CACHE Level 2

Certificate in Counselling Skills

HELPING RELATIONSHIP

CORE COUNSELLING SKILLS

PERSON-CENTRED THEORY

OBJECTIVES

PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY

Workbook 1
 How to use your learning materials

This course is delivered on a flexible learning basis. This means that most of your
study will take place away from your Assessor/Tutor. It helps to carefully plan your
studying so that you get the most out of your course. We have put together some
handy tips for you below.

Study Guidance

Try to plan an outline timetable of when and where you will study.
Try to complete your work in a quiet environment where you are unlikely to
be distracted.
Set realistic goals and deadlines for the various elements of your course.
Plan what you are going to study during each session, and try and achieve
this each time.
After each session, reflect on what you have achieved and plan what you hope to
complete next time.
Remember that not only do you have the support of your Assessor/Tutor, but it is
likely that your family, friends and work colleagues will also be willing to help.

Assessor/Tutor Support

Your Assessor/Tutor will be available to support and guide you through the
programme. They are experts in your area of study and are experienced in helping
many different types of learners.
They can help you to improve the standard of work you submit and will give
you useful feedback on areas in which you have excelled, as well as where
you can improve.
Remember to listen to, or read, their feedback carefully. Ask if you are unsure
about any of the feedback you receive as your Assessor/Tutor is there to help.
Make note of any tips they give. Refer to the learning materials as they contain the
information you need to complete the end-of-unit assessments.
Look out for areas in which you can improve, and set yourself an action plan to
make sure you complete the required work.
Take positive feedback on board; this demonstrates you are doing things right and
have a good understanding of the subject area.
Use the feedback to avoid repeating any mistakes you may have made.

Enjoy your studies!

2 © LCG 2018
 CACHE Level 2 Certificate in Counselling Skills

Workbook 1
Workbook Contents

In this workbook, learners will explore core counselling skills and how to use them
in a helping relationship. They will also learn strategies to start and end a helping
relationship. Additionally, learners will examine three key counselling theories.

Contents
This workbook contains three sections: Page
Section 1: Using counselling skills 4
Section 2: Introduction to counselling skills theories 20
Section 3: Extension activities 33

Each section has corresponding assessment questions CACHE Level 2 Certificate in Counselling Skills

that must be completed in order to achieve this part of Assessment 1

the programme. Learner contact details:

Name:

The assessments for this workbook can be found in: Contact address:

Postcode: Contact number:

Assessment 1 Email:

Learner declaration
I confirm that the answers in Assessment 1 were completed by me, represent my own
ideas and are my own work.
Learner signature: Assessment date:

When you have completed this workbook you should If you need any help in completing these Assessments, refer to the
relevant section within Workbook 1, or contact your Assessor/Tutor.

attempt the assessment. Your Assessor/Tutor will then

Please tick one of the boxes below to show what your status will be when you complete this course.
 EMP 1 In paid employment for 16 hours or more  GAP 1 Gap year before
per week starting HE
 EMP 2 In paid employment for less than 16 hours  EDU 1 Traineeship
per week  EDU 2 Apprenticeship

give you detailed written feedback on your progress.

 EMP 4 Self-employed for 16 hours or more per week  EDU 3 Supported Internship
 EMP 5 Self-employed for less than 16 hours per week  EDU 4 Other FE* (Full-time)
 NPE 1 Not in paid employment, looking for work and
 EDU 5 Other FE* (Part-time)
available to start work
 NPE 2 Not in paid employment, not looking for work  EDU 6 HE
and/or not available to start work (including retired)  OTH # (please state)
 VOL 1 Voluntary work ………………………………

Assessment 1 1

Upon successful completion of this qualification, learners will be awarded the NCFE
CACHE Level 2 Certificate in Counselling Skills (QRN: 600/0728/X). This CACHE
branded qualification is certified by the Awarding Organisation, NCFE.

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 Section 1: Using counselling skills

As part of this qualification you are required to demonstrate your practical skills to
meet specific assessment criteria. In this instance you will be required to take part
in a role play or simulation, and a witness testimony will be prepared based on
your performance. The witness testimony will record what you did and confirm that
you have met the assessment criteria.

In this section learners will gain an understanding of core counselling skills and
how to establish a helping relationship. They will also learn how core counselling skills
can be used in a helping relationship and the ways in which a helping relationship
can be concluded.

Core counselling skills and how they are used in a

counselling relationship and in other helping activities
Please read the following as it will help you to answer questions 1 and 2.

A counselling relationship is formed when an individual and a counsellor work

together. Counselling is considered to be a ‘helping activity’ because the counsellor
assists individuals to identify problems or issues that are negatively impacting on their
quality of life and supports them to find a solution or resolution.
Other helping activities include a ‘helping conversation’ or a ‘helping interaction’.
These take place between a helper, who is not necessarily also a counsellor, and a
helpee. Helpers can be a manager, teacher or doctor. In these instances, the helping
sessions may be short, lasting 15-20 minutes, and may take place on an ad hoc,
or one-off basis. For example, a manager may have a helping conversation with
a colleague who is struggling with an issue at work. During the time together, the
manager will talk the colleague (helpee) through the issue, which can itself be very
beneficial for the helpee.
Core conditions refer to the attitudes displayed by counsellors when they are working
in a helping relationship. In a counselling relationship the counsellor will use a range
of core counselling skills to build rapport and trust with their clients.
In the 1950s, psychologist Carl Rogers described three ‘core conditions’ counsellors
should display. Core conditions allow counsellors to show clients that they value them
and are genuinely interested in helping them.

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 Section 1: Using counselling skills

Rogers’ three core conditions are:

Empathy – i.e. the ability to understand and share another person’s feelings.
Congruence (also known as genuineness) – i.e. demonstrating that the
counsellor is genuine and authentic by showing warmth and understanding.
Unconditional positive regard (UPR) – i.e. the counsellor demonstrates that they
value and accept the client as they are; they show that they genuinely care for
the client.

Read the information in the following table to learn about the range of core
counselling skills – including Rogers’ core conditions – and how they are used in
counselling relationships and other helping activities.
Core counselling skill How the skill is used in counselling relationships
and other helping activities
Beginning a relationship The ability to appropriately begin a relationship is an
essential skill for a counsellor to have as it creates an
environment in which the client feels able to talk openly.
To begin a counselling relationship, the counsellor will
use open questions as a means of finding out what
the client’s issues are. Open questions are those that
cannot be answered with one word or with a simple Yes
or No, rather they require the client to describe and
explain their thoughts and feelings. For example, ‘What
is it that brought you here today?’; this promotes trust
and helps the client to feel safe and better able to talk
about difficult issues.
Unconditional positive When a counsellor demonstrates UPR, they build trust
regard – the counsellor and a rapport with the client. The counsellor will make it
demonstrates that they clear that they value and accept the client even though
value and accept the they may not agree with some of their behaviour. By
client as they are; they doing this, the counsellor is creating a ‘safe space’ in
show that they genuinely which the client can talk about anything without fear of
care for the client the counsellor showing disapproval of them (rather than
of their behaviour) or being rejected.
Congruence If the client feels that the counsellor is genuinely
(genuineness) – interested in them and that their comments and
demonstrating that the questions are genuine and authentic, they will feel
counsellor is genuine at ease when talking about difficult or embarrassing
and authentic by subjects. Congruence, like UPR, helps counsellors to
showing warmth and build a trusting relationship with clients in which they
understanding feel safe and supported.

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 Section 1: Using counselling skills

Core counselling skill How the skill is used in counselling relationships

and other helping activities
Empathy – the ability to Expression of empathy with clients helps to build trust.
understand and share By demonstrating empathy in their words and physical
another person’s feelings gestures, the counsellor is showing the client that they
understand their feelings and are not judging them.
Empathy is an expression of unconditional positive regard.
Active listening – When the counsellor actively listens to their client, they
reflecting are showing them that they are interested in what they
are saying and invested in helping them to find solutions
to their issues. Reflecting, or repeating key words
back to the client, is a way of demonstrating active
listening and understanding by the counsellor. When the
counsellor repeats words or phrases back to the client
they are allowing them to hear what they have said,
which helps them to get perspective of their situation.
Questioning Open questions – we explored open questions in the
‘beginning a relationship’ section on page 5. Other
examples of open questions include:
How did that make you feel?
How is your relationship with your father?
Closed questions – require a Yes or No or short answer.
This type of questioning is used only to gather facts and
information as they do not require the client to provide
full, thoughtful answers. In a helping relationship, closed
questions should only be used to clarify understanding.
Examples include:
How old are you?
 you okay?
Are
Silence In a counselling relationship, silence is an important tool
that is used to help the client think about their situation
and organically come to their own conclusions or find
answers to their issues. Silence can also be used to
encourage clients to talk at their own pace, which will
help them to feel more comfortable telling the counsellor
about their situation and thoughts.

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 Section 1: Using counselling skills

Core counselling skill How the skill is used in counselling relationships

and other helping activities
Summarising Summarising can be used at various points of a session
with a client to sum up, using the main points, what the
client has said. This demonstrates, like active listening,
that the counsellor has been listening and understands
what the client has said. Summarising helps the client to
understand where they are and to further examine their
thoughts and feelings.
Paraphrasing When a counsellor paraphrases something, they choose
the key phrases that a client has used and repeat
them back to them. This shows that the counsellor
understands the client, helps the counsellor to check
that they and the client are on the same page and
allows the client to hear what they’ve said, which can
help them to see it from a different perspective.

Did you know?

Most counselling sessions last between 50 minutes and an hour.

Knowledge Activity 1: Go online and research the main differences

between a helper and a counsellor. Write them below.

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 Section 1: Using counselling skills

Boundaries that need to be taken into account when

starting a new helping relationship
Please read the following as it will help you to answer question 3.

In a helping relationship, the ‘helper’ uses a range of skills to listen to and support an
individual who is seeking assistance (the helpee).

When a helper starts a new helping relationship it is essential that they set boundaries
with the helpee. A boundary is an ‘unofficial rule about what should not be done’ or
‘limits that define acceptable behaviour’. In a helping relationship, boundaries allow the
helper to identify:
what they are able to provide in the relationship
what the helpee wants to get from the relationship

By identifying these things, both the helper and helpee will know what to expect from
the relationship.
It is important that boundaries are set at the beginning of a new helping relationship
to ensure that the helpee fully understands what will happen during sessions and
knows what to expect from the helper. Clear boundaries help to build a trusting
helper/helpee relationship.

A range of boundaries must be taken into account when starting a new helping
relationship. These are explored below.

Confidentiality

An important aspect of building trust in a helping relationship is confidentiality,

which allows helpees to feel they can talk openly and honestly and reflect on what
they are discussing.
The helper should explain before the first session begins that whatever is said
during the sessions will be kept confidential and that the helpee’s identity will
not be revealed to anyone.
Additionally, the helper must explain instances in which they would break
confidentiality. These include when they believe the helpee is at risk of self-harm
or at risk of harming others.

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 Section 1: Using counselling skills

Time

Helpers should explain how long each session will last and that each session will start
and end promptly. This:
helps establish and maintain trust
provides the helpee with consistency
gives the helpee the security of knowing that their sessions will not be cut short

avoids confusion – if a session runs over, the helpee may think that all sessions
can do so
allows the helpee to decide what they would like to cover in the session
sets the helpee’s expectations as to what can be covered in a session
makes it clear that fees stay the same even if the helpee arrives late

Appropriate setting

The setting, or location, of a helping session is not in itself a boundary, however, a

suitable setting will enable the helper to establish boundaries. For example, a helping
session that takes part in a public place like a café could compromise confidentiality,
which in turn will impact the helpee’s trust in the helper. An appropriate setting will
make the helpee feel safe and secure.

Record keeping

It is important that the helper explains to the helpee what will happen to any notes
that are taken during sessions. For example:
 notes will be kept in a secure place; the helper should explain the location
the
and security measures in place, i.e. in a locked cabinet or an encrypted file on
a computer

access to notes must adhere to the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)
2018

Did you know?

A helper must ask a helpee for permission to discuss anything that is said
during sessions with their supervisor or another helper.

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 Section 1: Using counselling skills

Agreeing objectives for a new helping relationship

Please read the following as it will help you to answer question 4.

An objective is ‘a thing aimed at or sought; a goal’, and in a helping relationship,

an objective is something the helpee wants to achieve or gain from working with the
helper. For example, they may want to find a solution to a situation that is worrying
them, or achieve a goal such as losing weight or finding a new job.
The helper will explore the situation with the helpee and provide support to come up
with a solution.
It is important that objectives are agreed at the beginning of a new helping
relationship so that the helpee feels the sessions are structured and that the time
spent with the helper is used constructively and will help them reach a goal.

How to agree objectives

The helper will use a range of core counselling skills (see pages 5-6), including active
listening and silence to support the helpee to set objectives and goals. To agree
objectives, the following steps can be followed:
1. Finding out why the helpee wants a helping relationship
At the beginning of a new helping relationship, the helper will ask the helpee open
questions, such as ‘What would you like to gain from these sessions?’ and ‘What
brought you here today?’ This will:

help them develop an understanding of why the helpee has sought a helping
relationship
give them an understanding of what the helpee is hoping to achieve in the sessions
 them in asking specific follow-up and reflective questions and providing
aid
appropriate support

2. Asking clarifying questions

The helper may ask the helpee additional questions to ensure
that they understand what the helpee would like to focus on
and achieve through the helping sessions and to assist the
helpee to engage in deep self-reflection so that they can hone
in on the true issue or issues they wish to address.

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3. Work with the helpee to develop objectives

A good way of doing this is to make objectives SMART, which means they are:
Specific – i.e. specifically state what the objective is. For example, if the helpee
would like to find work, an objective could be to write their CV. To meet the specific
criteria, the helper could ask the helpee a range of questions, including:
– Why do you want to achieve this objective now?
– How are you going to achieve this objective?
Measurable – i.e. a means of knowing when an objective has been achieved. This
element allows the helpee to see when an objective has been reached, which
helps to motivate them. For example, the CV goal will be met when the helpee has
added all of the information, spell checked it and had a friend or family member
read through it for them.
Attainable – i.e. if an objective is too big, there is a larger possibility that the
helper may not achieve it. Objectives should present a challenge to the helpee, but
not be so large that the helpee will fail and have their confidence knocked. For
example, if the helpee wanted to writer their CV and find a job in a week, it is likely
they won’t achieve their objective. If, however, they wanted to finish their CV and
apply for a job in a week, that may be more achievable.
Relevant – i.e. the helpee should take into account their personal circumstances
and set their objectives accordingly. For example, if they don’t have a computer or
Internet connection at home, they should factor in the extra time it will take to get
to a library where they can access the tools they need to create the CV.
Time-bound – i.e. the helpee should set a time limit for their objective; this gives
them something to work towards and also helps with the measurable element of a
SMART goal.

Once the helper has worked with the helpee to ensure their objective is SMART, they
should make sure the helpee is comfortable with what they’ve agreed. It is then a
good idea to summarise what has been discussed in the session and talk about what
will happen in the next session. For example, the helper may ask to see a draft of the
helpee’s CV in the next session.

Did you know?

It is not the helper’s job to set objectives and goals for the helpee, rather they
will suggest and agree them with the helpee.

Workbook 1 11
 Section 1: Using counselling skills

Knowledge Activity 2: Think of something in your life you would like to

achieve or change. Explain what it is below and explain how you will make
your objective SMART.

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 Section 1: Using counselling skills

Demonstrating how to use core counselling skills in a

helping relationship
Please read the following as it will help you to answer question 5.

As part of your course you will be expected to demonstrate certain skills, including
how to use core counselling skills in a helping relationship, which we explored in the
table on pages 5-7. Below are some examples of how you may use core counselling
skills in a helping relationship.

Beginning a relationship

At the beginning of a relationship, the helper needs to build trust with the helpee
and also find out some basic information that will help them understand the helpee’s
motivations for seeking help. They can do this by asking open questions. For example:
‘What brought you here today?’
‘So what would you like to talk about in this session?’

Unconditional positive regard

This is demonstrated through ‘implicit’ actions and behaviours, i.e. using open and
positive body language and listening without judgment, rather than ‘explicit’ actions
and behaviours, i.e. saying ‘I have unconditional positive regard for you’.

Congruence

The helper can show congruence by asking genuine and thoughtful questions and
making empathetic comments that show they understand the helpee’s feelings and
situation.

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 Section 1: Using counselling skills

Active listening

When using active listening, the helper will repeat back, or reflect, the helpee’s words
to show that they have been listening and understand what the helpee has said. For
example, ‘You said that going to the shops makes you feel ‘naked’, let’s explore that
some more’.

Questioning

Questioning can be used by the helper to encourage the helpee to think more
deeply about something they’ve said or to clarify what they’ve heard. They may also
use questioning to find out simple information. For example, ‘You said that what
happened made you feel silly, can you explain how?’

Silence

Silence is just as important as any of the other core skills because it can assist
helpees to engage in deeper reflection, which can help them to find perspective
and focus on the true issue. For example, you may ask the helpee a question, such
as ‘Why do you think you engaged in that behaviour?’ If the helpee doesn’t answer
straight away, instead of prompting them or asking another question, you would
simply sit in silence and wait for them to formulate their thoughts and begin speaking
when they are ready.

Summarising

When you summarise a portion of a session, or a

whole session, you are picking the most important
points and repeating them to the helpee. For
example, ‘At the beginning of this session you said
you wanted to set an objective of writing a CV.
We’ve discussed what challenges you face writing
your CV and have come up with some ways to make
it easier for you to meet your objective. We’ve also
worked together to set a deadline for creating your
CV and you have agreed to bring a draft in to your
next session so we can look at your progress.’

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Paraphrasing

As you learned earlier, paraphrasing is the process of selecting key phrases from a
conversation and repeating them back to the client to demonstrate understanding.
For example, ‘In this session, you’ve talked about how you feel useless to your family
because you aren’t working, but you have also expressed enthusiasm for the future
and a desire to find work quickly.’

The effectiveness of core counselling skills in developing

the helping relationship
Please read the following as it will help you to answer question 6.

The ability to discuss the effectiveness of core counselling skills in developing a helping
relationship is another skill you will have to demonstrate to your tutor or assessor.
To do this, you could look back at any role plays you have taken part in where you’ve
used any of the core counselling skills and ask the following questions:
Which core skill did I use?
How did I use it?
– For example, did you use silence to encourage the helpee to think more deeply
about something they’d said, or did you use it to allow the helpee to take the
lead in the role play?
 using the skill have the outcome I was hoping for? This is a yes or no question,
Did
but it is important that it is included in your discussion, as it may help you to
understand what you could do differently in upcoming role plays.
What was the outcome of using the skill?
– For example, did the helpee reflect more deeply on what they’d said and display a
sense of achievement in their discovery? Or did the helpee feel uncomfortable in
the silence and close up, making it difficult for you to continue the discussion?
 the helpee benefit from my use of the core skill? This could be answered by
Did
asking the helpee if they felt the role play had helped them or by observing their
demeanour and behaviour to see if it has changed positively or negatively.

What would I do differently the next time I use that core skill? This is important
because it requires reflection and looking at your performance with a critical eye to
see what you could improve on or change.

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 Section 1: Using counselling skills

Knowledge Activity 3: Go online and research Carl Rogers’ core counselling

skills. Note the main elements of each skill below.

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Useful strategies for ending relationships and the

possible impact of a helping relationship ending
Please read the following as it will help you to answer questions 7 and 8.

When the helpee has achieved their objectives and the helper feels that the helpee
understands their issues and has a practical set of tools available to deal with the
issues, the helping relationship will come to an end.
A helping relationship should not just abruptly end, rather the stages of the process –
and the number of sessions – should be explained to the helpee at the beginning of
the relationship. It is useful if the helper reminds the helpee how many sessions they
have left when summarising at the end of each session.
It is the helper’s job to work with the helpee to develop skills and use strategies to
manage any changes or issues without the helper’s support, and when ending the
relationship, the helper should focus on the positives for the helpee.
It is extremely important that the helper is sensitive to the impact ending the
relationship may have on the helpee.

Strategies

You have already learned about the core counselling skill of summarising. This can be
very useful when ending a helping relationship as it allows the helper to:
describe where the helpee was at the beginning of the relationship
highlight the main points of the helpee’s issue
restate the helpee’s objectives

describe the progress that has been made, including any new skills or strategies
that have been learned

describe how the helpee can continue to use what they have learned in the
sessions to help them cope with any future issues or problems

The helper can also discuss with the helpee what support is available to them should
they feel they need support in the future.
The helper can ask the helpee for feedback on their experience, including what they
have found helpful and what they would change or improve on in the helping sessions.
The helper should never rush the ending of a relationship, as this can lead to the
helpee feeling anxious and sad.

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The possible impact of a helping relationship ending

Because the helper has provided a safe space for the helpee and has assisted the
helpee in navigating difficult feelings or situations, the helpee may find ending the
relationship to be very difficult. It may feel like a loss to the helpee and can lead to
feelings of abandonment, anxiety, loss and sadness.
Ending a helping relationship may also lead the helpee to experience the feelings
associated with another relationship ending and it may make them doubt the progress
they have made during the relationship and their ability to cope without the helper’s
support.
On the other hand, at the end of a helping relationship the helpee may feel
empowered and invigorated about the progress they have made, as well as more
capable of dealing with difficult or challenging situations.
The helpee may also feel proud of their achievements during the helping sessions.

Knowledge Activity 4: Of the core counselling skills listed on pages 5-6,

what three would you use at the beginning of a helping relationship and why?

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 Section 1: Using counselling skills

Summary

In this section you have learned:

what core counselling skills are
how to establish a helping relationship
how to use core counselling skills in a helping relationship
about concluding a helping interaction

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 Section 2: Introduction to counselling skills theories

In this section, learners will explore the main elements of three main counselling
theories and understand how these theories are used to create and support
counselling skills.

There are three main ‘schools’ of counselling:

psychodynamic
person-centred
cognitive behavioural
You will explore each theory in this section, and will learn the key elements and
differences between them.

Psychodynamic theory
Please read the following as it will help you to answer question 9.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) developed the psychodynamic approach in the late

18th and early 19th centuries.

Key elements

Personality is considered to be made up of three parts:


The id is the primal part of the personality, driven by instinct and desires. It is
motivated by the desire to avoid pain and seek pleasure. The desire to seek
pleasure is known as ‘Eros’. It is also suggested to consist of a death instinct
‘Thanatos’ which drives aggressive urges.

The ego acts as the rational part which operates on both conscious and
unconscious levels. It works on the ‘reality principle’, recognising what is real and
understanding the consequences of behaviour. It is in charge of reasoning and
problem solving. It aims to balance the demands of the id and superego with
respect to the real world.

The superego is made up of our morals and values, which are passed on from our
parents. It is the part of our personality which allows us to experience guilt. It
attempts to inhibit the demands of the id, particularly those relating to sex and
aggression.

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Freud used the metaphor of an iceberg to explain his theory. He believed that the tip
of the iceberg visible above the water represents the conscious part of the mind, made
up of the ego and superego. The majority of personality and behaviour is the result of
the large part of the iceberg below the water, which represents the unconscious mind
and is made up of the id, superego and a small amount of the ego.

Freud’s View of the Human Mind: The Mental Iceberg

Conscious Thoughts
Level
Perceptions

Subconscious Memories
Level Stored knowledge

Fears
Violent motives
Unacceptable sexual
desires
Unconscious Irrational wishes
Level Immoral urges
Shameful
experiences
Selfish needs

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Freud believed that the different parts of the personality can be in conflict, e.g. the id
can be driven towards aggressive behaviour but the superego tries to impose morality.
This conflict is presumed to cause anxiety. The role of the ego is to try to balance the
desires of the id and superego. Freud hypothesised that the ego tries to manage this
conflict through several unconscious processes:
Repression: individuals are unaware of their own memories, feelings and motivations
because they attempt to stop unwanted thoughts from becoming conscious.
Displacement: a negative impulse is shifted towards something or someone else,
e.g. your partner makes you angry and you slam the car door.
Denial: blocking unwanted thoughts from conscious awareness, e.g. an alcoholic
may refuse to admit that alcohol is bad for their health.
Regression: moving back in time psychologically when faced with stress, e.g. a
toilet-trained child may show infant behaviours such as bed-wetting during a period
of stress.
Projection: attributing unwanted thoughts to another person, e.g. your superego
may find it unacceptable that you feel hatred towards another so you project those
feelings onto the other person and decide that they hate you.
Sublimation: focusing an unwanted impulse or drive into another socially acceptable
activity, e.g. focusing aggression into performing well on the sports field.

Psychosexual development

Freud believed that our early experiences shape our personality. He identified five
stages of development which he believes were focused on obtaining pleasure through
a body part:
Oral (0–18 months) characterised by the child showing sucking behaviour
Anal (18 months–3.5 years) characterised by withholding or discarding faeces
Phallic (3.5–6 years) characterised by genital fixation
Latent (6 years–puberty) characterised by no sexual urges
Genital (puberty–adulthood) characterised by sexual urges

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Treatment based on psychodynamic theory is known as psychoanalysis. This form of

therapy can take a long time and relies on an individual’s memory as it is based on
past experiences. The aim of psychoanalysis is to bring the unconscious to conscious
awareness in order to release repressed emotions and experiences. The release
of repressed emotions is thought to be cathartic and healing. There are several
techniques associated with psychoanalysis:
Dream analysis: Freud believed that repressed ideas come to the surface during
sleep when we dream. He therefore analysed the content of dreams in therapy.
Transference: is thought to occur when unconscious feelings are transferred from
one person to another, e.g. a client in therapy may transfer their feelings about a
parent onto the therapist.
Free association: this is a therapy technique where the person talks about
whatever comes into their mind. The therapist provides a list of words, e.g.
childhood, school or brother, and the client immediately responds with their first
thought. The aim of this technique is to identify repressed memories or feelings.

Several followers of Freud disagreed with aspects of his theory and proposed their
own developments in psychodynamic theory:
Carl Jung

Carl Jung criticised Freud’s suggestion of Oedipus conflict and focus on sexuality.
Jung agreed that childhood experiences shape personality but he proposed that
future aspirations also play a role in personality development. Jung proposed that
unconscious awareness consisted of two levels
1) personal unconscious (similar to Freud’s understanding of the unconscious)
2) collective unconscious (a level of unconscious shared with our evolutionary
ancestors)

Alfred Adler

Alfred Adler moved away from Freud’s view of psychoanalysis and focused on what he
termed ‘individual psychology’. One of the most significant aspects of his theory is the
notion of the ‘inferiority complex’, a lack of self-worth which was believed to exist in
the subconscious, often driving individuals to overcompensate.

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 Section 2: Introduction to counselling skills theories

Did you know?

One of Freud’s most famous ideas is known as Oedipus complex, in which
conflict arises in young boys because they become infatuated with their mothers
and want to get rid of their fathers.

Person-centred theory
Please read the following as it will help you to answer question 10.

Carl Rogers (1902-1987) is responsible for developing the person-centred approach

to counselling and it is based on his belief that all humans have the ability to reach
their potential, which he called the ‘actualizing tendency’.
The theory is called person-centred because the emphasis is on the way each
individual sees and experiences the world and on the individual being empowered
to identify issues and come up with solutions to resolve them. Rogers believed that
everyone is a ‘potentially competent individual’ who could take something useful and
positive from this type of therapy. Sessions based on person-centred theory are led by
the individual and guided by the therapist.

Key elements

We learned about Rogers’ three core conditions on page 5. To recap, they are:
Empathy – i.e. the ability to understand and share another person’s feelings.
Congruence (also known as genuineness) – i.e. demonstrating that the
counsellor is genuine and authentic by showing warmth and understanding.
Unconditional positive regard (UPR) – i.e. the counsellor demonstrates that
they value and accept the client as they are; they show that they genuinely care
for the client.

These three core conditions are at the heart of person-centred theory and are used
as guidance for the techniques used in helping relationships.

24 © LCG 2018
 Section 2: Introduction to counselling skills theories

Self-concept

Rogers believed that self-concept is very important and influences every individual’s
personal perception and perception of the world. Self-concept refers to everything that
makes a person individual, including their:
self-worth – what individuals think of themselves
ideal self – the person individuals would like to be, including their ambitions
self-image – how individuals sees themselves, i.e. body image, whether they are a
good person or a bad person

Organismic valuing process

Another factor in Rogers’ person-centred theory is the organismic valuing process.

This is when individuals trust their own judgment and ability to select behaviour that is
appropriate to different situations.

Did you know?

Person-centred therapy belongs to the humanistic school of therapy. Humanism
refers to a psychological approach in which the whole person is studied by
reflecting on their own behaviour.

Cognitive behavioural theory

Please read the following as it will help you to answer question 11.

The third main psychological theory used in counselling is cognitive behavioural,

which is a combination of two different approaches:
‘cognitive’ – i.e. how we think
‘behavioural’ – i.e. how we act
Early cognitive behavioural therapies were developed by psychologist Albert Ellis
(1913-2007), who developed Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) in the
1950s, and psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck (1921-), who developed cognitive therapy
in the 1960s.

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 Section 2: Introduction to counselling skills theories

Ellis

Ellis developed REBT, which is a form of cognitive therapy, in 1955. He was a

psychologist who practiced psychoanalysis in his early career until he realised he
had more success when he helped his clients to identify their ‘irrational beliefs’ and
replace them with ‘rational beliefs’.
REBT is a method of solving problems by teaching individuals to ‘identify, challenge
and replace self-defeating’ (negative) beliefs with ones that promote emotional well-
being by achieving goals. Ellis developed the ABC Technique of Irrational Beliefs in
1957, which contains three steps that are used to explore how an individual has
developed an irrational belief:

A Activating event

B Belief

C Consequence

Activating event – i.e. an event that has led to an emotional response or negative
thinking.
Belief – i.e. the negative thoughts that they have associated with the event.
Consequence – i.e. the negative feelings and associated dysfunctional behaviours
that followed the event and the belief.

According to Ellis, it is not A, the activating event, that causes C (consequences),

negative emotions and behaviours, it is in fact B (belief), or the way a person
interprets an event, that causes the consequences (C).

26 © LCG 2018
 Section 2: Introduction to counselling skills theories

Beck

Beck studied individuals suffering from depression and found that they often
experienced streams of negative thoughts, which he called ‘automatic thoughts’.
Automatic thoughts are identified in three areas:
personal – i.e. about themselves
the world
the future
Beck found that individuals experiencing negative thoughts felt better and were able
to think more clearly after he had worked with them to identify and evaluate them.
This led the patients to feel better emotionally.

Key elements

Cognitive behavioural theory is based on the belief that the way we think about or
perceive a situation can impact the way we feel, react or behave.
Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is based on cognitive behavioural theory, in
which certain areas are connected and impact each other, in CBT, each problem is
separated into five areas:
situations
thoughts
emotions
physical feelings
actions

Once a problem has been broken down into the five parts, the counsellor will work
with the client to analyse thoughts, feelings and behaviours to understand the impact
they have. Techniques will then be introduced that help the client to change unhelpful
behaviours and thoughts.
An important element of cognitive behavioural theory is that behaviour can only be
changed with practice, so in CBT, the client is asked to practice any changes or
techniques every day. This means that they will eventually become second nature
to the client and the positive thoughts, feelings and behaviour will overrule negative
thoughts, feelings and behaviour.

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 Section 2: Introduction to counselling skills theories

Negative thinking

Negative thinking is a main element of cognitive behavioural theory; theorists believe

that individuals become trapped in a ‘vicious cycle’ of negative thoughts that lead to
negative behaviour.

Case study
Ted has been writing his first novel for five years and, now that it’s finished, he wants
to have it published. He sends it to 20 different literary agents. After 6 months,
Ted has had rejection emails from 7 of the agents and no response at all from
the remaining 13. As a result, Ted thinks his writing isn’t good enough and feels
that his dream is never going to come true. He starts to feel depressed and stops
writing, because he believes that his writing isn’t any good and feels there’s no
point. He also stops reading, which makes him feel worse. Whenever he thinks he
wants to write, the memory of the rejections comes back and he changes his mind.
This is an example of how negative thoughts can be a vicious cycle; the fear of
rejection stops Ted from doing what he loves most.
If Ted went to CBT, he would learn to recognise the negative thoughts associated
with writing and would be taught techniques to combat them and techniques to
focus on the positives of his situation. For instance, whenever negative thoughts
were stopping him from writing, he would search online for publishing stories of
famous authors, like Sylvia Plath, who used to pin her (tens of) rejections to her
living room wall.
He also joined a small writing group, where he had to write a new piece every
week and received constructive feedback from his tutor and peers, which he used
to improve his writing. Following CBT, each time a negative thought came up,
Ted used the techniques he learned to combat it, thus reducing its impact and
improving Ted’s quality of life.

Did you know?

Studies have found CBT to be as effective for treating some forms of depression
and anxiety as medication prescribed by doctors. CBT is recommended for the
treatment of anxiety disorders by the National Institute for Health and Clinical
Excellence (NICE), which is an independent organisation that provides guidance
based on evidence for the NHS on the best ways of treating certain diseases.

28 © LCG 2018
 The differences between psychodynamic, person-centred and cognitive
behavioural theories
Please read the following as it will help you to answer question 12.

You have explored the main elements of the psychodynamic, person-centred and cognitive behavioural theories. Read the
information in the following table to learn about the differences between the three theories.
Theory Main elements
counsellor is the ‘expert’ and leads the client throughout the sessions
behaviour can be explained by unconscious processes (things we are unaware of)
personality and mental health in adulthood are shaped by childhood experiences
personality is believed to exist as three parts (id, ego and superego)
these three parts of personality represent different levels of consciousness (conscious, preconscious,
unconscious)
Freud proposed five stages of psychosocial development that each focus on obtaining pleasure through the
body
psychoanalysis is a form of therapy developed from the psychodynamic approach

Psychodynamic
‘free association’ is used, where the client uses a word or image to spontaneously lead to another without
there being a logical connection
is a long-term form of therapy
requires trust between counsellor and client
Section 2: Introduction to counselling skills theories

Workbook 1
29
30
Theory Main elements
counsellors refer to those who come to them as ‘clients’ rather than ‘patients’

© LCG 2018
the counsellor is not viewed as an expert, rather he/she and the client are equal
change is client – not counsellor – driven
by placing an emphasis on the present and future during sessions, person-centred therapy focuses on
helping the client to effect change and experience growth
therapy should be simple, comforting and optimistic
individuals should focus on their perceptions of how they are living in the present
‘actualising tendency’
individuals feel physically and psychologically safe
counsellors show empathy

Person-centred
counsellors are accepting (unconditional positive regard)
counsellors are genuine in their interactions with clients
theory is based on the quality of the counsellor-client relationship rather than on specific techniques other
than accepting, listening, sharing and understanding
requires trust between counsellor and client
focuses on the impact of beliefs, attitudes and thoughts on behaviour
focuses on identifying and challenging negative thought patterns and behaviour to ‘break the vicious cycle’
focuses on current problems, not those experienced in childhood
tends not to consider the causes – rather focuses on behaviour
uses techniques to teach individuals how to cope with negative thoughts and problems
is a short-term form of therapy
Section 2: Introduction to counselling skills theories

counsellor and client work collaboratively together to set objectives

past experiences may be explored to understand the role it plays in the way an individual sees the world

Cognitive behavioural
uses a structured framework to identify and focus on specific problems
requires honesty from the client
 Section 2: Introduction to counselling skills theories

Knowledge Activity 5: Go online and research which of the three approaches

explored in this section would be best to help someone dealing with obsessive
compulsive disorder. Explain the reasons for your choice in the space below.

How counselling theory underpins the use of

counselling skills
Please read the following as it will help you to answer question 13.

When a counsellor has a good understanding of the main counselling theories and is
able to practice the skills associated to each, it means they are better able to figure
out which counselling skills are most appropriate – and should be used – for each
different client. Without a thorough knowledge of counselling theory, a counsellor will
be ineffective.

When a counsellor has a number of counselling theoretical models to choose from

when working with a client, they will have skills which will enable them to:
Choose the most appropriate form of therapy.
 more effective – i.e. they will have frameworks that can be used to guide them
Be
through the counselling process. For example, they will know to let the client lead
the conversation (as in person-centred counselling) or to guide the client through a
structured process of change (as in CBT).

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 Section 2: Introduction to counselling skills theories


Have appropriate skills – e.g. they will be empathetic and genuine and will use
language that lets the client know that they are not being judged (as in person-
centred counselling), or they will use their skills to guide the client to look back at
past events and link them to current feelings (as in psychoanalysis).

Make the client feel comfortable exploring difficult or negative experiences or
feelings by interacting with them on an equal footing, i.e. the counsellor is not seen
as superior to the client.

Knowledge Activity 6: Which of the three approaches discussed in this

section do you think would be best to help an individual who lost their job
a year ago, whose confidence has been knocked, is feeling depressed and
is struggling to find the motivation to start applying for new jobs?

Summary

In this section, you have learned about:

the elements of counselling theories
the significance of counselling theory

32 © LCG 2018
 Section 3: Extension activities

Further your knowledge and understanding of the topics in this workbook by

completing the following extension activities.
Using counselling skills

Extension Activity 1: Create a list of the things you would talk about
with a new helpee in their first session.

Workbook 1 33
 Section 3: Extension activities

Introduction to counselling skills theories

Extension Activity 2: Of the theories you explored in section 2

(psychodynamic, person-centred and cognitive behavioural), which do
you think you would be most likely to use as a helper? Explain why.

Well done!
You have now completed Workbook 1 and should
attempt the assessments. If you require any help or
guidance, please contact your Assessor/Tutor.

34 © LCG 2018
Please use this page for additional notes

Workbook 1 35
 COGNITIVE BEHAVIOURAL THEORY

USEFUL STRATEGIES

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