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Digital Language Teaching 5.0: © The Author(s) 2023
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DOI: 10.1177/00336882231160610
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Joel C. Meniado
SEAMEO Regional Language Centre, Singapore

Abstract
Digital Language Teaching 5.0, a new language teaching paradigm that applies the digital pedagogies
and technologies of the fifth Industrial Revolution (Industry 5.0), is expected to transform the
English language teaching and learning landscape soon, as the world continuously seeks innovative
solutions to the educational challenges brought by the COVID-19 pandemic. As a new concept, it
draws inquiries and discussions on how it will influence language curriculum, instruction and
assessment in the post-pandemic digital age, what technologies and practices will be adopted in
schools to align with its purposes, and what competencies pre-service and in-service language tea-
chers will need to be able to actualize it in their own contexts. This paper aims to address the
foregoing issues by discussing relevant concepts, trends and practices. It begins by providing a
brief background about Education 4.0, its key features, technologies and trends as applied in
English language teaching. It then proceeds to the discussion of Education 5.0 and Digital
Language Teaching 5.0 with their distinct features, purposes, technologies and practices. Lastly,
it explores the skills and competencies under Digital Language Teaching 5.0 and discusses how
pre-service and in-service language teachers can develop and enhance such competencies through
various formal and alternative language teacher development activities. It concludes with insights
on some issues raised and recommendations for successful implementation.

Keywords
Artificial intelligence, Digital Language Teaching 4.0, Digital Language Teaching 5.0, Education 4.0,
Education 5.0, Industry 5.0

Introduction
Since the 18th century, the world has experienced four major industrial revolutions with
their corresponding technological innovations (Mitchell and Guile, 2021; Schwab, 2016;
Xu et al., 2021). The first industrial revolution (Industry 1.0) began in the 1700s in
Europe and North America featuring the development of steam engines, which

Corresponding author:
Joel C Meniado SEAMEO Regional Language Centre, 30 Orange Grove Road, Singapore 258352.
Email: joel.meniado@relc.org.sg
2 RELC Journal 0(0)

powered the massive production of goods in factories and various forms of transportation.
The second one (Industry 2.0) followed from 1870 to 1914 with key technologies in steel
and oil production and rapid advances in the electricity and automobile industries. After
that, the third one (Industry 3.0) emerged in the 1980s with the digital revolution featur-
ing the invention of personal computers and the Internet. In the 2000s, the fourth indus-
trial revolution (Industry 4.0) came in with more advances in information and
communication technologies including artificial intelligence (AI), big data, robotics,
the Internet of things (IoT), augmented reality/virtual reality (AR/VR) and blockchain.
Although until today Industry 4.0 has continued to flourish with its overwhelming
innovations, experts believe that it is going to end soon as the world transitions to the
fifth industrial revolution (Industry 5.0) (European Commission, 2022; Schwab, 2016),
a shift that is happening sooner than expected due to the impacts of the recent
COVID-19 pandemic. As observed during the COVID-19 pandemic, new versions of
Industry 4.0 technologies (digital tools and innovative practices) emerged to support
the more complex, remote educational, industrial and commercial processes. New
types of learning, teaching and assessment technologies (e.g. chatbots, automated assess-
ments) were adopted by schools to support online/remote education for learners from
various contexts and circumstances. Similarly, new technologies and processes were
also used by companies to fulfill the emerging demands of consumers affected by the pan-
demic. Experts believe that these changes are already signaling the gradual transition
toward the fifth industrial revolution.
Though the world has benefited substantially from the massive developments brought
about by the four industrial revolutions, it has also suffered environmentally and econom-
ically. For example, the wastes produced by different industries have contributed much to
environmental degradation and climate change. The automation of processes, especially
in the fourth industrial revolution, has also caused humans to lose their jobs, hence widen-
ing the economic gap between the rich and the poor. Moreover, in the current systems of
the fourth industrial revolution, humans are designed to work for machines, hence
causing them more stress and burnout. Lastly, the unequal distribution of wealth
among countries has also created inequalities in accessing quality services including
training and education. These inequalities were made more evident during the
COVID-19 pandemic.
The abovementioned problems caused by the previous and ongoing industrial revolu-
tions, as exposed further by the recent COVID-19 pandemic, need immediate yet sustain-
able actions. The Industry 5.0 paradigm is believed to respond to these problems. Based
on the policy briefs of the European Commission, Industry 5.0 will build on the key tech-
nologies of Industry 4.0 but with more focus on sustainability (protecting the planet),
resilience (readiness to deal with adversities), inclusion (respecting individual human
capabilities and circumstances) and well-being (human safety and welfare).
Human-centric, Industry 5.0 will aim to humanize technologies by introducing the
human factor into cyber-physical systems (Grabowska et al., 2022). It will address the
need to build resilient individuals and institutions and robust systems that ‘remain
within the planetary boundaries, leave no one behind, and actively contribute to
human well-being and planetary regeneration’ (Dixson-Declève et al., 2022: 10).
The projected transition to Industry 5.0 within the post-pandemic digital age has multi-
layered implications and raises concerns about the readiness of our existing ecosystems.
Since this industrial revolution will have cascading effects on various sectors of society
Meniado 3

including the education sector, it is worth exploring at this early stage how various sta-
keholders can prepare for its demands and challenges, so they can act accordingly in
the future. Particular interest in this early exploration is the paradigm’s impact on educa-
tion, specifically on English language education. How will this new paradigm influence
the language curriculum, instruction, learning resources and assessment in the post-
pandemic digital age? What technologies and practices will be adopted to align with
the purpose of Industry 5.0? What competencies will pre-service and in-service teachers
need to be able to produce graduates who are ready for the demands of Industry 5.0 and
the post-pandemic digital age? This paper aims to answer and discuss the foregoing ques-
tions. It begins by discussing Education 4.0, the education paradigm under the fourth
industrial revolution in which the current state of technologies and practices are
aligned. It describes the technologies used in teaching (particularly English language
teaching (ELT)), teaching and learning practices attached to these technologies, and
the challenges faced by teachers and learners in using these technologies. It then proceeds
to the discussion of Education 5.0, the new education paradigm under Industry 5.0.
Building on the Education 5.0 paradigm, the paper will conceptualize Digital
Language Teaching 5.0, an ELT framework that is aligned with the purposes, technolo-
gies and practices of Industry 5.0 and Education 5.0. Lastly, it explores the teaching com-
petencies under Digital Language Teaching 5.0 and discusses how pre-service and
in-service language teachers can develop these competencies within the context of the
post-pandemic digital age. When language teachers are informed of the trajectories of
language education, they are better prepared to be ahead of the curve.
As the world is currently under the Education 4.0 paradigm, discussions about digital
(English) language teaching under the Education 5.0 paradigm are currently non-existent.
Although articles have been published to predict and describe what education will be like
under Industry 5.0 given the current trajectories, at the time of writing this article no con-
ceptual and empirical investigations have been conducted so far to describe ELT under
the Industry 5.0/Education 5.0 paradigm. This paper is the first attempt to explore
what digital language teaching under Education 5.0 will be like and how it will impact
the global language education landscape. It provides new knowledge and insights into
how language teachers can make themselves more resilient with the new challenges
ahead and become more competitive in teaching during the post-pandemic digital age.

Education 4.0
At present, educational systems across the globe follow the Education 4.0 paradigm, a
view of teaching and learning that is aligned with Industry 4.0 (Joshi, 2022). To under-
stand it better, it is important to have an initial understanding of what Industry 4.0 is.
According to Xu et al. (2021), Industry 4.0 refers to the smart interconnection of
machines and processes based on cyber-physical systems (CPS) that allow intelligent
control of physical things like machines, robots and vehicles using integrated network
systems. It features intelligent automation to increase productivity and efficiency while
fostering sustainability, well-being and resilience. It supports human welfare and devel-
opment by facilitating a flexible work–life balance, continuous professional learning and
career progression, collaboration and knowledge management (Xu et al., 2021). This is
achieved through the use of key technologies such as AI, IoT, big data analytics, VR,
AR, simulation and cloud computing, among others (Chaka, 2022).
4 RELC Journal 0(0)

Education 4.0 integrates and leverages the technologies of Industry 4.0 for educational
purposes (Chaka, 2022). It facilitates an inclusive and holistic approach to education
where learners are put at the center of learning by utilizing advanced technologies (e.g.
IoT, AI, robotics, etc.) and pedagogical innovations so that they can cope with the
demands of the fourth industrial revolution (World Economic Forum, 2022). As the edu-
cational derivative of Industry 4.0, it prepares current and future workers to be ready for a
highly global and digital environment (Sharma, 2019). This preparation demands a more
technology-driven curriculum and technology-enhanced teaching and learning ecosys-
tems (Joshi, 2022).
Chaka (2022) describes Education 4.0 as an innovation-producing education. Sharma
(2019) also considers it a change-driven education, while Butt et al. (2020) describe it as
engaging, innovative and self-directed. The distinct features of Education 4.0 include the
integration of digital and mobile technologies for teaching and assessment purposes, the
creation of smart campuses and seamless learning environments, the use of open educa-
tional resources (OER) and the proliferation of massive open online courses (Himmetoglu
et al., 2020). Further, it also features the effective adoption of blended learning (an
approach where the same group of learners learns and completes the face-to-face and
online components of the same course at its own pace and convenience) and hybrid learning
where in-person and online learners learn at the same time using videoconferencing technol-
ogy like Zoom or Google Meet. Moreover, it also adopts micro/nanolearning (learning in
small chunks to facilitate better understanding and engagement), online/distance learning,
and micro-credentialing (the process of earning a micro/digital degree or qualification
through online learning platforms such as Coursera, EdX, etc. (Chaka, 2022; Educause,
2022). Learning under the current paradigm is basically ubiquitous, personalized, project-
based, hands-on, self-paced, self-directed, reflection-driven and lifelong (Fisk, 2017, cited in
Hussin, 2018: 92–93). This means that learners can learn anywhere, anytime they want;
engage with instructional and assessment activities that suit their needs, interests and styles;
get involved with activities that allow them to personally develop solutions to ongoing pro-
blems; direct, monitor and regulate their own learning; and learn for their sustainable
growth and development. In other words, they are empowered to decide and negotiate for
their own learning.
Giving so much empowerment to learners, teachers under the Education 4.0 paradigm
become guides-on-the-side or facilitators of learning. This means that they do not spoon-feed
learners with so much input and decide for them how they should learn. Instead, they monitor
learners, personalize learning experiences and customize feedback. Through Industry 4.0 tech-
nologies, facilitating and personalizing learning and assessment have become much easier. For
example, nowadays, teachers can easily assess and evaluate students’ quizzes and written
outputs with the use of automation through AI and machine learning. This trend releases tea-
chers from the burden of tedious marking, allowing them to spend more time with learners to
enhance their learning experiences. With the same technologies, teachers can also use big data
and learning analytics to better personalize the learning experiences of learners. In addition,
with the help of AR and VR technologies, teachers can now easily explain abstract concepts
and provide life-like learning experiences in places that are dangerous and inaccessible.
However, although these technologies seem to be promising and empowering, the main chal-
lenge that confronts everyone is access to these technologies, most especially in under-
resourced countries. The persistent issue of accessibility calls for relevant policies and
actions at various levels of educational systems.
Meniado 5

Digital Language Teaching 4.0

Since the start of Industry 4.0 in the 2000s, many digital technologies and pedagogical
innovations have evolved (Godwin-Jones, 2021), providing massive and meaningful
opportunities for second-language (L2) learners to learn and use the English language
(Kessler, 2022, cited in Meniado, 2022). The evolution of digital technologies under
the current industrial revolution spawned the so-called Digital Language Teaching 4.0
paradigm, a framework of ELT that supports the systems, purposes, and demands of
both Industry 4.0 and Education 4.0. This paradigm leverages the technologies and prac-
tices of Industry 4.0 to teach and assess language effectively and efficiently in order to
achieve the goals and aspirations of Education 4.0. To understand it better, it is important
to know how it evolved and how it is different from its predecessors.
Walker and White (2013) and Li (2017) outlined and described the evolution of lan-
guage learning technologies from the 1970s to the present. Structural Computer-Assisted
Language Learning (CALL) began during the 1970s to 1980s with mainframe as the key
technology used for drills and practices to achieve structural accuracy. Communicative
CALL followed in the 1980s to 1990s with personal computers (PCs) as the key learning
technology used for communicative exercises to achieve both language accuracy and
fluency. Then, Integrative CALL emerged in the 1990s to 2000s with multimedia and
the Internet as key technologies to facilitate authentic discourses to develop accuracy,
fluency and agency among L2 learners. From the 2000s onwards, the CALL orientation
to teaching language shifted to collaborative technology-enhanced language learning
(TELL), where Web 2.0, virtual worlds, tablets, mobile devices and game consoles are
used for communication and knowledge co-construction activities to develop the accur-
acy, fluency, agency and autonomy of language learners. Li (2017) explains the shift from
CALL to TELL and argues that with the current types and states of technologies at
present, it is more appropriate to use TELL since language learning is no longer confined
to computers. Language learning is now possible with any device such as a smartphone,
tablet, game console, smart speaker, robot and many others.
Based on the stages of TELL development outlined by Walker and White (2013) and
Li (2017), it seems Industry 4.0 and Collaborative TELL started to happen at the same
time (from 21st century onwards). Sharing similar purposes, technologies and practices,
Collaborative TELL can be under the Education 4.0 paradigm and can be equated with
the Digital Language Teaching 4.0 framework. For example, Collaborative TELL is
socially oriented, hence emphasizing collaborative learning or knowledge
co-construction (Li, 2017). Some of the key technologies and practices under this
TELL movement include the use of online games and social media applications as
well as telecollaboration which involves establishing online educational exchanges
between language learners across the globe through the use of computer-mediated com-
munication (CMC) such as Zoom or Google Meet. Similar to the characteristics of
Education 4.0 as outlined by Fisk (2017, cited in Hussin, 2018: 92–93), Collaborative
TELL underscores collaborative, project-based, ubiquitous, multimodal and personalized
learning and a constructivist approach to teaching (Li, 2017).
Godwin-Jones (2021) traced back the evolution of technologies and practices that
have shaped the TELL landscape in the last 25 years. From the 2000s to the present,
there has been a significant improvement in the affordances of digital tools used in lan-
guage teaching due to the emergence of the IoT, AI and VR/AR technologies. L2 learning
6 RELC Journal 0(0)

has become more accessible and engaging with the proliferation of new digital tools and
freely available electronic resources. EDUCAUSE (2022) in its ‘2022 EDUCAUSE
Horizon Report®: Teaching and Learning Edition’ has also identified the key technolo-
gies and practices that have transformed language education in recent years due to the
COVID-19 pandemic. These are AI which is used for language learning data analytics
and learning support through automation, the use of upgraded hybrid learning spaces
which are used to teach remote and in-class students simultaneously, and the recognition
of micro-credentials (bite-sized learning and degrees) focusing on skill-/competency-
based learning designed to solve specific work-based problems and issues.
The digital language teaching technologies and practices discussed above clearly align
with the nature of Industry 4.0 and Education 4.0, hence the concept of Digital Language
Teaching 4.0. But with technology and society constantly changing, will they be enough
for a more sophisticated digital future? How will these technologies and practices fit into
the next industrial revolution?

Education 5.0
Current literature reveals that the world is already transitioning to the next industrial revolution
– the Industry 5.0 (Doyle-Kent and Kopacek, 2020; Kraaijenbrink, 2022), a shift that has been
accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic. According to Müller (2020), this new industrial revo-
lution is the enhanced version of Industry 4.0 addressing the global issues of well-being, resili-
ence and sustainability that were overlooked in the previous industrial revolutions. Through
the years, these issues have been critical for the survival of humans, and these became even
more critical during the COVID-19 pandemic. As a response, Industry 5.0 is designed to
foster sustainable growth and prosperity while respecting planetary boundaries and human
well-being (Breque et al., 2021; Dixson-Declève, et al., 2022). Leveraging the technologies
of Industry 4.0, it enables seamless interaction between humans, machines and technology
that can promote greater efficiency, productivity, problem-solving and creativity (Özdemir
and Hekim, 2018). Through seamless human–machine interaction (HMI), it creates a systemic
synergy that produces value-added outputs necessary for human subsistence and planetary sus-
tainability (Demir et al., 2019; Longo et al., 2020).
As revealed, Industry 5.0 is a new industrial paradigm that emphasizes greater human
centrism, resilience and sustainability (Breque et al., 2021; Dixson-Declève et al., 2022).
It places humans at the center of the technological ecosystem. It configures technologies
and practices that suit human needs and contexts in order to achieve meaningful product-
ivity. It also fosters resilience by enabling systems and technologies that are disruption-
resistant and supportive in times of unexpected adversities such as global health crises,
natural disasters, terrorism, war and economic recession. Lastly, it promotes sustainabil-
ity by reducing environmental impact through the adoption of circular economy pro-
cesses and reduction of energy consumption, greenhouse emission and waste production.
According to Müller (2020), technologies that support the concept of Industry 5.0 include:
(a) human-centric solutions and human–machine-interaction technologies; (b) bio-inspired
technologies and smart materials; (c) real-time-based digital twins and simulation; (d) cyber-
safe data transmission, storage and analysis technologies; and (e) technologies for energy effi-
ciency and trustworthy economy (see Müller, 2020, for detailed definitions and examples of
these technologies). These technologies leverage the existing technologies of Industry 4.0 such
as the IoT, AI, machine learning, AR/VR, data analytics, blockchain, cloud computing, edge
Meniado 7

computing and 6G. For example, the use of collaborative robots (cobots) to establish human–
machine collaboration is facilitated by sensors, actuators and AI-powered controllers. In add-
ition, data transmission, storage and analysis technologies also use AI, the IoT and data ana-
lytics technologies. Lastly, the use of HMI tools such as ChatGPT to generate human-like,
coherent and contextually relevant responses to input prompts (e.g. queries, instructions, com-
mands, etc.) also use advanced generative AI technology. Some of these Industry 5.0 technolo-
gies are now being used in healthcare, manufacturing/production, supply chain management
and education sectors. It is believed that sectors and organizations that leverage these technolo-
gies along with human ingenuity and intelligence will be the finest and the most successful in
the digital future (Humayun, 2021).
In the field of education, the abovementioned concepts and practices of Industry 5.0 are
now gradually being adopted. From curriculum and materials design to teaching–learning
process and assessment, the concepts of learner-centeredness, resilience, teacher/learner
well-being, intentionality/purposiveness, moral clarity and sustainability are being inte-
grated. The adoption of asset-based (language) assessment and universal design for learning
(UDL) frameworks, for example, are also some of the educational practices that reflect the
Industry 5.0 paradigm in education. In Japan, the adoption of the interdisciplinary
science-technology-engineering-arts-mathematics (STEAM) approach to education with
the purpose of empowering individuals for a human-based society epitomizes the pillars
of Industry 5.0. Similarly, in the Singapore education system (Ministry of Education,
2021), the adoption of innovative technologies while fostering moral integrity, purposeful-
ness, resilience, empathy for others and appreciation for arts as part of the desired outcomes
of education also reflects the overarching purposes of Industry 5.0.
As seen above, the adoption of Industry 5.0 technologies and practices in education
suggests the concept of Education 5.0. Sydle (2022) formally conceptualizes it as the use
of Industry 5.0 technologies and practices to provide more humanized teaching, emphasizing
learner well-being, societal transformations and environmental sustainability. It is a new edu-
cation paradigm based on the concept of Industry 5.0 where humans are placed at the center of
the educational process. It capitalizes on technology-enabled learning that fosters cost-
effectiveness, better reach, scalability, flexibility, etc. It leverages the technologies of
Industry 5.0 (e.g. robotics/cobots, AI, big data, etc.) to personalize learning and instruction
while reducing impacts on the health and welfare of the planet. Devojeda (2021) argues
that responsive education should not be so much about learners having technological
devices, infrastructure or connectivity. It should be more about learners being prepared to
be competent and resilient using human-centric, purposeful and creative approaches.
Education 5.0 fulfills this by identifying and cultivating skills and roles that are best fulfilled
by humans, considering societal and learners’ needs throughout the process, situating and con-
textualizing education goals, empowering learners to be change agents, training learners on the
proper use of technology, and fostering accountability and lifelong learning (Dejoveda, 2021).
Given these demands, it seems there is a need for relevant curriculum enrichment and retool-
ing, instructional materials development, and responsive teacher preparation and development.
For these to happen, relevant policies, capabilities and funding are needed.

Digital Language Teaching 5.0

The technologies and practices under Industry 5.0 already give indications of what
(digital) language teaching will be like at least in the next 5 to 10 years. These
8 RELC Journal 0(0)

technologies and practices will shape a new paradigm in ELT which can be called Digital
Language Teaching 5.0. This new paradigm will leverage Industry 5.0 technologies to
foster more purposive and more humanized English language learning and teaching
where both learners’ and teachers’ well-being are put at the center of the process so
that they become valuable assets towards societal transformations and planetary regener-
ation. As an inclusive and purposive paradigm, it will emphasize constructivist and con-
nectivist approaches, where there will be more personalized, collaborative, adaptive,
project-based and networked learning opportunities. To support learning, it will
harness machines and devices as well as systems that will address cognitive, socio-
emotional and physical difficulties of language learners in order to learn language
skills more efficiently, effectively and meaningfully. In addition, it will also capitalize
on existing technologies such as robotics, AI, the IoT, AR/VR and data analytics,
among others, to help teachers personalize their teaching while saving their time and
some resources that may have impacts on their health and well-being.
As reported by Müller (2020), there are six types of enabling technologies for Industry
5.0. Of these types, the following can be supportive of the Digital Language Teaching 5.0
paradigm: (a) individualized HMI technologies; (b) data transmission, storage and ana-
lysis technologies; and c) AI. Individualized HMI technologies will be used to support
language learners and combine their ingenuity with machine capabilities. Specifically,
HMI technologies will be used to recognize the multi-lingual speech and gestures of
L2 learners, predict their intentions and track their mental and physical strain and
stress levels. These will also be utilized to enhance the language learning experiences
of learners with the help of AR/VR/mixed reality (MR) technologies. Lastly, these will
also be used to provide more personalized and meaningful opportunities to use the
target language with the help of cobots and enhance the physical and cognitive capabil-
ities of language learners to use the target language, especially those who are physically
and cognitively impaired (Müller, 2020). As shown, HMI technologies can foster inclu-
sivity, making learners the center of the learning process.
In addition to HMI technologies, Digital Language Teaching 5.0 will also leverage
more energy-efficient and secure data transmission, storage and analysis technologies
that can be utilized to better understand language learners while safeguarding their priva-
cies and welfare. As everyone knows, language learners today are living and thriving in a
more complex society, and, as such, they carry more complex data that when carefully
collected and analyzed will lead to more responsive language learning policies and inter-
ventions. The technologies that can help facilitate safer and more responsible data trans-
mission, storage and analysis include: (a) network sensors; (b) data and system
interoperability; (c) scalable, multi-level cyber security; (d) cybersecurity/safe cloud IT
infrastructure; (e) big data management; (f) traceability; (g) data processing for learning
processes; and (h) edge computing (Müller, 2020). Human data is considered the new
gold, and with cloud computing, where all learners’ data can now be stored online, it
is important that they are secured from data stealing and misuse.
Another type of Industry 5.0 technology that will have a significant impact on Digital
Language Teaching 5.0 is AI. AI has existed for quite some time, but in an Industry 5.0
environment it will transform the way language is taught and learned. AI affordances for
Digital Language Teaching 5.0 include automated response to new or unexpected condi-
tions, brain–machine interfaces (BMI), person-centric AI, informed deep learning, and
secure and energy-efficient AI (Müller, 2020). Currently, AI is used for learning analytics
Meniado 9

to collect data in order to develop responsive education policies and interventions as well as for
learning support in the form of immersive learning, automated assessment/feedback and
virtual assistant/coach, among others. In the upcoming industrial revolution, AI will be
used to provide more personalized language learning opportunities and support in order to
help learners achieve their individual learning purpose. More advanced forms of generative
AI for language learning such as the ChatGPT, Bard and You.com will likely emerge
given the current dynamics of the technology in the market.
Noack (2020) projects that in Industry 5.0, small-sized technologies and digital net-
works will be fundamental. Smart devices (e.g. smartphone, smart TV, smartwatch,
etc.) will disappear and brain–computer interfaces (BCI) will replace them. BCIs seem
to be impossible in language teaching and learning at the moment, but some companies
like Facebook, Amazon, Google and Elon Musk’s Neuralink have been investing in the
technology to transform the way people live, work and learn in the future (Noack, 2020).
BCIs are technologies that leverage AI, multiple sensors and machine learning to record,
stimulate and analyze brain signals and extract brain patterns (Gonfalonieri, 2020). In the
form of small wearables, they can act as a bridge between the human brain and an external
device/machine. They enable users to detect intentions, interact with computers through
electroencephalography (EEG) and manipulate objects on a screen by thought alone.
There are many possible applications of BCI technology in language teaching and
learning. For example, using BCI with AI technologies, a teacher can monitor students’
stress, motivation, attention or engagement levels while working on a particular language
lesson/task. This will also allow a teacher to diagnose, monitor, evaluate and personalize
student learning. Given its current affordances, BCI can facilitate better behavior man-
agement in a language classroom; enable personalized learning support; promote integ-
rity and accountability during exams; facilitate learner empowerment, inclusion and
equity; foster efficiency and effectiveness; and allow a higher learning success rate.
Another trend that will shape Digital Language Teaching 5.0 is language learning in the
Metaverse. The Metaverse is a VR space where learners can interact with other learners in
a computer-generated environment using a target language. Using immersive learning tech-
nologies (e.g. AR, VR and MR), learning in the Metaverse will allow language learners to
visit (virtual) places and meaningfully interact with speakers of a target language without
leaving the comfort of their own physical learning spaces (Bauld, 2022). Although current
immersive learning technologies have some drawbacks, they are found to be powerful to
motivate and engage young language learners. They can create higher interest, enjoyment
and retention among learners (Bauld, 2022). Immersive language learning technologies are
not new, but with the sophistication of Industry 5.0 it is expected that these technologies
will be made more refined to suit the dynamic learning behaviors of language learners.
Robot-assisted language learning (RALL) is another not-so-new concept in the field of
ELT, but with the growing popularity of cobots under the Industry 5.0 paradigm the pro-
duction and use of robots to assist language teachers in instruction and assessment will
likely gain more traction. In a study by Randall (2019), it was found that robots seem
to aid learning when they are used to supplement human instruction. It was also found
that the use of robots can help learners improve their motivation to learn, lower their
anxiety, engage them in a task and build their speaking confidence. In a separate study
by Konijn et al. (2022), it was found that robots can increase the language learning
gains of children. It was also found that robots have potential as tutors in L2 learning.
Under Digital Language Teaching 5.0, robots or cobots can work alongside teachers
10 RELC Journal 0(0)

and will do their routine jobs, so that teachers can spend more time planning, facilitating
and attending to students with special needs.
Given the key characteristics, purposes, technologies and practices of Digital Language
Teaching 5.0, what will be the new roles of teachers then? What skills and competencies
will they need to be able to serve the purpose of Industry 5.0 and Education 5.0? How will
they leverage existing technologies to prepare themselves for the demands of Digital
Language Teaching 5.0? These will be discussed in the next section.

Core Skills and Competencies

Digital Language Teaching 5.0, in response to the demands of Industry 5.0, requires a more
humanized, purposive, inclusive, learner-centered, collaborative and environmentally sustain-
able teaching–learning ecosystem. Language teachers need to adapt and transform their roles
in the new ecosystem, in order to help learners effectively achieve their learning goals. Based
on the current practices and the nature of evolving technologies, language teachers will sim-
ultaneously function as e-learning designers, content coaches, technology specialists, online
materials curators, social directors, data analysts, cybersecurity police, digital ethics monitors,
life coaches and many others. To do all these, language teachers need at least the fundamental
21st-century skills and competencies for the digital future.
The World Economic Forum has outlined the core skills every worker (including teachers)
has to possess in order to fit into the jobs of tomorrow (Whiting, 2020). Some of these include
analytical thinking and innovation; complex problem-solving; creativity, originality and initia-
tive; technology use, monitoring and control; technology design and programming; and resili-
ence, stress tolerance and flexibility (Whiting, 2020). Similarly, McKinsey & Company, a
global management consulting firm, also identified 56 foundational skills that will help citizens
thrive in the future of work. These are clustered into 13 skill groups such as critical thinking,
communication, planning and ways of working, mental flexibility, mobilizing systems, devel-
oping relationships, teamwork effectiveness, self-awareness and self-management, entrepre-
neurship, goals achievement, digital fluency and citizenship, software use and development,
and understanding digital systems (Dondi et al., 2021).
Given the nature of future technologies and trends, the growing demands for new work
skills, and the emerging roles of teachers in the next ELT landscape, it is particularly
important that both pre-service and in-service language teachers are prepared with the
right teaching skills and competencies. They must be skilled in designing equitable,
diversified and inclusive learning opportunities that serve the unique learning needs
and purposes of learners. They must also be skilled in evaluating and utilizing varied
forms of technologies that can facilitate various modes of instructional delivery, assess-
ment and giving feedback. Lastly, they must be skilled in using technologies that allow
them to develop themselves professionally and collaborate with fellow professionals in
order to solve learning problems and innovate learning solutions. With technologies
quickly evolving and transforming, language teachers need to be quick and agile in adapt-
ing to changes and adversities.
For the upcoming industrial revolution which features more sophisticated technologies
and trends, language teachers need to learn and enhance their digital competencies in
order to be ready for whatever uncertainties the future holds (Wong and Moorhouse,
2021). At the very least, they should know how to use and effectively integrate current
Industry 4.0 technologies into their language teaching, so that they can easily adapt to
Meniado 11

whatever technologies Industry 5.0 may bring. To do this sustainably, language teacher
education programs should incorporate digital language instruction as a core competency
or requirement (Wong and Moorhouse, 2021). These should then be supplemented with
in-service teacher development programs focusing on Industry 5.0 work skills and digital
competencies through varied forms of professional learning activities.
There are different ways language teachers can develop themselves professionally.
These can include work-based learning, professional activities, formal learning, self-
directed learning and self-determined learning (Meniado, 2023). Specifically, these can
be in the form of formal workshops or skills-based training; collegial sharing of good
practices; participation in learning circles, working groups or exploration committees;
experimentation/action research; and watching how-to videos on YouTube and other
social media platforms (Moorhouse and Wong, 2021).

Conclusion
Industry 5.0 is projected to start by 2030. Similarly, Digital Language Teaching 5.0, a
language teaching paradigm that applies the digital pedagogies and technologies of
Industry 5.0, is also expected to evolve around the same timeline. However, with the
current pace of technological evolution due to the COVID-19 pandemic, experts say
this might happen sooner. Revolutionary as it may seem, it is expected that it will
change the L2 teaching–learning ecosystem. It will bring new policies, perspectives
and practices in alignment with Industry 5.0 and Education 5.0 in the post-pandemic
digital age. The language curriculum will include themes that inculcate resilience, well-
being, creativity and sustainability. Instructional and assessment practices will foster
equity, diversity and inclusion. Resources/digital tools that facilitate personalized lan-
guage learning, collaboration and human well-being while at the same time saving planet-
ary resources will gain more popularity.
All these expected changes come with related issues and concerns. Key issues involve
access and equity, particularly in under-resourced contexts. Many countries do not have
access to technologies that would allow Digital Language Teaching 5.0 to happen. At the
national level, this can be addressed by allocating more government funds for information
and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure development or by partnering with
private organizations/investors to fund ICT infrastructure projects (public–private part-
nership). At the local level, schools and teachers can explore alternative, accessible tech-
nologies that can serve the same purpose(s) and yield the same outcome(s) in lieu of the
high-end technologies. Another issue that is worth thinking about is language-teacher
preparedness. As implementers of change, teachers need to be empowered with the
right skills and competencies. These skills and competencies can be developed implicitly
or explicitly by creating an ecosystem that supports Digital Language Teaching 5.0.
Education stakeholders should start with a positive and transformative mindset in
order to have the drive and motivation to actualize the aspirations of Industry 5.0 and
the desired outcomes of Education 5.0 and Digital Language Teaching 5.0 in the next
decades and beyond.

ORCID iD
Joel C. Meniado https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5062-7800
12 RELC Journal 0(0)

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