High Power Medium Voltage Drives ´– Innovations, Portfolio and Trends KLAASSEN Norbert

High Power Medium Voltage Drives – Innovations, Portfolio, Trends

Rolf-Dieter Klug, Norbert Klaassen

SIEMENS AG, Large Drives Division
Vogelweiherstr. 1-15
D-90025 Nuremberg, Germany
Tel.: +49 / 911-433-9581, -9577
Fax: +49 / 911-433-6933
E-Mail: Rolf-Dieter.Klug@siemens.com, Norbert.Klaassen@siemens.com
URL: http://www.siemens.com

Keywords
«AC/AC converter», «Converter circuit», «Current source inverter (CSI)», «Cyclo converter (CC)»,
«Drive», «Multilevel converters», «Variable speed drive», «Voltage Source Inverters (VSI)»

Abstract
The paper gives an overview over high power medium voltage drive inverters in the range between
one and one hundred megawatts. First the applications and their key requirements are summarized.
Then the available power semiconductors and the different inverter circuit topologies with their diffe-
rent properties, advantages and drawbacks are presented. The key features are compared and suitable
converter types for the applications and industry branches are identified. Finally, future trends of
technology, manufacturing and market are outlined.

Introduction
Medium voltage inverters in the megawatt range are not just standard products but - together with
further components - parts of drive systems or of energy conversion systems. The applications in va-
rious industry sectors require different performance features from the drive system and from the power
converter. The converter circuit also has to fit to the specific motors, like dc motor, induction motor or
synchronous motor - with permanent magnets or separately excited. Therefore different circuit topolo-
gies, like cycloconverters, matrix inverters, voltage source inverters, cellular inverters, current source
inverters, load commutated inverters have been established to fulfill the requirements in an economic
way.

Hereby the available power semiconductors,

their maximum voltage and current ranges
and their turn-off-ability are the key
elements. The development of new
semiconductor elements, new gating circuits,
new cooling methods or new insulation
materials open possibilities to continuously
improve the drive converters. That causes
permanent displacement processes between
the different circuit topologies competing for
certain applications.

Fig. 1 shows the considered drive system,

while topics of control or integration into the
plant automation, operation or diagnostic are
not regarded, but the power converter or
drive inverter is the focus of this paper.
Fig. 1: Components of Megawatt Drive Systems

EPE 2005 - Dresden ISBN : 90-75815-08-5 P.1

High Power Medium Voltage Drives ´– Innovations, Portfolio and Trends KLAASSEN Norbert

Requirements on MV Drives
If we look at the variable speed drive applications in the megawatt range, we find them mainly in the
basic material industry sector, that is mainly process industry, energy and ship propulsion and traction.

Table I shows a list of converter applications according industry branches and the respective power
ranges. This table includes the non-rotating converter applications for power grid energy conversion,
but not the traction applications.

TABLE 1: INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS FOR MV POWER CONVERTERS

Industry Sector Application Power Range
Oil & Gas turbo compressors (export gas, LNG gas, pipelines, gas storage, air
separation), reciprocating compressors, centrifugal pumps 1 – 100 MW
Metals hot rolling mill drives (rougher, plate mill, CSP mill, finishing mill),
cold rolling mill (single stand reversing mill, cold tandem mill, skin 2 – 25 MW
pass mill), sectional steel mill (beam line), blast furnace converter
Power pumps (boiler feed pump, cooling medium pumps), coal mills,
conveyor belts, blowers, fans, startup converters for gas turbo gene- 1 – 40 MW
rators and storage pump generators, static var compensators, HVDC
links, static frequency changers, power converters for wind turbines
Mining ore mills, mine hoists, conveyor belts, pumps, crushers, blowers, 2 – 15 MW
compressors, bucket wheel excavators
Water pumps, blowers 0,5 – 40 MW
Marine propulsion drives, booster-generators, thrusters, winders, dredge 2 – 20 MW
pumps
Chemical, Cement, extruders, pumps, compressors, blowers, cement mills, fans, mixers, 0,5 – 4 MW
Pulp & Paper presses

To understand the different requirements for the drives we look at the type of business that is usual
within that high power range. It is not a product or system business, but rather a project, solution or
plant business.
Business Customer
The drive inverter is not directly sold to the
Product: System: Project: Solution: Plant: Factory:
operating company, but instead to a system
integrator, a plant constructor or a Inverter, Inverter, Drivepackage Industry Mechanical
Inverter, Inverter,
Complete - Industry sector Mech. sys., Building,
Control Control, with erection sector System,
cl.-loop ctrl, and
cl.-loop ctrl Motor, drive, technology electrical, plant,
machinery OEM. There is no company that motor
Technolog
with comm. Control
. Electrical
auxiliaries logistics
Transf. Commission. Auxiliaries
can supply the complete equipment from its
own manufacturing. That means, that the System integrator, plant builder
Opera-
decision for or against a specific drive Drive inv.
manufacturer ting
technology is made jointly between the com-
Machinery OEM pany,
parties involved, each having different process
priorities, including not only technical industry

concern. Because of the absolutely small Complete supplier

numbers of quantities, the medium voltage

Level of value-added
drives market is not a typical product
market, but a project business with a Fig. 2: Types of Business and Players
complex decision process.

Basic requirements for all medium voltage drives are:

• Robustness, very high reliability and availability
• Low line harmonics
• No reactive power from the line
• Easy to integrate, easy to use, easy to maintain.

EPE 2005 - Dresden ISBN : 90-75815-08-5 P.2

High Power Medium Voltage Drives ´– Innovations, Portfolio and Trends KLAASSEN Norbert

Further standard requirements are:

• Low Noise
• Low energy losses, high efficiency
• Minimum space requirement
• Fast reaction of competent service and spare parts logistics
• competent sales and integration support

The different key-requirements of the main applications in the industry sectors are listed in Table II.
Those requirements lead to the different main application fields for the specific circuit topologies that
fulfil the requirements (s. Tab. VI).

TABLE II: KEY REQUIREMENTS FOR MV DRIVES

Sector Key-Requirements
Oil & Gas 2-quadrant operation, enhancement for existing motors, high standardization, steady
state operation at rated power, high speed gearless drives
Metals, Mining 4-quadrant operation, high currents down to standstill, coordinated drives, high control
performance, low torque ripple, stabilizing mechanical oszillations, high field weaken-
ing range
Power, Water 2-quadrant operation, enhancement for existing motors, high standardization, steady
state operation at rated power, energy saving, start up converter
Marine 2-quadrant operation, 4-quadrant operation for booster-generators, marine
certification, low dimensions, low weight, high efficiency
Chemical, Cement, 2-quadrant operation, steady state operation, start-up converters, high standardization
Pulp & Paper

Power Semiconductors
The available power semiconductors are mainly turn-off devices up to high power ratings. The ultra
high power area is still covered by the thyristors, which can only turn-on and need commutation by the
power circuit (s. Fig. 3).

The different features (s. Table III) lead

g 40 MW
to different circuit topologies and tin
al r ra
power ranges (s. next section). Looking pic e Trend
Ty pow
on the history of the last 25 years we ive
10 000 dr Thyristor

can recognize the following steps,

Blocking voltage (V)

GTO
IGCT
HV-IGBT
where no. 1 and 5 to 8 are state of the
art for medium voltage converters.
1000 LV-IGBT
15 MW
1. SCR line- and load-commutated
7 MW
2. SCR pulsed with commutation 4 MW
in 1 MW
circuit y
nc z)
e 0.01
3. LV-IGBT (replacing SCR up to qu (kH
fre es 100 1000 10 000
e iv 0.1
some MW) ls dr
Pu he
4. GTO, S-GTO (replacing SCR) t
1
Current that can be
5. HV-IGBT (replacing SCR, GTO, Trend turned-on/turned-off (A)
10
LV-IGBT)
6. IGCT (replacing GTO) Fig. 3: Power Semiconductors
7. SGCT (replacing SCR and S-GTO)
8. IEGT, PPI (competing with IGCT)

EPE 2005 - Dresden ISBN : 90-75815-08-5 P.3

High Power Medium Voltage Drives ´– Innovations, Portfolio and Trends KLAASSEN Norbert

TABLE III: SEMICONDUCTORS OVERVIEW

Base Technology Element Meaning of Special Short Switching Conduc-
Abbreviation Features circ. Losses *) tion
lim. Losses
Voltage LV-IGBT Low Voltage Cost effective, Yes Low High
driven turn- Insulated Gate module size
on/-off Bipolar Transistor
technology, High Voltage Module size, Yes Low High
Transistor

HV-IGBT
low control Insulated Gate main stream
energy, high Bipolar Transistor
switching PPI Press Pack IGBT Press Packed Yes Low High
frequency (single source)
IEGT Injection High ratings No Medium Medium
Enhanced IGBT (single source)
Current driven GTO Gate Turn Off Needs big No High Low
turn-on/-off Thyristor snubber
technology, IGCT Integrated Gate High ratings, No Medium Low
high ratings, Commutated main stream
Thyristor

low Thyristor
conducting SGCT Symmetrical Gate Reverse block- No Medium Low
losses Commutated ing, for CSI
Thyristor
Only turn-on, SCR Silicon Controlled Needs No Low Low
very high Rectifier commutation
ratings (= Thyristor)
*) including snubber circuit losses

Drive Inverter Topologies

Overview
Since dc drives find less and less applications in the considered power range, only the ac inverter types
are considered in this paper (s. Fig. 4). To AC drive inverters
increase the power rating of the basic
circuits there are parallel connections of Cycloconverters: Current source Voltage source
inverters and series connections of inverters: inverters (VSI):
semiconductors or of inverters.
Thyristor Load [2-level] Cellular
cyclo commutated
Cycloconverters can be regarded as “matrix” (LCI)
converters in bridge configuration. They 3-level
[Matrix ] (NPC)
have no energy storage. Pulsed Current
Source(CSI)

Current Source Inverters have inductive Star Open [M3] TFE AFE DFE AFE TFE
energy storage by a dc current link between
the input converter and the output inverter.
Fig. 4: Types of AC Drive Inverters.
Voltage Source Inverters have capacitive TFE: Thyristor Front End, AFE Active Front End,
energy storage by a dc voltage link between DFE: Diode Front End. [Matrix]: Not a MV Product.
the input converter and the output inverter.

EPE 2005 - Dresden ISBN : 90-75815-08-5 P.4

High Power Medium Voltage Drives ´– Innovations, Portfolio and Trends KLAASSEN Norbert

Cycloconverters (CC)
A cycloconverter consists of 3
antiparallel connected SCR-bridges
that work like dc converters and vary •
the output voltage according to a sine
wave with the desired fundamental
frequency. By this maximum output
frequencies of 45 % of the line
frequency are possible with a toler-
able harmonic content. 4-quadrant
operation is obligatory. Reactive motor current
current from the line is required 0,12 0,14 0,16 0,18 0,20 0,22

according to motor speed, like known

from dc converters.
motor voltage
Most products use the circulating- 0,12 0,14 0,16 0,18 0,20 0,22

current-free type of the antiparallel

connection for the reason of higher
efficiency and lower reactive line
power. Fig. 5: Cycloconverters

The dynamic behaviour of the cycloconverter is excellent. The rated voltage designs of transformer,
converter and motor have to be considered as a system design.

The open circuit needs more motor cables but only one transformer and has design advantages at high
dynamic and overload applications. High
overload systems are realized air cooled,
steady state applications above 5 MW with a
water cooling system. So the cycloconverter is
used best for low speed applications. The
efficiency is very high due to the direct energy Thyristors

conversion without intermediate storage. The

reliability is also very high thanks to the simple
and high rated power devices.
Load Commutated Inverters (LCI)
The LCI (s. Fig. 6) consists of a unidirectional
SCR-bridge to feed the dc link inductor with a
controlled current, and a second unidirectional
SCR-bridge to switch this dc current cyclically
onto the motor windings. This only works – as SYM
known from the dc converters – if the ac volt- MOTOR VOLTAGE
u
age provides a certain commutation voltage,
which is associated to a commutation reactive
power. On the line side that comes from the COMMUTATION NOTCHES

grid, while on the motor side the machine has

to provide the capacitive commutation voltage,
which only works with an over-excited φ
synchronous motor. Because of the high
inductance of the dc reactor the dynamic AIRGAP TORQUE

behaviour is not so fast. Also the low speed

range is not suitable for extremely high
accuracy due to the cyclic block operation of Fig. 6: Load Commutated Inverter, 12-pulse circuit
the inverter, even with a pulsed dc current.

EPE 2005 - Dresden ISBN : 90-75815-08-5 P.5

High Power Medium Voltage Drives ´– Innovations, Portfolio and Trends KLAASSEN Norbert

There is no additional voltage stress on the motor winding and virtually no limitation of cable lengths
– like it is at Voltage Source Inverters (VSI). For increasing the rated power many SCRs can easily be
connected in series – with additional elements for redundancy – and two complete circuits are
operated in parallel – getting lower harmonics in line and motor currents.

Again the efficiency and the reliability are extremely high due to the simple and high rated power
elements. The LCI is used best for general purpose 2Q and 4Q applications and for extremely high
power ratings up to 100 MW. In some cases line filters are necessary to reduce the current harmonics
and to supply the needed reactive line power.

The air cooled version of the LCI is used to start up synchronous machines and power generators that
are normally operated directly at the power grid. The start-up inverters are rated from 3 to 15 MW, the
respective motors about three times higher.
Pulsed Current Source Inverters (CSI)
The pulsed current source inverter is equipped
with turn-off elements that operate with a M
pulse-width modulation to generate sinusoidal
output currents. Therefore filter capacitors are
necessary at the inverter output. Since the
semiconductor elements must block reverse
voltage, S-GTOs and SGCTs are used. The
input converter feeding the dc inductor can be
Motor
either a SCR-bridge (TFE) like with the LCI or Current
a pulsed bridge (AFE) like the motor side
inverter, which implicates additional input
filter capacitors. Motor
Voltage

Due to the pulsed elements a high output

frequency of up to 220 Hz is possible. The Fig. 7: Pulsed Current Source Inverter with AFE
inverter is simple in design and therefore
reliable, but needs output capacitors, which have to be carefully designed. Field weakening is not
possible, as well as high dynamic responses.

The pulsed CSI is best used for general purpose 2Q and 4Q applications together with a standard
induction motor. Thanks to the sinusoidal motor voltage and current there is no additional voltage
stress on the motor, long cables are allowed
and torque ripple and motor losses are low. line-side 3-level
inverter
rectifier dc link
Using a TFE there are the line side
disadvantages as known from dc converters. +

Neutral Point Clamped Inverters

(NPC) 0

The NPC inverter is a voltage source inverter

(VSI) in 3-level technology, which is more
suitable than the 2-level topology. It is like a −
series connection of power semiconductors
to double the output power, but additionally M
3~
reduce the current ripple resp. switching
frequency by using the intermediate dc-level.
The line side converter supplying the dc
capacitors is either a 12- of 24-pulse diode
rectifier (DFE) or an identical circuit as the
inverter (AFE).
Fig. 8: Neutral Point Clamped (NPC) Inverter

EPE 2005 - Dresden ISBN : 90-75815-08-5 P.6

High Power Medium Voltage Drives ´– Innovations, Portfolio and Trends KLAASSEN Norbert

That means either the DFE or the AFE

comprises excellent behaviour at the power
grid. With the AFE it is even possible to
compensate other reactive power consu-
mers through a controlled capacitive input
current.

The NPC inverter allows the fastest

dynamic response and the highest output
frequencies at the upper power range. The Fig. 9: Voltage, Current of NPC Inv. with Output Filter
AFE version is used best for high dynamic
or low speed applications while is the DFE version for general purpose and high speed applications. It
is a platform for a great range of applications.

NPC inverters can be variously

TABLE IV: POWER ELEMENTS FOR NPC-VSI
equipped with different power
semiconductors (s. Table IV). Since Housing Short Power range Fault
circuit MVA behaviour
the IGCT and the IEGT have higher
proof
ratings in conduct and turn-off current
HV-IGBT Module Yes 1 – 10 Open Circ.
and blocking voltage, they are used for IGCT PressPack No 5 – 30 Short Circ.
the higher power range, than the IEGT PressPack No 8 – 30 Short Circ.
IGBTs in order to get a design with PPI PressPack Yes 3 – 20 Short Circ.
low component count.

Multi-Level Inverter with Floating

Capacitors
The concept of a floating capacitor
topology can be derived rather
straightforwardly from the above
described NPC concept. Instead of
connecting intermediate levels to the
neutral point with clamp diodes, the
floating capacitor topology distributes
capacitors to each intermediate level. The
principle needs a certain voltage
balancing control for all the capacitors
not being connected to the main dc-link.

Going one further step, this type of

inverter can be extended easily to a
higher- than-three level design by adding
additional “layers”. Currently a four-level
design is available on the market. Note
that the inverter is not a cellular inverter,
because of different isolation levels of
cells.

Like the NPC inverter the multi-level

inverter with floating capacitors can be
Fig. 10: Multi-Level Inverter with Floating Capacitors
combined with various types of line-side
converters (12- or 24-pulse DFE or
AFE). This multi-level inverter can in principle be equipped with the same power elements, like the
NPC inverter, although currently only a version with HV-IGBTs is marketed.

EPE 2005 - Dresden ISBN : 90-75815-08-5 P.7

High Power Medium Voltage Drives ´– Innovations, Portfolio and Trends KLAASSEN Norbert

Cellular Inverters M

Cellular inverters come from the idea to

use LV-IGBTs for creating a medium
voltage inverter. Cellular inverters are
made of series connected building blocks
(cells), each providing a pulsed single
output voltage. A 3-phase inverter is
created by combining 3 series connections
in a star connection. Each building block is
a 2- (or even 3-) level VSI with a diode
bridge converter, that needs individual
floating transformer windings, fuses and
electrolytic dc capacitors. Lately the
concept has been extended to the use of
HV-IGBT instead of LV-IGBT, which
allows reaching higher output voltages
with fewer cells.

Because of the multi series connection it is

possible to design additional redundant
cells that are bridged in case of a fault. On
the other hand this is necessary at this
topology due to the high component count
and consequently high statistical failure
rate.

The cellular inverter has only a 2-quadrant Fig. 11: Cellular Inverter
capability, but features a good harmonic
behaviour at the power grid, due to the multi phase shift of the input transformer, which has to be
specially designed. The motor losses are low with no need of an output filter.

The cellular inverter is used best for general purpose and high speed applications in a power range of 1
– 15 MVA however it is promoted also for much higher power ratings. While a proper reliability is
only achieved with the redundance equipment for the high component count, the cost for replacing
failed cells has to be taken into account.
past: 1-20 MVA
Comparison of the Inverter LCI (SCR)
today 10–100 MVA
CSI (SCR)
Concepts Cellular (LV-IGBT)
Looking back over the past 25 years we NPC (GTO)
see that inverter concepts have been CSI (GTO) 1 – 15 MVA
developed according to the availability of NPC (HV-IGBT, IGCT)
improved power semiconductors (s. Fig.
CSI (SGCT)
12, Fig. 13).
today time
Table V shows a comparative overview Fig. 12: History of General Purpose inverters
over medium voltage inverter concepts. It
is obvious that the elder, simpler and long DC (SCR)
improved concepts LCI and CC with SCRs CC (SCR)
are cost effective and most reliable, but they NPC (GTO) 3 – 30 MVA
have disadvantages concerning the line NPC (IGCT, IEGT)
reactions, that however are either not
relevant having a strong power grid or can today time
be effectively cleared by a line filter. The Fig. 13: History of High Dynamic 4Q inverters

EPE 2005 - Dresden ISBN : 90-75815-08-5 P.8

High Power Medium Voltage Drives ´– Innovations, Portfolio and Trends KLAASSEN Norbert

NPC inverter with press-pack elements Table V: Comparison of Inverter Concepts

seems to reach best features but however NPC
VSI NPC
VSI LCI CSI CC Multi-
Cell.
NPC/DFE AFE/IGCT
DFE/IGBT NPC/AFE TFE /
needs most investment cost. IGBT or IEGT
IGCT AFE
Cell
DFE

Low costs o - + o/- + -

Table VI gives a rough summary of the Induction motor can
+ + - + + +
also be used
usage of the different inverter concepts in High speed + + o + - +
the high power industry branches.
Low speed o + o o + -
For economical reasons the power 4Q operation - + + + + -
High dynamic
converter manufacturer optimizes his response
response
+ + - - o +
product portfolio with the aim to cover a Torque quality + + o + + +
wide variety of applications with a small Line reactive power o + - -/o - o
number of different products. Furthermore
he develops technological platforms used
Reliability o o + o + -
synergetically for several converter types, Table VI: Main Usage of the Inverter Concepts
like control hardware, control software, NPC NPC LCI CSI CC Cell.
mechanical set-up and direct cooling of the (DFE)
IGBT
(AFE)
IGCT,IEGT SCR SGCT SCR
(DFE)
LV-IGBT
power devices, terminal units or human- Oil & gas x x x x x
machine interfaces.
Water x x x x
0, Fig. 14 outline the inverter portfolio of a Power generation x x x x x
and distribution
“full-line” supplier as an example. Metals x x x
Marine x x x x x
Trends Mining x x x x
Others: Pulp/paper, x x x
Technological Trends: In the past the chemical, cement
development of new power
semiconductors and devices triggered the
improvement or development of new 100 NPC-Voltage Source Inverter
Max. Output Frequency [Hz]

LCI Load Commutated Inverter

circuit topologies. In the next years, there is Simovert MV
Simovert S
General
no completely new power device in sight, Purpose
NPC-Voltage
since the silicon carbide elements (SiC) 50 General Source Inverter
Purpose + High Simovert ML2 High
have yet much too low ratings. The existing Performance Performance
power devices will be improved within
their limits. 6 kV IGBTs will lead to 6 kV 25
High
output voltage source inverters. Cycloconverter
Simovert D
Performance

Nevertheless the voltage stress on the

12
motor insulation has to be considered.
Efforts ever go in the direction of 1 2 5 10 20 50 100
minimizing power losses during on-state Motor Rating [MW]
and switching, minimizing the necessary Fig. 14: Example Portfolio of a Full-Line Supplier
gating power, withstand voltage and
current peaks for eliminating snubber circuits and other protection devices. The construction design of
the inverters also will get optimized by packages, higher integration of power device, gating circuit
and heat sink.

Manufacturing Trends: As said above, the suppliers will go on standardizing their product portfolio by
reducing the variety of platforms and technologies built, this by cooperating with partners, since the
absolute quantities of sold pieces are still low, compared with the increasing R&D and engineering
cost.

Market Trends: The market demands ultra high reliability and availability in operation at reduced
invest cost. There is an increasing demand for inverters with no line reactions on the power grid,
which means the inverters with turn-off devices (mainly VSI, also CSI) will replace the thyristor

EPE 2005 - Dresden ISBN : 90-75815-08-5 P.9

H i g h P o w e r M e d i u m V o l t a g e DK r L i A v Ae Ss S E´ –N

SIMOVERT MV SIMOVERT ML2 SIMOVERT S SIMOVERT D

0.5 – 9 MVA 5 – 30 MVA 5 – 70 MVA 3 – 25 MVA
NPC-VSI, DFE NPC-VSI, AFE LCI
2.3 / 3.3 / 4.16 / 3.3 kV 1.0 - 23.0 kV
6 kV / 6.6 kV
Air-cooled / water- Water-cooled
cooled (HV-IGBT) (IGCT)

Fig. 15: Example Portfolio of a Full-Line Supplier

inverters (LCI and CC) to a certain extent, coming from low power upwards. There are upcoming
markets by new applications, for instance gearless high speed drives are replacing gas turbines for gas
compression (pipelines, LNG stations). Furthermore power conversion applications are coming up
using medium voltage inverters (wind turbines, line coupling, static var compensation). Future
challenges are sub-sea sataions for gas compressors and pumps.

Conclusions
Because of different requirements of the various applications and the different performance properties
of the power electronic topologies, there are still several different medium voltage drive concepts in
the market. However all applications can be covered by a certain selection of topologies.

The voltage source inverters are coming up to higher power ratings, but the thyristor inverters are still
state of the art for low speed (cyclo converter) and very high power applications (LCI inverter). The
SCR-inverters are most cost effective and most reliable.

The drive system consisting of motor, inverter, transformer / filter, cables and auxiliaries, has to be
carefully integrated and adapted on the application by a competent supplier or system integrator. In
case of competing inverter types not only the properties of the circuit topology, but also the overall
project items incl. price decide which solution gets chosen.

References
[1] F. Kleiner, B. de Wit, B. Ponick: "Choosing Electric Turbocompressor Drives", IEEE Industry Applications
Magazine, Vol. 7, No. 4, Jul/Aug 2001, pp 45-52
[2] M. Ruff, R. Sommer, G. Zaiser: "Voltage source inverter in the medium voltage range", EPE-PEMC 2002,
Dubrovnik & Cavtat
[3] ASI-Robicon Industrial Power Control: Brochure on “Perfect Harmony Series”
[4] Rockwell Automation: Brochure on “PowerFlex 7000”
[5] R.-D.Klug, A.Mertens: „Reliability of Megawatt Drive Concepts“, ICIT2003, Maribor, Slovenia, pp.636-641
[6] U.Putz, W. Schulz, Alstom: “Mehrstufen-Wechselrichter in der Leistungselektronik”, ETG-Info 2003

E P E 2 0 0 5 - D r eI Ss dB eN n : 9 0 - 7 5 8 1 5 - 0P 8. -1 50