Chapter 1 Smart Energy Management in Renewable Energy Systems

Citation: Anuradha Tomar and Amruta Pattnaik, "Smart Energy Management in Renewable
Energy Systems," in Smart Energy Management Systems and Renewable Energy
Resources [AIP Publishing (online), Melville, New York, 2021], available at: https://
doi.org/10.1063/9780735422827_001
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 scitation.org/books

CHAPTER

1 SMART ENERGY
MANAGEMENT IN
RENEWABLE ENERGY
SYSTEMS

Anuradha Tomar and Amruta Pattnaik

Tomar, A. and Pattnaik, A., “Smart energy management in renewable energy systems,” in
Smart Energy Management Systems and Renewable Energy Resources, edited by M. Rizwan
and M. Jamil (AIP Publishing, Melville, New York, 2021), pp. 1-1–1-24.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The word “grid” is used for power generation, transmission, distribution, operation, and control.
Conventional grids are usually employed to transfer energy from limited sources of electrical energy
to many consumers. The conventional power grid is a one-way type of generation. At the generating
house, the power is generated with the support of generators. The produced power is sent to the
transmission line with the support of a step-up transformer, while the transmitted power is sent to
the distribution line with the help of a step-down transformer. An example of a conventional-type
grid system is shown in Fig. 1.1. As compared to a conventional grid, a smart grid provides a flexible,
reliable, and consistent supply.

The aim behind smart grids was advanced metering infrastructure, improving consumer requirements
and power quality, and improving the quality of self-solving fault detection (Rahimi and Ipakchi,
2010). There are different types of limitations in a conventional-type grid system. A smart grid system
is operated in digital mode with two-way communication. Complete monitoring through sensors
makes it easier for the system to resolve fault issues, so it has been popular among consumers. It allows
demand-side management (DSM) and demand response (DR), employing the latest technology-based
utilizations, smart meters, microgeneration, electricity storage, and consumer loads. The design of a
smart grid is based upon the connection and operation of systems via the latest technologies. It allows
all types of conventional, nonconventional, as well as micro- and minigrids, and provides operational

https://doi.org/10.1063/9780735422827_001 1-1
Smart Energy Management Systems and Renewable Energy Resources, Mohammad Rizwan and Majid Jamil
© 2021 AIP Publishing, published by AIP Publishing
Principles

Generating house Distribution grid

Step up transformer
Hydel power plant for transmission

Commercial
load
Oil power plant
Industrial
load
Nuclear power plant

Transmission Domestic
and distribution load

Thermal power plant

Agricultural
Step down transformer
for distribution
load

Transmission grid

FIG. 1.1
Design of conventional power grid.

flexibility. It operates efficiently by using optimization and asset energy management systems. Smart
grids are protected by high-level security and reliability. They improve the digital market by using
a digital system with a large number of sensors to make themselves automatic. The U.S. Energy
Independence and Security Act of 2007 directed the National Institute of Standards and Technology
(NIST) to provide a report on smart grids (Greer et al., 2014), highlighting the probable outcomes and
necessities of a smart grid, which are given briefly below:

• Enhancing the reliability and quality of power

• Increasing the capability and efficiency of a conventional power generation system
• Increasing the quality of pliability to interference
• Supporting predictive control and quality of self-solving fault detection issues
• Enabling extended utilization of nonconventional or renewable energy
• Accommodating distributed power sources
• Automating repair, control, and process
• Enabling grid security
• Introducing e-vehicles and energy storage devices
• More focus on consumer satisfaction
• Enabling new products, services, and markets

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According to the IEEE (2015), “the smart grid is a revolutionary undertaking—entailing new
communications-and-control capabilities, energy sources, generation models and adherence to
cross-jurisdictional regulatory structures.” A smart grid can be theorized as an advanced version of a
computational system that is fully controlled by computer-based algorithms. It helps to conspicuously
develop its dynamic characteristics and its approachability to highly distributed resources as well as
its assets in a modern power system. The integration of nonconventional sources through a smart grid
was achieved recently, and this helps to mitigate environmentally related issues, such as the emission
of carbon particulates and greenhouse gases. Standalone nonconventional energy is unable to fulfill
the load-side power needs, as its power fluctuates. The integration of a smart grid along with renewable
energy can fulfill the receiver-side requirement. Power demand is continuously increasing due to the
continuous increase in the number and power requirements of consumers. These adversely affect the
operation of the complete power system, and there is a need to exploit various energy management
systems to reduce the risk of high power demand during peak hours. Energy management is a refined
algorithm to manage energy for a smart grid system. As it is an automated digital system that provides
precise data and predictions, it also increases system efficiency. Energy management becomes beneficial
to reduce electricity costs by about 20%–30%. Besides, it becomes a significant property to reduce the
wastage of electricity as well as pollution issues.

An energy management system (EMS) can function either autonomously or with the transmission
and distribution system operators. Precise and reliable operation in the electrical network requires
control tools and functions, such as supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA), generation
control function and production forecasts, network security analysis, and advanced user interfaces, as
per Goutard (2010). In the reported work, EMS is used in the integration of nonconventional sources
through the smart grid for balancing energy sustainability as well as controllability. According to
Fang et al. (2011), smart grids could be classified as smart arrangement, smart administration, and
smart security systems. Power, information, and communication infrastructures are designed under
a smart infrastructure. The smart energy subsystem, the smart information subsystem, and the smart
communication subsystem are three different types of smart infrastructure. The smart protection
system provides innovative grid consistency analysis, failure protection, and security and privacy
protection services. The smart management system includes management with new technology,
control services, and functionalities. Smarter protection systems become more commendable and are
capable of supporting failure security tools, addressing cybersecurity issues, and preserving privacy
(Fang et al., 2011). Nowadays, there is a widespread increase in power plants with the latest technology
and with high-grade equipment to increase productivity as well as to improve the quality of power.
However, the overall power system has encountered several environmental issues as well as power
quality related issues. As a result, the conventional energy sources have been replaced by renewable
energy sources in the modern power system. As a response to such operational situations, modern
power system operators optimize the parameters of the power system to fulfill the requirements for
electricity. By using forecasting models and optimization rules, power system operators try to reduce
the costs as well as adjust the supply of power (Morales et al., 2013).

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1.2  OVERVIEW OF SMART ENERGY

MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS (SEMS)

A smart grid has advantages over existing power systems. It provides reliable and sustainable power
for future generations; however, it has its demerits, which are related to security and privacy issues
(McDaniel and McLaughlin, 2009). Control techniques are used to improve the performance of the
smart grid. In this section, different types of control techniques for smart grids are discussed.

1.2.1  Intelligent control framework

The electricity flow between the supply side or grid and the consumer should be maintained in balance,
otherwise the grid might face issues such as poor gain, wastage of surplus energy, and increased carbon
dioxide production, as well as both power quality issues and severe problems like blackout issues
(Mohsenian-Rad et al., 2010; and Shan et al., 2016). All this requires suitable voltage support for the grid
via a proper secure communication infrastructure. Rogers et al. (2010) reported on the integration of
consumer-side devices that were used to control the reactive power to maintain the required grid voltage
by a locked communications arrangement, and such an arrangement can mitigate reactive power-related
issues such as voltage flicker, noise, etc. Those authors have proposed and designed an intelligent control
framework, which was based upon the incident command system (ICS) pattern, and was used for the
command, control, and coordination of an emergency response (Mohsenian-Rad et al., 2010). Such a
system needed reactive support groups that must be produced near to its point of consumption.

The objective of solving this problem is to find the total volt ampere reactive (VAR) power injections
at the Q-controlled (Q-C) buses for voltage control:
M M

f1 = ∑ V − Vspec  2 =
 i ∑[ η ] .i
2
(1.1)
i =1 i −1
The Jacobian J−1 defines the change in state variables θ and V as a result of the power flow due to bus
incompatibility power injection:
−1
∆s(θ,V ) = [−J ] ⋅ f( p,q) . (1.2)

−1
Then, the sensitivity of V to the specified VAR power QS is known as the block matrix ΛVQ of [ J ] :

 ∂θ ∂θ 
 
−1  ∂Ps ∂Qs   ΛθP Λθ P 
[J] = = . (1.3)
 ∂V ∂V   ΛVP ΛVQ 
 
 ∂Ps ∂Qs 

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The sensitivity of f1 to reactive power injection is given by the following vector:

∇f1 = 2ηΛVQ . (1.4)

The Q-C candidate buses were found by determining the buses with the highest-magnitude sensitivities
for the objective function f1 .

• Division of loads. The division was taken based on the controllability of the VAR component of
loads.
• Reactive support group. This method provided inherent redundancy, since, if there were m voltages
of interest, there would be m reactive support groups, where each region had l elements. Rogers
et al. (2010) focused on re-establishing the system voltage and suggested working on coordinating
distributed control devices for fast-reacting and effective power system issues.

1.2.2  Alvarado model

Communication plays a significant role in the smart grid framework, as the existing system details and
controlling messages are conveyed through the communication channel. So, it is quite important to
focus on both the capacity of the data, which should be delivered without any error to the destination,
and the security of the data, which should be conveyed without any threat to complete privacy, otherwise
an eavesdropper could steal the data, which might affect grid stability (Anderson and Fouad, 2010; and
Momoh, 2009). Li et al. (2011) discussed the need for system state estimation and control for stability
in smart grids. Accordingly, they framed the sensor(s) and the controller that interconnects with them
through a wireless channel (Li et al., 2011). The Alvarado model was adapted to find concealment
measurements for the estimation of system state in the energy market. It was required to embrace the
Alvarado prototype (Alvarado, 1997; and Li et al., 2011) for the power market. In this model, there
were four variables in the configuration level: Pg , the produced energy yield quantity; Pd , the paid power
quantity; E, the time integral of the variance in power source and power mandate; and λ, the price/
power unit. In continuous time, the configuration stage fulfills the following:

(λ − bg − c g Pg − kE )
Pg = , (1.5)
τg
(bd + c d Pd − λ)
Pd = , (1.6)
τd
E = Pg − Pd , (1.7)

and

E
λ = − . (1.8)
τλ

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Principles

Here, τ g , τ d , and τλ are defined as the rate of change of supply, demand, and price as per the market;
and bg , bd , c d , and c g are model parameters (Alvarado, 1997; and Li et al., 2011). For the secrecy capacity
for the power system control method, the discrete model is as follows:

x (n + 1) = (I − ∆tM −1K ) x (n ) − ∆tM −1 u (n ) + ∆tW (n ), (1.9)

where ∆t is ignored.

The concept of valuation and control over message links and the data on secure communications
are achieved by adopting a Gaussian wiretap channel. It is applied for dynamic systems for the
simplification of the power system model.

1.2.3  Mosaik cosimulation framework

Due to possible cyber-attack, a less controllable infrastructure makes the grid inefficient, and
therefore it requires sophisticated simulation tools for smart grids, such as the Mosaik cosimulation
framework. The smart grid is prepared with smart tools and semiconductor-based interfaces that
need the latest technology-based controls for operation. However, the existing control methods have
some disadvantages in retaining grid consistency where there are chances of high unpredictability and
improbability. As a modern power system is linked with different types of real-time measurements
of both local and remote sensors, an improved version of the control system has been designed to
accomplish suitable communication between the latest design energy resources with grid connection.
This should continue to supervise under wide-ranging operating conditions and contingencies in
different areas like transport, communication, economics, and power system. Before using the real
grid, it must be verified by a simulation process. De Souza et al. (2020) reported on the scheme and
execution of a hi-fi smart grid simulation stage that incorporates a network simulator and a power flow
simulator using the Mosaik cosimulation framework. Mosaik was written in Python. They proposed
the cosimulation method to improve a stage that incorporates Open DSS (power system simulator)
and NS-3 (network simulator) by Mosaik (cosimulation framework) (De Souza et al., 2020).

1.2.4  Machine learning techniques

To provide efficient and reliable power from a smart grid to consumers, there is a need for additional
control techniques in the field of cybersecurity (CS). This is a combination of physical procedures,
channels, and computing. CS is used in smart grids, where the power grid structure is united with
control, intelligence, processing, and information. It helps to use power intelligently and to manage
dissipation across different entities. Machine learning methods have been introduced for predicting
the stability of the smart grid. Alazab et al. (2020) suggested that a smart grid configuration monitors
the prototypical CS. A unique multidirectional long short-term memory (LSTM) procedure was
recommended to calculate the strength of the smart grid setup (Alazab et al., 2020).

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The recommended prototype comprised four one-dimensional (1D) spatial LSTMs to test each matrix
in altered ways independently. At each stage, veiled films were considered and added at the finale as
follows:

FmL,+n1 = A (UFmL,n + VFmL,+n−1 1 + b) (1.10)

FmL,+n1 = 0, FmL,n ∈ R d *1 , FmL,+n1 , FmL, n−1 ∈ R D *1 , U ∈ R d * D , b ∈ R D *1 ,

where D depicts the number of nodes used in 1D spatial LSTM, F defines the nonlinearity function,
and m and n represent the dimensionality of features during scanning from top to bottom.

1.2.5  Energy management system using

the Internet of Things (IoT)
The existing grid has some demerits. The existing grid needs improvement by providing additional
control systems like computerization and networking. Power losses in the power system also require
improvement. With the help of an improved communication technique, smart grid design can also
be improved (Fang et  al., 2011). Jadhav
et  al. (2016) reported on different types
Transmission service operators of regulating and supervising parameters
that were designed with the help of the IoT.
However, the IoT is a self-configuring link
that connects physical entities embedded
Distribution service operators with electronic sensors to accumulate and
interchange data. Grid design based on the
IoT was used to develop the performance
of the whole system. The grid-design-
based IoT accessed the data and observer,
Smart secondary substation
and regulated the system. The flowchart
of the power management scheme using
IoT
platform the IoT of the smart grid is shown in Fig.
IoT platform
1.2. The grid performance was boosted by
improving the consistency and efficiency
of the smart grid.
Transformer Feeder
After reviewing these control techniques
for the grid, it can be stated that the present
grid requires improvement in its quality of
power supply. It is essential to introduce
FIG. 1.2
Flowchart of power managing scheme using the IoT of the smart grid.
an integration system and storage ability
system using both conventional and

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Principles

nonconventional supply systems (Hossain et al., 2016). In recent times, the smart grid theory has
been effectively applied to power systems. The latest trend is a renewable energy integrated grid
system (Phuangpornpitak and Tia, 2013). The advantages of a nonconventional source connected to
the smart grid are as follows: (i) cost-effective insight, (ii) enhancing the efficiency of energy, and (iii)
reducing greenhouse effects. Smart grids have advantages over conventional power systems due to
their flexibility and reliability.

Grid-connected renewable power sources create power quality issues like fluctuations and flicker, as
well as harmonics. Also, they require synchronization of both sources with the grid (Shafiullah et al.,
2010). A smart grid improves these problems by averting failures and letting the customers accomplish
the energy norm. This concept allows the integration of external energy into the transmission and
distribution system by storage. In the case of nonconventional energy, mostly solar and wind energies
are used.

1.3  MODEL-PREDICTIVE CONTROL-BASED

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SCHEME

Predictive control is a kind of controller established on forecasting. This prototype is used to forecast the
forthcoming output founded on past data. These data is used by the controller to decide the optimum
actuation, according to a predetermined set of conditions. It follows the function of the model, as
opposed to the structure. They are an important class of controllers that have wide applications in
converters and drivers. Model predictive control (MPC) was applied in a building area to save energy
and to control other real-time information regarding the building and its environment. MPC delivers
a sustainable result to the optimization problem. The MPC method contains state variants, control
variants, and disturbance variants. The state variants define the position of the system with the proper
observation by using control variants, while the disturbance variants signify the external effects on the
state variants. Due to uncertainty and variability, a renewable energy source connected grid needs a
predictive control technique. There are different types of model predictive control. Some of them are
discussed below.

1.3.1  Modular multilevel converter–unified power

flow controller (MMC-UPFC) system modeling
Yang et al. (2020) reported on the proposed design for a modular multilevel inverter-based unified
power flow controller (UPFC) under an unstable grid load. The MPC methodology removes the
application of pulse width modulation and other regulators, and significantly increases its performance.
The proposed model of an MMC-UPFC is shown in Fig. 1.3.

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Bus 1 Bus 2
Series
Series inductor
transformer 100 km
System 1 transmission System 2
Psh and Qsh Ps and Qs line

Shunt Ps
transformer

MMC1 MMC2

FIG. 1.3
Design of MMC-UPFC model.

The correlation between vl and ip is as follows:

v  di di pl
v li −  dc − v pi  = Ltr 1l + LS , (1.11)
 2  dt dt

and
 v  di di
v li − − dc + v ni  = Ltr 1l + LS nl , (1.12)
 2  dt dt

where v1i (i = a, b, c) is the bus-bar first voltage; vpi and vni (i = a, b, c) are higher and lesser limb voltages,
respectively; i1i (i = a, b, c) is the load-side current on the parallel side; ipi and ini (i = a, b, c) are upper
and lower limb currents, respectively; vdc is the DC link voltage between the two converters; Ltr is the
leakage inductance of the transformer; and Ls is the inductor connected in series to the converter arm.
The dynamics of MMC can be obtained as
di1i (1.13)
v1i − vi = L ,
dt
where vi = ((v nl − v pl )/2), and L = Llr + (Ls /2) .

The typical measured example of the series multi-level modular converter (MLMC) can be written as
L  di (1.14)
v1i − v 2i =  2se + L ′ 2i + vi ,
 kse  dt

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where v 2i (i = a, b, c ) is the bus-bar second voltage; Lse is the series equivalent inductance of the line;
and i2i is the transmission line current. So, an unstable type grid problem is resolved by an MPC
controller.

1.3.2  MPC for a heating, ventilation, and

air conditioning (HVAC) system
Fang et al. (2020) reported on the MPC method that has been used in an HVAC system ventilation
control. Such methodology is found to be an effective and economic way to optimally regulate the
operational parameters of the HVAC system. This study incorporates the nonlinear power predictive
model and predicted mean vote (PMV) calculations into the cost function in addition to the traditional
linearized power and PMV models. The cost function depicting the energy saving and thermal comfort
could be formulated as follows; such a type of MPC-based controller improves the performance of the
system controller:
p−1

minimize: J = ∑J [Thermal Comfort (x), Power Demand (x)]

i =0
i (1.15)

subject to constraint : PMV ∈ [−0.5, 0.5]

where p is the vector of control variables, I is the number of control plans, and J is the price function.

1.3.3  Predictive direct power control (P-DPC)

Larrinaga et al. (2007) reported the predictive direct power control (P-DPC) technique. P-DPC is
a combination of direct power control and the sequence of voltage vectors to improve the transient
response and maintain the switching frequency. The proposed method improved the steady-state
response. The flowchart of the proposed method is as shown in Fig. 1.4. The algorithm for the
controller computed the different times of use. The controlled variables developed from their initial
values toward the reference values. As per the flowchart, Tsw/2 = ta1 + ta2 + ta3, where ta1, ta2, and ta3 are
the computational times. The methodology lessens the real and imaginary powers following faults,
which are defined as
T 
e Fp = P _ ref − P0 − 2 f p1 t a1 − 2 f p2 t a 2 − 2 f p3  SW − t a1 − t a 2 , (1.16)
 2 
T 
e Fq = Q _ ref − Q0 − 2 f q1 t a1 − 2 f q 2 t a 2 − 2 f q 3  SW − t a1 − t a 2 , (1.17)
 2 

and
∂F ∂F (1.18)
F = e Fp
2
+ e Fq
2
with conditions = 0 and = 0.
∂t a1 ∂t a 2

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The advantage of the model is to

P-DPC select active voltage vectors, and
technique
it is applicable for steady-state
performance. However, the model
No cannot be used for transient analysis
Tsw = ?
and sensitivity to parameter drift.
Yes
Hu et  al. (2014) reported a direct
Measure power control-based MPC for an
P0, Q0, Pref and Qref inverter with a solar energy system.
The reported model provided the least
power ripples, better transient and
Computations of steady-state performance, and flexible
both sequence of vector and power regulation,  and it minimized
duration of application
the switching frequency. It was
recommended that the performance
was suitable for a renewable power
No generation distribution system
Times (Hu et al., 2014). A continuous and
OK?
nonlinear-based model predictive
control (CNMPC) for a converter
Yes
with a photovoltaic system has
been proposed (Alazab et al., 2020);
Vector application to maintain a unity power factor
(UPF) operation using real power,
alternation between a smart grid
and a solar energy system was
FIG. 1.4 reported. Such a method improves
Flowchart for P-DPC model.
the stability of the grid-linked solar
system. Xiao et al. (2020) reported a
modified modulated model predictive control (M3PC) for a grid-connected converter. The steady-state
and transient performance was improved. This model also is easy to modify in order to accommodate
different objective optimization techniques (Xiao et al., 2020) (Fig. 1.4).

Velasquez et al. (2019) proposed an MPC technique for the economic dispatch problem by a centralized
approach. Xiao et al. (2020) mentioned the M3PC for a grid-connected converter. Such a system has
the qualities of amended dynamic performance, simple and skill of multiobjective optimization. The
harmonic distortion became less (Xiao et al., 2020). Xie et al. (2019) reported a stochastic MPC designed
using Pontryagin’s minimum principle (PMP). It enhanced the efficiency of energy supervision schemes
(Xie et al., 2019). The predictive control algorithm provides smooth and energy-efficient control over the

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electricity system. It also delivers a practicable resolution of the test for the optimality problem among
different hypotheses. It includes different algorithm-based controllers with very different methodologies
of operation. Conversely, modeling is a common methodology for the system and defining the subsequent
frame of the system, as well as the test for optimally for controller standards.

1.3.4  Model-predictive control-based smart grid

The grid integration of renewable energy sources needs an optimal energy management technique
to increase the utilization of available energy, and this can be addressed by the application of model
predictive controls. This helps to lessen the cost function and, moreover, extend the lifetime of the
apparatus, as the surge current is controlled during the design of MPC (Qi et al., 2010). The model
predictive control was designed for inverters, which minimized the switching loss and improved the
system performance. It helped to obtain a regulated and controlled flexible power. A stable voltage
was also designed for confined loads in the island condition (Hu et al., 2013). In this design, different
types of converter are used for DC–AC conversion. Predictive control was designed for cascaded
H-bridge multilevel inverters to extract the unbalanced power generation (Aguilera et al., 2016). The
distribution grid system is much more complicated compared to the earlier mentioned system. Usually,
the distribution generators are combined with the distribution grid to enhance the power flexibility,
power quality, and control of power flow; as well, it needs to increase consumer satisfaction. So, the
distribution grid’s delivery mechanism needs the necessary investigations. The predictive control
strategy has been used in the power system due to the assumptions regarding the postperformance of
the system with constraints: the closed-loop mechanism makes the system robust and flexible against
indefinite constraints, and the power system constraints simply match the predictive control constraints
(Parisio et al., 2014; and Verrilli et al., 2016). An MPC algorithm was proposed (Zhang et al., 2015;
and Parisio et al., 2016) for solving the short-term economic scheduling issue with a high saturation
level of nonconventional energy sources. Zafar et al. (2018) reported the multi-timescale volt/VAR
optimization technique that has been used for the smart distribution grid. Due to the predictive control
method, the optimization technique was designed for a battery energy storage (BES) system. The
multi-timescale stochastic MISOCP model is conveyed to minimize the loss as well as the cost of
purchasing energy. The proposed multi-timescale stochastic VVO model was implemented via MPC.
MPC constraints were designed for a number of situations, which were based upon the computational
burden and accuracy of the solution (Zafar et al., 2018).

Shadmand et al. (2014) presented a model predictive control for the distribution system that ensures
maximum power point tracking and enables droop features of the output current of the system. Esmaeili
et al. (2018) reported on remotely controlled switches that caused operating issues encountered in an
hourly reconfigurable environment. Such types of issues could be addressed by stochastic predictive
control methods to implement an operational forecast with dynamic and adaptive hourly reconfiguration
and were verified by a modified IEEE 33-bus distribution system (Esmaeili et al., 2018). Alejandro
et al. (2014) reported on distributed Lagrange-based model predictive control for nonconventional

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energy forecasts, with the minimum computerized application making use of vigorous mixed-integer
quadratic programming (MIQP) solvers. A smart transmission system depends upon different factors,
such as load demands, designing of infrastructure, and new technologies based upon semiconductor
physics. The combination of smooth control and the power transmission and distribution system is
reported by Chertkov et al. (2010). Bose (2010) suggested a synchronous phasor measurements model
for grid information. Nagarajan et al. (2016) stated new algorithms for solving the optimal resilient
grid transmission design problem that exploits the decomposable structure of the problem. Li et al.
(2021) reported on a hybrid model of topological data analysis (TDA) and conventional power system
reliability metrics for transmission grid resilience.

From the above discussion, it could be said that model predictive control is one of the suitable
forecasting methods to improve the reliability, flexibility, as well as the security of the transmission
and distribution system.

1.4  CASE STUDY

In this section, a case study is performed to demonstrate the application of MPC in standalone
microgrid systems. There could be various objectives to implement the MPC control in microgrid
systems. However, in the present work, the aim is to maximize the utilization of available energy.

The complete arrangement of the considered standalone microgrid system is given in Fig. 1.5. The
system consists of four photovoltaic (PV) arrays, which represents a PV system. The specifications
of each PV module are: PMPPT = 305 W, VMPPT = 54.7 V , I MPPT = 5.96 A . Three PV modules are
connected in series and three such PV strings are connected in parallel to form one PV array. In the
considered case study, four such PV arrays together form a PV system. The total power capacity of
the considered system is 10.948 kW. The PV system is connected to the DC bus through a multi-
input single-output (MISO) DC–DC converter. The aim of the MISO converter here is to ensure
the extraction of maximum power even in the case of mismatching scenarios. A conventional DC–
DC converter would be able to maintain maximum power point tracking (MPPT) operation under
uniform irradiation conditions. However, it fails to sustain that operating condition under nonuniform
operating conditions. The MISO converter is beneficial in such conditions (Tomar et al., 2016). The
main feature of the MISO converter is designed to get maximum power by reducing the mismatching
and partial shading of PV arrays. In other words, the MISO converter is developed to operate a PV
energy system at the concentrated power. It generates under numerous ecological conditions, while
sustaining the power supply demands of the load side at the essential amount. However, the maximum
tracing of power for arrays is followed by a perturb-and-observe (P&O) based MPPT controller
(Alejandro et al., 2014). BES is connected to the DC bus through a bidirectional converter to maintain
an energy balance between PV and active loads. BES serves the purpose of a backup to provide the
generated power from the source to the load when the PV is unable to accomplish the requirements
of the load side.

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I1 V I V I3 V3 I V Vabc Iabc Vdcref Vdc

1 2 2 4 4

Model predictive inverter

MISO control for MPPT
control
D1–D6
I1 D9–D14
+
V1 DC Filter

3 phase load
MISO Cdc
Vdc
PV1 DC–DC
In converter
AC
Vn
–
PVn

+ Bi-directional
DC–DC VBAT
converter
–

BES

Vdc BES control Vdref

FIG. 1.5
Schematic model of the considered standalone microgrid.

A three-phase inverter converts the DC energy to AC energy and ensures the required three-phase
operational voltage for the connected three-phase load. The DC–AC converter control parameters
are controlled by the help of the MPC controller. The key point of predictive control is to improve
the system by predicting the upcoming performance of variables. The outcome data are employed by
the control parameter to get the optimized configuration. Usually, the MPC design includes an input
inductance–capacitance (L–C) circuit, converter model, output L–C circuit, and test for optimality
standards. It is designed in this chapter that the output current and voltages of the MISO-based DC–
DC converter act as the input of the inverter, which is converted into the three-phase supply to the
minigrid, but it is in complex form by Parks transformation. The Parks transformation from a–b–c to
d–q and vice versa is as shown below:

ia   cos(θ ) −sin (θ ) 

    i 
ib  =  cos (θ − 120) −sin (θ − 120) ∗  d  , (1.19)
     
ic  cos (θ + 120) −sin (θ + 120) iq 
   

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and

i 
id   cos(θ ) cos(θ − 120) cos(θ + 120)   a 
 =k     (1.20)
 iq  −sin (θ ) −sin (θ − 120) −sin (θ + 120) ∗ ib  .
    i 
 c

Figure 1.6 depicts the control architecture for the standalone microgrid. The control structure has
three main control objectives: (1) to ensure MPPT operation under all operating conditions; (2) to
convert power from the DC bus to the AC side, ensuring maximum utilization of the available PV
energy; and (3) to obtain a power balance between PV source generation and load demand. The first
control objective is addressed by implementing a MISO DC–DC converter instead of a conventional
converter. The voltage and current status of each PV array (i.e., V1 , I1 ,…,VN , I N ) serves as input to
the controller (Fig. 1.6). The P&O algorithm is implemented for MPPT execution. Nonuniformity
in irradiation or mismatching due to other operating conditions is taken into account by adopting
the MISO architecture. For more details on the MISO configuration, the reader is referred to Tomar
et al. (2016).

MPC is implemented to control the flow of power from the DC side to the AC side through inverter
action. Inverter control consists of current control at the inner layer and voltage control as the outer

D9–D14 D7–D8

Vd +
abc BES PIBAT Vbatref
Vabc Rm + ≥
dq decision
Lmω + logic Vbat
Vq
+
SOC
Rm + PWM
Iq Vref1 D1
Lmω + + PI
Perturb Vref2 controllers D2
Iabc abc +
and and D3
dq Id observe feedback D4
Model Model algorithm
Vdcref Idref + – Vref6 signals
predictive predictive D5
+ – control control
Vdc D6
(voltage loop) (current loop)

I1V1 InVn

FIG. 1.6
Control architecture for the considered standalone microgrid.

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Principles

layer control. MPC is applied on both current and voltage control loops (Fig. 1.6). A voltage base
control loop is applied to enable charging or discharging of BES. The critical minimum and maximum
operational limits of state of charge (SOC) are considered as 20% and 80%, respectively.

1.5  SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

To validate the standalone microgrid with applied MPC, as given in Figs. 1.5 and 1.6, the proposed
system is computer-generated using the MATLAB/Simulink setting, and the numerical results thus
obtained are presented in this section.

To consider the uniform and nonuniform irradiation scenarios, thus investigating the performance
of the system under both operating conditions, two operating conditions are considered, as shown
in Fig. 1.7: (1) uniform irradiance condition (before t = 8 s), in which all PV arrays are assumed to
be operating at the same irradiation of 1000 W/m2, i.e., under uniform irradiation condition; and
(2) nonuniform irradiation case, in which each PV array is assumed to be operating at different
irradiation levels. As primarily all solar arrays are working at unvarying solar intensity of 1000 W/m2
at standard temperature conditions, i.e., 25 °C (Bose, 2010; and Chertkov et al., 2010), the MPPT
operation is ensured by the P&O algorithm. At t = 8 s, the irradiation is rapidly reduced. The pre-
and postperformance of the PV arrays by varying the irradiance are shown in Figs. 1.8 and 1.9,
respectively.

From Fig. 1.8(a), it is observed that the initial current before variation was 17 A and that all PV
arrays are operating at their respective MPPT points. However, due to the sudden reduction in solar
irradiation, the currents of PV1, PV2, PV3, and PV4 are reduced to10 A, 11 A, 9 A, and 8 A, respectively.
It can be observed from Fig. 1.8 that, despite the nonuniformity in the irradiation of the PV arrays, all
PV arrays maintain operation at their respective new MPPT points. A similar operational behavior
could be observed from Fig. 1.8(b).

1000
Irr1 Irr3
Irr. (W/m2)

Irr2 Irr4
800

600
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (sec.)

FIG. 1.7
Variation in solar irradiance on solar arrays.

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a
18 IPV1 IPV3
Current (A)

16
IPV2 IPV4
14
12
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (sec.)
b
200

150 170
Voltage (V)

100 165
VPV1 VPV3
160 VPV2 VPV4
50 155
7.7 7.8 7.9 8 8.1 8.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (sec.)

FIG. 1.8
Variation of (a) PV array currents and (b) voltage across PV arrays with change in irradiation.

At the same time, the PV voltages are also varied after changing the solar irradiance (Kumar and
Srungavarapu, 2016; Tomar et al., 2016; and Tomar and Mishra, 2017). PV2 is showing maximum
voltage, i.e., 167 V, but after t = 8 s from the beginning, the voltage drops to 160 V. Similarly, voltage
drops are noticed for all other PV arrays, as shown in Fig. 1.8(b). However, due the application of the
MISO converter, all PV arrays continue to operate at their respective MPPT points. It can be observed
from Fig. 1.9 that the power produced by each PV array is the same and constant, i.e., 2700 W before

3000
PPV1 PPV3
PPV2
Power (W)

2500 PPV4
2000
2000
1000 1500
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (sec.)

FIG. 1.9
PV power extraction variation with variation in irradiance.

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Principles

15
Current (A)

10
IPV IDC
5 IBAT

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (sec.)

FIG. 1.10
The output current of solar array, battery, and DC supply bus.

t = 8 s. The role of the MPPT control technique is to provide maximum power from each solar array.
The nonuniformity of solar irradiation is observed at 8 s, and the power drops from 2700 W to 1500 W,
as shown in Fig. 1.9. However, as seen in the previous section, the PV arrays still continue to operate
at their respective MPPT points.

Figure 1.10 shows the current injection by the solar array, DC bus, and battery current. From
Fig. 1.10, it is observed that the current at the DC bus is constant despite the sudden drop of
irradiance at t = 8 s. The reduction in current being injected by PV (I PV ) after t = 8 s is balanced
by the injection of current by BES (I BAT ). Therefore, I DC remains almost constant at the DC bus.
Similarly, a constant DC bus voltage profile is maintained at the DC bus, as shown in Fig. 1.11(a),
with the support of additional required energy from BES. The BES SOC variation is depicted in
Fig. 1.11(b). Before t = 5 s, the BES system was kept disconnected, so that the DC bus could be
stabilized. At t = 5 s (once the DC bus is stabilized), BES starts charging at a very slow rate, as
the surplus PV energy available at the DC bus was very small. However, after t = 8 s, in order to
supply the additional energy required by the load, the BES starts discharging and thus SOC starts
decreasing.

The MPC regulator applied at a three-phase inverter control regulates the energy flow from the DC bus
to the AC bus with the aims to utilize the maximum available energy at the DC bus, while maintaining
the desired three-phase AC voltage levels at the output of the inverter. The attained power balance and
the obtained three-phase AC voltage as an input to the three-phase load are shown in Figs. 1.12(a) and
1.12(b), respectively. In the standalone mode of microgrid operation, a constant, stable voltage of the
desired magnitude is essential. As observed in Fig. 1.12(b), despite the PV and BES power variations
at the DC side [Fig. 1.12(a)], MPC control enables a smooth, constant three-phase voltage for the
three-phase connected load.

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a
600 VDC
VPV
Voltage (V)

400 660 VBAT

650
200
640
7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (sec.)
b
60
SOC (%)

59.999
59.998
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (sec.)

FIG. 1.11
(a) Voltage variation at DC bus and (b) BES SOC variation with time.

1.6 CONCLUSION

In this work, several types of model predictive control systems are described with and without a grid.
The motive behind the model predictive control is to develop the stability of the grid. It is observed
that the MPC with the grid system helps to enhance the grid performance, reduce the transient error,
and reduce the harmonic distortion and ripples. Due to the MPC model control, switching losses
are also minimized. In this chapter, the MPC-based standalone microgrid was well defined by a case
study. It is observed that the power yield and power utilization by the converter were greatly improved.
Moreover, a MISO converter was also introduced that improved the performance of solar arrays by
reducing the mismatching issues and losses and ensuring MPPT operation. The results showed that:
(1) the response of the recommended MPC technique is dynamic, (2) the ripples in the current/power
by the MPC are fewer, and (3) the MPC and MISO converter are robust to uncertainties/mismatches
in the parameters of the system model. Therefore, as an overall conclusion, it can be stated that the
MPC is suitable for standalone microgrid applications to increase the utilization of available PV
energy.

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Principles

a
10,000
Power (W)

PDC PPV
5000
PLoad PBAT

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (sec.)
b
1

1
VABC (V)

0 0

–1
7.9 7.95 8 8.05 8.1
–1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (sec.)

FIG. 1.12
(a) Obtained power balance by using the MPC controller and (b) three-phase output voltage of the inverter by using
the MPC controller.

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