solution.
Note : The solution of a system of simultaneous linear equations can be obtained by the
following methods:
i) Graphical Method
ii) Algebraic Method → a) Substitution Method
→ b) Elimination Method
→ c) Cross Multiplication Method.
Ø Graph of simultaneous linear equations : We have studied in our previous class that the graph
of a linear equation is a straight line. So, the graph of a system of simultaneous linear equations is
a pair of straight lines.
Thus, the graph of a system of simultaneous linear equations represents
either a pair of intersecting lines
or a pair of parallel lines
or a pair of coincident lines
Graphical method :
Ø Consistent system : A system of simultaneous linear equations is said to be consistent if it has
atleast one solution.
Note : i) If the system has only one solution then it is called independent.
ii) If the system has infinitely many solutions then it is called dependent.
Ø Inconsistent system : A system of simultaneous linear equations is said to be inconsistent if it has
no solution.

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FUNDAMENTALS X CLASS MATHEMATICS
Ø Nature of system of linear equations : Let a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 is a system
of simultaneous linear equations then
S.No. Compare Algebraic Graphical Nature of the
ratios Interpretation Representation System
a1 b1
1. ≠ Exactly one Intersecting lines Consistent
a2 b2
solution (unique)
a1 b1 c2
2. = = Infinitely many Coincident lines Consistent and
a2 b2 c2
solutions dependent

a1 b1 c2
3. = ≠ No solution Parallel lines Inconsistent
a2 b2 c2

Note : The solution of a consistent system of linear equations is the coordinates of intersecting
point of the two lines represented by them.
Representing a Pair of Linear Equations Algebraically and Graphically
Graphical Method of solution of a pair of linear equations :
The procedure of solving a system of simultaneous linear equations in two variables by drawing
their graphs is known as the graphical method.
Ø Algebraic methods of solving a pair of linear equations :
Substitution Method:
Procedure : Let the two equations be a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 ------- (1)
a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 ------- (2)
Step - 1 : Find the value of one variable, say ‘y’, in terms of the other i.e, x from any equation, say
(1)
Step - 2 : Substitute the value of y obtained in step - 1 in the other equation i.e, equation (2). This
equation becomes equation in one variable x only.
Step - 3 : Solve the equation obtained in step 2 to get value of x.
Step - 4 : Substitute the value of x from step 3 to the equation obtained in step - 1. From the
equation we get the value of y. In this way, we get the solution i.e, values of x and y.
Remark : Verification is a must to check the answer.

ELIMINATION METHOD
Procedure: Let the two equations be
a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 ...... (1)
a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 ...... (2)
Step – 1 : To eliminate y, multiply equation (1) by b2 and equation (2) by b1
Step – 2 : Subtract the equations obtained in step 1. The variable y is eliminated and one get an
equation in one variable x .
Step – 3 : Solve the equation in one variable (x) obtained in step 2.

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X CLASS MATHEMATICS FUNDAMENTALS
Step – 4 : Substitute the value of one unknown (x), found in step 3 in any one of the given
equations.
Step – 5 : Solve the equation obtained in step 4 and get the value of the other unknown (y). In
this way we get the solution i.e, values of ‘x and y’.

Ø Conditions for Solvability (or consistency) :

Untill now we have been discussing various methods of solving a system of simultaneous linear
equations in two variables with the assumption that the system has a unique solution. In this section
we shall be discussing the conditions for solvability of a system of simultaneous linear equations in
two variables.
The system of equations a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 , a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0
a1 b1
i) Is consistent with unique solution, if a ≠ b i.e lines represented by equations will intersect
2 2

a1 b1 c1
ii) Is consistent with infinitely many solutions, if a = b = c . i.e lines represented by equations
2 2 2
will coincide.
a1 b1 c1
iii) Is inconsistent, if a = b ≠ c . i.e lines represented by equations will parallel.
2 2 2

Ø Equation Reducible to a pair of linear equation in two variables.

In this section, we shall discuss the solution of such pairs of equations which are not linear but can
be reduced to linear form by making some suitable substitutions.

4. TRIANGLES
Ø Introduction : In our previous class, we have studied about congruence of figures, in particular
triangles. In this chapter, we shall be introduced to the concept of similarity of figures, similarity of
triangles and its application in proving Pythagoras theorem.
Ø Similar figures : Two figures are said to be similar if and only if they have same shape. Similarity
is symbolised as ' : '
Examples : Two equilateral triangles, two circles, etc
Note : Congruent figures are always similar but similar figures are not necessarily congruent.
Ø Similar Polygons : Two Polygons with same number of sides are similar if (i) their corresponding
angles are equal, and (ii) their corresponding sides are proportional (in same ratio).

T 4 S

E 2 º
10

D 3 105 2
0º
1 .5

105 100º 1
U 120º 120º R
Example : F 120º 120º C
1 135º 140º 1 2
2 135º 140º
A 1.5 B
P 3 Q

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FUNDAMENTALS X CLASS MATHEMATICS
In hexagons ABCDEF and PQRSTU (as shown in figure)
i) ∠A = ∠P, ∠B = ∠Q, ∠C = ∠R, ∠D = ∠S , ∠E = ∠T , ∠F = ∠U

AB BC CD DE EF FA
ii) = = = = =
PQ QR RS ST TU UP
Hence 2 hexagons are similar.
Note : while concluding about similarity, it is important that corresponding vertices occupy same
positions. In the above example, the correct conclusion is
ABCDEF : PQRSTU
Ø Similar Triangles : Two triangles are said to be similar if
i) Their corresponding angles are equal.
ii) Their corresponding sides are proportional (in same ratio).
Example : In ΔABC and ΔPQR ,
P
AB BC CA A
if = =
PQ QR RP Q R
B C
and ∠A = ∠P, ∠B = ∠Q, ∠C = ∠R
then ΔABC : ΔPQR .
Ø Basic proportionality Theorem (Thales Theorem) :
Statement : “If a line is drawn parallel to one side of a triangle to intersect the other two sides in
distinct points, the other two sides are divided in the same ratio”.

A
M
N

D E l

B C

Note : Basic proportionality theorem is also applicable when a line is drawn parallel to one side of
a triangle intersecting other two sides externally at distinct points.

Case - (i) Case - (ii)

A E D

B C
A

l
D E B C

In both the above cases, DE P BC in ΔABC .

AD AE AD AE DB EC
∴ by B.P.T, = ⇒ = ⇒ = .
DB EC AB AC AB AC

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X CLASS MATHEMATICS FUNDAMENTALS
Ø Converse of Basic Proportionality Theorem (Converse of Thales Theorem) ;
Statement : “If a line divides any two sides of a triangle in the same ratio, then the line is parallel
to the third side”.

D
l
E
B C

AD AE AD AE DB EC
Note : In ΔABC , if D, E are points on AB and AC then = ⇔ = ⇔ =
DB EC AB AC AB AC
Thus, in either of the above conditions, the converse of B.P.T. is applicable, giving rise to DE || BC
Note : The converse of B.P.T is also applicable, if the line divides two of the sides of the triangle
externally in same ratio.

CRITERIA FOR SIMILARITY OF TRIANGLES

Ø To test the similarity of two triangles, we need to check whether corresponding angles are equal
and corresponding sides are proportional. As per definition, this requires (6 + 6 = 12) measurements
to be known.
There are certain criteria for similarity of triangles which do not require these 12 measurements but
they require few informations.
The similarity criterion are
(i) A.A.A. similarity
(ii) S.S.S. similarity
(iii) S.A.S. similarity
Ø A.A.A. similarity :
Statement : “If in two triangles, corresponding angles are equal, then their corresponding sides
are in the same ratio (or proportion) and hence the two triangles are similar”.
D
A

P Q

B C
E F

Ø A.A corollary:
Statement : “If two angles of one triangle are respectively equal to two angles of another triangle,
then the two triangles are similar”.
A D

B C E F

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FUNDAMENTALS X CLASS MATHEMATICS
Ø S.S.S. similarity :
Statement : “If in two triangles, the sides of one triangle are proportional to the sides of the other
triangle then their corresponding angles are equal and hence the two triangles are similar.
D
A

P Q

B C E F

Ø S.A.S similarity :
Statement : “If one angle of a triangle is equal to one angle of the other triangle and the sides
including these angles are proportional then the two triangles are similar”.

P Q

B C E F

Areas of Similar Triangles :

Ø Theorem :
Statement: "The ratio of the areas of two similar triangles is equal to the square of the ratio of their
corresponding sides."

P
A

B M C Q N R

* for any two similar triangles, ___

2 2 2 2 2
area of Δ1 ⎛ side ⎞ ⎛ altitude ⎞ ⎛ median ⎞ ⎛ angle bisector ⎞ ⎛ Perimeter ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ =⎜
area of Δ 2 ⎝ side ⎠ ⎝ altitude ⎠ ⎝ median ⎠ ⎝ angle bisector ⎠ ⎝ perimeter ⎟⎠
Pythagoras Theorem:
Statement: "In a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of
the other two sides.

B C

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X CLASS MATHEMATICS FUNDAMENTALS
CONVERSE OF PYTHAGORAS THEOREM
Statement : "In a triangle, if square of one side is equal to the sum of the squares of the other
two sides, then the angle opposite to the first side is a right angle."

A P

B CQ R

5. CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY
Ø Introduction : In class IX , we have seen that to locate the position of a point on a plane, we
require a pair of mutually perpendicular lines which are known as co-ordinate axis. The horizontal
line is known as x-axis and the vertical line is known as the y - axis. The intersection point of the
co-ordinate axes is known as origin. The perpendicular distance of a point from y - axis is called its
x - coordinate, or abscissa and the perpendicular distance of a point from x - axis is called y -
coordinate, or ordinate.

Y
Q2 Q1
(-, +) 5 (+, +)
4
3
2
1

X1 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 o 1 2 3 4 5
-1 X
-2
-3
Q3 -4 Q4
(-, -) -5
(+, -)
Y1
Ø Important points :
w Let XOX1 and YOY1 be the coordinate axis. These two axes divides the XY-plane into four
parts, namely XOY, X1OY, X1OY1, Y1OX, each part is called quadrant Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4
respectively.
w In the first quadrant, x is + ve and y is + ve
In the second quadrant, x is – ve and y is + ve
In the third quadrant, x is – ve and y is – ve
In the fourth quadrant, x is + ve and y is – ve
Ø Distance formula : The distance between any two points in the plane is the length of the line
segment joining them
w Distance between two points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) is given by

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FUNDAMENTALS X CLASS MATHEMATICS

x 2 - x1  +  y 2 - y1 
2 2
|PQ| =

w Distance of any point P (x, y) from the origin O(0,0) given by |OP| = x2 + y2

Ø Points to remember :
1. In order to prove the given figure is a,
i) Square, if the four sides are equal and the diagonals are also equal
ii) Rhombus, if the four sides are equal and the diagonals are not equal
iii) Rectangle, if the opposite sides are equal and diagonals are equal
iv) Parallelogram, if opposite sides are equal and diagonals are not equal
v) Right-angled triangle, if the sum of squares of any two sides is equal to square of third side
vi) An equilateral triangle, if all the sides are equal
vii) An isosceles triangle, if any two sides are equal
2. For three points to be collinear, if the sum of the distance between two pairs of points is equal to
the third pair of points
Section Formula : Let A and B be two points in the plane and P be a point on the segment joining
A and B such that AP : PB = m : n. Then, the point P divides the segment AB internally in the ratio
m:n
m n
A P B
If P is a point on AB produced such that AP : PB = m : n, then point P is said to divide AB
externally in the ratio m : n
m
A B P
n

Theorem : The coordinates of the point which divides the line segment joining the points (x1, y1)
and (x2, y2) internally in the ratio m : n are given by
æ mx 2 + nx1 my 2 + ny1 ÷ö
(x, y) = ççç , ÷
è m+n m + n ÷ø
Note 1 : If P is the midpoint of AB, then it divides AB in the ratio 1 :1, so
æ x1 + x 2 y1 + y 2 ÷ö
P = ççç , ÷
è 2 2 ÷ø

m m
Note 2 : The ratio m : n can also written as : 1 or l : 1 where l = . then,
n n
ælx 2 + x1 ly 2 + y1 ö÷
P = ççç , ÷
è l +1 l +1 ÷ø

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X CLASS MATHEMATICS FUNDAMENTALS
6. INTRODUCTION TO TRIGONOMETRY

Ø Introduction : We have studied about triangles and its properties. In this chapter we shall explore
triangles further by establishing relations between sides and angles of any triangle. This branch of
mathematics is called Trigonometry. In this chapter we shall study some basic concepts of
trigonometry such as trigonometric ratios definitions and values for some specific angles and
trigonometric Identities.
Ø Trigonometric ratios : Definitions
Let ΔABC be right angled at B. Then ∠A and ∠C are acute angles. For each of the angles, six
trigonometric ratios are defined.
side opp.to ∠A BC C
i) sin e∠A = sin A = =
hypotenuse AC

side adj.to ∠A AB
ii) cos ine ∠A = cos A = =
hypotenuse AC

side opp. to ∠A BC A B
iii) tangent ∠A = tan A = =
side adj. to ∠A AB

hypotenuse AC
iv) cosecant ∠A = cosec A = =
side opp. to ∠A BC

hypotenuse AC
v) secant ∠A = sec A = =
side adj. to ∠A AB

side.adj.to ∠A AB
vi) cotangent ∠A = cot A = =
side opp. to ∠A BC
Similarly, the 6 trigonometric ratios for ∠C can be defined.
Ø Relation between trigonometric ratios :
hypotenuse 1
i) cosec A = =
side opp. to ∠A sin A
∴ sin A . cosec A = 1
hypotenuse 1
ii) sec A = =
side adj. to ∠A cos A
∴ cos A . sec A = 1
side adj. to ∠A 1
iii) cot A = =
side opp. to ∠A tan A
∴ tan A . cot A = 1

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FUNDAMENTALS X CLASS MATHEMATICS
side opp. to ∠A
iv) tan A =
side adj. to ∠A

side opp. to ∠A
hypotenuse sin A
= =
side adj. to ∠A cos A
hypotenuse

sin A
∴ tan A =
cos A
1 1 cos A
v) cot A = = =
tan A ⎛ sin A ⎞ sin A
⎜⎝ cos A ⎟⎠

cos A
∴ cot A =
sin A
Note :
i) sin A is a symbol and sin A does not mean sin x A. similar happens for other trigonometric
ratios
ii) The trigonometric ratios are real numbers and have no units.
iii) sin A is meaningful symbol but not sin. Similar happens for other trigonometric ratios.
iv) (sin θ )n is symbolised as sinn θ .

Table :
∠A 0º 30º 45º 60º 90º

1 1 3
sin A 0 1
2 2 2

3 1 1
cos A 1 0
2 2 2

1
tan A 0 1 3 not defined
3

2
cosec A not defined 2 2 1
3

2
sec A 1 2 2 not defined
3

1
cot A not defined 3 1 0
3

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X CLASS MATHEMATICS FUNDAMENTALS
Ø Trigonometric Identities :
Let Δ ABC be right – angled at B
opp BC C
∴ SinA= =
hyp AC

adj AB
cos A= =
hyp AC
2 2 B A
⎛ BC ⎞ ⎛ AB ⎞
sin A + cos A = ⎜
2 2
⎟ +⎜
∴ ⎝ AC ⎠ ⎝ AC ⎟⎠

BC 2 + AB2
=
AC 2
AC 2
= , (Applying Pythagoras theorem in Δ ABC)
AC 2
=1
∴ sin2A+ cos2A= 1 ........... (1)
2
Dividing both sides by cos A, we get
sin 2 A cos2 A 1
+ =
cos A cos A cos2 A
2 2

⇒ tan 2 A + 1 = sec 2 A
⇒ sec 2 A − tan 2 A = 1 ........... (2)
2
Again, dividing both sides of (1) by sin A, we get
sin 2 A cos2 A 1
+ =
sin A sin A sin 2 A
2 2

⇒ 1 + cot 2 A = cosec 2 A
⇒ cosec 2 A − cot 2 A = 1 ...........(3)
The results (1), (2), (3) are called Pythagoras Identities or Trigonometric Identities.

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FUNDAMENTALS X CLASS MATHEMATICS
7.AREAS RELATED TO CIRCLES
Ø Introduction : In earlier classes, we have studied methods of finding perimeters and areas of
simple plane figures such as rectangles, squares, parallelograms, triangles and circles. In our dialy
life , we come across many objects which are related to circular shape in some form (or) other. For
example cycle wheels, wheel arrow, drain cover, bangles, circular paths etc. That is why the
problem of finding perimeters and areas related circular figures is of great practical importance. In
this chapter, we shall discuss problems on finding the areas of the two special parts of a circular
region known as sector and segment of a circle we shall also discuss problems on finding the areas
of some combinations of plane figures involving circles or parts of circles ...............
M Review of perimeter and area of a circle.
Ø Circle : A circle is the locus of a point which moves in a plane in such a way that its distance from
a fixed point always remains same.

r
0

Here the fixed point ‘o’ is called the centre and the given constant distance ‘r’ is known as radius
of the circle.
Ø Circumference : The perimeter (or) length of the boundary of a circle is called its circumference
We know that circumference of a circle nears a constant ratio with its diameter. This constant ratio
is denoted by the greek letter π (read as ‘pi’)
Thus, if ‘C’ denoted the circumference of a circle of radius ‘r’. Then,
Circumference
π=
Diameter
C
⇒ π=
2r
⇒ C = 2r × π = 2 π r
⇒ C = 2π r
(or) C = π d (diameter ‘d’ = 2 × radius = 2r)
Here ‘ π ’ stands for a particular irrational number whose approximate value is 3.14 (up two decimal)
22
or , and
7
π = 3.1416, (up to four decimals)
π = 3.141592651, (up to eight decimals) for practical purposes, we generally take the value of
22
‘ π ’ as (or) 3.14 approximately
7
Ø Area of a circle : The region enclosed by the boundary of the circle is called its area.
Area of the circle = π r2
A = π r2
2
r
⎛ d⎞ O
(or) A = π ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2⎠

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X CLASS MATHEMATICS FUNDAMENTALS
2
d
= π·
4
π d2
A=
4
Ø Area of semicircle :
1
A= × Area. of circle
2
1 o
⇒ A = × π r2
2
πr2
⇒ A=
2
Ø Area of the quadrant :
1
A= × Area of circle
4 r
1
= × π r2
4
o
πr 2

=
4

Ø Area enclosed by two concentric circles : If ‘R’ and ‘r’ are radii of two concentric circles, then
area enclosed by two circles = π R2 – π r2

Area of annulus (Ring) = π (R2 – r2) o 'r'

R
= π (R + r) (R – r)
Note : Distance moved by a rotating wheel in one revolution is equal to the circumference of the wheel.
The number of revolutions completed by a rotating wheel in one minute
Distance moved in one minute
=
Circumference
Sector of a circle and its area :
Ø Sector of a Circle : The region enclosed by an arc of a circle and it’s two bounding radii is called
a sector of a circle. In the given figure OACBO is a sector of circle with centre ‘O’
If arc ‘AB’ is a minor arc then OA CBO is called the minor sector of the circle.
O
The remaining part of the circle is called the major sector of the circle. r
θ
× πr 2
θ
Ø Area of the sector ( A) = A B
360º C
θ
Ø Length of an arc of a sector of angle ‘ θ ’= × 2π r
360º

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FUNDAMENTALS X CLASS MATHEMATICS
Segment of a circle and its area :
Ø Segment : A segment of a circle is the region bounded by an arc and a chord, including the arc
and the chord.
The segment containing the minor arc is called minor segment. Major
segment
While the segment containing the major arc is called as major segment.
O
Note : The centre of the circle lies in the major segment. A Minor B
segment
Ø Area of a segment of a circle :
A = Area of sector OPRQ – Area of Δ OPQ
θ 1
A= × π r 2 − Ar.of ΔOPQ
360º 2 O
θ 1 θ θ
A= × πr 2 − r 2 sin θ
360 2 2 2
⎡ θ θ⎤ P Q
⎡ πθ θ θ⎤
A = r2 ⎢ − sin cos ⎥ ⎢⎣∴ sin θ = 2sin 2 cos 2 ⎥⎦ R
⎣ 360º 2 2⎦

Note : Ar. of major segment = Ar. of circle – Ar. of minor segment

8. PROBABILITY
Ø Introduction : The word ‘probability’ is commonly used in our day to day conversation and we
generally use this word even without going into the details of it’s actual meaning generally, people
have a rough idea about it’s meaning. In our day to day life we come across statements like
i) Probably it may rain today
ii) He may possibly join politics
iii) Indian cricket team has good chances of winning world cup.
iv) He is probably right
In such statments, we generally use the terms ; possible, probable, chance likely etc. All these
terms convey the same sense that the event is not certain to take place or, in other words, there is an
uncertainly about the occurance (or happening) of evernt in question. Thus, in layman’s terminology
the word ‘probability, that there is uncertainly about what has happend or what is going to happen.
However, in the theory of probability we assign numerical value to the degree of uncertainity.
The concept of probability originated in the begining of eighteenth century in problems pertaining
to games of chance such as throwing to die, tossing a coin, drawing a card from a pack of card
etc.starting with game of chance ‘probability’ today has become one of the basic tools of statistics
and has wide range of applications in science and engineering.
Ø Probability : It is a concept which numerically measures the degrees of certainity of the occurrence
of events.
Before defining probability, we shall define certain concepts used there in.
Ø Experiment : An operation which can produce some well-defined outcomes is called an
experiment.
Ø Random Experiment : An experiment in which all possible outcomes are known and the exact
outcome cannot be predicted in advance, is called a random experiment.
By a trial, we mean, performing a random experiment.
Examples : i) Tossing a fair coin.
ii) Rolling an unbiased die.
iii) Drawing a card from a pack of well-shuffled cards.
iv) Picking up a ball from a bag of balls of different colours.
These are all examples of a random experiment

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X CLASS MATHEMATICS FUNDAMENTALS
Ø Some Details about these experiments :
i) Tossing a coin : When we throw a coin, either a head (H) (or) a tail (T) appears on the
upperface.
ii) Throwing a die : A die is a solid cube, having 6 faces, marked 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 or having
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 dots.
In throwing a die, the outcome is the number (or) number of dots appearing on the uppermost
the plural of die is dice face
iii) Drawing a card from a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards : A deck of playing cards has in all
52 cards
i) It has 13 cards each of four suits, namely spades, clubs, hearts and diamonds.
a) Cards of spades and clubs are black cards.
b) Cards of hearts and diamonds are red cards.

Spades Clubs Hearts Diamonds

ii) kings, queens and jacks (or knaves) are known as face cards. Thus, there are in all 12
face cards.
Ø Looking at all possible outcomes in various experiments :
I) When we toss a coin, we get either a head (H) or tail (T). Thus all possible outcomes are H, T.
II) Suppose two coins are tossed simultaneously then all possible outcomes are HH, HT, TH, TT.
Remarks : HH means head on first coin and head on second coin.
HT means head on first coin and tail on second coin.
III) On rolling a die, the number on the upper face is the outcome.
Thus, all possible outcomes are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
IV) In drawing a card from a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards, total number of possible outcomes is 52.
Ø Events : The collection of all or some of the possible outcomes is called an event.
Examples : i) In throwing a coin, ‘H’ is the event of getting a head.
ii) Suppose we throw two coins simultaneously and let ‘E’ be the event of geting at
least one head then ‘E’ contians HT, TH, HH.
Ø Equally likely events : A given number of events are said to be equally likely if none of them is
expected to occur in preference to the others.
Ø Probability of occurence of an event : Probability of occurence of an event ‘E’, denoted by
P(E) is defined as :
Number of out comes favourable to E
P(E) =
Total number of possible outcomes
Ø Sure Event : It is evident that in a single toss of die, we will always get a number less than ‘7’.
Getting a number lessthan ‘7’ is a sure event.
6
p(getting a number lessthan 7) = =1
6
Thus, the probability of a sure event is ‘1’
Ø Impossible Event : In a single toss of a die, what is the probability of getting a number 8 ?
We know that in tossing a coin, 8 will never comeup. So getting ‘8’ is an impossible event.
0
p(getting ‘8’ in a single throw of die) = = 0 Thus, the probability of an impossible event is zero.
6

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FUNDAMENTALS X CLASS MATHEMATICS
Ø Complementary Event : Let ‘E’ be an event and (not E) be an event which occurs only when ‘E’
does not occur.
The event (not E) is called the complementary event of E. Clearly p(E) + p(not E) = 1
\ p(E) = 1 – p(not E).
Elementary event : An event having only one outcome of the experiment is called an elementary
event.
Note : The sum of the probabilities of all the elementary events of an experiment is 1.
Ø Summary :
i) For some event E, we have 0 < p(E) < 1.
ii) p(E) = 0, when ‘E’ is an impossible event.
iii) p(E) = 1, when E is a sure event.
iv) p(E) + p (not E) = 1.

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