Navigation

Introduction

By navigation is understood any act or procedure that will ensure the safety of passengers and crew, vessel
and cargo during a voyage from point of departure to a destination.
This safety is greatly determined by good seamanship.
And since good seamanship refers to The Human Factor (HF), it is obvious that the influence on safety on
board vessels is largely determined by acts of the seafarers on board.
Therefore the manning of a vessel must be planned very accurately, and because most vessels are manned
with multi-lingual crews, special attention should be paid to the internationally standardized form of maritime
communication, both intership and intra-ship.

Manning

All vessels have one thing in common: they must be manned by qualified crews.
On board vessels the two main departments are the deck department and the engine room department.
The radio department is often integrated in the deck department.
The head of the deck department is the first mate – or Chief Officer.
The Chief Engineer is the head of the engine room department.
Officers are assisted by ordinary seamen and able (bodied) seamen (OS and ABS).
An “able seamen” is experienced seafarer. He or she will often act as man-at-the-wheel (helmsman), or
lookout.
The boatswain, or bosun, is the head of the ratings (OS and ABS).
Apprentice officers are officers in training.
Nowadays many vessels are manned with General Purpose Officers – or Multi- Purpose Officers – who have
been trained to perform the duties of the mate, engineer and radio operator together.

Duties
Of course the main responsibility of all the deck officers on merchant vessels is navigation, i.e. getting the
vessels safely to her destination.
There are many other duties to be performed in the deck department.
The first mate is responsible for making up the stowage plan, supervision of loading and discharging of the
cargo and general ship maintenance.
The second mate is responsible for the navigation equipment.
The third mate will often act as safety officer. He or she is responsible for the maintenance of all the safety
equipment on board.
The main duties of the Engineering-officers in the engine room department are the maintenance and
overhauling of the main engine and the auxiliary-engines.
The captain, or master, is ultimately responsible for all that goes on aboard the vessel.
Usually he has not been integrated in the watch-keeping system on the bridge. If he thinks it necessary to
appear on the bridge and interfere with the work of the officer of the watch (OOW), or if the master is called
to the bridge by the OOW, he must clearly indicate that he will become the conning officer by saying: “I now
have the watch”. To confirm this, the OOW will then answer: “You now have the watch”.
The tasks of the radio operator are to contact shore based stations and other vessels in cases of distress, to
transmit urgency messages, safety messages when there are imminent dangers to navigation, to listen to
Notices to Mariners, weather reports and navigational warnings and to maintain contact with other ships for a
safe and efficient voyage.

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Watchkeeping
The 24-hour-period on board the vessel is divided into 6 shifts, or watches, as they are called.
Each watch lasts 4 hours.

The watches are:

First watch ( 2000 hrs-2400 hrs)
Middle watch (0000 hrs-0400 hrs)
Morning watch (0400 hrs-0800 hrs)
Forenoon watch (0800 hrs-1200 hrs)
Afternoon watch (1200 hrs-1600 hrs)
Evening watch (1600 hrs-2000 hrs)

The evening watch is often divided into two watches of 2 hours each to allow everyone to enjoy the evening
meal. These two watches are called the first and second dogwatch.
The Radio-operator keeps watch four periods of two hours a day.

One of the Watchkeeping-systems that is used in the deck department aboard sea-going vessels is the “4-12-
8” system, whereby the first mate stands all four-o’clock watches, the second mate stands the twelve-o’clock
watches and the third mate stands the eight-o’clock watches. The captain will often join the third mate, since
the third mate is usually the last experienced officer.

Heading, course, track and drift

By heading is understood the direction in which the vessel is

pointing. It is the angle between the fore-and-aft line of the
vessel and True North, expressed in degrees.
Heading constantly changes due to sea and wind influences
and steering errors.
By course is understood the intended sailing direction of the
vessel. In other words: it is the direction in which the vessel is
steered in order to reach her destination.
It is expressed in degrees.
A track consists of one, or a number o f course lines along
which the navigator intends to proceed for a safe passage,
e.g. when clearing a danger.
A great circle course will form the shortest connection
between two places on the earth.
A Rhumb Line, or loxodrome, will form a line whereby all the
angles made by the course line and the meridians are equal.
This implies that in (Mercator) sea charts the earth is not a
sphere, but a square.
Composite sailing combines the advantages of the great
circle and the rhumb line: it will offer the shortest route, while
the vessel can keep constant true directions. Due to the
influence of the wind and current the vessel’s destination will
not be reached without any alterations of course.
By course made good is understood the course that the ship will follow after allowing for the effects caused
by wind. Now the effect of current on the vessel’s path must also be corrected, resulting in a course over
ground that will lead to her destination.

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Position

The vessel’s position can be determined in a number of ways,

for example by means of pilotage (coastal navigation), cross
bearings, a cocked hat, a running fix, dead reckoning ,
astronomical navigation or satellite.
The vessel’s position may be indicated by a latitude/longitude
– reference, or as a bearing and distance from a fixed point.
In VHF – communication and written reports the letter
position indication must always be preceded by the word
“bearing”.
Positions are expressed in degrees and minutes. Distances are
indicated by nautical miles (1852 meters) and cables (one
tenth of a nautical mile – 185.2 meters).
Position indicated as a bearing and distance
from a fixed point, and in Latitude/Longitude.

Pilotage (coastal navigation)

When sailing along the coast, compass bearings of

conspicuous objects are taken at regular intervals.
A conspicuous object (conspic) is an object on land or at sea
that is mentioned and described in the pilot book. Cross
bearings form an intersection of two bearing lines that have
been taken of two conspicuous objects.
If a third conspic is available, a third bearing (“check line”)
can be taken.
Because the vessel is proceeding, the two bearing lines and
the check line will form a triangle, called cocked hat.
The ship’s position is in or at the cocked hat.

Running fix
A “running fix” is made when there is only one conspicuous
object available.
It is done by taking two bearings of the same conspic at interval. Cross bearings with cocked hat
(The angle between the two bearing lines must be > than
30 degrees).

Example

The first bearing is taken at 16.50 hrs.

Log reading: distance travelled = 380 nautical miles.
The second bearing is taken at 16.55 hrs.
Log-reading: distance travelled = 381 nautical miles.
The difference between the first log-reading and second
log-reading is 1 mile.
Now, with the aid of chart dividers, “1” is measured from
the chart scale at the side of the nautical chart and
transferred to the course line. The position of the ship is at
the intersection of the second bearing line with the line
that runs parallel to the first bearing line. Running fix
Dead Reckoning
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“Dead Reckoning” is determining (reckoning) one’s position by deduction.
In other words: finding one’s position by taking into consideration a number of standard data:
-last known position and time
-course and speed
-sea and weather condition
The expression “dead reckoning” is not spelt correctly.
“Dead” should actually be spelt “ded” as an abbreviation of deduced.

Astronomical Navigation
With astronomical navigation, or celestial navigation, observations are taken of celestial bodies (the sun, the
moon and stars).
With a sextant the angle between a celestial body and the horizon is measured.
Now with the aid of the chronometer and the tables in the nautical almanac the ship’s position can be
determined.
(This way of fixing a position is quiet obsolete. However, it comes with good seamanship and should never be
deleted from the maritime studies).

Satellite Navigation and Radio Navigation

In the (Differential) Global Positioning System a signal is
transmitted from the satellite. Within the shortest possible time the
ship’s position is determined be data received from the
satellites, and shown on the GPS-display on the bridge.

Depth
The depth of water must always be determined accurately.
In areas where shoaling has been reported, in restricted- and inshore
waterways, in harbours and ports, and in areas of which the
navigator does not have any local knowledge, the risk of going aground is always imminent for deep draft
vessels and very often shallow draft vessels, too.
Furthermore the navigator should always be aware of the fact that charted depths may sometimes be
unreliable and must be increased or decreased due to sea states, swells and winds.
Therefore Notice to Mariners should be studied carefully and regularly to avoid grounding due to insufficient
depths of water or an unexpected tide below the prediction.
Places where depths are maintained by regular dredging-operations are indicated as areas with controlling
depths. These depths are always very reliable.
The old-fashioned way of sounding (determining depth of water) is by means of the handlead.
Nowadays the most common way to determine depth is with the aid of the echo sounder, whereby a signal is
transmitted to the seabed.
The signal “bounces” back and is received again by the echo sounder.
From the time elapsed between transmission and reception of the signal, the depth of the water can be
determined.
Protruding obstacles on the seabed, such as wrecks and rocks, are not easily detected by signals.
Therefore the depth over a protruding obstacle is obtained by wire sweeping, whereby a cable is swept over
the seabed between two survey vessels. This routine is continued until the wire will experience no resistance
from any obstacle.
Now the depth of the specific position can be determined and recorded .

Directions
The terms that are used to indicate directions of proceeding are: starboard, port, ahead and stern.
These terms are used in helmorders and engineroom orders to indicate in which direction the vessel must be
steered.
Helmorders (“Starboard 5!”, “Port 10!”, “Midships!”, “Steady!” etc.) and engineroom orders (“Full ahead!”,
“Dead slow astern!” etc.) are given by the mate to the helmsman and must be repeated by the latter before
they are actually executed.

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To indicate directions towards the vessel, e.g. when a pilot, gale or Tsunami is approaching the vessel, the
terms “on”, “before” and “abaft” are used, followed by the appropriate section of the vessel.
Like so:
on the stem/stern, on the starboard bow, on the port quarter, before the starboard beam, abaft the port
beam, etc.

Directions that indicate the position of other vessels, objects or dangers with respect to our own vessel are
indicated by the words starboard, port, ahead and astern.
(“I will overtake you on your starboard/port side” / “wreck ahead of you”/ etc.)

However, due to technical restrictions of the radar, a VTS-operator will not always be able to determine a
vessel’s heading and course exactly.
The exact positions of two vessels with respect to each other are even more difficult to assess. Therefore the
use of the term “starboard/ port/ ahead/ astern must be avoided.
Instead, VTS-operators must use “cardinals” and “half-cardinals” to indicate positions and directions.
Like so:

“Shallow waters to the North of you”;

“Vessels overtaking to the Southeast of you”;
“Uncharted shoal to the West of you”;
“Obstruction to the Northwest of you”.

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Anchoring, Berthing, Leaving berth and
Underway
Anchors and chain

A stocked anchor will tip

sideways when it strikes the
seabed, so that one fluke will
“bite the soil”. The stocked
anchor consists of a puddening
(1), a shank (2), a crown (3),
arms (4), flukes (5), a stock (6),
anchor nuts (7), breastpiece (8)
and a forelock (9).
The disadvantages of a stocked
anchor are:
-it cannot be stored in the
vessel’s hawse because of the
stock;
- one of its flukes will always point upwards, which makes this anchor very vulnerable to being
fouled.

The stockless anchor consists of an anchor shackle (1), a puddening (2), a shank (3), flukes (4),
arms (5) and shoulders (6).
Contrary to the stockless anchor, the stocked anchor cannot be stored in the vessel’s hawse.
Both flukes will bite the seabed.
Sea going vessels are usually equipped with stockless anchors : two bower anchors, a stern
anchor for maneuvering the ship when she is “dredging anchor” and a spare anchor.
Anchor chains are made up of lengths of 15 fathoms each. These lengths are called “shackles”
and are made of stud - links or open links.

Stud-link chain Open-link chain

The studs are for strength and prevent the cable from turning (kinking).
Chains that do not have these strengthening are called open - link chains.
The joint between two lengths of 15 fathoms is also called shackle.
It is often painted white, so that the number of shackles that are out can be determined.

Anchoring

When the vessel is approaching the anchorage or her designated berth, the anchor gear has
been thoroughly checked and prepared: windlass and hinging parts have been greased,
bandbrakes tested, hawse pipe-closing plates removed, etc.
In order to avoid any unexpected situations, it is customary to prepare both starboard and port
anchors for letting go.
Bad holding ground, such as sand and shells, will cause the anchor to drag.
Therefore information about holding ground must be looked up in the pilot book or chart prior to
letting go anchors.

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 When a river berth has been allocated by the VTS Station or port authority, it will sometimes be
necessary to “dredge anchor” in order to make sharp turn towards the embankement.
The length of chain that is put out is indicated by the number of shackles (1 shackle equals 15
fathoms). Safe anchoring implies that a length of chain equal to the depth of water plus two
shackles must be used.
More shackles must be put in the water:
- when the water is very deep (more than 25 fathoms)
-in adverse weather
- when barges are passing close to the vessel
-when the anchor chain has a low tensile strength
-when the anchor chain is leading ahead
-when the vessel is in ballasted condition.

When the anchor is holding, the anchor lights must be switched on and the anchor ball is
hoisted. The anchor position must be checked by bearings at regular intervals.

Berthing (without tug assistance or thrusters)

When the vessel approaches her designated berth at minimum steerageway, the approach to the quay
is made at the smallest possible angle.
With a heaving line the hawser is pulled from the vessel onto the embankment by line-handlers.
The spring is fastened to a bollard, and while the engine is on half astern, the warping drum picks up
the slack (that is: pulls the line tight). To prevent the line from being fouled, the hawser or spring is led
through a fairlead.
The ship is then maneuvered along the embankment and fastened to bollards by headlines, stern lines,
breast lines and springs.

Leaving Berth

When leaving berth, casting off orders, engine

room orders and helm orders are given by the
pilot or the master. After having started the
engine, the first order is: "Stand by for letting
go!". When a line is cast off, the first order
must always be: "Slack away', so that it will
become possible to handle the hawser. The
next casting off order will then be: "Heave
away', which means that the line can be pulled
aboard.
The sequence of casting off orders that can then be given depends on how the vessel has been berthed,
and on the prevailing weather condition and currents.

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Underway

All the helmorders that will follow after the vessel has departed and is underway are given to the man-
at-the-wheel (helmsman). He must repeat these helmorders before he will actually execute them.

The helmorder "Ease her” is given to reduce the amount of rudder and hold.

The helmorder "Steady” is used to reduce the swing of the vessel by giving "counter-rudder" when she
is making an alteration of course.

The helmorder "Meet her” is used to stop the swing of the vessel's head in a turn.

The order "Steady as she goes” is given when at that moment the intended course to steer is straight
ahead (for example 186 degrees).

The helmsman must report to the conning officer when the vessel is actually on this course by saying:
"steady on course 186 degrees".

The conning officer (OOW) must then repeat the helmsman's reply ("steady on course 186 degrees”).

Engineroom orders, too, must be repeated by the person operating the bridge telegraph before they are
executed.
The OOW should ensure that the orders are carried out correctly and promptly.
The engineroom orders are: Dead slow -, slow -, half -, full-, stop (-ahead or -astern).
When the vessel is fitted with twin propellers, the word "both" must be added. ("dead slow ahead both·,
"slow ahead both", "half ahead both", "full ahead both”).
For bow-or stern thrusters the orders are:
"bow thruster full / half to port/starboard";
"stern thruster full / half to port/starboard".
When operation of the engine is no longer required, the phrase “finished with engines-no more
maneuvering” is used.

Put the verbs in brackets into their correct forms !

1. I would have read the letter if I ____________________ (know) it was from you.
2. If Tony doesn’t help in the garden I ____________________ (not finish) my work in time.
3. If you ____________________ (not tell ) me about Maxwell’s birthday I would forget it.
4. We _________________________ (catch) the train earlier if Mary had found her purse.
5. If Susan ____________________ (learn) the poem she would have known the answer.
6. If it ____________________ (be) too hot we will stop and get a cold drink.
7. If it ____________________ (not rain) today I would stay it home.
8. If the Professor spoke clearly we __________________________ (understand) him better.
9. If you go on talking like that we ____________________ (throw) you out.
10. If Sasha ____________________ (go) home now he would meet his own brother.
11. If it rained , the streets ____________________ (be) wet.
12. If I ____________________ (not tell) Jim the address he wouldn’t have found you.
13. The bird ___________________________ (die) if you had caught it.
14. What ____________________ (you, do) if you won the lottery ?
15. If the weather ____________________ (not change) we will reach the top of the mountain.
16. Dinner ____________________ (be) fine if the meat weren’t cold.
17. I’m sure Benny ____________________ (come) if you wait a bit longer.
18. If you ring the bell, somebody ____________________ (answer) it.
19. If Bert ____________________ (see) you, he would have talked to you.
20. You ____________________ (find ) your ticket if you had looked into your pockets.
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21. You ____________________ (fall) ill if you eat so much.
22. What ____________________ (happen) if the door had not been opened?
23. If Chris asked you for a cigarette, __________________________ (you, give) him one?
24. If you ____________________ (buy) that big car, you would need a lot of money.
25. ____________________ (You, change) the colour of your hair if I asked you to do so ?
26. If you give me the letter, I ____________________ (post) it for you .
27. ____________________________ (You, post) the letter if I had given it to you?
28. If the weather is fine, I ____________________ (go) swimming.
29. If you____________________ (not work) harder, you won't pass the exam.
30. If they ____________________ (be) rich, they would travel around the world.
31. The children ____________________ (go) skating if the lake were frozen.
32. What would you have done, if you ____________________ (lose) your handbag?
33. What will happen if you ____________________ (not know) the answer?
34. She ____________________ (go) on holiday, if she hadn't been ill.
35. If I ____________________ (notice) you, I would have said hello.
36. If I ____________________ (be) like you, I wouldn't watch such films.
37. If you opened your eyes, you____________________ (see) a wonderful world.
38. People ____________________ (live) in peace if they stop fighting.
39. If Tom drinks so much,he _____________________________ (cannot drive) home.
40. If we ____________________ (not hurry) we would miss the train.
41. He ____________________ (not spend) so much money if he weren't a happy person.
42. ____________________________ (You, come ) , if you had had more time ?
43. If Jim ____________________ (study) the new words he would have got a better mark.
44. If he were rich, he ____________________ (buy) the house.
45. If you don't hurry you ____________________ (be) late.
46. If it wasn't so hot, we ____________________ (play) football.
47. If I ____________________ (be) ill, would you visit me?
48. If Sean ____________________ (not be) driving so fast, the police would not have stopped him.
49. If I had sold my house, I ____________________ (get) 4 million pounds.
50. If I ____________________ (be) you I would I would do it.