Course: BSED MATHEMATICS Semester: 2nd, SY 2023-2024

Subject: Number Theory (Math 108) Grading Period: Assessment 1

SUMMATION NOTATION
Summation notation, also known as sigma notation (Σ), is a way to represent the
sum of a series of terms. It provides a concise way to express the addition of a
sequence of numbers. Here's the basic structure of summation notation:
Upper limit

Stopping point
Sigma notation or
summation sign ∑ Typical element/Expression
Starting point
Starting
Lowerpoint
limit
Index of notation

Example:
Let's say we have the series of numbers: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10.
The sum of these numbers using summation notation would be:

Here:
 i goes from 1 to 5 (the number of terms in the series).
 2i represents the terms of the series.

So, plugging in the values:

2(1) + 2(2) + 2(3) + 2(4) + 2(5) = 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10 = 30

Therefore, ∑ = 30.

Sigma Notation Expanded Form General Formula

nc
∑

1+ 2 +…+ n
∑

∑
 +
∑

Example 1. ∑

nc = 5• 6 = 30 or 5+5+5+5+5+5 = 30

Example 2. ∑ +2

Example 3. ∑

=
=
= 4+9+16
= 29

Example 4. ∑

nc = 5• 5 = 25
225 + 55 + 15 + 25 = 320
 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
Mathematical Induction is a proof technique that can be applied to establish
the veracity of mathematical statement.

Principle of Mathematical Induction

Let n be a natural number and let Pn be a statement that depends on n if …
1. is true and
2. For all positive integers k, Pk+1 can be shown to be true if Pk is
assumed to be true, then is true for all natural number n.

Example:
2 + 4+ 6 … + 2n = n (n+1)
First Step: Verify
n= 1 n= 2
2(1) = 1 (1 + 1) 2 + 4 = 2 (2 + 1)
2 = 1 (2) 6=6
2=2
Second Step: Assumed
n= 3 n= k
12 = 3 (3 + 1) 2 + 4 + 6 + … + 2k = k (k + 1)
12 = 12

Third Step: Prove

n= k + 1
2 + 4 + 6 + … + 2k + 2(k + 1) = (k + 1) + (k + 1 + 1)
k (k + 1) + 2 (k + 1) = (k + 1) (k + 2)
+ k + 2k + 2 = (k + 1) (k + 2)
+ 3k + 2 = + 3k + 2

FIBONACCI SEQUENCE
A sequence of numbers, starting with zero and one, that steadily increases
and where each number is equal to the sum of the preceding two numbers.

Example. A pattern of the Fibonacci numbers.

Find the sum of the squares of the first n Fibonacci numbers for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and
examine the pattern. Generalize this relationship.

=1

Pattern:

The Fibonacci sequence is probably the most famous number sequence. It is

named after Italian mathematician Leonardo Pisano or Pisa, known as Fibonacci.
His 1202 book Liber Abaci introduced the sequence to Western European
mathematics, although the sequence had been described earlier in Indian
mathematics.
Fibonacci sequence is defined by and for n > 3.
The terms of this sequence are called the Fibonacci numbers.

REMARK: If follows that for n> 3

The Fibonacci sequence begins with the integers.
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, …

REMARK: We can define the value = 0 so that =

Example: For any positive integer n,

Proof: We have
.
Therefore,

∑ ∑

= )+…+
=
=

Since the Fibonacci sequence is strongly related to the golden ratio, to solve the nth
term of Fibonacci sequence we have Jacques Binet’s (1543) Formula.

Binet’s Formula:
√ √
√

Example 1. Find the 14th term of the Fibonacci numbers.

√ √
√

n= 14
√ √
√
 0.447[( -(

0.447 [(1.618 -(-0.618 ]

0.447 [(842.751) -(0.001)]

0.447 [842.751 – 0.001]

0.447 [842.75]

376.709 or 377

Example 2. Find the 10th term.

√ √
√

n= 10
√ √
√

0.447[( -(

0.447 [(1.618 -(-0.618 ]

0.447 [(122.966) -(0.008)]

0.447 [122.966 – 0.008]

0.447 [122.958]

54.962 or 55
 BINOMIAL COEFFICIENTS

The binomial coefficients are defined by the formula =

In which n! (called n factorial) is the product of the first n natural numbers 1, 2,
3,…, n (and where 0! Is defined as equal to 1).

= = = = 10

The coefficients may also be found in the array often called Pascal’s triangle,
where in the expanded version of a binomial, such as . Let’s expand
for various values of n. Each of these are done by multiplying everything out
and then collecting like terms.

= [B ] is the number n- bit strings of weight k.

is the coefficient of in the expansion of .

1
=1

(x + y = +

= +2xy+

Example 3. (x + y = =( + ) (x + y)
= + +
= + = y +3x +
 THE GREATEST COMMON DIVISOR

One of the most important concepts in elementary number theory is that of the
greatest common divisor of two integers.

Definition. Let a and b be integers, not both 0. A common divisor of a

and b is any nonzero integer that divides both a and b. The largest natural
number that divides both a and b is called the greatest common divisor of
a and b. The greatest common divisor of a and b is denoted by gcd (a, b).

If a; b ∈ Z and a and b are not both 0, and if d

∈ N, then d = gcd (a, b) provided that it satisfies all of the following properties.
 d │a and d │ b. That is, d is a common divisor of a and b.
 If k is a natural number such that k │a and k │ b, then k ≤ d. That is, any
other common divisor of a and b is less than or equal to d.

Example: The positive divisors of 38 are 1,2,19, and 38, whereas those of 68 are
1,2,4,17,34, and 68; hence, the positive common divisors of (32, 68) are 1,2,4 and
12. Because 12 is the largest of theses integers, it follows that gcd (32, 68) = 12. In
the same way, we can show that
gcd(-4, 4) = 4 gcd(7, 13) = 1 gcd(4, 36) = 4

DIVISION ALGORITHM

Division Algorithm. If a and b are integers such that b > 0, then there are unique
integers q and r such that a = bq + r with 0 ≤ r < b.
In the equation given in the division algorithm, we call q the quotient and r the
remainder.

Note: a is divisible by b if and only if the remainder in the division algorithm is zero.
Before we prove the division algorithm.

Example: 10 ÷ 6 21 ÷ 4
10 = 6(1) + 4 21 = 4(5) + 1
 EUCLIDEAN ALGORITHM

The Euclidean algorithm is based on repeated use of the division algorithm. It is

an algorithm for finding GCD of two integers a & b. The first step is to apply the
Division Algorithm to a and b to get.
a = q1b + r1 0 ≤ r1 < b

When r1 ≠ 0, divide b by r1 to produce integers q2 and r2 satisfying.

b = q2r1 + r2 0 ≤ r2 < r1

If r2 = 0, we stop; otherwise, proceed as before to obtain

r1 = q3r1 + r2 0 ≤ r3 < r2

This division process continues until some zero remainder appears. The result is
the following system of equations.
a = q1b + r1 0 ≤ r1 < b
b = q2r1 + r2 0 ≤ r2 < r1
r1 = q3r2 + r3 0 ≤ r3 < r2
r2 = q4r3 + r4 0 ≤ r4 < r3
r3 = q5r4 + r5 0 ≤ r5 < r4

Example 1: GCD (1299, 213)

Therefore, the greatest common divisor of 1299, 213 is 3.

Example 2: GCD (180, 126)

Therefore, the greatest common divisor of 180, 126 is 18.

EXTENDED EUCLIDEAN ALGORITHM

Extended Euclidean Algorithm. An algorithm to compute integers x and y such

that given a and b. The extended Euclidean algorithm can be
viewed as the reciprocal of modular exponentiation. The existence of such integers
is guaranteed by Bézout's Identity.

Bézout's Identity. Let a and b be integers with GCD = c then there exist integers
x & y such that ax+ by= c
 By reversing the steps in the Euclidean algorithm, it is possible to find these
integers x and y. The whole idea is to start with the GCD and recursively work our
way backwards. This can be done by treating the numbers as variables until we end
up with an expression that is a linear combination of our initial numbers. We shall do
this with the example we used above.

We start with our GCD. We rewrite it in terms of the previous two terms:

We replace for 21 by taking our previous line and writing it in

terms of 21:

Simplify

Collect like terms.

Note: To check if the answer is correct, simplify the expression. The answer must be equal.
Thus, the value of x = -10, and y = 61.

Note: The value of x is beside the highest integer, while the value of y is beside the lowest
integer.

Example:
 PRIME NUMBER, FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF
ARITHMETIC
The natural number p is a prime number if it is greater than 1 and the only
natural numbers that divide p are 1 and p. A natural number other than 1 that is not a
prime number is a composite number. The number 1 is neither prime nor
composite.

Among the first 10 positive integers, 2, 3, 5, 7 are primes and 4, 6, 8, 9, 10 are

composite numbers.

Note: Integer 2 is the only even prime, and according to the definition, the integer 1
plays a special role, being neither prime nor composite.

Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic

Important result that shows that the primes are the building blocks of the
integers. Every positive integer can be written uniquely as a product of primes, with
the prime factors in the product written in order of non-decreasing size.

Example. The factorizations of some positive integers are given by