Rinjani English Gabung

RINJANI
FROM EVOLUTION TO GEOPARK
Heryadi Rachmat
DIRECTORATE OF ENERGY, MINERAL AND

MINING RESOURCES
MINISTRY OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLANNING/BAPPENAS
2019
RINJANI
FROM EVOLUTION TO GEOPARK
Author
Heryadi Rachmat
Editors
Adi Maryono
A. Djumarma Wirakusumah
Translator
Mimin Karmini
Contributors
Togu Pardede, Willian Simamora dan
Dedi Rustandi
Cover Ilustration, Layout & Grapchic Art

Asep Saefudin
Published by
Directorate for Energy, Mineral and
Mining Resources, Bappenas
First Edition 2019
ISBN
978-602-70448-5-2
All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced in any
form without written permission from the Publisher
FOREWORD
GOVERNOR OF WEST NUSATENGGARA
GUBERNUR NUSA TENGGARA BARAT
Mt. Rinjani complex is one of areas in West Nusa Tenggara Province

having wonderful, unique, rareness, and amazing natural views. Mt Rinjani
was the first area in Indonesia which was proposed as a Geopark. After many
involved persons and institutions working hard through a long journey,
finally in 2018 Unesco declared that Mt Rinjani complex was grouped as an
International Geopark, so-called Unesco Global Geopark (UGG). We are
aware that Mt. Rinjani complex truly is a heritage of history, ecosystem, and
culture living and growing together which should be preserved properly.
That is why the Asia Pacific Geopark Network (APGN) give a great
appreciation to the Indonesian Government by holding an Annual Meeting
among APGN country members in September 2019 with the Indonesian
Government especially West Nusa Tenggara Province government as the host
of the Meeting, which is a great honor for us.
The book with the tittle of “Rinjani : From Evolution to Geopark”
written by Dr. Heryadi Rachmat has contributed to an increasingly extensive
treasure of knowledge about magmatic evolution history on Mt Rinjani to
the world. We also know that they have an important role in the journey to
make Mt. Rinjani complex to be the UGG.
We thank and congratulate the author who has introduced the West
Nusa Tenggara and the UGG of Rinjani deeply and broadly to the world
trough this book. Hopefully this book will be useful.
Mataram, 16 Juli 2019
GUBERNUR NUSA TENGGARA BARAT
Dr. H. ZULKIEFLIMANSYAH, S.E., M.Sc.
RINJANI From Evolution To Geopark iii

FOREWORD
VICE PRESIDENT OF
GLOBAL GEOPARK NETWORK
I am grateful to the almighty God for

the opportunity to deliver a remark about
this book entitled 'Rinjani-From Evolution
to Geopark'. I hope that this book will
become an important reference for those
who want to learn about geological
diversity and processes, especially about volcanic activities, which
formed Mount Rinjani and its beautiful landscape.
Rinjani has been officially designated as a UNESCO Global
Geopark (UGG) in 2018 due to its internationally valued geological
heritage. This feature is manifested in the diversity of geological
processes and materials that make up Mount Rinjani and the whole of
Lombok Island. Based on its its geological heritage, and in connection
with all other aspects of the area's natural and cultural heritage,
Rinjani has advanced as a nature tourism destination in the ASEAN
region.
As one of the 148 UGG in the world, Rinjani must continue to
show a close relationship between geological, biological, and cultural
heritages of the people of Lombok. More importantly, the people of
Rinjani must continue to show enthusiasm for and inspirations
towards its geopark by protecting and conserving the natural and
cultural heritage, improving tourism related infrastructure, and
promoting sustainable tourism and public education. At the same
time, the development of Rinjani geopark should continue to
provide economic benefits and increase the livelihood of the local
people. I believe that the most innovative action is to introduce geo-
tourism activities through geo-heritage development as a new
product that can attract tourists.
My appreciation and congratulations to Dr. Heryadi Rachmat,
the author of this important book, for his success in writing geological
iv RINJANI From Evolution To Geopark

stories for the general public. Undoubtedly, this book will help to
improve the public's understanding of Rinjani's geological diversity so
that they can better appreciate, look after and manage the geopark,
as well as add value to tourism-based experiences.
Vice President of GGN

Prof. Emeritus Dato Dr. Ibrahim Komoo
RINJANI From Evolution To Geopark v

FOREWORD
Ministry of National Development
Planning / Bappenas
Supported by the rich and unique

geology, biodiversity and culture,
Indonesia has a lot of geopark potential
that can be developed into an area that has
economic value without reducing
conservation efforts. We believe that a good, participative and
sustainable Geopark development can surely contribute to the
achievement of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
Following Presidential Regulation No. 9 of 2019, the
implementation of sustainable geopark development is stipulated in
the 5-year National Action Plan for Indonesian Geopark
Development. The Ministry of National Development Planning /
National Development Planning Agency will prepare an action plan
based on the principles of the SDGs together with various
stakeholders.
In the context of SDGs, geopark development contributes to
Indonesia's efforts to achieve at least eight SDGs goals and targets,
namely: No Poverty; Quality Education; Gender Equality; Decent
Work and Economic Growth; Sustainable Cities and Communities;
Responsible Consumption and Production; Climate Action; and
Partnership for the Goals. It will also be carried out through the
integration of conservation–education–holistic local economic
development pillars. This process requires a strong commitment from
all relevant parties from both local and national level to develop and
protect the geological heritage along with the biodiversity and
cultural diversity in the area.
We congratulate the author of this book for elevating our minds
by informing and explaining in a delightful way. I hope your work will
bring benefits to all of us and provide valuable information about the
evolutionary history of the formation of the Rinjani volcano to
vi RINJANI From Evolution To Geopark

become a world-recognized Geopark region. This book, specifically,
is the embodiment of educational pillars that will provide a scientific-
based storyline that educates people and all stakeholders, like
Geopark slogan said “celebrating earth heritage, sustaining local
communities”. Hopefully, this book will be an inspiration that will
encourage anyone to look forward to continuing the campaign for
sustainable development.
Deputy for
Maritime Affairs and Natural Resources
Dr. Ir. Arifin Rudiyanto, M.Sc
RINJANI From Evolution To Geopark vii

FOREWORD
Ministry of Tourism
Lombok as one of Indonesia

tourism destination has been known
as the Island of Thousand Mosques. Like
its neighbor, Bali, Lombok offers various
number of tourist attractions namely beautiful white sand
beaches, cluster of green hills and mountains, exotic culture,
and the most popular one: the gorgeous view of Mount Rinjani
with the Lake called Segara Anakan.
Mt. Rinjani Lombok has been designated as a UNESCO
Global Geopark in 2018. Rinjani Lombok Geopark is the first
geopark in Indonesia to become a global member of the
UNESCO Geopark Networking which was proposed by the
Association of Indonesian Geologists and Geological Agency in
2007. This status has improved the image of Lombok and
support the development of tourism in this island to
provide more impact for local community, tourism industry
itself, and other related stakeholders in the region.
The Ministry of Tourism encourages the development of
sustainable tourism in any tourism development by considering
sustainability of nature, socio cultural values, and local wisdom
as well as economic benefits for society. One can be done in the
form of geo-tourism.
I would like to record my appreciation to the editorial
board for putting together this book. "Rinjani: from
Evolution to Geopark" written by Dr. Heriyadi Rachmat will
increase knowledge about the geographical features associated
with tourism and recreational activities that can be aware by
the activists of the tourism industry for the protection of the
viii RINJANI From Evolution To Geopark

natural phenomena and areas in Rinjani Lombok UNESCO
Global Geopark. This is also a support for the implementation
of the Symposium Asian Pasific Geopark Network (APGN) held
in Lombok on September 2019.
Deputy Minister of Industry and

Institutional Relations,
N.W. Giri Adnyani
RINJANI From Evolution To Geopark ix

FOREWORDS
Head of Geological Agency
M ount Rinjani dominates wonderful

landscape all over Lombok Island West
Nusa Tenggara province. Mount Rinjani is the
second highest active volcano in Indonesia,
reacting a height of 3726 metres above sea
level, is visible from the neighbouring islands such as Bali in the West
and Sumbawa in the east.
Mount Rinjani was recently recorded as the largest catastrophif
eruption since the last 10.000 years that occurres in the year of 1257
based on ice core, and aerosol sulfate deposit archives in Greenland
North pole. The Segara Anak lake within the caldera was formed
during the eruption. A cinder cone known as Gunung Barujari is
currently the center of volcanic activity inside the caldera. The lake
covers an area of 11 km2 and its volume was estimated at 1.02km3.
This is the largest hot volcanic lake in the world. The lake elevation is
at 2000 meters above sea level. The Eruption has produced various
volcano materials and provide the diversity and the geological
heritages
Today, the beautiful landscape around Mount Rinjani and the
majestic lake of Segara Anak become one of the best tourist
attractions in Indonesia. Along with tourism activities, mitigation
efforts keep on going in order to guarantee the safety of the tourist as
well as the people living around the volcano. Because of its beauty
and in accordance with its potential, the Rinjani was declared as one
of the International Geopark (UGG) and as its consequences, Rinjani
must be ready as a conservation area as well as education, and local
economic development that relies on volcanic geotourism.
x RINJANI From Evolution To Geopark

The Author, which is an Expert and Practitioner in Geology, give
us a comprehensive, clear concept and illustration enriched with an
accurate scientific data, analysis and modelling presented into a series
of stories, about how the Rinjani transformed from the active
volcano into Geopark. The explanation was very well basic material
to relate it up to the International Geopark of Rinjani.
In accordance with the Presidential Regulation of the Republic
of Indonesia Number 9 year of 2019 which states that Minister in
Geological Sector should stipulate Geological Heritage, this book
may bring a lot of new information and knowledge about Rinjani
which has unknown before and can be applied by the stakeholders,
especially for the Geological Agency and other Ministries related on
the Rinjani Geopark.
As Indonesia in September 2019 trusted to be the host of the
international event of 6th APGN (Asia Pacific Geopark Network)
Symposium to be held in Lombok island where Mount Rinjani
located, this book will be a perfect scientific package complement to
the event.
Head of Geological Agency

of Indonesia
RUDY SUHENDAR
RINJANI From Evolution To Geopark xi

FOREWORDS
IAGI
R injani which is the second highest

volcano in Indonesia (after Kerinci in
Sumatera) has been known having
beautiful panoramic view. This active
volcano with crater lake and caldera has
attracted many tourists, mountain climbers as well as scientists to
visit, learn, doing research or just for recreation.
The book of “Rinjani: From Evolution up to Geopark” well
covered all aspects of Rinjani. The research result (geology and
volcanology) by the authors on the Rinjani evolution as a volcano,
starting since the pre-caldera until pasca-caldera periods has been
explained and written well in scientifically popular manners. On
the other hand, the diversity and the geological heritages around
Rinjani have also been described in detail sequentially, that could
add more information and attractiveness on Rinjani as tourist
destination. The long journey and hard working of the promoters
(including the authors) to bring Rinjani area toward having a
Geopark status in both national and global level becoming
interesting notes and documentations in this book.
I know very well the authors of this book (Dr. Heryadi
Rachmat dan Ujang Kurdiawan, S.T.) as activists and researchers of
volcanology and geo-tourism. Even the co-author is the Chairman
of Indonesian Society of Geotourism (MAGI/ Masyarakat
Geowisata Indonesia) which is the sub-organization of IAGI
(Indonesian Association of Geologists). Their activities in the
volcanology and geo-tourism fields could not be denied at all. It is
xii RINJANI From Evolution To Geopark

proved by the record of their books/ papers written and published
to educate and sharing information to Indonesian stakeholder on
geo-tourism and geopark.
The launching of this book is well in line with the government
program to elevate the geo-tourism sector as stipulated in the
Presidential Regulation (Peraturan Presiden), No. 19/ 2019 on the
Geopark. This book could also be a good support to the
international event of 6th APGN (Asia Pacific Geopark Network)
Symposium to be held in September 2019 in Lombok island where
Mount Rinjani located.
IAGI as an independent professional organization of
Indonesian geologists congratulate and fully support to the
publication of this book. It should be a part of the socialization
and education programs to the community. We believe this book
could help the earth lovers to understand the natural
phenomenon especially Rinjani volcano, and it could also be used
as the guidance for geo-tourism/ excursion activities in the Rinjani
Geopark area
Jakarta, 10 July 2019

Ikatan Ahli Geologi Indonesia (IAGI)
Sukmandaru Prihatmoko
Chairman
RINJANI From Evolution To Geopark xiii

PREFACE
The book with a tittle “Rinjani: From Evolution to Geopark” has

been written discussing scientifically the earth process of Mt. Rinjani
from the past up to the present. Along with the implementation of
geological protection through the development of geo-tourism of Mt
Rinjani complex has also been made as a support for the realization of
the geopark concept.
In this book, we also describe the characteristics of the products
of Mount Rinjani which were produced from the volcanism period
before, during, and after the caldera formation. In addition, we also
explained the enormity of the eruption in 1257 and the consequences
of the world climate, including the testimonies contained in written
relics on the island of Lombok.
On the other hand, Mt. Rinjani was the first area proposed to be
a geopark by the Indonesian Geologist Association (IAGI) in 2007.
The proposal processes for Rinjani Geopark was begund in 2013 and
finally, the Rinjani Global Geopark was declared in 2018 bu Unesco.
These all wee obtained through various activities starting from
surveys, national seminars and international seminars.
Those processes above are also illustrated in this book, including
geological, biological, and cultural diversity which become the three
pillars in developing a geopark.
For completing and finishing this book, we would like to express
our deepest gratitude to various parties who support this effort,
especially to Ir. Josaphat Rizal Primana, M.Sc (Director of Energy,
Mineral and Mining Resources Ministry of National Development
Planning/Bappenas, (who provided the budget for publishing this
book), Prof. Emeritus Dato' Dr. Ibrahim Komoo (Vice Presiden of
GGN), Ir. Rudy Suhendar, M.Sc (Head of the Geological Agency), Dr.
Eko Budi Lelono (Head of Geological Survey Center), Ir. Sukmandaru
Prihatmoko, M.Sc (Chairman of Indonesian Association of Geologist),
Prof. Mimin Karmini (Translator), Rachel Harrison, Ph.D., Ujang
Kurdiawan, S.T and Atep Kurnia, as the main contributors, Nadhirah
Sheraphine, S.T, M.Sc, and Reina Shafina (Indonesian Geotourism
Society), Mutaharlin (Chairman of the Mt. Rinjani Volcano
xiv RINJANI From Evolution To Geopark

Observation Post), and various other parties that we cannot state one
by one.
We hope that this publication will be able to add insight and
provide benefits to all interested parties in managing the protection
and utilization of geological, biological and cultural diversity that
exist around the UNESCO Global Geopark of Rinjani Lombok with
the aim of the sustainable educating and improving the economic
standard of the local community.
Bandung, August 2019
Author
Dr. Heryadi Rachmat
(Chairman of Indonesian Geotourism Society)
RINJANI From Evolution To Geopark xv

CONTENTS
Foreword Governor of West Nusatenggara ......................................... iii

Foreword Vice President of Global Geopark Network ......................... iv
Foreword Ministry of National Development Planning/Bappenas ...... vi
Foreword Ministry of Tourism ............................................................. viii
Head of Geological Agency Head of Geological Agency ...................... x
Foreword IAGI ................................................................................... xii
Preface .............................................................................................. xiv
Contents.............................................................................................. xvii
Chapter 1. Welcome to the Thousand Mosque Island ......................... 3
Governance .......................................................... 5
The Regional Geology of Lombok ......................... 9
Demography ......................................................... 14
Chapter 2. Dewi Anjani Palace ........................................................... 17
Second Highest Volcano .................................................... 20
The Climbers’ Paradise ...................................................... 23
Chapter 3. Eruption History and Current Volcanic Activity.................. 29
Current Activity ................................................................ 34
The Effect of Earthquake on the Activities of Mt. Rinjani ...... 38
Chapter 4. Loaded Notes Rich Research ............................................. 43
Research on Volcanic Eruption Products ....................... 48
Chapter 5. Do Not Forget Samalas ..................................................... 59
A Mystery Eruption in 1258 ............................................ 63
Babad Lombok - Stories from the Ancient Kingdoms ....... 69
revealed the Samalas volcano
Chapter 6. Old Story The Arga .......................................................... 79
Lava Flow Post Rinjani Caldera ...................................... 88
Rinjani Caldera Pyroclastic rocks ..................................... 89
Contents xvii
Chapter 7. Research Again Rinjani Geology ........................................ 93
Rock Products before Formation of Rinjani Caldera ............. 96
Rock Products after the Formation of Rinjani Caldera .......... 97
Pre-establishment of Pyroclastic rocks Distribution of ........... 101
Rinjani Caldera
Distribution of Pyroclastic rocks Syn-Caldera Rinjani ............ 104
Distribution of Pyroclasticrocks Post-Caldera Rinjani ............ 104
Chapter 8. Origin of Magma Rinjani Caldera Lava ............................. 113

Origin of Magma Lava Pre-Caldera Rinjani...................... 116
Origin of Magma Lava Post-Caldera Rinjani..................... 116
Origin of Pre-Pyroclastic Magma, Syn- and....................... 116
Post-Caldera Rinjani
Effect of Plate Tectonics on Volcano formation................ 117
Type of Volcanic Eruption Forming Rinjani Caldera
Rare Earth Elements And Lava Trace Elements from......... 118
Pre- aAnd Post- Establishment of Rinjani Caldera
Chapter 9. The Magmatic Evolution Model Rinjani Caldera................ 123

Magmatic evolutionary model of the Rinjani Caldera...... 126
based on pre-caldera lava flows
Magmatic evolutionary model of the Rinjani Caldera...... 126
based on post-caldera lava flow
Magmatic evolutionary model based on Rinjani.............. 127
Caldera pre-caldera pyroclastic deposits
Chapter 10. The Future of Rinjani World Geopark................................ 131
Geopark in Indonesia................................................. 137
Geopark Rinjani......................................................... 137
Rinjani Geopark Site................................................... 142
Chapter 11. From the Summit of the Volcano to the Geological............ 149
Heritage of the World Geopark
Batulayar to Punikan.......................................................... 152
Tiu Pupus to Mayung Putih................................................ 155
In the Vicinity of Rinjani.................................................... 157
xviii RINJANI From Evolution to Geopark

Grenggengan Until Aik Kalak............................................. 163
Between Narmada and Korleko......................................... 164
Chapter 12. Biodiversity Cultural Wealth............................................. 171

Biological Diversity............................................................ 175
Culture Diversity................................................................ 178
Chapter 13. How Next ??.................................................................... 185

Presidential Regulation Number 9 of 2019 as................... 188
the legal based for Geopark Development
Scientific, International, Regional and Local Meanings......... 190
Geopark Supporting Opportunities.................................. 192
Biodiversity Protection.................................................... 193
Towards the 6 th APGN Host......................................... 194
References .......................................................................................... 203

List Of Therminology............................................................................ 207
Geological Time Scale .......................................................................... 213
About The Author................................................................................. 214
About The Editors................................................................................. 216
Testimony .......................................................................................... 219
Contents xix
CHAPTER 1
WELCOME TO THE
THOUSAND MOSQUE ISLAND
Mosques occupy every village throughout the island of
Lombok. The existence of the Muslim place of worship is
a sign that on this island the majority of the people are
Muslim. Therefore, it is not surprising that Lombok Island
is known as the island of a thousand mosques (Pulau Seri-
bu Masjid).
Lombok is one of the main islands that make up the
Province of West Nusa Tenggara (NTB). Overall, 278 small
islands are located around the islands of Lombok and Sum-
bawa, the other main islands. Of the hundreds of islands,
32 of them have been inhabited (BPSNTB, 2012).
Masjid Hubbul Wathan Islamic Center, is one of the largest and

Grandest Mosques in West Nusa Tenggara.
(Foto: islamiccenter_ntb)
Welcome to the Thousand Mosque Island 3

NTB Province is located between 115o46’-119o5’ East
Longitude and 8o10’-9o5’ South Latitude, with a land area of
20,153.15 km² which runs from west to east. One third of
the area is Lombok Island, reaching 5,435 km², and placing it
at number 108 from the list of islands based on its size in the
world. The city of Mataram is the capital of NTB Province.
Lombok island is separated by the Lombok Strait from
Bali on the west and the Alas Strait on the east from Sumba-
wa. The island is more or less round in shape with a kind of
“tail” on the southwest side which is approximately 70 km
long. This island can be reached from Java Island through the
island of Bali by using private vehicles and public transport
from Jakarta, Bandung, Semarang, Yogyakarta, Malang, Sura-
baya and Bali. This road trip crosses the Bali Strait which con-
nects Ketapang-Gilimanuk Port and Lombok Strait which con-
nects Padang Bai Port - Lembar by using sea transportation.
The climate is generally dry. However, it is better if com-
pared to the average climate of Sumbawa Island. The average
rainfall on the island of Lombok is 2000-4000 mm, while
rainfall on the island of Sumbawa averages 500-1000 mm.
This climate situation affects the pattern of the spread of ag-
ricultural activities and the spread of the population. Because
about two thirds of all NTB agricultural areas are on Lombok
Island.
Lombok is traversed by the Wallace Line, a biogeograph-
ic area that includes a group of islands and islands in central
Indonesia, separate from the exposure of the Asian and Aus-
tralian continents by deep straits. The name Wallace itself was
taken from novelist Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913) who
described the biological boundaries of his zoogeographic re-
gion.
During about six years of research in the Dutch East In-
dies, Alfred Wallace concluded that the diversity in Indonesia
4 RINJANI From Evolution to Geopark

was different between the western and eastern parts of Indo-
nesia. According to him, this diversity is related to the pattern
of distribution of Asian and Australian fauna. Alfred drew a
dividing line extending from north to south, precisely extend-
ing from the Makassar Strait to the border between Bali and
Lombok.
Thus, the Wallacea region includes the islands of Sulawe-
si, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Sumba, Timor, Halmahera,
Buru, Seram, and many small islands in between. In general it
can be said that the Wallacea region contains all of Sulawesi
Island, Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku. This area is located be-
tween the Sunda Shelf or Sunda Shelf in the west, and Sahul
Exposure or Sahul Shelf in the east. The total land area of the
Wallacea area is around 347,000 km².
As a result, Lombok has a unique flora and fauna, be-
cause it is a meeting point for the influence of the two con-
tinents. This position makes it an attractive place to conduct
research and studies on nature and biology.
For tourism development, Lombok Island is located in
the golden triangle of the main tourism destinations in In-
donesia, namely Bali Island in the west, Tana Toraja and Bu-
naken in the north, and Komodo Island in the east. Lombok
also has a golden triangle of national and international cross-
ing, Surabaya in the west, Makassar in the north and Darwin,
Australia, in the east. This position gives blessings to Lombok
Island because it is not only strategic as a tourist destination
but also as a transit point for sailing ships from Darwin.
Governance
Administratively, Lombok Island consists of four regencies
and one city, namely West Lombok Regency, Central Lombok
Regency, East Lombok Regency, North Lombok Regency and
Mataram City.

The area of West Lombok Regency is ± 2,215.11 Km²,
which consists of a land area of ± 862.62 km² and sea area
of ± 1,352.49 km², based on the provisions of Law No. 26 of
2008 concerning the establishment of the New Autonomous
Region dated 30 December 2008.
West Lombok Regency is divided into 10 subdistricts, 88
villages and 671 hamlets, where Sekotong Subdistrict has the
largest area with an area of ± 330.45 km² and the smallest is
Kuripan District with an area of ± 21.56 km².
Geographically, West Lombok Regency is located be-
tween 115o46’ - 116o28’ East Longitude and 8o12’ - 8o55’ South
Latitude. The capital city is located in Gerung, which has an
area of ± 2,215.11 km², a land area of ± 862.62 km² and sea
area of ± 1,352 km².
The natural condition is in the form of mountains that
stretch from Lingsar District to Narmada District and become
a source of river water that flows into the central region and
empties into the west coast; hilly areas located in the southern
part include Sekotong and Lembar Subdistricts in the south; as
well as a low-lying area, which extends from the Eastern edge
to the West.
The area of Central Lombok Regency covers 1,208.39
km². Its position is at 82°7’-8°30’ South Latitude and 116°10’-
116°30’ East Longitude, longitudinal starting from the foot of
Mount Rinjani in the north to the coast of Kuta Beach in the
South with several small islands around it.
Because the area stretching from north to south, the lo-
cation and height of Central Lombok varies from zero (0) to
2000 meters above sea level. The topography is still similar to
other regencies on the island of Lombok. The capital city of
the regency is in the city of Praya, which has an altitude of 100
to 200 meters above sea level. In government administration,

this region consists of 12 subdistricts, 127 village and 12 ham-
lets, with a total of 1,354 hamlets and 59 neighborhoods.
Entering East Lombok Regency, the area lies at 116o –
117o East Longitude and 8o – 9o South Latitude with an area of
2,679.99 km² consisting of land area of 1,605.55 km² (59.91%
of East Lombok area) and sea of 1,074.33 km² (40.09% area
of East Lombok).
The topographic altitude in East Lombok is quite varied
starting from 0 meters above sea level which is a coastal plain
in the southern part of East Lombok to 3,775 meters above
sea level in the form of Rinjani Mountains in the northern
part. The capital of the district is Kota Selong with an altitude
of 148 meters above sea level.
Furthermore, North Lombok Regency. Initially this dis-
trict was part of the West Lombok Regency. Administratively
North Lombok Regency consists of 5 subdistricts and 33 vil-
lages and 332 hamlets. The five subdistricts are Pemenang,
Tanjung, Gangga, Kayangan and Bayan sub-districts, while
the capital of North Lombok is Tanjung. Overall, the area of
North Lombok reaches 80,953 Ha. The area is located in the
western part of Lombok Island, located between West Lom-
bok Regency and Lombok Strait.
Topography of North Lombok along its territory from
the south bordering West Lombok Regency, namely Pe-
menang, which is part of the mountains and Hutan Pusuk Pas
belongs to North Lombok Regency. Besides its condition, it is
a mountainous region starting from the south, bordered by its
beaches which are quite clean with beautiful scenery.
Forests cover 36,186.35 Ha or 44.70% of the land area
reaches 809.53 km2, which consists of Mount Rinjani Na-
tional Park covering 12,357.67 Ha, Rempek Protection For-
est covering 630.22 Ha, Pusuk Forest covering 11,042.56 Ha,

Fixed Production Forest of Pandan Mas 739.78 and Mount
Rinjani covering 4,431.74 Ha and Forests Limited production
of 6,984.38 Ha.
North Lombok Regency has 92 springs. In addition to
groundwater, North Lombok Regency has river surface water
sources originating from four fairly large and upstream rivers
located around the slopes of Mount Rinjani which empties
onto the west coast (Lombok Strait), namely Sungai Rangsot,
Bentek River, Sokong River and Braringan River.
The last administrative area is the City of Mataram. The
city was formed based on Law No. 4 of 1993 concerning the
Establishment of the Municipality of Mataram Level II. The
city is the capital city of NTB as well as an education center
and the circulation of goods and services with the entrance to
the west is Selaparang Airport, to the south via Sheet Harbor
coming from Padang Bai (Bali) and east of Kayangan Harbor,
Labuan Lombok coming from Sumbawa Island .
The city of Mataram is located in the western part of
Lombok Island, located between West Lombok and Lombok
Strait districts, with a new position between 116o04’-116o10’
East and between Longitude 08o33’ and 08o38’ South Lati-
tude.
Topographically, this city is a lowland, medium and the
rest north of the mountains and hills. The city of Mataram is
in a position 50 meters below sea level with an interval of
about 9 km.
The area of Mataram City is 6130 Ha (61.30 km²). In
2006, the area that was originally measuredwas only in the
sub-districts, namely the Sub-District of Ampenan, Mataram
and Sub-District of Cakranegara with a total of 23 sub-dis-
tricts. Based on Mataram City Regional Regulation Number
3 of 2007. Regarding the expansion of the District and Ur-
ban Areas, the City of Mataram is divided into six sub-dis-

tricts, namely the Subdistrict of Ambon, Sekarbela, Mataram,
Selaparang, Cakranegara and the Subdistrict of Sandubaya,
which are further divided into 50 subdistricts and 304 Envi-
ronment.
With two areas that have contrasting natural vegetation,
the northern and central parts of Lombok are greener and-
more fertilethan southern Lombok. Vegetation in the north
and center is strongly influenced by Mount Rinjani. There are
five naturetourist parks (TWA Suranadi, TWA Kerandangan,
TWA Bangko Bangko and TWA Peelangan in West Lombok
District and TWA Mount Tunak in Central Lombok District).
The southern part of Lombok has more dry vegetation
but it is decorated with a stretch of white sand beaches that
extend from east to west. The hilly contours of Lombok cre-
ate beautiful reliefs and unique bay shapes. In addition to
the stretch of beach with diverse characteristics for various
water sports activities. In addition, southern Lombok also has
traditional villages that are still inhabited by the Sasak tribe,
indigenous people of Lombok Island.
The Regional Geology of Lombok

The natural existence of Lombok Island is inseparable
from the geological process that occurred here. Regionally
this island was mapped by Mangga et al. (1994), rock deposits
are divided into several rock formations, intrusive rocks and
massive volcanic rocks, and alluvium that age from Tertiary
(Early Miocene) to Recent.
The landscape of Lombok Island is characterized by the
Quaternary volcanic morphology that occupies the northern
part of the island. The terrain morphology is in the middle,
extending in a west-east direction as a sedimentary basin, and
undulating hilly morphology is formed by Tertiary rock For-
mation.

In general, the geology of Lombok Island can be divid-
ed into three parts, namely the northern, central and south-
ern parts. The northern and the middle parts are occupied by
Plio-Pleistocene to Recent volcanic rocks from the activities of
Rinjani Volcano (Fig. 1.1).
The northern part consists of volcanic complexes with
the cone of Mount Rinjani as its peak which rises as high as
3736 m above sea level and it is an active volcano.
In the eastern flank, a caldera is formed which is filled
with water and it is known as Lake Segara Anak, where in the
middle part there is a young volcanic cone named Mount
Rombongan and Mount Barujari. The middle part is the low-
lands as sedimentary basins which are filled with pyroclastic
deposits resulting from the activities of the Quaternary volca-
nic complex and Mount Rinjani and secondary processes after
the formation of these deposits.
The southern part is built by Tertiary volcanic units (Old
Andesite Formation) and underwater volcanic series, where
the upper part is covered by reef limestone with the intercala-
tion of calcarenite and marl with the age ranging from Oligo-
cene to Early Miocene (Sudijono, 1997). This rock unit is re-
ferred to as the Pengulung Formation (Mangga, 1997) which
was formerly known as “Old Andesite Formation” (Van Bem-
melen, 1949).
Mangga et al. (1994) stated in more detail, that the old-
est rock groups in the Lombok area were scattered in the
southern part, Late Oligocene-Early Miocene. The Pengulung
Formation is interfingering with the Kawangan Formation
(Tomk) forms the intercalation of quartz sandstone, claystone
and breccia in the Middle Miocene age. Both formations were
intruded by intrusions consisting of dacite Dasite and Basal
(Tmi) from Middle Miocene age, resulting in alteration and

mineralization of sulfide ores and quartz veins in the intrusive
body. Both formations are unconformably overlain by the
Ekas Formation (Tme) composed of limestone/calcite, local-
ly crystalline of Late Miocene. The three Formations formed
hills in southern Lombok.
Furthermore, the three old rock units are unconformably
overlain by the Lombok Volcano Rock Group whose ages
range from Late Pliocene to Early Plistocene. The rock group
consists of Kali Palung Formation (TQp) which consists of in-
tercalations of calcareous breccia and lava, with the Selayar
Member (TQs) in the form of tuffaceous sandstone, tuffaceous
clay with a thin carbon intercalation, Kalibabak Formation
(TQb) consisting of breccia and lava, and the Lekopiko For-
mation (Qvl), which consists of tuff containing pumice, lava
breccia and lava.
The Lombok Volcanic Rock Group is unconformably
overlain by Quaternary massive rocks Volcanoes and are
supposed to be derived from G. Pusuk (Qhvp), Mount Nangi
(Qhvn) and Mount Rinjani (Qhvr) in the form of lava, brec-
cia and tuff. While the youngest rock unit is alluvium (Qa)
consisting of, granule- pebble, sand, clay, peat, and coral frag-
ments.
Stratigraphically, Mount Rinjani is underlain by Neogene
clastic sedimentary rocks (including limestone), and locally
by Oligo-Miocene volcanic rocks. The Quaternary Volcano
itself produced mostly pyroclastics, which is in some places it
intercalates lava. Lithology records some of the known erup-
tions in history. Since 1847 there had been 7 eruptions, with
periods of rest of as short as 1 year and the longest 37 years.
From the side of the bedrock, the Lesser Sunda Islands
are part of the Sunda Mountain System. The Indo-Australian
Plate/Crust subduction to the Eurasian Plate in this region is

Fig. 1.1. Regional Geological Map of Lombok Island (Mangga, at.al, 1994).
related to the Banda Arc. The Lesser Sunda Islands consisting
of the islands of Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Sumba, Flores, and
Timor. Lombok and Sumbawa are two oceanic islands, which
are islands that appear in oceanic crust that are isolated from
continental crust. The constituent of the inner volcanic arc in
the easternmost Sunda Arc system comes from the Eurasian
Crust fragment which borders Sundaland in the southeast.
These two islands are archipelagic, while Bali Island is the re-
sult of Indo-Australian crust subduction to the Eurasian crust
as a continental margin volcanic island.
Then, from the overburden, this is related to the geo-
logical conditions of the NTB region with the oldest rocks
of Tertiary age and the youngest is Quaternary, dominated
by volcanic rocks and alluvium. Tertiary rocks on Lombok Is-
land consist of intercalation of quartz sandstone, claystone,
breccia, lava, tuffs, pumice and laharic breccia. Alluvium and
coastal deposits are quite extensive on the island of Lombok.
Demography
The Sasak tribes are native inhabitants of Lombok who
live in more than two-thirds of the island. There are also the

Samawa and Mbojo tribes that come from Sumbawa Island,
the Balinese tribe who have been in Lombok since the begin-
ing of the 15th century, and a small group of Chinese and
Arab descendants who are thought to have inhabited Lom-
bok island hundreds of years ago.
The population of Lombok Island in 2013 was recorded
at 3.2 million people or 70% of the total population of NTB
Province, which was divided into 1.5 million men and 1.7
million women. Population distribution by sex as happened
on the island of Lombok strongly supports the development
of the tourism industry, considering the development of the
tourism industry which is a hospitality service-based industry
in desperate need of the availability of female workers.
At present, the tourism industry in Lombok absorbs more
female workers than male workers, which can be seen from
the absorption of per-sector labor in Lombok where the pro-
portion of female workers working in the trade, hotel and
restaurant sector is 28, 86%, while male workers is only
12.30%.

CHAPTER 2
DEWI ANJANI PALACE

Sasak people believe that Mt. Rinjani is closely related to
the myth of Dewi Anjani. The implications of this belief for
the Sasak people are very significant. Dewi Anjani appears
in rituals organized by indigenous peoples.
For example, ritual ceremonies are held for someone
or a family member who is afflicted with an illness, when
planning the location and building of a new house, when
first cutting the hair of a baby, at the time of departure of
a pilgrimage, when a smallpox outbreak occurs and when
a woman is pregnant. The elder (penowaq) is in charge of
inviting the spirits of the ancestors and Dewi Anjani, the
ruler of Mt. Rinjani with the help of women who are no
longer menstruating/menopausal. Clerics are in charge of
leading the prayers.
Savana landscape on the slope of Mt. Rinjani

(the palace of Dewi Anjani)
Dewi Anjani Palace 19

Sasak people believe that Mt. Rinjani is closely related to
the myth of Dewi Anjani. The implications of this belief for
the Sasak people are very significant. Dewi Anjani is believed
to appear in a ritual ceremony organized by indigenous peo-
ples.
Once upon a time, there was a spirit queen at the top of
Mt. Rinjani, named Dewi Anjani who had a pet bird called
Beberi that had a silver beak and steel nails. At that time Lom-
bok was barely inhabited
One day, a guard of the Queen’s palace, named Son-
gan reminded the queen of her Grandfather’s message. Her
grandfather advised Dewi Anjani to open the forest for resi-
dents to live. Dewi Anjani intended to carry out her Grandfa-
ther’s message. The Queen and her Guard explored the dense
forests and Dewi Anjani named the island “Sasak Island”.
In Sasak folklore, Dewi Anjani is sometimes said to be
a female spirit guarding Mt. Rinjani. However, according to
the Sasak elders, Dewi Anjani taught students who wanted to
extend their religious knowledge to a higher level at the foot
of Mt. Rinjani.
Dewi Anjani opened the forest for residents to live. She
was helped by Berberi, her bird pet. Berberi flattened the for-
est with his silver beak and steel nails. Berberi transformed the
dense forests into flat land. This land became inhabited and
farmed by residents to support their lives. At present, Sasak
Island is better known as Lombok Island.

Second Highest Volcano
The Mountain that became a palace of Dewi Anjani is
located in the northern part of Lombok, and it is the second
highest mountain in Indonesia, and is included in the seven
summits of Indonesia. The Cartenz Pyramid in Papua and Mt.

Fig. 2.1. Cone morphology and the top of Mt. Rinjani, view from the east.
Kerinci in Sumatera only defeated the height of the peak of

Mount Rinjani.
Mt. Rinjani, has an altitude of 3,726 m above sea level
and is located at 116°28’ East Longitude and 8°25’ South lati-
tude. It is one of the most active volcanoes in Indonesia. Mt
Rinjani is second in altitude after Mt. Kerinci, which has an
altitude of 3,805 m above sea level in Jambi - West Sumatra,
and has a lake caldera with an active volcano, making it the
highest volcano in Indonesia, and one of the highest volca-
noes in the world.
Rinjani is a stratovolcano and has a crater with varying
morphology. The main morphology of Rinjani is a volcanic
caldera with volcanic cones (Fig. 2.1). Its morphology is elon-
gate with a slope of 60°-80°. Basically rocks are comprised of
lava and pyroclastic fall deposits.

The morphology of the volcanic cones that occupies the
caldera and the cliffs of the caldera wall, namely the cones of
Mt. Barujari, Mt. Rombongan, Mt. Rinjani, and cones of Mt.
Manuk. Slope gradient ranges from 30°-70°, with a radial riv-
er flow pattern, while the bedrock is in the form of lava flows
and pyroclastic deposits. The high hilly morphology and low-
undulating ridges are each located in the east, west and at the
top slopes of the Rinjani complex and the lower slopes of the
Rinjani complex. Each of the last two morphologies are char-
acterized by having steep cliffs with a slope of 30° -80° and
the slope of less than 30° respectively
On the west side of the Rinjani cone, there is a caldera
with an area of approximately 7,000 m × 6,000 m, extend-
ing east-west. Surrounding the caldera, from the northeast,
west, to the southeast, it is filled with water, forming a cres-
cent lake measuring 2,400 m x 2,800 m. The lake, which is
located in the northeast to the west, is named Lake Segara
Anak, and on the southeast side named Segara Endut. This
lake is around 11,000,000 m2 and its depth is 230 m, with
an estimated water volume of 1,375 million m3. Lake water
flows on the north-northeast side through the upper stream
of the Kokok Putih River.
In the east of the caldera there is a cone known as Mt.
Barujari or Mt. Tenga, composed of lava and loose material
(pyroclastic rocks). This cone has a crater measuring 170 m x
200 m at an altitude between 2,296 m - 2,376 m above sea
level. In the northwest there is another cone known as Mt.
Mas or Mt. Rombongan. The last eruptions of Mt. Barujari
were on 25th October 2015 and 3rd November 2015.
The activity of Mt. Rinjani was observed and monitored
by the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources (MEMR)
through the Geology Agency, by placing Observation Posts in

Sembalun Lawang Village, Sembalun District, and East Lom-
bok Regency.
A Climbers’ Paradise
Mt. Rinjani is a popular destination for climbers from all
over the world because of its beauty. This mountain is a mag-
net that attracts many people to the top and its surroundings.
Each year there are thousands of people, both local visitors
and visitors from abroad.
There are several lines that are often used by climbers,
namely via Sembalun, Senaru, and Torean. The Senaru hiking
trail is the most crowded climbing route, this is because in ad-
dition to being a trekking tour, it is also often used as a hiking
trail by indigenous people who perform traditional / religious
rituals at the top of Rinjani or Lake Segara Anak.
The climbing route is Senaru - Pelawangan Senaru - Lake
Segara Anak on foot. The travel time is around 10 - 12 hours
through the tourist route, which is in the primary forest and
along the tourist path, where resting facilities are provided
at each post. From the gate of Senaru to Lake Segara Anak
there are three posts. From Senaru the climbers go straight up
the wall of Rinjani caldera, and then descend down to Lake
Segara Anak.
From Lake Segara Anak to Pelawangan Sembalun, takes
around 4 hours, from Sembalun Battlefield to puncak Pinjani
it takes 4-5 hours.
Climbing to the top is generally done at 02.00 a.m., to
catch the sunrise from the summit of Mt. Rinjani where visi-
tors can enjoy views of the entire island of Lombok and even
Bali when the weather is clear and sunny (Fig. 2.2).
The Sembalun path is a popular route for fans of trek-
king. The route is the gate of Sembalun Lawang - Pelawangan
Sembalun – Top of Mt. Rinjani. The journey may take 9-10

Fig. 2.2. Crowds of visitors at the top of Mt. Rinjani
hours. This path is very dramatic because it passes through

savanna and the ridge back crosses a tortuous mountain with
ravines on the left and right of the path.
The journey starts from Sembalun Lawang to Mt. Pla-
wangan for about 8 hours. Arriving in Plawangan there are
two choices, namely climbing to the top of Rinjani or Sega-
ra Anak. From Plawangan to the summit of Rinjani can be
reached in about 3 hours in the dry season. The route to
Segara Anak can take 2.5 hours by stepping down the cliff. At
the edge of the lake climbers can see the cones of Barujari and
Mt. Mas. Barujari on the edge of the lake can be reached in
1.5 hours.
Compared to Senaru, the climbing path is not too steep,
but because it is dominated by savanna, the climbers can en-
joy the beautiful scenery of vast meadow and forest along the
verdant valley to the east side of Mt. Rinjani, and the beauty
of the Alas Strait and the Sumbawa Island from far away.

Meanwhile, if passing through the Torean line, along this
path, from Torean Village to Tiu River (the boundary of Mt.
Rinjani National Park, TNGR), which is the Post I, the ascent
traverses vast pasture fields, plantations and production for-
est. The slope is between 20 - 45% distance of Torean Village
with TNGR limit (Post I) ± km 5.00 km with a slope of ±
10-30%. Distance from Post III Torean toward Plawangan is
approximately 3.5 km with a slope of about 30-40%. Along
the way, the climbers traverse between two mountains and
enjoy the views of Koko Putih River.
The enthusiasm of the climbers to Mt. Rinjani continues
to increase. In 2014, the number of climbers of Mt. Rinja-
ni reached 50,000 people. This figure shows an increase of
around 200% compared to 2013, which reached 24,114 peo-
ple. The detail, during April-December 2014, Rinjani was visit-
ed by 44,000climbers through Sembalun, Senaru, and Tim-
benuh. Thus, the average number of climbers was 5,000 per
month.
Of this number, international climbers reached 14,463
people, originating from France (1,179 people), Germany
(731 people), the Netherlands (630 people), England (583
people) and Canada (402 people). The majority of climbers
are from around Rinjani and other areas in Indonesia.
There are many reasons behind visiting Rinjani, which
administratively, belongs to West Lombok, North Lombok,
East Lombok and Central Lombok regencies. Mt. Rinjani is
the second highest volcano in Indonesia after Mt. Kerinci. In
addition, the mountain has a good potential for Geotourism,
like the panorama of the caldera, the lake, peak of caldera,
waterfalls, hot springs, caves, historical eruptions and new
lava flows.
The boom in mountain climbing, which includes the
TNGR, was initially better managed (Fig. 2.3). This result-

Fig. 2.3. A line of enthusiastic climbers on the slope of Mt. Rinjani.
ed in the establishment of the Rinjani Trekking Management

Board (RTMB) or the Trekking Rinjani Development Agency
in 2003. The forum consists of TNGR, the Division of Mining
and Energy and the NTB Provincial Culture, tour guide associ-
ations, non-governmental organizations, nature lovers clubs,
as well as local communities who all want to manage trekking
to Rinjani so that it is more coordinated, including routinely
cleaning garbage at the top of Rinjani twice a month.
Through this forum, Rinjani also succeeded as a world-
class achievements, in the form of the World Legacy Award
for the category of Destination Stewardship from Conserva-
tion International and National Geographic Traveler 2004
and the Tourism for Tomorrow Award in 2007.
Unfortunately, since 24th April 2014, due to issues with
the management of RTMB, the organization for Mt. Rinjani

was closed pending clarity the impact of the closure was that
garbage flooded Mt. Rinjani.
Since January 2015, the number of climbers who entered
through Sembalun and Senaru gate reached more than 7,000
climbers. However, the climbing route of Rinjani was covered
in garbage.
There are indeed appeals and efforts from TNGR. One
way is to give climbers plastic bags for carrying their garbage
so that they bring it back down. However, most climbers do
not carry it anymore, but discarded the plastic rubbish bags
when traveling down the mountain. Obviously, in the minds
of most of the climbers there is no awareness to clean the en-
vironment. While other climbers who care about the cleanli-
ness complained it to right agency, and they proposed to stop
the sale of tickets to Mt. Rinjani.

Mt.Rinjani Complex, view from Senaru.
CHAPTER 3
Eruption History and

Current Volcanic Activity
Within two centuries, since the middle of the 19th
century, Mount Rinjani has been active. The first re-
corded eruption was in 1846. At that time, the natu-
ralist Heinrich Zollinger said that in 1846 the activities
of Mt. Rinjani were in a fumarolic stage, furthermore
the eruption took place in Mt.Rinjani caldera (Mt.
Barujari and Mt. Rombogan/Mas). While in the last
period, in 1884, Natuurkundig Tijdschrift voor Ned-
erl.Indie, v. 45, stated that the smoke and flames of
fire could be seen on the first few days of August.
Flank Eruptions Mt. Barujari in 2009 and volcanic ash

soaring to 1.000 m height.
Eruption History and Current Volcanic Activity 31

Entering the 20th century, Mount Rinjani has been active
since 1901. At that time, on June 1, 1901, 23:00 there was a
sound of an explosion, and the next night in Mataram a fine
rain of ash occurred. Five years later, in April 1906, at 9:15am
a sound of another explosion was heard. While on Novem-
ber 30th, 1909, at 21:15pm ash rain in Lombok lasted until
December 2nd. After that, the activity increased in the form
of thick smoke. River water was also recorded as murky.
On November 4th, 1915, a smoke column from Mount
Rinjani appeared. In several decades, Mt. Rinjani showed its
activity again in 1944. On 30th May, smoke was above the
peak of Mt. Rinjani. According to Petroeschevsky, the activity
began on 25th December in 1943. At 16:00 pm a roar was
heard and thick smoke arose. At night there were fire flashes
and continuous lightning. Earthquakes were felt to between
the 25th and the 30th of December accompanied by large
roars. A heavy rain of ash fell over 7 days, destroying vegeta-
tion and houses.
Mt. Rombongan or Mt. Mas emerged from the lake
(2110 m), which is located in the northwestern part of the
foot of Mt. Barujari, extending towards the north and west
(Fig. 3.1). Mitrohartono (1969) calculated that the amount
of new material released at that time was around 7.4 x 107
m3. Kusumadinata (1969, 1973) using the Yokoyama formula
(1956 - 1957) calculated the heat energy of 2.3 x 1024 erg,
while the magnitude of the eruption was 8.98 and the Atomic
Equality of 273.8.
Two decades after the eruption in 1944, Mount Rinjani
was active again in 1966. The signs, on March 28th, Lom-
bok Island were shaken by earthquakes. Since then there have
been strong blasts heard from Segara Anak. Entering May 21st
1966 it was noticed that the top of Mt. Punduk, to the south
of Mt. Barujari crater, the sand from the bottom of Segara

Fig. 3.1. Mt. Rombongan (2110 m asl)
Anak blew out towards the north widening west and east.
The contact of hot sand with Segara Anak water caused steam
and billowing smoke.
Kusumadinata (1969) stated that the so-called hot sand
was essentially new lava that appeared on the east slopes of
Mt. Barujari reaching Segara Anak in the north and Segara En-
dut in the south. Mitrohartono (1969) calculated the distribu-
tion of lava to be 954,350 m2 with a volume of 6.6. 106 m3.
Kusumadinata (1969) calculated the heat energy as 2.1. 1021
erg. a huge of eruption 6.44 is equal to Atomic Bomb 250.0.
In the mid-1990s, this mountain rose again from its break
in 1994. On June 4th, at 02.00 am, there was a very strong
explosion from the Rinjani Caldera, heard from the village
of Sembalun. At 8.00am, thick black smoke went up into the
air and reached a height of 400 m from the top of Mt. Pla-
wangan. On June 6th, at 17.40 pm a rain of ash occurred
around the Observation Post with a thickness of 2-3 mm. The

explosion point was derived from Barujari and lasted until the
beginning of January 1995.
The eruption caused no direct casualties, but due to the
accumulation of the eruption material containing ash in the
upstream rivers flowing into the village of Aikmel causing
flash floods and 31 people, who were bathing in the river-
banks, were washed away. Losses caused by the eruption of
Mt. Barujari, was mainly to garlic farmers due to crop failure
because crops were damaged by ash. The volume of eruption
material was 15,036,405, 07 m3, with thermal energy around
4.7 X 1023 erg.
Entering the 21st century, Mt. Rinjani remains active. This
can be seen from its activity since 2004, namely in October
of that year there was an ash eruption. After five years, on
May 2nd, 2009 at 16.01, an eruption of dark brown smoke
reached an altitude of 1000 meters above the eruption point
at Mt. Barujari accompanied by a sound of a weak blast. The
flow of lava from the point of explosion was directed into the
Lake Segara Anak.
On November 19th, 2010 at 17:00pm, the activity level
of Mt. Rinjani was lowered from Level II (Beware) to Level I
(Normal). This was based on a decrease in seismic activity and
surface activity, which was visually observed.
Current Activity
An increase in activity of Mount Rinjani occurred in 2015.
According to observations and evaluations from the Center
for Volcanology and Geological Disaster Mitigation (PVMBG,
2015-2016), on 25th October 2015 at 10:04, an eruption was
observed with a column of ash as high as about 200 m above
the crater of Mt. Barujari, which was inside the Rinjani Calde-
ra. The height of the New Peak was 2300 m above sea level,
and the height of the eruption ash column was 2500 m above

sea level (Fig. 3.2). Ash fall was limited to the vicinity of the
slopes of the Barujari Peak towards the southwest (based on
Himawari Satellite).
During the 1st to the 22nd of October 2015, 17 earth-
quakes with maximum amplitude tremor 2-12 mm and du-
ration of 10-120 seconds, 13 earthquakes of Low Frequency
(LF), 3 earthquakes of Shallow Volcanic (VB), 3 Deep Volcanic
Earthquakes (VA), 4 Local Tectonic Earthquakes (TL) and 10
Remote Tectonic Earthquakes (TJ) were recorded. On Octo-
ber 25th 2015 at 10.04am, it was recorded 1 time the ex-
plosion earthquake with maximum amplitude of 3 mm and
earthquake duration of 20 seconds.
Thus, based on visual and instrumental data analyses and
considering the potential danger threat, the start date of Oc-
tober 25th, 2015 13:00 the activity level of Mt. Rinjani was
raised from Level I (Normal) to Level II (Watchful).
Fig. 3.2. View of the caldera after the eruption, at the end of 2015.

Furthermore, based on “Evaluation of Mt. Rinjani Ob-
servation Data until 13th November 2015 at 12:00 Central
Indonesian Time” conducted by PVMBG, there were several
statements related to the activities of Mt. Rinjani. First, the
visual observations showed that the main eruption of Mt.
Barujari produced ash, pyroclastic fall out deposits around
the body Mt. Barujari and lava flows directed towards the
northwest and northeast of the crater Barujari in the Rinjani
caldera.
The flow of lava towards the northeast had entered into
the lake until it reached the inner part of the caldera wall
covering the Batu Pagar area. The contact between lava and
water then produced a thick gust of white smoke dominated
by water vapor.
The threat of eruptions that can directly harm human
lives, namely in the form of lapilli-sized pyroclastic fallout de-
posits (2-64 mm) to bombs (> 64 mm) and lava flows, still
inside the Rinjani Caldera and within km radius of the erup-
tion center.
Second, eruption material with ash size (<2 mm) was
scattered inside to outside of the Rinjani Caldera, in which the
distribution depends on the direction and speed of the wind.
Results of the observation of Emergency PVMBG showed that
the ash affected areas on Lombok Island indicated that the
volcanic ash was distributed in very thin layers with an aver-
age thickness of less than 1 mm. There were no reported casu-
alties or damage to buildings due to the rain of thin volcanic
ash. Monitoring volcanic ash by the Observation post at Mt.
Batur and Mt. Agung in Bali showed that the distribution of
volcanic ash in the east-southeast of Bali Island was very thin
(<1 mm).
Third, the Mt. Rinjani seismicity since November 2nd,
2015 at 11:09 was dominated by continuous tremors. The re-
sults of direct observations in the field carried out during the
3rd and 4th of November 2015 showed that the continuous

tremors were correlated with the continuous explosion of the
cone at Mt. Barujari.
Fourth, since the 3rd of November 2015 from the Ob-
servation Post Rinjani, located approximately 9.5 km to the
northeast Puncak Rinjani crater the white smoke and grey
smoke were coming out continuously, reaching a maximum
height 2,600 m above Barujari or equivalent to 5,000 m
above sea level.
Fifth, presently the explosions are still occurring, indicat-
ing that there is still a continuous tremor recorded with am-
plitude above normal. The calculation of seismic amplitude
(RSAM) until now indicates that the activity patterns fluctuate
with a tendency to decline.
Sixth, the dominant frequency analysis of the earth-
quakes indicated that there had been a transition from wide
frequency band to narrow frequency band, which indicated
the transition from closed system activity to open system ac-
tivity on 2nd November 2015.
This transition then correlates with the start of the effu-
sive phase in the form of lava flows that still continue until
now. This also indicates that until now there has been no
tendency for eruptions to occur with very high explosive ac-
tivity. However, the eruption of the lower-middle explosive
(lava flows and Strombolian eruptions) still occur with the
maximum explosive index of about VEI ~ II.
Seventh, the measurement of the water temperature of
Lake Segara Anak shows that the temperature of the lake wa-
ter rises from the range 20.0 - 21.0°C (June 2015) to the range
36.7 - 38.0°C (9th November 2015). While the temperature
of the hot springs Pancuran Mas increased from 41.0°C to
44.5° C.
Eighth, the results of the Emergency Response Team
PVMBG also showed that lava flows entering Lake Segara
Anak had resulted in increasing water levels of the lake about
1 meter of the condition before eruption, so it was implicat-

ed in changes in water discharge of the River Kokok Putih
flow. This was monitored in the Hydroelectric Power Plant
of (around 10 km northeast of Lake Segara Anak), where the
water discharge had a maximum increase of about more than
2 times higher than normal conditions, that is from about 0.4
m3/second to around 0.9 m3/second. The condition of the
Kokok Putih River, which runs to, the Lake Segara Anak and it
was ending in the north coast of Lombok Island. Throughout
the Kokok Putih river flow, the water is white and transports
eruption material containing ash to fine sand.
This increase in water discharge is also correlated with
satellite monitoring (information from VDAP-USGS) where
the widening of the river was observed about 2-3 times wid-
er along the Kokok Putih River flow at least 4 km from Lake
Segara Anak. Satellite monitoring cannot see further than 4
km due to cloud cover.
Thus, based on visual and instrumental data analysis and
considering the potential danger threat, then until 13th No-
vember 2015 12:00 Rinjani’s activity level is still in Level II
(Beware). However, based on the results of visual and instru-
mental data analysis and considering the potential threat of
danger, starting from January 19th 2015 at 17:00 Rinjani’s
activity level was lowered from Level II (Beware) to Level I
(Normal).
This is based on the fact that the seismic level of Mt.
Rinjani has decreased to its normal condition. Beside, visually,
the surface activity of Mt. Rinjani has already been decreas-
ing which was marked by the explosion and lava flows of
the eruption from the cone of Mt. Barujari that could not be
observed. Monitoring with remote sensing also did not detect
any hotspots in the body Mt. Barujari.
The Effect of Earthquake on the Activities of Mt. Rinjani

On the island of Lombok earthquakes frequently occur.
This is because the Island is located in an area of active seismic

activity, namely at the Indo-Australian plate subduction zone
which is subducted north below Lombok Island in the south
and the geological structure of the Flores Back Arc Thrusting
which is active with a position extending from the Bali sea to
the north of Flores Sea.
The last earthquake occurred on Lombok on July 29th
2018 with a magnitude of 6.4 on the Richter Scale (SR), Au-
gust 5th 2018 (7 SR) and August 19th, 2018 (6.5 SR) caused
severe damage to infrastructure and victims particularly in
the northern, eastern and middle parts of Lombok. Potential
earthquake sources on Lombok Island are located in the south-
ern part of the Indo-Australian plate subduction zone with
the Eurasian plate. While the source in the north is caused by
back arc thrust which lies north of Lombok extending from
the Lombok Strait to eastern Flores (Fig. 3.3).
Fig. 3.3. Lombok Island ( a and c); Lombok Island is flanked by 2 causes
of earthquake in the southern part Indo-Australian Plates and
northern part of Lempeng Eurasia (Fig. b).
(source : Geological Story/geologi.co.id).

The frequency of earthquakes in Lombok has been re-
corded for the last 160 years (Fig 3.4). During this period, an
earthquake of magnitude > 5 SR was recorded.
Fig. 3.4. A damaged of mosque that collapsed, leaving the dome, the effect of
earthquake and liquefaction (source: Photo Antara/Zabur Karuru Reuters.
There is believed to be no significant relationship be-

tween the timing of the devastating 2018 earthquake and ac-
tivity at Mt. Rinjani (Table 3.1).
Therefore, these earthquakes, especially the epicenter lo-
cated north of Mt. Rinjani with relatively shallow (<30 km)
depth, are closely related to the presence of back arc thrust
in Flores.

Table 3.1. Relationship between Lombok earthquake events and Mt. Rinjani eruption.
Eruption History and Current Volcanic Activity

41
The earthquakes on Lombok, including those that oc-
curred on the 29th July, 5th and 19th August 2018, are close-
ly related to the Flores back arc thrust and not related to the
supply of magma for Rinjani from the subduction zone. In
other words, the earthquakes have no direct impact on the
increase in activity at Rinjani.
However, an increase in Rinjani’s activity may be trig-
gered by relatively deep earthquakes (> 50 km) where the
location of the epicenter is in the southern part of Mt. Rinja-
ni. Earthquakes are associated with the Benioff zone, which
means that the supply of magma from the subduction zone
towards the surface can trigger an eruption in the Mt Rinjani
Complex.

CHAPTER 4
Loaded Notes
Rich Research
Since the mid-19th century, Mt. Rinjani began to be
reported to the Dutch colonial public. Until now, Rin-
jani continues to be documented and researched by
both travelers and scientists.
The volcanic activity of Rinjani was recorded
during the Dutch colonial era until 1974, by Indo-
nesian volcanologist Kusumadinata, who collected
data on Lake Segara Anak Crater in the Rinjani Moun-
tains, Lombok (1969) and Volcanic Base Data (1979).
During the occupation, there were 24 records and
research papers on Rinjani and from 1849 to 1974
there were 28 papers that discussed Rinjani.
Sedimentary rock interlayered with pyroclastic materials

from Mt. Rinjani Tua (Samalas).
Loaded Notes Rich Research 45

The first record on Rinjani was written by a Swiss natu-
ralist, Zollinger (1818-1859). In 1849, his article entitled “Reis
over de eilanden Bali en Lombok” was published. With this
note, Zollinger became the first foreigner to try to climb the
peak.
The climb itself was carried out on August 6th, 1846 from
Loijok Village, south of Mt. Rinjani. He reached the peak of
Mt. Sangkareang during a two-day trek. From there he saw
the steaming Lake Segara Anak and Mt. Barujari. However,
because his water supply was low, he canceled the climb to
the summit of Mount Rinjani.
The second record on Rinjani was published three years
after Zollinger’s publication by Junghuhn (1809-1864), a Ger-
man naturalist, who wrote about Rinjani in his great work,
entitled “Lombok, Piek Rinjani.” However, he himself never
climbed Mt. Rinjani. What he recorded was based on triangu-
lar measurements by Van Carnee, regarding theheight of Mt.
Rinjani which at the time was recorded as 1160 feet.
Twenty years later, in 1886, an eruption at Mt. Rinja-
ni, was recorded mentioning that Mt. Rinjani released smoke
and fire in the first days of August 1884.
In 1902, the magazine Natuurkundig published a paper
about the activities of Mt. Rinjani during the year of 1900. It
documents that on November 30th, 1900, in Lombok, ash fall
stopped on the night of December 2nd, 1900. This volcanic
activity originated from the crater of the Rinjani Mountains
and continued an increase in activity emitting thick smoke. A
few months later, Natuurkundig recorded the activity of Rin-
jani on June 1st, 1901. At that time there was an explosion,a
volcanic eruption and throughoutthe night it rained thin ash.
In 1902, Van Heek conducted geological observations on
the island of Lombok, including at Mt. Rinjani. According to
him, the entire western slope of Nangi was buried by erup-

tion material from Mount Rinjani. The road he took to the
volcano was through Sembalun Bumbung.
Furthermore, in 1915, East Lombok controllers reported
that on the morning of the 4th of November 1915 (Fig. 4.1),
a column of smoke was seen over the Rinjani Mountains. The
results of the review stated that the Segara Muncar Crater
was only slightly closed, while part of the crater wall had
collapsed. While most of the Barujari crater was clogged. In
1918, Rinjani was also included in the Annual Indies Topo-
graphic Service Annual Report, that documented that the
North Lombok Mountains were mainly built by the Rinja-
ni volcanic complex with several peaks and lower mountain
ranges east and west.
A year earlier, in September 1917, Van Bemmelen climbed
Mt. Rinjani via Swela. According to him, after Zollinger, other
westerners who had visited Mt. Rinjani included Van Schaik
Elbert, Gruendler, Wormser, Kayser and Termijtelen. When
climbing, Van Bemmelen chose Mt. Plawangan to review the
peaks of Rinjani and Segara Anak (Fig. 4.1).
In his letter to the Governor of the Lesser Sunda Islands,
on December 19th, 1929, Ida Wajan Natra reported that since
1927 a water channel south of Mt. Baru was seen. The fall in
the west side of Mt Baru was greaater than in 1925.
Around the time of Indonesian independence in 1945,
the first article discussing Mt. Rinjani was a letter sent by EGA
Lapre Letter to Volcanologisch Onderzoek in 1948. However
the literature that properly discussed Mt. Rinjani was writ-
ten by Wirjosumatro and Karoma, namely, an investigation
of Mt. Rindjani, Lombok in November 1951. Both of these
investigators climbed from Sembalun Lawang and stayed at
Tengengean, then to Mt. Plawangan and Segara Anak.
In 1961, Purbo-Hadiwidjoyo investigated the possibili-
ty of Segara Anak water for hydroelectricity or irrigation to-

Fig. 4.1. Lava flow in 2015 from the slope of Mt. Barujari towards the north-northeast,
View of the lake on the way to Batu Pagar
gether with Surjo. The conclusion put forward by these re-

searchers was that the use of lake water would create various
difficulties due to the volcanic activity of Mt Rinjani creating
unpredictable lake levels that could overflow dams or walls.
In 1966, Basleman conducted observations of Lake Se-
gara Anak from Mt. Punduk. Inn 1967, Sukardi, while con-
ducting hydrological research on the island of Lombok, also
visited Lake Segara Anak. He looked at the possibility of using
the lake water in the framework of agriculture.
In 1968, Nataprawira, as Head of the NTB Forestry Ser-
vice, made two trips to Segara Anak. He suggested that to get
an overall picture of the situation and conditions of Mt. Rin-
jani, a group of investigators departed from five directions,
namely from Sesaut, Bayan, Batusantek, Sayang, and Sem-
balun. Kusumadinata himself visited the Rinjani Mountains
in 1969.
Research on Volcanic Eruption Products

Research on the activity of Mt. Rinjani is increasingly be-
ing carried out by both domestic and foreign researchers (Fig.

4.2). As a result, many scientific literature in the form of scrip-
tures, theses and dissertations regarding the Rinjani volcanic
complex have been published. Likewise, scientific and popular
writings have been published in scientific journals, magazines
and newspapers.
Specific research on volcanic eruption products has been
conducted by several previous researchers, including Neu-
mann Van Padang (1951) who wrote about the heterogene-
ity of Rinjani Mountains in North Lombok along with the
dimensions of the peaks and craters of the Rinjani cone,the
caldera with its contents, the size of the caldera, the area of
the lake, the cone of Mt. Barujari and Mt. Rombongan.
Kusumadinata (1969) reviewed the estimated height of
Mt. Rinjani Tua which reaches a height of 5,000 m above sea
level, located west of the present Mt. Rinjani (Fig 4.3). As a
result of devastating activity in the form of a large and strong
eruption (Paroxysmal eruption) followed by the collapse of
the mountain body itself, has resulted in the loss of more than
half of the originalbody,and the remaining forms the Segara
Anak Caldera followed by the formation of new volcanoes
(Mt. Barujari and G. Rombongan).

Fig 4.2. Discussion about the volcanic eruption products of the Rinjani
Tua 1257 eruptions (Samalas).
According to Kusumadinata in the Volcanic Data Base

(1979), the eruptions recorded were quite large and produced
lava flows, which occurred in 1944 originating from Mt. Rom-
bongan (± 2110 masl) that emerged from the lake, widened
north and west with as much material as ± 74 million m3. Inn
1966 Mt. Barujari (±2,376 masl) emerged from its crater in
the form of lava flow towards the north and widened west
and east, ± 6,6 million m3 of volcanic material
Foden and Varne (1981) and other authors document-
ed the composition and activity of Rinjani volcano and later
in 1983 wrote about the petrology from a calc-alkaline lava
flow. The study was regional and did not specifically show the
location of sampling from the lava.
Santosa and Sinulingga in 1994 examined the petrogra-
phy of several samples of lava flows found in the caldera,

however, the samples were not carried out systematically and
were only carried out on lava flows formed until 1994.
In 1999, Rachmat carried out research in the form of
sampling for petrographic and geochemical analysis of lava
flows in the caldera formed from 1944 to 1994 and sampling
charcoal for C14 radiocarbon testing in the hot cloud stream
in the Korleko area (Rachmat, 2003).
Research by Nasution et al. (2004), documented the
eruption products of Mt. Rinjani regionally starting from pre-,
syn-, and post-caldera formation. The results of the research
include a geological map of the complex of Mt. Rinjani and
a map of flow and fall pyroclastic distribution on the island
of Lombok formed during the formation of the caldera, with
the age of some of the eruption material. From the results
of the C14 analysis from samples of pyroclastic rocks in the
laboratory “Beta Analytic Inc. Japan”, obtained an age of the
complex material of Mt. Rinjani and the age of the formation
of the Rinjani Caldera which is estimated to be around the
13th century (1210 - 1300).
Rachmat (2013) documented that the lava flow in the
Rinjani Caldera that formed between 1944-2009 has an an-
desitic to basaltic composition with SiO2 content ranging
from 54.73% to 8.88%.
Komorowski et al (2013), and Lavigne, et al (2013) re-
vealed the results of research that are relatively similar to Na-
sution, et al. (2004).
The data was constructed into the form of pyroclastic
distribution maps, falling pyroclastic isopach maps and verti-
cal cross sections of several pyroclastic deposits. His research
was supported by the results of other researchers on ash de-
posits (aerosol sulfate) of Mt. Rinjani found in the North Pole
and South Pole and the history of the Rinjani eruption written
on palm leaves.

A
B
Mt. DJARANKURUS (3243 m)
Mt. RINDJANI (3723 m)
Mt. PLAWANGAN (2656 m)
Southern Caldera Wall
Mt. MAS (G. ROMBONGAN

(2110 m)
Mt. SELAKA
Mt. BARUDJARI (2373 m)

- CINDER CONE
Air Kalak (Hot Spring)
Fig. 4.3. The landscape of the Mt. Rinjani volcanic complex from left to righ
in the eastern region and the 1944 lava flow northward of Rinjani, the wa
1966 lava flow down the slope and the foot of Mt. Baruja

Mt. SANGKAREANG DAJA
(2913 m)
Mt. PLAWANGAN (2656 m)
Mt. BUANMANGGE
(2894 m)
Mt. PUNDUK
Mt. KONDO (Mt. SENGKAREANG
(2947 m)
Mt. SEMPEKAT
Southwestern Caldera Wall

Mt. BARUDJARI
Lava Island 1944
Lava December 1944
ht: A) Peak G and Mt. Rombongan; B) Mt. Barujari and Mt. Rombongan
all of the caldera and inside the caldera, appearance of Mt. Barujari, a
ari and east Mt. Rompok (sketch Kusumadinata,1969).

Fig. 4.4. Sampling of charcoal from the eruption of Rinjani Tua 1257 (Samalas).

The results of the C14 analysis prepared in ‘Eidgenössiche
Technische Hochschule Zurich, Switzerland on the age of the
Rinjani Caldera (Samalas), was 1257 years (Fig. 4.4). Infor-
mation from Tim Lavigne et al. in 2013 became famous in the
world because it was directly published in an international
journal, 2013 .
Mt. Rinjani is one of the three caldera in Indonesia that
formed in the last 750 years. It also has a powerful eruption
history and is actively removing eruption material to date.
Previous studies have emphasized more on pyroclastic mate-
rial, and no one, to date has specifically discussed the mag-
matic evolution of Mt. Rinjani based on eruption products
from lava and pyroclastic during pre-, syn-, and post- caldera
formation.
Thus, research on magmatic evolution based on the anal-
ysis of eruption products supported by the results of analysis
on lava and pyroclastic rocks is important to reconstruct the
relationship between the magmatic evolution of Mt. Rinjani
and the source of magma.

A research team from the Geological Heritage Survey making who pro-
posed Rinjani as the first geopark in Indonesia.
Mt. Barujari, Lake Segara Anak in the Rinjani Caldera
CHAPTER 5
Do Not Forget
SAMALAS
Do Not Forget Samalas 59

In the Middle Ages, Europe and parts of Asia were hit
by drastic climate change. In 1258, it was noted that in
general Europe was hit by a very cold winter. Dry fog hit
France, a lunar eclipse occurred in England, a hard spring
in the north of Iceland, there was famine in Britain, West
Germany, France and northern Italy. As a result of this ex-
treme climate change, outbreaks or pestilence spread to
London, parts of France, Austria, Iraq, Syria and southeast
Turkey.
People who were literate at the time wrote down
their testimonies. Regarding events in France, West Ger-
many, and northern Italy there are statements from Con-
stantienses (1260), Saviginiacensis (1300), Spirenses (1259)
and from de Fracheto (1271). While from England there
were statements from Paris (1259) and de Taxter (1265).
The Script of Babad Lombok, written on palm leaves,

which is stored in the Cultural Museum of Southwest
Nusatenggara (NTB)

Matthew Paris (1200-1259), was a Benedictine monk,
chronicler, script illustrator and mapmaker, who lived in St
Albans Abbey, Hertfordshire, England (Fig. 5.1). One of his
famous writings is Chronica Majora (1259). This Latin text
contains chronicles from the beginning of the world to 1259,
when Matthew died.
Fig. 5.1. Matthew Paris was one of the most famous script illustrator and
mapmaker in London in thirteenth century.

In his book, among other things, the following quotes
are recorded: The north wind blows hard for several months.
Lots of poor people die. Bodies were scattered lying down...
no one dared to approach the sick or dying, for fear of con-
tracting the disease... an outbreak of infectious, unbearable,
attacking the poor. In London, 15,000 poor people died; in
England and elsewhere thousands of people died.
Moreover, later it turned out, at the British archaeolog-
ical excavation carried out between 1991-2007 on the site of
the Augustinian monastery and the St Mary Spital hospital,
Spitalfields Market, London E1, archeologists found more than
10,500 human skeletons. The Museum of London Archeology
(MOLA) report states that the mass graves were victims of
starvation that occurred in 1258.
Analysing these historical records, can lead to the conclu-
sion that the extreme global climate change was a result of
a massive volcanic eruption. During volcanic eruptions, sulfur
and sulphur dioxide are released into the atmosphere which
turninto microscopic sulfate particles in the high atmosphere,
along with volcanic ash particles they refracting sunlight,
which in turn cools the air temperature on Earth can last for
several months or years.
A Mystery Eruption in 1258

Glacial chemical (glacio-chemical) records can be used to
provide estimates of volcanic aerosol sulfates contained in the
stratosphere that are associated with volcanic eruptions and
have been used to estimate the Earth’s response to volcanic
eruptions. The high resolution record of ice cores has also
revealed significant volcanic eruptions, but it is not known
where the volcano originated.
Three decades ago, ice core samples were taken from
Greenland and Antarctica and analysed for volcanic sulfates. In

1980, Hammer and colleagues stated in their paper (“Green-
land Ice Sheet Evidence of Post-Glacial Volcanism and its Cli-
matic Impact”), that the fall of aerosols from volcanic erup-
tions had arrived at the poles since 1258. In 1988, in Annals
of Glaciology, Langway Jr, Clausen and Hammer, measured
the acidity of sulfate ions at several stations in Greenland and
Antarctica, at depths corresponding to 1259. In this study of
anomalies in ice cores, Langway et al. began to unravel the
mystery of the eruption in 1258 (Unknown 1258) .
However, over the past three decades, identification
of volcanoes that are responsible for medieval eruptions re-
mained unanswered or erratic. Some thought that eruptions
originated from Mt. Oktaina (New Zealand), Mt. El Chichon
(Mexico), Mt. Quilota (Ecuador), Mt. Harrat Rahat and Hara
es Sawad in Saudi Arabia (in 1256 and 1270s). Even volcanoes
around the Pacific Ocean were submitted as an answer to the
mystery eruption in 1257.
Furthermore, the search and in-depth research carried
out by various experts finally pointed toa volcano in Indone-
sia, which might not even be well known by Indonesians in
general. In 2013, a text titled “Source of great AD 1257 was
published, mystery eruption unveiled, Samalas volcano, Rin-
jani Volcanic Complex, Indonesia”.
A paper published in the Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS)
vol. 110 no. 42 was the result of research by 15 world volca-
no experts. From Indonesia , Pratomo, a geologist from the
Bandung Geological Agency, Hadmoko from the Geography
department of Gadjah Mada University, Jogyakarta and Sur-
ono, ex-Head of PVMBG were involved. From overseas 12
experts from various renowned campuses in Europe, includ-
ing Lavigne from Université Panthéon-Sorbonne, Degeai from
Université Montpellier, Oppenheimer from the University of

Cambridge, England, and a number of other experts were also
involved.
As stated in the title, this paper interprets that the source
of the mysterious medieval eruption originated from part of
the Complex of Mt. Rinjani, Indonesia.
Lavigne, Takada and his collaborators presented their re-
search on Mt Rinjani at the IAVCEI meeting in 2003 (The
volcanic activity of Rinjani, Lombok Island, Indonesia during
the last ten thousand years, viewed from C14 age dating). This
paper states that “the dating of C14 indicates that the climax of
the eruption that formed the caldera occurred in the period
of the year 1210-1300 ”
Samples that were collected and analyzed by Lavigne
and colleagues in included stratigraphic and geomorphologi-
cal data, physical volcanology, radiocarbon dating, and geo-
chemical tefra. According to the results of his research, the
volcanic eruption around the Rinjani Complex was greater
than the eruption of Mt. Tambora in 1815.
The eruption released 40 cubic kilometers of ash into
space to as high as 43 kilometers, which continued to circle
the earth for some time. The total magma released was equal
to 40.2 ± 3 km3 Dence-Rock Equivalent (DRE). With that
volume, it is estimated that the eruption had a magnitude 7.
The geochemical comparison of glass shards found in ice cores
with material from the eruption in 1257 shows similarities,
making it a reference that strengthens the relationship of the
eruption in 1257. Thus, this eruption became one of the larg-
est eruptions during the Holocene to cause climate anomalies
in 1258, mainly in the northern hemisphere.
The distribution of pre- pyroclastic material from the Rin-
jani Caldera is found inside and outside the caldera. Material
inside the caldera can be seen through observing the inner
caldera wall starting from near the surface of Segara Anak lake
to the lip of the caldera (crater rim).

The position of pyroclastic material alternates with a
pre-caldera lava flow as the main constituent of the body of
the Old Rinjani.
Pyroclastic syn-caldera volcanic rocks resulted from the
eruption of the Old Rinjani (Samalas) which formed the Rin-
jani Caldera in the 13th century. Its pyroclastic flow deposits
spread north, west, and southeast. While the pyroclastic fall
deposits, the fine material spread very extensively westward
from the center of the eruption in the direction of the ellipse
to reach Mount Merapi in Central Java.
The pyroclastic rocks post-dating the Rinjani caldera are
only found in the caldera, as a result of the eruption of the
Mt. Barujari cone that emerged from the bottom of Lake Se-
gara Anak. The pyroclastic rock type produced was scoria, as
a result of strombolian type eruptions from the central crater
and the side crater of Mt. Barujari, which last erupted in 2015.
In early June 2018, the community was shocked by the
discovery of various artifacts around the former pyroclastic
sediment mining area, including in the Tanak Beak Village
which is located at coordinates 8o35,2681’ - 8o35,229’ South
Latitude and 116o17,810’ - 116o17,810’ East longitude. Artifacts
were found to be quite widespread, right at the base of the
sand excavation that contains a lot of pumice as part of the
pyroclastic flow from the Rinjani volcanic eruption in 1257.
As a result of excavations, a long cliff with a height of
9-15 meters remains, and has now been used as a location to
show the eruption material that was deposited. The types of
artifacts that were found by the community consist of ceram-
ics, bamboo, parts buildings where rice is stored, along with
rice grains which were burned by pyroclastic flows. Bones
and teeth of human beings were also discovered.
Pyroclastic flows resulting from the eruption of Rinjani
in 1257, flowed into the sea on the northern coast of Lom-

bok Island, and have produced secondary deposits forming
cliffs reaching 25 meters in height. The pyroclastic deposits on
the northern coast have become a tourist destination, because
there is an interpretation board that explains how the cliff was
formed (Fig. 5.2, 5.3, and 5.4).
Fig. 5.2. Pyroclastic flow deposits (eruption product of Mt.

Rinjani) in Tanak Beak.
Fig. 5.3. Pyroclastic flow eruption of Rinjani 1257 on the north coast of
Lombok Island which enters the sea produces secondary deposits forming
a cliff as high as + 30 m.
Fig. 5.4. Sketches of Samalas pyroclastic flows that entered the sea form-
ing secondary eruption pyroclastic deposits. (Source: modification from
Brooks / Cole: Cengage Learning).

Babad Lombok - Stories from the Ancient King-
doms revealed the Samalas volcano
The puzzle remains, which mountain caused the massive
eruption? Are there written sources from the natives who have
documented the eruptions? According to Lavigne, to answer
that question, he decided to go to Leiden, the Netherlands,
a place that provided Indonesian documentation in the past,
especially at the KITLV Library and Leiden University Library.
Lavigne search paid off, with the discovery of the Babad
Lombok script. According to Sasak and Javanese Literature
(1999) by Morrison, the Babad Lombok has several versions,
namely the manuscript coded HKS 2502, KITLV 324, LOr.
6442, LOr. 6621, LOr. 10,667, LOr. 11,153, and LOr. 10,296
and LOr. 13.90 (Fig. 5.5). While those in the National Library
are coded Bd Codex 395.
From the manuscript containing the history of Lombok
since the Prophet Adam to the political conditions in Lombok
around the period of the birth of the Babad, namely the 18th
century, especially those that were transliterated and tran-
scribed by Wacana (1979), and updated by Suparman (1994).
Lavigne found the name Samalas. This name refers to a vol-
cano that coincides with Mt. Rinjani, according to the manu-
script excerpt and the palm leaf records at the State Museum
of West Nusa Tenggara (Fig. 5.6).
The literature states: “G. Reinjani kularat, miwah gunung
samalas rakrat, balabur watu gumuruh, tibeng desa Pamatan,
yata kanyut bale haling parubuh, kurambangning sagara,
wong ngipun halong kang mati” (Mt. Rinjani landslides, and
Mt. Samalas collapsed, floods of rumbling stones, destroying
Pamatan Village, houses collapsed and washed away by mud,
floating in the ocean, many people dying).
According to the calculations of Lavigne, at. al, Mt. Sa-
malas caused the formation of Lake Segara Anak and is esti-
mated to have a height of around 4200 m. If you refer to the

Flank Eruption Crater at Mt. Barujari which produced pyroclastic and lava of
2004 and 2009, also the 2015 lava flow (Post Rinjani Caldera Forming).
Fig. 5.5. A description of the contents of the Lombok Babad delivered by
a philologist at the NTB State Museum.
Fig. 5.6. In this museum about 1,200 palm leaves are stored
(source: yuliaindahri.blogspot.com).

results of the reconstruction before the eruption, Mt. Samalas
was in the western part of Mt. Rinjani.
The problem is then, what are the implications of this
research for Indonesia? According to Indyo Pratomo (2013),
who is one of the authors of the paper in PNAS, the find-
ings of Mt. Samalas have implications for the discipline of
archeology and disaster mitigation, and provide new research
opportunities in the field of archeology to the history of the
archipelago in the past.
These findings continued to reopen research ideas about
the characteristics of major eruptions in the region, so that at
least in the past 1,000 years it must be investigated because
it could repeat itself.
The Samalas eruption is a challenge to further examine
the patterns of the migration of ancient kingdoms , culture,
and population in the region in the past. For example, he
mentioned the impact of the Samalas eruption on the weak-
ening of the kingdom in eastern Indonesia that is interpreted
to have instigated the invasion of Kertanegara Raja Singosari
to Bali in 1284.
In June 2018, in Tanak Bengan Hamlet, Tanak Beak Vil-
lage and Ranjok Hamlet, Aik Berik Village, North Batukliang
Subdistrict, Central Lombok Regency, objects were found that
were allegedly buried in the eruption of 1257. The objects
in question included items pottery (ceramics) from the Tang
Dynasty, China, human teeth and bones (Fig. 5.7).
The location of the discovery was found at the bottom
of pyroclastic deposits which form cliffs used for pumice sand
sediment mining activities, the direction of which is relatively
west-east with a height of approximately9 meters. This loca-
tion is a former Mining Business Permit Area (WIUP), and the
mining activity has now been stopped by the NTB Provincial
Government because during the excavation activities, several
artifacts were discovered in the form of ceramics which were
allegedly buried due to the eruption of Mt. Samalas in 1257.

From the results of vertical measurements of the layers
revealed by the research team from the Museum of Geology
(2018), eleven different layers were characterized by differenc-
es in color and grain size of each layer, caused by differences in
settling time and the mechanism of pyroclastic deposit forma-
tion. Based on the mechanism of its formation, the pyroclastic
deposits found at this location have two types, namely pyro-
clastic fall and pyroclastic flow.
Fig. 5.7. Observations of artifacts in the form of ceramics, bamboo and skeletons in
Tanak Beak Village (above). Researchers from the Museum of Geology, West Java
Archaeological Center and Denpasar Archeology Center are discussing artifacts found
in Tanak Beak Village and Aik Beri Village (below).

The findings of artifacts in the form of ceramics, rice, bamboo and bones
in hamlets Ranjok, Aik Beri

Summit of Samalas collapsed, the Rinjani landslide destroyed the Village of Obser-
vation. This incident was written on palm leaves in the 18 th century in the Babad
Lombok.

The former Pamatan village which was buried by the results of the Samalas 1257 eruption located in Tanak
Beak Village (stated in the Babad Lombok written on palm leaves in the 18 th century).
CHAPTER 6
Old Story
The Arga
Sanskrit language, from India, has a great influence on
the languages of the Archipelago. The Sanskrit term for
mountain peak is arga. While in Old Javanese or Kawi,
the term arga refers to a very high mountain. Therefore,
Mt. Rinjani can be considered as the Arga, considering the
height of this volcano. Besides being tall, this mountain has
a very long history, so it can be said to be old. This can be
proven from the results of geological studies.
Nasution, et al. (2004), who compiled the Geologi-
cal Map of Mt. Rinjani (Fig. 6.1) and divided the eruption
product into three units, namely: the product before the
Rinjani caldera, when the Rinjani Caldera was formed,
and after the caldera formation which was later modified
(Fig. 6.2) by Rachmat (2013).
Lake Segara Anak, Mt. Barujari Peak, side crater Mt. Barujari,
and lava flow seen from the summit of Mt. Rinjani.
Old Story The Arga 81

Rachmat (2013) reconstructed the history of the Mt. Rin-
jani eruption which began around 1 million years ago. At first
there was a large volcano with an altitude of around 5,000
meters above sea level growing in the northern part of Lom-
bok Island and the volcano was named Rinjani Tua. Then
based on the results of improvements from various sources
(Rachmat, 2016) the history of the eruption of Mt. Rinjani,
after the initial eruption between 11,000 to 6,000 years ago
has grown Mt. Rinjani’s cone on the eastern slope of Rinjani
Tua. Furthermore, in the 13th century or in 1257 there was a
paroxysm eruption of Rinjani Tua (Samalas) which produced
the Rinjani Caldera (Fig 6.3).
The next level of the volcano after the Caldera was
formed again by the eruption of Mt. Rinjani originating from
the Segara Muncar Crater (Scoriae Rinjani Cone) producing
pyroclastic fall deposits around the peak (Fig 6.4).
Fig. 6.1. Geological Map of Rinjani Volcano (modification from

Nasution, et al., 2004)

Fig. 6.2. Cross section of Mt. Barujari and Mt. Rombongan.
The caldera of Rinjani filled with water, formed a lake

and simultaneously grew the Barujari cones, Rombongan, and
Anak Barujari produced a lava and pyroclastic of Skoria Ba-
rujari Cones. Further research has been carried out on pyro-
clastic and lava deposits both outside and inside the caldera.
Previous geological studies have been carried out, including
Rachmat and Mujitahid (2003) which revealed that pyroclas-
tics on the coast of Korleko Village based on C14 at the Geo-
logical Research and Development Center (P3G) laboratory
now named the Center for Geological Survey (PSG) obtained
an age of 14,860 ± 302 BP (1950) or about 14,000 years ago.

Fig. 6.3. The History of the Establishment of the Rinjani Caldera
(Rachmat, 2016)

Fig. 6.4. a) Volcanic structure of strato type, intercalation between lava
flow and phyroclastic deposit (MacDonald, 1972), b) models of lava
flows on volcanoes (Strahler, 1979).
Furthermore Nasution, et al. (2004) in collaboration

with Japanese researchers who have carried out radiocarbon
dating (C14) in Japanese laboratories found that the age of the
Rinjani Caldera is between 1210-1300, but because the results
were not widely published, there was little known. Finally,

Fig. 6.5. Map of lava flow pre- 1944-2015, origi-
nating from Rombongan and Barujari volcanoes.
LEGEND
Barujari scoria
Cone
Sampling Location
LAVA FLOW
Cone
Lava Flow
Direction
after Lavigne, et al. (2013) conducted a research at Mt. Rin-
jani with Indonesian researchers and carried out C14 dating in
Swiss laboratories, supported by research results on aerosol
sulfate deposits found in the ice sheets at both poles obtained
from the age of Rinjani Caldera (Samalas) in 1257.
Lava Flow Post Rinjani Caldera

The lava flow included in the post-formation of the Rin-
jani caldera is a new lava flow found in the Rinjani caldera,
which is part of a cycle of volcanic eruptions after the caldera
formation.
pyroclastic flow
Fig. 6.6. Distribution Map of pyroclastic flow deposits during

Rinjani Caldera formation (Vidal, 2015).

This lava study was previously carried out by research-
ers from the Volcanology Directorate, namely Suyatna and
Hardjadinata (1966) who took 17 samples of 1944 and 1966
lava and the results of their analysis showed compositions of
basalt and andesite to basalt and basalt. Whereas according to
Santosa and Sinulingga (1994), the composition of lava was
between basalt and andesite-basalt from four samples of 1994
lava flow.
Rachmat (2016) has mapped pre-1944 to 2015 lava flows
sourced from Mt. Rombongan and Mt. Barujari, the results
of petrographic and geochemical analysis of the mountain cal-
dera show the composition of lava ranging from basaltic to
basaltic- andesitic (Fig. 6.5).
Rinjani Caldera Pyroclastic rocks

The pyroclastic rocks relating to the formation of Mt.
Rinjani Tua and the Rinjani Caldera can be divided into three
Fig 6.7. Map of Isopach fine-grained pyroclastic during formation Caldera

Rinjani (Vidal, 2015)

parts, namely pre-pyroclastic, syn, and post-caldera forma-
tion (Fig. 6.6).
First, the pre-pyroclastic pre-distribution of the Rinjani
Caldera is found inside and outside the caldera. Pyroclastic
rocks inside the caldera can be seen through observing the in-
ner caldera wall starting from near the surface of Lake Segara
Anak to the caldera rim. This pyroclastic precipitate is posi-
tioned alternately with a pre-caldera lava flow as the main
constituent of the old Mt. Rinjani body.
Secondly, the pyroclastic syn-caldera material was the
result of the eruption of the Old Rinjani (Samalas) which
formed the Rinjani Caldera in the 13th century. Its pyroclastic
flow deposits spread north, west and southeast. While the py-
roclastic fall deposits, the fine material spread very widely to
the west from the eruption center in the direction of the wind
forming an elliptical isopach (Fig. 6.7). The eruption material
volume when the Rinjani Caldera formed reached 33 to 44
km2 (Fig. 6.8), the eruption column height was ±43 km, and
the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) 7.1. (Vidal et al, 2015).
Third, pyroclastic material after the Rinjani Caldera is
only found in the caldera, as a result of the eruption of the
Mt. Barujari cone that emerged from the bottom of the Lake
Segara Anak. The pyroclastic type product is scoria, as a result
of the strombolian type eruption from the central crater and
the side crater as Mt. Barujari, which was formed since 2004
and continued until 2015.

Fig. 6.8 shows a comparison of the volume of material
released during the formation of the caldera, in some of the
world’s most famous volcanoes.
Fig. 6.8. Comparison of the volume of material from the formation of Sa-
malas Rinjani Caldera compared to the results of other volcanic eruptions
in the world (modifications from JP Lockwood and RW Hazlett, 2010).

The bottom of the crater (Segara Muncar) is seen
fromthe summit of Mount Rinjani.
The 1994 Barujari eruption was seen from Plawangan Sembalun .

CHAPTER 7
Research Again
Rinjani Geology
Recent research on the geology of Mt. Rinjani has been
carried out by Rachmat (2016). He carried out various rock
(geochemical and petrographic) analyzes, including the
distribution and types of volcanic rocks starting from the
period before (pre-), during (syn-), and after (post-) the
formation of the Rinjani Caldera. This study included 51
lava samples and 30 pyroclastic samples obtained from
inside and outside the Rinjani Caldera.
Expanse of the Mt. Barujari lava flow blocks resulting from

the 2009 eruption.
Research Again Rinjani Geology 95

Rock Products before Formation of Rinjani Caldera
Lava formed before the Rinjani Caldera became part of
the body of Mt. Rinjani Tua which intercalated with pyroclas-
tic rocks on the caldera wall. A total of 20 lava samples with
basalt to andesite compositions were taken for analysis (Fig.
7.1). This lava is generally blackish gray. The types of rocks
found along the Senaru pathway are basalt, basaltic-andesite,
and andesite. While rocks found along the Sembalun line are
basalt, basaltic-andesite, andesite, and dacite.
These lavas show massive and vesicular textur. Vesicular
is a hollow appearance of rocks. These holes can be formed
due to the release of gas when the lava freezes on the Earth’s
surface.
Fig. 7.1. Two photos of the lava Pre-Caldera Rinjani outcrop on the east-
ern caldera wall and the northern caldera.

Fig. 7.2. Lava flow originating from Mt. Rombongan.
Rock Products after the Formation of Rinjani Caldera

Samalas ultra-plinian eruption in 1257 caused the forma-
tion of the Rinjani Caldera. After the formation of this cal-
dera, the complex magmatic activity did not stop. Inside the
caldera a new mountain known as Mt. Barujari . Some experts
also mentioned the existence of Mt. Rombongan (Fig. 7.2.)
on the northwest slope of Barujari which was the center of
the eruption in 1944. The first activity of Mt. Barujari and Mt.
Rombongan was recorded in 1846. Since then, Mt. Barujari
underwent eruptions of trombolian up to vulcanian types.
(1) Lava Pra-1944

Pre-1944 lava spread in the southwestern part of the Ba-
rujari crater (Fig 7.3). In satellite imagery it appears that the
distribution of lava has begun to be overgrown with vegeta-
tion. This lava flow is most likely the oldest lava produced by
Mt. Barujari after the Samalas 1257 ultraplinian eruption. The
distribution of this lava flow reached 5.31 km2.
Fresh lava in this period is gray while the weathered one
shows a brownish color. This lava shows porphyritic texture,
which is a texture that shows the presence of phenocrysts in
the form of plagioclase minerals embedded in finer basic mass-
es. The vesicular structure is also commonly found in this lava.

Fig. 7.3. Pre-1944 lava in the southwestern part of the Barujari crater.
The main minerals that make up this lava are plagioclase,

then clino-pyroxene, and a little olivine. Pyrite is also found
as an accessory mineral.
(2) Lava-1944 (Mt. Rombongan)

Barujari’s activities shifted slightly to the northwest in
1944. This activity was centered Mt. Rombongan which was
a side eruption of Mt. Barujari. This eruption produced 73
million cubic meters of light gray lava.
Lava flow 1944 also showed porphyritic and vesicular
texture. The main mineral is plagioclase 30-40% followed
by pyroxene and olivine. The basic mass, which is the mass
that fills between crystals, is plagioclase microlite and glass.
Chemical analysis shows that lava 1944 is andesitc-basaltic in
composition with SiO2 content around 54%.
(3) Lava-1966
Lava flow 1966 covers the eastern part of Mt. Barujari.
This lava flow extends from the northeastern part of Baru-

jari to the southeast of Barujari. This 1966 eruption produced
6 million cubic meters of lava flow of light gray in colour.
The 1966 lava samples (Fig. 7.4) taken showed porphyritic
texture. An interesting point to note is in the 1966 sample
there was the presence of several samples which showed dif-
ferent color indices. In addition, there are also some samples
with olivine and show higher SiO2 compositions compared
to other samples.
A B
Fig. 7.4. Lava 1966 composed of porphyritic basalt: a) hand specimen

b) microscopic thin section (magnification 40x)
(4) Lava 1994
The 1994 eruption produced lava flows west-southwest
of Mt. Barujari. During the eruption of Mt. Barujari in 1994,
there was a special event because during the eruption the
writer joined with the first Regional Office team of Mines and
Energy and the Volcanology Directorate Team to make obser-
vations and make the first video during the eruption.
The following year, an observation post was construct-
ed at Mt. Rinjani located in Sembalun Lawang Village (Fig.
7.5). This eruption produced 25 million cubic meters of lava.
The lava had a gray color with porphyritic and vesicular tex-
tures. The main mineral was plagioclase (33-43%) followed
by pyroxene and olivine. Chemical analysis also shows that
the 1994 lava was andesite-basaltic in composition.

Fig. 7.5. Research Team of Rinjani Caldera in front of Mt. Rinjani Observation
Post in Sembalun Lawang.
(5) Lava 2004

The eruption in 2004 was the smallest eruption compared
to other eruptions. This eruption emitted lava which flowed
towards the north of Barujari Crater. Lava shows porphyritic
texture with its main constituent mineral as plagioclase and
followed by pyroxene and olivine. Lava also shows vesicular
texture. Microscopic observations and geochemical analysis
of these rocks provided an andesite-basaltic composition.
(6) 2009 Lava

The eruption in 2009 produced 10 million cubic me-
ters of lava flow flowing north from the Barujari crater.
The source of the eruption came from the side crater that is
around 200 meters north of the Barujari crater. There is not
much difference in the character of lava in 2009 with lava

in previous years. This lava has an andesitic-basaltic com-
position with a predominance of plagioclase followed by
pyroxene and olivine (Fig. 7.6).
A B
Fig. 7.6. Lava 2009 composed of porfir andesite

a) megascopically. b) microscopically
(7) Lava 2015

The 2015 eruption produced lava flows to the northeast
from Barujari Crater. This lava flow reaches the walls of the
Rinjani Caldera in the northeast. The lava produced by the
2009 eruption is grayish- black. The composition is andesit-
ic-basaltic with at dominance of plagioclase followed by py-
roxene and olivine.
Pre-establishment of Pyroclastic rocks Distribution of

Rinjani Caldera
Pyroclastic rocks are rocks formed by volcanic eruptions
in the form of coarse to fine rock fragments (Lockwood and
Hazlett, 2010).
Samples of pyroclastic rocks pre- caldera formation were
taken at 10 points from the caldera wall of the Sembalun hik-
ing trail. The samples of pyroclastic rocks taken were pyro-

Lava 2015 (Mt. Barujari)
Lava 1944 (Mt. Rombongan

Lava 2015 (Mt. Barujari)

clastic fall deposits. When referring to Fisher’s genetic classifi-
cation (1984), these rocks are fit the lapili size classification.
Vesicular texture can also be seen in most of these samples.
Distribution of Pyroclastic rocks Syn-Caldera Rinjani

Sampling for pyroclastic rocks formed when the ultra-
plinian Samalas 1257 eruption (syn-caldera period) was taken
at six points. In general, these rocks have a fresh white color
with a texture in the form of coarse ash to lappili. Referring
to the Fisher classification (1984), these pyroclastic rocks can
be classified as tephra and coarse ash.
Distribution of Pyroclasticrocks Post-Caldera Rinjani

The eruption of pyroclastic rocks after the formation of
the Rinjani caldera have a fresh black gray color, weathered
color. The texture is in the form of large, coarse ash to lapilli,
the shape of the grains are sub-angular to sub-rounded, equi-
granular fabric. Good sorting, good to moderate porosity and
permeability and no carbonate content. The appearance of
the vesicular textures in all rock samples formed after volcanic
gas was released during formation.
These rocks, including pyroclastic fall deposits have not
undergone consolidation, so based on the Fisher classification
(1984) these pyroclastic rocks can be classified as tephra and
coarse ash.
The Rinjani pre-Caldera rocks directly related to this re-
search is the formation of Mt. Rinjani Tua which reaches ±
4,000 meters above sea level consisting of alternating pyro-
clastic deposits and lava flows forming a strato volcano.
The Syn-Caldera product of Rinjani is a pyroclastic de-
posit produced when the Rinjani Caldera in the form of py-

roclastic flow deposits which spread widely on the island of
Lombok to the north, east and southeast. In some places with
a distance of ± 30-40 km, this pyroclastic flow has a thickness
reaching 30-40 m, even in the northern reaches of the sea
and produced secondary deposits that formed the cliffs of the
coastal pyroclastic flow as high as ± 40 m.
The Rinjani post-Caldera products related to the study
were only found in the caldera in the form of pyroclastic falls
and lava flows forming new volcanic cones of the Rombon-
gan and Barujari.
Based on the petrographic analysis of lava and pyro-
clastic flows in the study area, rock compositions range from
porphyry basalt to dacite. The lava flow pre-Caldera Rinjani
which was sampled from the Sembalun and Senaru walls was
dominated by andesite porphyry and slightly basalt porphy-
ry. For post-Caldera lava flow taken from the slopes of Mt.
Barujari, the composition ranges from basalt porphyry to an-
desite porphyry. The results of the petrographic analysis of
pre- and post-caldera pyroclastic deposits, both showed rocks
in the form of tephra deposits.
In the lava flow pre- and post-caldera Rinjani, both
showed magma mixing which was characterized by the find-
ing of nuous zoning, convolute zoning, sector zoning, and os-
cillatory zoning textures. In pre-caldera lava flows, the com-
position has a range that spreads from basaltic to andesitic,
while post-caldera lava has clustered andesite-basaltic com-
positions.
Geochemical research carried out on the Mt. Rinjani
product rocks (pre-, syn-, and post- caldera formation) us-
ing major or major chemical analysis, trace Elements, analysis
based on rare earths (Rare Earth Elements). This geochemical

study was carried out using the XRF method in a laboratory
belonging to the Center for Geological Survey.
The results of these geochemical studies can help in de-
termining rock naming classifications, chemical content based
on silica or other oxides, classification of potential rock-form-
ing magma, as well as determination of the origin of magma
in general, also calculation of Benioff Zone depth, and es-
timation of magma temperature and rock density. All these
components are very important in determining the origin of
magma formation and modeling the process of formation/
genesis of magma during the development of Mt. Rinjani.
The petrographic and geochemical research of Mt. Rinja-
ni in relation to the evolution of the caldera formation and its
magmatism will be detailed in other related books.
Age dating of caldera formation

To determine the age of pyroclastic rocks during the for-
mation of the Rinjani Caldera Complex, it charcoal sampling
was conducted in 1999 from pyroclastic deposits located on
Korleko Beach. Using the C14 radiocarbon extraction test an
age of 14880 ± 230 BP was obtained. Based on the results of
repeated observations in the field and the results of the discus-
sion, it is estimated that samples of wood charcoal found on
the Korleko coast, originated from different pyroclastic flows,
so that the age obtained is interpreted to be much older.
Furthermore, Takada, researchers from Japan in collab-
oration with Asnawir Nasution, researchers from Indonesia
conducted research into the Rinjani Caldera Complex, includ-
ed in the calendars from 2002 to 2003. The results of the
distribution were the pyroclastic flow maps of the Old Rinjani
eruption that formed the Rinjani Caldera and maps geology

Fig. 7.7. Radiocarbon dating from eight samples of charcoal found in the
pyroclastic flows forming the Rinjani Caldera, showing ages between
1200 and 1300.
around the Rinjani Caldera. In addition, age is obtained based

on the results of the C14 radiocarbon extraction test from 8
charcoal samples found in the pyroclastic flow forming the
Rinjani Caldera in the Beta Analytic laboratory in Japan,
which shows its age between 1200 and 1300 (Fig. 7.7).
The results of the 2013 C14 radiocarbon dating test con-
ducted by French and Indonesian researchers, the age of the
eruption of the Old Rinjani (Samalas) that occurred in 1257 is
widely known throughout the world because the results were
immediately published through international literature (Pro-
ceedings of the National Academic Sciences USA, September
2013).
Komorowski, et al. (2013) and Lavigne, et al. (2013)
revealed the results of research that are relatively similar to
Nasution, et al. (2004). The data generated in the form of

pyroclastic distribution maps, falling pyroclastic isopach maps
and upright cross sections of several pyroclastic deposits. Ko-
morowski, et al. (2014) conducted an analysis of 22 radiocar-
bon dating (C14) in Eidgenossiche Technische Hochschule Zu-
rich, Switzerland and obtained the age of the Rinjani caldera
between 1167-1284.
The following are the results of carbon dating from 22
samples of wood charcoal produced by Old Rinjani after the
formation of the Rinjani caldera.
The next study to determine the age of Rinjani Caldera
formation carried out by Oppenheimer, et al., was based on
aerosol sulfates found in ice cores both at the North Pole and
at the South Pole on the equator. Of the many aerosol sulfates
produced by volcanic eruptions, some of them show a large
number of aerosoles in the north and south of the equator
are relatively the same. Then related to the occurrence of the
many victims who died in 1258, and the results of testing the
chemical composition contained in the two poles there are
similarities. Based on the evidence, it was concluded that the
cause of the volcano near the equator line, namely Mt. Rinja-
ni Tua, known as Samalas, which erupted in 1257 (Fig. 7.8).
In addition, to find out the age of pyroclastic rocks at
the time of the formation of the Rinjani Caldera, a sample of
wood charcoal found in pyroclastic deposits located in Tanah
Bengan, Central Lombok (Fig. 7.9). From the results of the
analysis of this study conducted at the Central Geological Sur-
vey Laboratory (Badan Geologi), the age of pyroclastic rocks
is around 910-110 years. The calculation of age at the forma-
tion of the Rinjani Caldera is finally counted in 1257 (Vidal,
2016).

Fig. 7.8. The results of carbon analyses from 22 samples of wood char-
coal produced Rinjani Tua after the Rinjani caldera.

Fig. 7.9. The location for taking one of the samples of wood charcoal
contained in the pyroclastic flow deposits resulting from the formation
of the Rinjani Tua Caldera (Samalas), in the northwest of Mt. Rinjani.
Thus, Rinjani erupted violently and produced the forma-

tion of a caldera with the spread of its eruption ash reaching
around the world in 1257.
The results of the C14 radiocarbon dating test on 22 sam-
ples from the pyroclastic flow resulting from caldera forma-
tion and supported by the results of aerosol sulfate studies at
the North and South Poles, the age of the Old Rinjani (Sa-
malas) eruption occurred in 1257 (Fig. 7.10 and 7.11).
To find out the widespread age of pyroclastic distribu-
tion in Tanah Bengan, Central Lombok, samples of charcoal

Fig. 7.10. Core drilling activities and ice sheet research at both poles
(figures a and b); Plot of the number of aerosols deposited on the north
and south of the equator (figure c).
were analyzed in the Centre of Geological Survey Laborato-

ry. The result was obtained was 910±1010 years. Calculation
of the age is relatively the same as the lower limit of age
measurements carried out by Japanese researchers and French
researchers.

Fig. 7.11. Age of eruption of Mount Rinjani Tua (Samalas) based on car-
bon dating C14 from 22 samples obtained from pyroclastic flows, sup-
ported by the analysis of aerosol sulfates found in the ice sheet resulting
from core drilling at both poles, showing the age of the eruption in 1257.

CHAPTER 8
Origin of Magma
Rinjani Caldera Lava
The fourth task, attempted by Rachmat (2016) was to
analyze the Rinjani Caldera lava and provide interpreta-
tions relating to the origin of magma at Rinjani. Magma
is rock that has liquefied at high pressure and temperature
in the Earth.
Magma can be divided into two types based on the
origin of its parent rock type, namely continental or oce-
anic. Pearce (1977) determines the origin of a magma from
K2O, TiO2, and P2O5 content, from triangular plots.
The last condition of Mt. Barujari and its surroundings after

the eruption which in November 2015.
Origin of Magma Rinjani Caldera Lava 115

From the tectonic order in which the magma that forms
rocks originates, according to Mullen (1983), the source of
magma can be broadly divided into five groups,1) Mid Oce-
anic Ridge Basalt, 2) Island Arc Thoeliite, 3) Island Arc Alka-
line Basalt, 4) Oceanic Island Tholeiitic, and 5) Oceanic Is-
land Alkaline Basalt. Determination of the origin of magma
is based on the percentage of K2O, TiO2, and P2O5, from
triangular plots.
Origin of Magma Lava Pre-Caldera Rinjani

Based on triangular plots, the pre-caldera lava of Mt.
Rinjani originated from continental crust. The Mullen triangu-
lar diagram (1983), indicate that the origin of magma which
formed the Mt. Rinjani pre-caldera lava rock is from an island
alkaline basal arc.
Origin of Magma Lava Post-Caldera Rinjani

Based on K2O, TiO2, and P2O5 content, post-Caldera
lava-forming magma is interpreted to have interacted with
continental crust. Magma from the continental crust has rela-
tively high silica, aluminum and potassium while the magma
from the oceanic crust have relatively high silica, magnesium
and titanium.
Compare to the magma content and formation of Mt.
Barujari and Mt. Rombongan, Mt. Rinjani complex are close-
ly related to the formation of the basal alkali archipelago.
Origin of Pre-Pyroclastic Magma, Syn- and

Post-Caldera Rinjani
To determine the magma series from rocks which pro-
duce lava and pre-pyroclastic, syn-, and post- forming Rinjani
Caldera, a comparison in a triangle and binary diagram has

been used. Baragar (1971) using the AFM triangle diagram,
divides the rock series into tholeiite series and calc-alkaline se-
ries. A is the content of Alkali (K2O + Na2O), F2 is iron oxide
(FeO + Fe2O3) and M is magnesium (MgO).
Rocks that have a series of magma alkaline calc, show an
intermediate affinity for magma-K (Potassium)which is typi-
cally hydrous and easier to oxidize with air. Whereas in the
Tholeitic series, some rock samples have low potassium con-
tents.
The calc-alkaline group, has a potassium content that is
relatively greater than the tholeiite group or commonly called
the low middle K group. Based on its silicate content, this
group can be divided into four types in order: basalt, ba-
saltic-andesitice, andesite, and dacite. The more towards the
dacite, the greater the silicic content. From the results of the
study , magma forming the Mt. Rinjani lava and pyroclastic
complex interacted with continental crust. Magma from the
continental crust has relatively high silica, aluminum and po-
tassium while the magma from the oceanic crust has higher
magnesium and titanium.
Estimation of the temperature of the magma is associated
when crystals begin to form first in equilibrium conditions.
Specific gravity of rock is obtained from the measurement of
the mass of each mineral making up rocks against the vol-
ume of rock. It is interpreted that the pyroclastic complex of
Mt. Rinjani formed at a temperature of 912-1250oC with rock
specific gravity 2,483.17 grams/cm3. It is estimated that the
cooler the magma temperature is, the bigger the eruption.
Effect of Plate Tectonics on Volcano formation

Based on the geochemical analysis of lava flow and
pre-pyroclastic flow, syn- and after the formation of the Rin-
jani Caldera, using the Pearce diagram, (1977), we find that

the source of magma is continental. Whereas by using a de-
termination diagram of the origin of magma based on Mul-
len’s tectonic setting (1983), it can be used only for lava and
pre- and post-caldera pyroclastics. For pyroclastics, the syn-
caldera exceeds its level (45-54% SiO2). In this diagram, the
origin of magma is the basal alkali archipelago.
By comparing the tectonic plates of the collision (conver-
gent) model between the oceanic plate (Australian Plate) and
the Continental Plate (Eurasian Plate), Mt. Rinjani is included
in the part of the collision model of the plates (Fig 8.1).
Type of Volcanic Eruption Forming Rinjani Caldera

Based on the volume of the eruption material and the
eruption column height during the formation of the Rinjani
Fig. 8.1. Model of collision of oceanic plates and continental plates

(Sudrajat, 1997 )

Caldera, using the classification of the pyroclastic fall depo-
sits (Walker, 1973), the Rinjani Caldera was formed by ultra
plinian eruption type. The volcanic eruption index made by
Newhall and Self (1982), assessed the magnitude of volcanic
eruptions with volcanic explosivity indices (Volcanic Explo-
sivity Index= VEI) given values ranging from 0 to 8 and so
on the greater the level of volcanic eruptions, the greater the
volume of the eruption material and the eruption column. In
this case the eruption that forms the Rinjani Caldera has VEI
equal to 7.1.
The eruption column height will affect the injection of
eruption material into the upper atmosphere and stratosphere
of planet earth.
This is supported by the results of a study by Lavigne et
al. (2013), Mt. Rinjani when it erupted to form the caldera,
had catapulted volcanic material more than 40 km3 with col-
umn height > 40 km. On this basis, the type of eruption is
classified into Plinian - Ultraplinian which was supported by
evidence of the chemical composition of aerosol sulfates in
the ice core in the north and south polar regions that similar
to those in Mt. Rinjani.
There is no significant difference between the content
of rare earth elements and trace elements in rocks pre- and
post- the formation of the Rinjani Caldera. From plotting
these elements on spider diagrams, they show the characteris-
tics of magma that formed at the subduction zone. During the
process of magma differentiation, it is suspected that crustal
involvement is evidenced by the presence of LiL enrichment
such as high S elements and impoverishment of HREE ele-
ments such as Y and Tb.

Bombs produced during the Mt. Barujari 2015 eruption.
Rare Earth Elements And Lava Trace Elements from
Pre- aAnd Post- Establishment of Rinjani Caldera
Rare Earth Elements (REE) areis a collection of 17 chemi-

cal elements in the periodic table which includes 15 elements
of latanide and scandium and yttrium. In general, the charac-
teristics of trace elements and rare earths between pre- and
post-Caldera Rinjani lava are not much different. Based on
the spider diagram, both of them show the characteristics of
magma formed at the subduction zone.
It is estimated that magma in both pre- and post-Caldera
Rinjani lavas wasis formed in the crustal environment at the
subduction zone. Enrichment in the LiL element shows the
presence of crustal involvement during the magma differenti-
ation process. This is also supported by the high S value and
the impoverishment of HREE elements such as Y and Tb.
Enrichment in these rare earths can be caused by several
factors. Heavy rare earth elements are more compatible with
pyroxene and garnet minerals. So that fractionation of the py-
roxene or mineral in the garnet group can cause enrichment
in rare, light rare earth elements.

CHAPTER 9
The Magmatic Evolution

Model Rinjani Caldera
The fifth study by Rachmat (2016) comprised modeling
the magmatic evolution of the Rinjani Caldera. Modeling
was conducted to investigate the process of formation of
the 2009 eruption products in the form of lava and py-
roclastic flows, supported by the same volcanic magmatic
evolution model that appeared at the time of the Plisto-
cene, the Tambora Caldera. The magmatic evolution mod-
el of the Rinjani Caldera based on its eruption products
can be made into five models.
Volcanic deposits (pyroclastic material) can be found around

the Pelawangan Sembalun camp area.
The Magmatic Evolution Model Rinjani Caldera 125

Magmatic evolutionary model of the Rinjani
Caldera based on pre-caldera lava flows
Mt. Tambora, for approximately two hundred thousand
years, grew as high as four thousand m asl. Mt. Rinjani also
has relatively the same height. Mt. Rinjani for two hundred
thousand years was also estimated to grow as high as four
thousand meters above sea level forming a tratovolcano.
The results of the petrographic analysis of pre-caldera
lava flows showed compositions ranging from andesite por-
phyritic to porphyritic basalt.
The results of the geochemical analysis using the XRF
method on the pre-caldera lava flow showed composition
between basalt to andesite and slightly dacitic. There was
one sample from the lip of the caldera whose composition
is dacitic. Dacitic lava is found as a dyke that appears on the
east-southeast part of the caldera lip which indicates that
magma begins to turn more acidic with time.
The results of the analysis above show the composition
of lava ranging from basalt to dacite. This shows a change in
magma due to various processes from basaltic magma to be-
come dacitic. This is possible given the long growth of Rinjani.
Magmatic evolutionary model of the Rinjani

Caldera based on post-caldera lava flow
The eruption products after the formation of the Rinjani
Caldera are in the form of lava flows and pyroclastic falls,
most of which are found in the caldera. The lava flow that
was observed when it happened, namely the 1944 eruption,
1966, 1994, 2004, 2009 and 2015 formed volcanoes.
The results of the petrographic analysis of post-caldera
lava flows obtained from within the caldera show that the
composition of lava ranges from porphyritic basalt to por-
phyritic andesite.

The results of geochemical analysis (XRF) of post-caldera
lava flows using Peccerilo and Taylor (1976) diagrams show
a grouped andesite-basaltic composition and minor andesite.
The results of the petrographic analysis and rock geo-
chemistry of various examples show that the lava flow is not
too varied both in type and composition.
Based on the analysis of seismic data from the Barujari
eruption in 2015, the depth of the magma chambers ranged
from 2 to 8 km, and every time an eruption often showed the
type of Stromboli which could indicate a relatively shallow
magma chamber. It can be concluded that the post-caldera
eruption originated from the same magma chamber, then in-
jected by new magma into the magma chamber so that it
mixed and produced medium-composition lava.
Magmatic evolutionary model based on Rinjani

Caldera pre-caldera pyroclastic deposits
The pre-eruption products of the Rinjani Caldera are
pyroclastic fall deposits, the distribution of which is outside
and inside the caldera.
Petrographic observations showed that the pre-caldera
pyroclastic deposits were tefra lapilli rocks based on the Fisher
classification (1984). These pyroclastic deposits are also found
intercalating with lava flows. The results of the geochemical
analysis show these pyroclastic deposits in the composition
of basalt, andesite to dacite. Both of these observations also
show that there is a significant evolution of magma from ba-
saltic to dacitic.
Magmatic evolutionary model Based on Rinjani Caldera
Post-caldera pyroclastic deposits
The eruption products after the formation of the Rinja-
ni Caldera was in the form of pyroclastic fall deposits which
were distributed around Mt. Barujari. The petrographic ob-

servations show that these deposits are lapilli tephra. The re-
sults of the geochemical analysis show that the composition
of this deposit is andesite-basaltic if it refers to the classifica-
tion of Peccerilo and Taylor (1976).
The andesite-basaltic composition that dominates
post-caldera deposits shows the possibility of new magma
chambers formed after the ultraplinian eruption in 1257. This
is a common symptom when volcanoes have passed through
the phase of caldera formation and new volcanoes that grow
back produce products with a more basaltic composition.
After the magma and the top of Mt. Rinjani was de-
stroyed forming a caldera, part of the body of Mt. Rinjani
collapsed filling the cavity at the base of the caldera formed
after the eruption. Furthermore, the composition of the mag-
ma gradually turned basaltic .
As a result of the massive eruption that had emptied the
top of the magma chamber, the next magma rose to fill the
cavity followed by the formation of new dykes or new small-
er-sized conduits filling cracks forming a new magma chamber,
which rose to the surface in the form of eruptions producing
pyroclastic deposits and lava flows forming a new volcanic
cone, namely Mt. Barujari and Mt. Rombongan.
The model of magma conditions at Mt. Rinjani pre- and
post-caldera conditions is shown in Fig. 9.1.
Mt. Rinjani formed as a result of eruptions from magma
chambers produced by subduction zones at 160-200 km and
from hot zones at depths of 20-30 km. In the pre-caldera pe-
riod, shallow magma chambers (3-10 km) with temperatures
from 1200-1300°C were filled by magma from the hot zone,
through injection of basaltic magma compost (lower part)
which differentiated to the dasitic (upper part) and surfaced
alternately.

Magma chamber model before and after the formation of the Rinjani
caldera (Samalas)

The formation of Mt. Rinjani Tua reached a height of ±
4,000 m asl for ±200,000 years, in the form of strata (lava
and pyroclastic) and the composition of basalt to dacite cut
by various types of dykes and sills.
While in the post-caldera period there is evidence for
magma mixing in shallow magma chambers with a tempera-
ture of 1220-1350°C, due to mixing of dacitic magma in the
old chamber (remaining eruption 1257) with injection of new
magma with basal composition, resulting in medium com-
position (basaltic-andesitic) Therefore, in the Rinjani Caldera
new volcanoes (Barujari and Rombongan) emerged, which
are central to the activities of the Old Mt. Rinjani after the
caldera formation.
Thus, it can be seen that magma formation genesis in
the pre-formation period of Rinjani Caldera was dominated
by fractional crystallization, whereas in the post-Caldera Rin-
jani period the magma synthesis was dominated by magma
mixing process in the magma chamber at depths of 2 to 8 km.

CHAPTER 10
The Future of Rinjani

World Geopark
The sustainable use of geodiversity, while at the same
time promoting the welfare of life is very important. This
is based on the fact that the diversity will eventually run
out. Therefore, the concept of sustainable development
must be put forward.
The idea of a geopark in Indonesia, initiated by commu-
nication between Prof. Dr. Mohd. Shafeea Leman, one of
the initiators of Geopark Langkawi, Malaysia, with the au-
thor in early 2007, shown in the email below.
Fri. Jan 12 2007 01:12:06

To : Heryadi Rachmat hery_rachmat@yahoo.com
From : Prof. Dr. Mohd Shafeea Leman <Shafeea@pkrisc.cc.ukm.my)
Subject : A book titled “Culture and Science of Mountains”
Assalamualaikum,
It seems that Lombok Island is so interesting from its original geological
and natural aspects. Perfect for holiday and recreational activities. Of
course I want to go there if I have the chance but my daily schedule
is so tight. Maybe if I made a new official trip, I could find an excuse to
get there. So there must be a rather large agenda that can be shared
between your department and my department. Perhaps the aspects
of geotourism and geoconservation can be pioneered and shared with
communities throughout the archipelago and between nations. By coin-
cidence, I was currently working on pentaulihan from the UNESCO side
so that the island of Langkawi would be accepted in the World Geopark
list. Maybe someday Lombok can also become a World Geopark.Re-
cently, the concept of geopark has become increasingly popular in Eu-
rope and China because the concept is not enough to curb economic
development. I think Indonesia must benefit from this latest conservation
concept. Oh yes, I also want to know about the composition of the geo-
science community in Lombok. Are geoscience majors popular there ?
Greetings. Prof. Dr. Mohd. Shafeea Leman School of Env. and Nat. Res.
Kebangsaan Malaysia Sciences and Technology University 43600 Bangi,
Selangor, Malaysia.
The Future of Rinjani World Geopark 133

The concept can be a geopark or earth park, which has
three basic meanings, namely: It is an area that has a meaning
as a geological heritage, as well as a place to apply sustain-
able economic development strategies carried out through a
good and realistic management structure; implementing pro-
vides an opportunity for job creation for local communities
in terms of obtaining real economic benefits (usually through
sustainable tourism activities); and within the framework
of the geopark, geological heritage objects and geological
knowledge is shared with the public community. The geolog-
ical and landscape elements that exist are related to aspects
of the natural and cultural environment (Komoo, 2008; Sa-
modra, 2010; Sutawidjaja, et al. , 2012, and Oktariadi, 2013).
The term Geopark Global Network (GGN) used since
2000, after its 38th General Assembly in Paris on Novem-
ber 17th, 2015, its name is now a UNESCO Global Geopark
(UGG).
UNESCO Global Geopark is a single geographical area
where sites and landscape that have international values are
managed based on the concept of protection, education and
sustainable development in a holistic manner. UNESCO’s
Global Geopark uses geological heritage related to aspects of
other natural and cultural heritage in order to increase aware-
ness and understanding of various problems faced by society
such as sustainable use of earth resources, reducing the impact
of climate change, and minimizing the impact of natural di-
sasters.
UNESCO’s Global Geopark Motto, namely “Celebrating
Earth Heritage and Sustaining Local Commuinities” The free
translation is more or less “Celebrating the heritage of the
Earth and maintaining the sustainability of the lives of the
local people”.

In Indonesia, it was inspired by the slogan , the slogan of
the National Geopark is “Glorifying the earth’s heritage and
prospering the local community”.
UNESCO Global Geopark empowers local communities
and gives them the opportunity to develop partnerships for
the purpose of promoting significant geological processes in
the region, features, time, history related to geology, and ex-
traordinary geological beauty. UNESCO Global Geopark is
built through a bottom-up process that involves all stakehold-
ers at the local and regional level as well as local authorities
such as landowners, community groups, tourism service,
providers, indigenous peoples, or local organizations.
This process requires strong commitment from the local com-
munity, long-term partnerships, political support and the de-
velopment of strategies that will meet all community goals
when they display and protect their geological heritage.
The definition of geopark according to Samodra (2010)
can be understood through several aspects. First, as an area,
which contains various types of geological elements that have
meaning and function as natural heritage. In this region var-
ious strategies for sustainable regional development can be
implemented, whose promotion must be supported by gov-
ernment programs. As a region,the geopark must have clear
and firm boundaries. The geopark surface area must be suffi-
cient, in the sense that it can support the implementation of
development action plan activities.
Second, as a means of introducing Eearth’s heritage,
which contains a number of geological sites (geosite) that have
meaning from the side of science, scarcity, beauty (aesthetics),
and education. Activities in the geopark are not limited to
geological aspects, but also other aspects such as archeology,
ecology, history and culture.

Third, as a protected area of the Eearth’s heritage, which
is based on the meaning, function and opportunity of its uti-
lization, the existence and preservation of these sites need to
be conserved protected and protected.
Fourth, as a place for developing geotourism that can
have the opportunity to create economic value. Local eco-
nomic development through nature-based tourism (geology)
or geotourism is an option. The implementation of sustainable
geopark tourism activities is defined as activities and efforts to
balance economic development with conservation efforts.
Fifth, as a means of effective and efficient cooperation
with local communities, because the development of geopark
in an area will have a direct impact on humans living in and
around the area. The concept of the geopark allows the com-
munity to remain in the area, namely in order to reconnect
their inheritance values to them. The community can actively
participate in the revitalization of the region as a whole.
Sixth, as a place for the implementation of various sci-
ences and technologies to protect natural heritage objects
from damage or degradation of the environment. Also, the
geopark area is also fully open to various studies and research
activities of various appropriate sciences and technologies.
On February 13th, 2004, a meeting on geoparks was
held at UNESCO headquarters, Paris. Participants in the meet-
ing included, IGCP representatives, International Geographi-
cal Union (IGU), International Union of Geological Sciences
(IUGS), and conservation experts and the promotion of geo-
logical heritage. They decided to establish the World Geopark
Network (formerly GGN, now UGG), received operational
outlines to become UGG members, and included 17 European
geoparks and 8 Chinese geoparks into the world geopark net-
work. In addition, it was also decided to establish the UGG
Coordination Office in the Chinese Ministry of Land and Re-
sources in Beijing.

Geopark in Indonesia
Indonesia has had a fairly good instrument to protect
important and unique geological resources, namely Govern-
ment Regulation (PP) No. 26 of 2008 concerning the Na-
tional Spatial Planning (“RTRWN”). This regulation seeks to
guarantee the protection of geological featuressymptoms that
are unique, rare and scientific values, education, or that relate
to human and cultural values as a geological nature reserve
(“KCAG”) and Geological Heritage.
Geopark Rinjani
Mt. Rinjani was introduced on March 23, 1998 at the
Geotourism Day Seminar organized by the Geological Re-
search and Development Center (“P3G”) in Bandung, and in
2002 at the international seminar “The International Year of
Mountains” in Sabah.
The geopark candidate in Indonesia which was first pro-
posed to the GGN-UNESCO was Geopark Rinjani, on the pro-
posal of observers of MAPEGI’s Indonesian geotourism (now
MAGI) in 2007 at the Bandung Geological Agency (Fig. 10.1
and 10.2). Furthermore, based on MAPEGI’s decision, a po-
tential geodiversity survey was conducted by IAGI members
followed by the first National Geopark Seminar in Indonesia
(Fig.10.3), held in collaboration with PP IAGI, Nusa Teng-
gara Regional Government Agency, Ministry of Energy and
Mineral Resources, Forestry, Tourism, Geology Agency, Uni-
versities, Local Government and Rinjani Trek Management
Board (RTMB) in Mataram Lombok. The first international
seminar for Geopark Rinjani was conducted in 2009 at the
GEO-SEA meeting in Kualalumpur (Fig. 10.4). The second
National Geopark Seminar was held by LIPI Research Center
for Geotechnology at Agustus 2010, took place at the Jaya-

Fig. 10.1. Annual Meeting of Indonesian Geologists Association (IAGI) 2007, in Bali, with
the confirmation of each Coordinator of Geological discipline respectively, including
the coordinator of Geo-tourism that one of its task is to give certificate for Geo-tourists
appropriate
Fig. 10.2. The first meeting of the geo-tourism observer at the Geology Museum Educa-
tion Room, agreed to form a Geowisata Observer Society (MAPEGI) organization which
later turned into the Indonesian Geotourism Society (MAGI) which was first chaired by
Dr. Yunus Kusumahbrata. At the meeting agreed to propose Rinjani as Indonesia’s first
geopark candidate. The first National Geopark
Fig.10.3. The first National Seminar in Indonesia.
Fig 10.4. The first International seminar in the year 2009 at the GEO-SEA
meeting in Kuala Llumpur.
karta Bandung Hotel (Fig 10.5). In the year of 2012 at the

Ministry of Religion Ministry agreed that the Geopark Rinjani
area was expanded to Geopark Lombok, but after the visit of
three UNESCO Assessors, 17 -19 November 2012 consisting of
Guy Martini, Patric, and Ibrahim Komoo recommended that

Fig. 10.5. The second National Geopark Seminar was held by the
Research and Development Center LIPI Geotechnology
the geopark area in Lombok be minimized and his name be

Geopark Rinjani-Lombok (Fig 10.6 and 10.7)
The Aspiring Chapter of Rinjani-Lombok Geopark was
successfully compiled on June 12-18 in Bandung and June 19-
30, 2013 in Mataram, which was attended by ten participants
from West Nusa Tenggara, ending with a workshop.
On October 7, 2013, this area officially obtained a na-
tional geopark status under the name “Geopark Rinjani, Lom-
bok, NTB” (Fig.10.8). The Rinjani-Lombok Geopark area has
22 geological sites, 8 biological sites, and 17 cultural sites.
Since 2014, the Rinjani Geopark area has been processed to
become a member of the world geopark or UNESCO Global
Geopark (UGG).
Based on the results of the 204 th UNESCO executive
board meeting 204 , program and external relations commis-
sion in Paris, France on April 17, 2018, the Lombok Rinjani
Geopark area officially obtained the status of an International
Geopark under the name “UGG Rinjani’ and on that date
Rinjani has the right to use the logo specified by UNESCO.

Fig. 10.6. Stage 1 of the Rinjani geopark chapter preparation carried
out by the Geological Agency team and the team from West Nusa
Tenggara in Bandung.
Fig. 10.7. Stage 2 of the Rinjani geopark dossier arrangement carried out
by the Geological Agency team and the team from West Nusa Tenggara
in Mataram.

Fig. 10.8. The Rinjani area officially obtained a national geopark status by
named “Geopark Rinjani, Lombok”.
Rinjani Geopark Site

Geological heritage (geoheritage) is at the heart of
geopark development. This legacy includes the peculiarities
of minerals, rocks, , fossils, landscapes, and geological pro-
cesses on various scales, which are intrinsically or culturally
important sites, which offer information or insight into the
formation, evolution of the earth, or history of science; or
can be used for research, teaching or reference.
Geological heritage is determined by geodiversity, name-
ly various materials, forms and processes that compose and
shape the earth, both in whole or in part.
In its implementation, geological diversity is obtained
through the stages of secondary data collection, stages of field
data collection, and stages of determination or assessment.
Then the assessment of geological diversity to be determined
as a geological heritage in a country is closely related to the
conservation concept chosen by the country. However, in

principle, the basis of the assessment is in terms of peculiarity
or uniqueness, in addition to the fact that the phenomenon
of the geological diversity is a non-renewable resource. There-
fore, the diversity of geology or geological heritage is import-
ant and needs to be protected.
The Geopark Rinjani-Lombok area includes 5 regencies /
cities namely North Lombok regency, East Lombok regency,
Central Lombok regency, West Lombok regency, and Mataram
city, with an area of 3,065 km2. The boundary of the Geopark
Rinjani-Lombok area is in accordance with the restrictions on
the following map (Fig 10.9).
Fig. 10.9. Map of Geopark Rinjani-Lombok boundary.

144
RINJANI From Evolution to Geopark
Map of geo-site locations consist of Lava cave, Pillow lava, Salty Lake in Gili Meno Island, and Spring below Sea level
in the west part of Geopark Rinjani-Lombok area.
The Future of Rinjani World Geopark
145
Map of geo-site location such as Miniature Lake of Segara Anak, Landslide, Waterfall, Charcoal sampling location in
the south part of the Geopark Rinjani-Lombok.
146
Central

Map of geo-site location such as Rinjani Caldera, Top of Mt. Rinjani, top of Mt Barujari, Post Rinjani caldera
Lava flows, hot-spring, Travertine, in the central part of the Geopark Rinjani-Lombok.
The Future of Rinjani World Geopark
Map of geo-site location such as Sembalun Caldera, Fault scarp of Pusuk, Caldera wall of Sembalun, and lava flows
147
in the east part of the Geopark Rinjani-Lombok.
148
Map of geo-site location such as Rinjani Caldera, Top of Mt. Rinjani, top of Mt Barujari, Post Rinjani caldera Lava
flows, hot-spring, Travertine, in the central part of the Geopark Rinjani-Lombok.
CHAPTER 11
From the Summit of the Volcano

to the Geological Heritage of
the World Geopark
Geological Heritage (geoheritage) is at the heart of
geopark development. This legacy includes the peculiar-
ities of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks,
stratigraphy, geological structures, geochemistry, minerals,
paleontology, geomorphology, soil and hydrology, on
various scales, which are essentially or culturally important
sites, which offer information or insights about formation,
earth evolution, or history of science; or can be used for
research, teaching or reference.
The exoticism of Gili Meno, is located in North Lombok

Regency (Photo: baskgilimeno.com).
From the Summit of the Volcano to the Geological Heritage of the World Geopark 151
Geological heritage is determined by geodiversity, name-
ly various materials, forms and processes that compose and
shape the earth, both in whole and in part. The material
includes minerals, rocks, sediments, fossils, soil, and water.
Forms include: folding, faults, landscapes, and other relation-
ships between rock units. While the processes are tectonic,
sedimentation, soil formation, and others.
In practice, geological diversity is obtained through the
phase of secondary data collection, phase of field data collec-
tion, and phase of determination or estimation. The estima-
tion of geological diversity to be determined as a geological
heritage in a country is closely related to the conservation
concept chosen by the country. However, in principle, the ba-
sis of the estimation is the aspect of uniqueness , in addition
to the fact that the phenomenon of geological diversity is a
non-renewable resource. Therefore, the diversity of geology
or geological heritage is important and needs to be protected.
The Geopark Rinjani-Lombok region carries the theme
“The Highest Active Volcano Caldera in Indonesia” with con-
stituent rocks in the form of old volcanic and sedimentary
rocks of Tertiary age, the morphology extends from mountain
peaks to beaches, this geopark has a variety of sites that need
to be conserved. There are 50 geological sites, but there are
22 sites selected for submission into geopark documents. The
description of these sites is presented below.
BATULAYAR TO PUNIKAN
In the west there are seven geological sites, namely vol-
canic beaches in Batulayar, Nipah, and Papak (Krakas), Sem-
poronan waterfalls in Senggigi, and two gili (islands) that are
adjacent to the Lombok Strait, namely Gili Meno and Gili
Trawangan; and fossils of wood charcoal that are extinct.

Batulayar Volcanic Beach
A volcanic sand beach with a gentle slope and sedimen-
tary features The type of sand is blackish gray which char-
acterizes its material from abrasive volcanic rocks (Fig 11.1).
In the south there is land protruding into the sea, which is
composed of volcanic rocks in the form of andesitic-basaltic
lava with sheeted joints. On this rock there is the Batubolong
Temple which is one of the holy places of Hindus on the is-
land of Lombok.
Fig. 11.1. Batulayar Volcanic Beach (source: Dhani Susilowati/ https://

www.holidayislombok.com)
Nipah Volcanic Beach
The beach is bay-shaped, in the north and south it is lim-
ited by Tanjung Blambanan and Tanjung Serombong which
are composed of volcanic rocks in the form of breccia and
lava with sheeted joints. The abrasion process caused the Se-
rombong Cape to be cut off to produce a small hill resembling
a temple and located separately from the mainland.
Gili Meno
Gili Meno is a small island with an area of more or less
1,865 km2. In the North there is a salty water lake with a
relatively circular shape. The surface of the island is covered
with fine to very coarse coastal alluvial deposits. To the south
of the lake there is an offshore groundwater output (KALP)
which is thought to be groundwater seepage and affects the
growth of a typical coral reef, the blue coral. The presence of
groundwater seepage is related to fresh water supply comes
from Lombok Island.
Gili Trawangan
Gili Trawangan is a small island with white sand beaches
consisting of coral fragments, shells and fossils of foraminifera,
fine grained to rough. At the southern tip of the island there
are lava-structured basaltic rocks which have formed a gen-
tle slope with a maximum height of 100 m above sea level.
Pillow lava has formed due to eruptions with relatively low
effusion rates that came in direct contact with sea water.
Volcanic Beach Papak (Krakas)

Papak Beach is a beach with a flat morphology. Towards
the mainland the morphology is undulating. Starting from the

coast towards the sea the sediment is composed of coral reefs.
At a distance of approximately 50 meters from the shoreline
there is an output of offshore groundwater in the form of a
spring sub-marine/ spring discharge, at a depth of 8-10 meters.
Springs arise from the coral reef that forms an inlet or basin.
The basic rocks of the coral reef on this beach are supposed to
be volcanic rocks from the Lekopiko Formation consisting of
laharic and lava breccias.
Semporonan Waterfall (Sengigi)

A waterfall with an altitude of approximately 25 meters
is located in the hamlet of Senggigi. This area is often used as a
camping ground. Water flows through the walls of the escarp-
ment which are composed of lava and breccia. The formation
of the escarpment is supposed to occur on the lava tongue.
The breccia below is eroded by water which has eventually
formed a cavity. This has caused the lava above it to lack sup-
port, so it has broken to form a steep cliff.
Charcoal
One important piece of evidence for volcanic eruptions
is charcoal or carbonized wood fragments. Charcoal or wood
trunk fragments are the result of the heat flow of pyroclastic
material. A Research on charcoal has concluded that the larg-
est eruption in the 13th century occurred at Rinjani.
TIU PUPUS TO MAYUNG PUTIH

In the north there are seven geological sites, all of which
are waterfalls, namely Tiu Pupus, Kerta Gangga, Tiu Teja, Sen-
danggile, Tiu Kelep, Batara Lenjang and Mayung Putih water-
falls.
Tiu Pupus Waterfall
Located in Kerurak Hamlet, Genggelang village, Gangga
sub-district, the waterfall is 50 m high. There is a pool mea-
suring 10 m2 and 4 m depth. This waterfall formed on the
wall of the escarpment which is composed of andesite lava
and breccia. The narrow valley indicates that the escarpment
formed due to erosion. The bottom of the escarpment has
rocks that are relatively less resistant (breccia) than the rocks
above it (lava).
Kerta Gangga Waterfall

Located in Kertaraharja Hamlet, Genggelang Village,
Gangga Utara Utara District. It has two levels, one below
and two above. Walking upstream there is a third waterfall
with an interesting shape, the water seems to come out of the
cave. The wall of the tail is composed of andesite lava and
breccias that appear to be huddled. This shows that the erup-
tion period has occurred many times.
Tiu Teja Waterfall

Located in Santong Village, Kayangan Subdistrict, 40 m
high waterfall. “Tiu” means a large amount of water, where-
as”Teja” means “rainbow”. This waterfall consists of two
adjacent waterfalls, formed on the walls of the escarpment
consisting of lava and breccia. The mechanism for the form of
escarpment is thought to be due to the erosion process, the
lower part forms a cavity, the upper part looks like hanging
which eventually broke. This happens because of differences
in rock resistance above and below.
Sendanggile Waterfall
This waterfall at an altitude of 486 m asl is located in the
village of Senaru, Bayan District, North Lombok Regency. The

water is 30 m high from the walls of the escarpment com-
posed by andesite lava at the top and breccia at the bottom.
At the top, joints parallel to the escarpment form a multi-level
waterfall.
Tiu Kelep Waterfall

Tiu Kelep waterfall is located upstream from the Sendang
Gila location, with the distance from Sendang Gila taking
±30 minutes along the paths and irrigation channels. Based
on the observation of this waterfall the formation is relatively
the same as the Sendang Gila waterfall and other waterfalls
around Mt. Rinjani. This Tiu Kelep waterfall is located at an
altitude of 600 m above sea level. Water flows as high as 50
m-60 m and falls down through steep escarpment composed
of andesite lava and breccia.
Batara Lenjang Waterfall

Batara Lenjang Waterfall is located in the upper part of
the Sendang Gila and Tiu Kelep waterfalls. This waterfall is
located in the area of the National Park Mt. Rinjani. The wa-
terfall falls down through steep escarpment formed by lava
and breccia.
Mayung Putih Waterfall

Mayung Putih Waterfall is located approximately 1.5
km from the road between Senaru-Sembalun. The waterfall
is found in the River (Kokok) Putih. This river flows over
lava and falls through the breccia at the bottom. This lava is
thought to be a lava tongue.
IN THE VICINITY OF RINJANI

In the middle of Rinjani there are 15 geological sites,
among others, the Rinjani caldera wall, Segara Anak Lake,
the Volcanic cone of the Group, the Barujari volcanic cone.
In addition there is Crater I Mt. Barujari; side of Mt. Barujari
(crater in 2004), 1944 lava, 1966 lava, 1994 lava, 2010. Other
geological sites are the Mt. Rinjani cone, Rinjani crater (Segara
Muncar), Aik Kalaq hot water, Susu caves and Payung caves.
Wall of Caldera Mt. Rinjani (View Point

Pelawangan)
The height of the caldera wall reaches 650 m, arranged
by rock layers in the form of lava and pyroclastics, and broken
through by various forms of dykes and sills to form a very in-
teresting natural art. A spectacular view towards Lake Segara
Anak and Mt. Barujari can be seen from Plawangan.
Lake Segara Anak

The Lake Segara Anak has a crescent-shape, its surface
is located at an altitude of around 2009 m asl, covering an
area of about 11,126 ha, with a depth of 160 to 230 m (Fig.
11.2). Many activities can be done around the lake, such as
fishing, camping and religious rituals. On relatively flat land, it
is usually used as a camping area. Every November 5th, Lake
Segara Anak is used as the location of the Pancaka Mulang
Pekelem ceremony held by Hindus.
Cone Mt. Rombongan

The cone of Mt. Rombongan is located in the northwest
foot of Mt. Barujari with an altitude of 2,110 m above sea lev-
el. The emergence of a cone at Mt. Rombongan began with
an earthquake accompanied by a roar on the 25th December
30, 1944, followed by heavy smoke and ash rain for 7 days.
The eruption was equivalent to 273.8 atomic bombs .

Fig. 11.2. Segara Anak (source: Imran)
Cone Mt. Barujari

In the eastern part of Lake Segara Anak there is a new
mountain cone called Barujari/Tenga with an altitude of 2376
m above sea level. This mountain appeared after the erup-
tion of Mount Rinjani and it is still active, occasionally smoke
billows and increasing altitude so it is interesting to observe.
Mt. Barujari Main Crater

Mt. Barujari’s main crater is +170 x 200 m. This crater is
the center of the eruption that produced lava flows in 1966
and 1994.
Side Crater of Mt. Barujari (crater 2004)

The side crater of Mt. Barujari is formed on the slopes
north of Mt. Barujari because of the eruption that occurred
on October 1st, 2004. Eruptions occured in succession with
intervals of 5 to 160 minutes removed thick ash to a height
of 300 - 800 meters. This crater is the center of the eruption
which produced the 2009 lava flows.
Lava 1944
The source of andesite-basalt rock originated from the Mt.
Rombongan eruption in 1944. The material that came out wid-
ened north and west with a volume of about 73,259,000 m3.
Lava 1966
Basalt rock whose source originated from the eruption
of Mt. Barujari in 1966. The material came out to the east then
widened north and south with a volume of about 6,603,050 m3.
1994 Lava
The source of basalt rock lava comes from the eruption
of Mt. Barujari in 1994. The material comes out westward
with a volume of around 25,425,000 m3.
Lava 2010
This lava is derived from the peripheral eruption of Mt.
Barujari which occurred in 2004, 2009 and 2010. The wide
distribution of lava flows due to the eruption in 2009 reached
650,000 m2. This caused a reduction in the surface of the lake
to an area of 460,000 m2.
Mt. Rinjani cone

Mt. Rinjani is the second highest volcanic mountain in
Indonesia. It is located on the eastern edge of the caldera with
an altitude of 3,726 m above sea level. Mt. Rinjani Peak is the

destination of most of the adventurers and nature lovers who
visit this area of the cone of Mt. Rinjani.
Rinjani Crater (Segara Muncar)

The crater consists of loose material with a diameter of
about 300 m and a depth of about 150 m (Fig. 11.3).
Aik Kalaq
Aik kalak, which means hot water, has appeared in seve-
ral places around the Segara Anak Caldera and far from the
caldera. Hot water has originated from geothermal sources
around the emergence of hot springs. Hot water has made its
way to the surface through weak zones forming hot springs
as rivers or ponds.
Fig. 11.3. Segara Muncar, Mount Rinjani Crater.
Fig. 11.4. Milk Cave covered by travertine near the stream Kokok Putih
(source: Imran Putra Sasak)
Milk Cave
This cave has formed from lava flows that have cooled
faster on the outside compared to the inside due to contact
with the surface of the ground and outside air (Fig 11.4). The
inside of the lava flow remains molten due to heat so that
it continues to flow and form cavities. This cave is a natural
cave that has the name of milk because the water coming out
of this cave is white/yellowish like milk. Yellowish-white wa-
ter is bicarbonate water that appears on the surface and forms
deposits of sintered carbonate (travertine/CaCO3).
Umbrella Cave
This cave is a natural cave that has the shape of an um-
brella with a height/size of approximately (3 x 10) m. Inside
the cave there is a water source which is bicarbonate water
that appears on the surface and forms deposits of sintered

carbonate (travertine/CaCO3). Water Bicarbonate is formed
on the edge and shallow areas of a geothermal system. This
cave is often used as a location for meditation.
GRENGGENGAN UNTIL AIK KALAK

There are nine geological sites in the east, namely Gren-
gengan river breccia (geological evidence), Sebau geyser (geo-
logical evidence), Sembalun valley, Pusuk slope, Sembalun cal-
dera wall, lava flow structure, Lentih lava, andesite alteration
(geological evidence), and geysers Aik Kalak in Sembalun.
Brecciation of the Grenggengan River

Brecciation and blackish lava, jointed and faulted with
directions almost northwest of the southeast. This rock is a
pre-caldera product of Sembalun.
Sebau Hot Springs

Sebau Hot Water is located in the southeastern part of
the National Park Mt. Rinjani, emerging as a celebration of
the potential of geothermal energy, appearing as a result
of the structure that leads to this location from geothermal
sources around the area of the Old Caldera Sembalun.
Sembalun Valley
Sembalun area is a remnant of old volcanoes that have
undergone a process of surface changes such as erosion,
weathering and denudation. The process of these changes
have formed rough and steep relief, height between 550-
2250 m above sea level. This volcano has a caldera measuring
more than 1 km2 estimated to be the end of the destruction
process. The basic morphology of the caldera is in the form
of a broad plain at an altitude above 1000 m above sea level
and is a fertile area. The formation of a geothermal system in
the Sembalun area is closely related to the formation of Mt.
Sembalun, which is of Quaternary age.
The escarpment of Susuk Pusuk

The morphology of Mt. Pusuk reflects a very steep es-
carpment. The results of the of topographic lines and images
also show the same occurrence at Mt . This escarpment ex-
tends to the southwest – northeast.
Wall of the Sembalun Caldera

Around the village of Sembalun Bumbung hasa horse-
shoe shape whose peaks consists of Mt. Telaga, Mt. Pusuk, Mt.
Tanakiabang, Mt. Nangi and Mt. Banjer open to the north
and Sembalun Lawang Village as its caldera floor.
Lava with Flow Structures

Andesitic lava is blackish reddish gray, porphyritic, hard,
vesicular texture and there is a smooth (similar to lamination)
flow structure of black minerals.
Lentih Lava
Andesite Lava is gray-light gray, porphyritic, variably ve-
sicular consisting of plagioclase, pyroxene and hornblende
minerals. There is a shear joint as an indication of tectonic
activity.
Alteration (Andesite)
Alteration of the cliff / wall of Mt. Batujang has an area
of about 10 m2. The appearance of alteration in the area is es-
timated as a result of control of the fault, the composition of

the rock has changed because it is traversed by hydrothermal
fluid This alteration is thought to be old i.e., not presently oc-
curring as a result of hydrothermal activity in the area.because
there are no other manifestations around it such as hot water.
Hot spring (Aik Kalak Sembalun)

The manifestation of geothermal potential, is located at
an elevation of 1891 meters above sea level, air temperature
of 19.8°C, water temperature of 43°C, pH 6.5, debit 2 liters/
second.
BETWEEN NARMADA AND KORLEKO

In the south there are 12 geological sites, including two
springs, namely Narmada and Lemor, six waterfalls; Prabe,
Segenter, Benang Stokel, Benang Kelambu, Otak Kokok Ga-
ding, Jerukmanis; Lembah Cerorong, Charcoal fossil remains
occur at Air Berik; ancient quarries of the Lembah Hijau and
ignimbrite in Korleko.
Narmada Springs
Several springs have emerged inside and outside the Ta-
man Narmada area. Springs that emerged in the park are cov-
ered by buildings. There is one spring that is still relatively
open, water arises from pumice sand deposits which occa-
sionally emit air bubbles. Outside the park there are at least 5
springs that are used by residents as bathing locations. Springs
are thought to appear in the contact area between the pumice
tuff layer and breccias.
Prabe Waterfall
Prabe Waterfall is located in Punikan Hamlet, Batu Me-
kar Village, Subdistrict Lingsar. The location of the waterfall
can be reached by walking for approximately 30 minutes.
Water flows on the wall of the escarpment with a height of
48 meters. The exposed rock consists of lava and breccia.
Segenter Waterfall
This waterfall is found in the Sesaot/Pengkoak Riv-
er which belongs to the Lembah Sempage Village area. The
height of the waterfall is around 10 m with rocks in the upper
part in the form of lava and at the bottom, breccia. The form
of lava that appears to hang, a narrow valley, composed of
rocks with different resistance, characterizes the escarpment
that occurs on the tip of the tongue of lava.
Lembah Cerorong
Lembah Cerorong is on a straight line which is a weak
zone associated with active faults, so that it is vulnerable to
geodynamic processes on the surface. This valley is composed
of tuffs containing pumice and andesitic rocks, fine grained to
roughly some granule-pebble, some are easily destroyed. On
both sides are almost erect slopes.
Charcoal Batu Kliang

Charcoal Batu Kliang is located in Batu Kliang subdistrict,
Central Lombok district. At this location, the remaining char-
coal trunks were exposed and became one of the pieces of ev-
idence of the eruption of Mt. Samalas which was believed by
experts as the biggest eruption worldwide in the 13th century.
Benang Stokel Waterfall

Benang Stokel Waterfall is located in Teratak Village,
Batukliang Utara subdistrict, Central Lombok District (Fig.
11.5). There are 2 waterfalls flowing on the escarpment with

Fig. 11.5. Benang Stokel Waterfall
a height of about 30 m. On the walls of the escarpment the

lava is exposed intercalated with the breccias. This condition
indicates that the volcanic rock originated from the volca-
nic eruption with a period of eruption more than once. The
lower part of the escarpment forms a cavity, characterizing
the process of erosion, so it is assumed that the escarpment
formed due to the cut off lava tongue. In the language of the
local community, Benang Stokel means a bundle of threads.
Benang Kelambu Waterfall

This waterfall is located about 500 meters upstream from
the location of Benang Stokel Waterfall. To get to Benang Ke-
lambu Waterfall, you can reach the path as far as 1 km with
a travel time of about 30 minutes (Fig. 11.6). Water comes
out of the rock cracks in the walls of the escarpment to form
4 levels with a height of around 40 m. The water comes out
like a curtain which in the language of the local community is
called Kelambu.
Fig. 11.6. Benang Kelambu Waterfall
Otak Kokok Gading Waterfall

At this waterfall at an altitude of 709 m asl, the wa-
ter comes out from the lava cracks which intercalates with
the sand tuff, pyroclastic and scoria. Around the Otak Kokok
there are 20 springs spread in the southern part of TNGR, in
an area of around 20 ha. The spring that emerges in the lower
area begins to be related to the local water table which is cut
off by the topographic plane.
Jerukmanis Waterfall
This waterfall at 644 m asl is located in Kembangkuning
Village, Sikur District, East Lombok Regency. About 1 km be-
low there is a TNGR post. The height of the waterfall ranges
from 15 m-20 m, through the walls of the escarpment com-
posed of basal lava.

Fig. 11.7. Lemor Spring.
Springs of Lemor
In this area springs emerge from the lava cracks in the
form of lumps on a hill, forming a flow with considerable dis-
charge (Fig. 11.7). This source of water is utilized as a source
of clean water and general use. There is a pipeline leading
to residential areas. At this location there is also a swimming
pool and other supporting facilities. In one of the gaps/holes
in the water there are ritual remnants of offerings in the form
of lekok leaves, rolled cigarettes and coconut fibers used to
burn incense.
Lembah Hijau ex-Mine

Lembah Hijau is located in Korleko Village, East Lombok.
This area is one of the villages that has the potential for min-
eral extraction from pumice. In the era of the 1990s, pumice
mining was carried out by the community, so the landscape
changed into a valley. A community in this area took the ini-
tiative to arrange the former pumice mining area to become
an attractive water tourism object.
Korleko Ignimbrite
Korleko ignimbrite is located on Korleko Beach with
steep coastal cliffs. The steep coastal cliff has been overlaid
because the rock is not yet compact in the form of a pumice
tufa, the beach sand is brownish gray to blackish. Towards the
sea there are igneous boulders with a subrounded shape. On
the beach cliffs, the intercalation of fine-grained and coarse
material can be seen. Fresh water occurs along these contacts..
In the upper part of the intercalation, charcoal remains have
been found.

CHAPTER 12
Biodiversity
Cultural Wealth
Two of the three main pillars in geopark development,
are biological diversity (biodiversity) and cultural diver-
sity. Biodiversity is the level of diversity of life and natu-
ral resources. This diversity includes the availability and
spread of three factors.
First, Ecosystem diversity, which is an ecological unit
consisting of biotic and abiotic components that interact
with each other, and between these components occurs
the taking and transfer of energy, material cycle and pro-
ductivity.
Rinjani Savana Field.
Biodiversity Cultural Wealth 173

Second, the diversity of species, namely as groups of or-
ganisms that breed with each other freely to produce off-
spring, but generally do not breed with members of other
types. Third, Genetic diversity, which is a variety of biochem-
ical aspects, the structure and characteristic of organisms that
are inherited physically from their parents. This genetic is de-
rived from DNA.
While cultural diversity is the process and the work of
art and culture of the surrounding community which is the re-
sult of human interaction with the surrounding environment.
Thus, cultural diversity is related to the understanding of local
communities in addressing existing natural conditions. This
becomes interesting to be raised in geological conservation
efforts.
In the context of Rinjani Geopark, of course both bio-
diversity and culture are greatly affected by the geological
conditions. Moreover, the Rinjani Geopark area of Lombok
is located in an imaginary line transition zone that divides
the world’s biodiversity map, both flora and fauna into two
parts, namely the Wallace Line.
This makes the Geopark Rinjani-Lombok Region a cen-
ter of the intersection between the tropical flora and fauna
of Asia with Australian flora fauna. The contact between the
two always creates something unique and different, as well
as the Geopark Rinjani-Lombok area. As a transition zone,
this area has very diverse flora and fauna and some of them
are endemic flora and fauna.
In addition, this area is a witness of the process and the
birth of a culture that grows generally on the island of Lom-
bok. The process of the cultural community of Lombok and
its results, of course, covers long periods of time. The results
of the culture of the people were created over a period of
thousands of years until now. In that case, influence other

cultures also come and go, enriching the inner wealth of the
people around this geopark area.
Thus, according to the results of the inventory that has
been carried out so far, around the Rinjani Geopark area, at
least, there are 9 biodiversity sites and 17 cultural heritage
sites which are divided into western, northern, central, east-
ern and southern regions. The description is presented below.
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
Gunung Rinjani National Park Forest Area (TNGR)
Mt. Rinjani along with the surrounding area is includ-
ed in the management of TNGR. This national park is one
ecosystem with a type of savanna mountain rain forest con-
sisting of various types of ecosystems and vegetation. TNGR
was inaugurated on May 27, 1997 based on Forestry Minister
Decree No. 280 / KptsII / 1997 with an area of 40,000 Ha.
TNGR has a variety of flora, among others; nettle (Laportea
stimulans), dedurenan (Aglaea argentea), bayur (Pterosper-
mum javanicum), banyan (Ficus benjamina), guava (Syzygi-
um sp) and some types of endemic forest orchids, Perisstylus
rinjaniensis and P. lombokensis. While the variety of fauna
that exists is among others; Rinjani civet (Paradoxurus he-
maprhoditus rinjanicus), deer (Muntiacus muntjak nainggo-
lani), lutung budeng (Trachypithecus auratus kohlbruggei),
pangolin (Manis javanicus), and several types of reptiles plus
a number of species of freshwater fish that live on the Segara
Anak, among others; Mujair and Karper.
Sambelia Protection Forest Area

Sambelia Protection Forest Area is part of the manage-
ment area of the Protected Forest (KPHL) East Rinjani. The
Sambelia protected forest area has an area of 27,319.67 ha

or 73.71% of the total area of East Rinjani KPHL. The diver-
sity of flora in this area includes lanes, agarwood, rajumas,
jowet, nyangsit, panik, ombar, bae, bangsal, sentul, prabu,
goak, tampel, trep and others. while the fauna includes ke-
liang/eagle, koak kaok, trenggiling/pangolin, kepunek, sintu,
krate/ jungle chicken, snake belae, ularsawah/ bentik, monitor
lizards, jara snake, kepu snakes and keliang snakes, deer, lan-
gurs, porcupines, aphids, kelasih, menjangan/deeds, etc.
Lombok Botanical Gardens

Ex-situ plant conservation area called Kebun Raya Lom-
bok in the Lemor Protected Forest area in the village of Suela,
Suela District, which is approximately 28 km north of Selong
City, East Lombok. with an area of about 130 ha. The area is
still a secondary forest of around 89.2 ha with mixed vegeta-
tion and an open area (Kopang II) of around 42 ha which is
currently used for the cultivation of several types of agricul-
tural crops by several East Lombok District Government insti-
tutes. This botanical garden was developed with the theme of
“Conservation of Small Sunda Islands plants”. This is because
the Lombok Botanical Gardens are the first botanical gardens
(and currently the only one) that were built in the Lesser Sun-
da Islands bioregion area, and are expected to be one of the
centers of empowerment of citizens who are integrated in
regional development (DAS) through synergic multi-party col-
laboration.
Nuraksa Sesaot Tahura

Changes in some of the functions of Protected Forests
become a function of Conservation Forest that is intended for
the Forest Park (Tahura) Nuraksa Sesaot covering an area of ñ
3,155 ha. It has vegetation type in the form of lowland trop-

ical forest which has various types of typical flora and fauna.
Cool temperatures throughout the year, flat topography
to gentle and many sources of springs and rivers with wa-
ter flowing throughout the year, fertile soil and a relatively
good environment, producing fruits and can be developed as
the location of Agroforestry. There are various types of flora
arboretums. and deer breeding, in some places can be devel-
oped and made forest tracking and development of other
natural tourist sites.
Forest Area Suranadi Nature Park

Suranadi Nature Tourism Park is 52 hectares wide and is
located in Suranadi Village, Narmada District, West Lombok
Regency. Its natural potential is relatively maintained, making
the Suranadi TWA forest a variety of plants and animals. The
types of flora found in Suranadi TWA include beringin/ban-
yan (Ficus sp), garu (Disoxilum sp), terep (Arthocarpus elas-
tica), suren (Toona sureni), pecan (Aleurites moluccana), and
others. The types of fauna in TWA Suranadi are dominated
by gray apes (Macaca fascicularis), with a variety of birds and
butterflies including Papilio helenus, Papilio memnon, Graphi-
um sarpedon, Moduza prochris and others.
Krandangan Nature Park Forest Area

Kerandangan Nature Park is located in the tourist area of
Senggigi beach on the western edge of Pulau Lombok. Flora
species include kelicung (Dyospiros malabarica), terep (Artho-
carpus elastica), sentul (Aglaia sp), banyan (Ficus benjamina),
and others. While the fauna includes partridge (Gallus gallus),
cerucukan (Pycnonotus goaivier), koakiau (Philemon buceroi-
des), monitor lizards (Varanus salvator), long-tailed macaques
(Macaca fascicularis), and others.

Gili Ayer National Marine Conservation Area, Gili
Meno and Gili Trawangan.
This national waters conservation area has high natural
resource potential, such as marine resources and terrestrial
flora and fauna. Various marine biota found among other are
soft species (Heliophora sp), Labophyelia sp, hard corals (Mil-
lephora sp), Anthipathes sp, Monthipora sp, various types of
ornamental fish etc. Land vegetation is vegetation that is con-
sidered to grow naturally like tamarind (Tamarindus indica),
sea waru (Hibiscus tiliaceus), ketapang (Terminalia cattapa)
and others. Fauna or wild animals that can easily be found
among other types of land birds and wild duck.
CULTURE DIVERSITY
Pura Meru
Pura Meru is the largest temple and one of the Old Ba-
linese Hindu temples on Lombok Island. It was built by a
Balinese Prince, Anak Agung Made Karang in 1720. The Pura
Meru complex includes 3 temples namely Pura Brahma, Pura
Shiva and Pura Wisnu. This temple is a symbol of the universe
representing three mountains, namely Pura Brahma repre-
senting Mt. Gunung Agung, Bali, Pura Shiva representing Mt.
Rinjani and Mt. Semeru was symbolized by Pura Wisnu.
Lingsar Temple
Lingsar Temple is located in Lingsar District, West Lom-
bok Regency. This temple was built in 1714. In the Lingsar
Temple complex there are worship temples for Hindus and
mosques in the Kemaliq Linggar area for the people of the
Three Times Islam community. These two different buildings
showing tolerance and high mutual attitude respect among
different followers at that time.

Karang Bayan Traditional Village
This village is located in the District of Lingsar and is
about 10 km from the direction of the city of Mataram. Ka-
rang Bayan Village is designated as a Cultural Tourism village
because of the uniqueness of the village which still maintains
the authenticity of the customs and culture in the village such
as living procedures, arts, traditional houses, and the Karang
Bayan Ancient Mosque.
Suranadi Temple
Suranadi Temple is located in the village of Suranadi, Nar-
mada District, West Lombok. Pura Suranadi was built on the
idea of the King of Pagesangan named AA Nyoman Karang in
1720 Christian Calender. In this temple there are three groups
of temples, namely Ulon Temple/Gaduh Temple, Pangentas
Temple and Pabersihan Temple. Each is named according to
the function of the water source in it.
Narmada Park
Narmada Park is located in Lembuak Village, Narma-
da District, West Lombok Regency or about 10 km east of
Mataram City, West Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia. The
park which covers an area of about 2 ha was built in 1727 by
the King of Mataram Lombok, Anak Agung Ngurah Karang
Asem, as the ceremony place for Pakelem.
Batulayar Cemetary
Batulayar cemetery is located in Batulayar Village, is the
cemetery of one of the spreaders of Islam on the Lombok
Island. For worship purposes, inside the cemetery complex
there is a Golden Lingkok spring.

Fig. 12.1. Batu Bolong Temple, Senggigi.
Batu Bolong Temple

Batu Bolong Temple is directly opposite the Lombok
Strait and Mt. Agung, Bali. There are two temples, the first
temple which stands under the shade of a tree. While the
second temple stands on a rock that rises as high as + 4 meters
(Fig. 12.1).
Lokaq Sesait Mosque

Lokaq Sesait Mosque is located in the village of Sesait,
Kec. Kayangan Kab. North Lombok. This mosque is the cen-
ter of the Wet Sesait Tradition Ritual Activities which includes
four villages namely the Sesait village as the main village, Pen-
dua village, Kayangan village and Santong village.
Gumantar Ancient Mosque

The center of religious aspects is in the Gumantar ham-
let, in the Ancient Mosque that is now, while the the center

of government at that time was in Dasan Beleq Hamlet. The
historical heritage site, according to the traditional figure of
Dasan Beleq Hamlet, Malinom (48), including “Bale Bangar
Gubuq”, is called Pagalan by the local community, and it is
located in the middle of Gubuq Dasan Beleq, wide of 5x5 m.
Segenter Traditional Village

Segenter Traditional Village is a hamlet in the village of
Sukadana, Bayan District, North Lombok Regency, about 80
km from the city of Mataram. A traditional village that pre-
serves its customs as a Sasak tribe, and it is the oldest village in
Lombok. Berugaq looks a lot and lined up neatly in Segenter’s
houses.
Beleq Bayan Mosque

Beleq Bayan Mosque is one of the historical sites in Indo-
nesia, more than 300 years old. This mosque building has a
size of 9 x 9 m. The walls are low and made of woven bam-
boo, the roof is overlapping arranged from bamboo blades,
while the foundation of the floor is made of river stones.
Traditional Village Senaru
This village is located near the Rinjani-Senaru Climbing
Post. Traditional Senaru Village is led by Traditional Chief
called Maloka. The population is only 79 people, consisting
of 20 families, according to the number of houses in this vil-
lage. All of the residents of the Senaru Traditional Village are
Muslim.
Mulang Pakelem Ceremony

The Pancaka Mulang Pekelem Ceremony, held every 5th
of November ahead of the Twin Hindu Galungan and Annual
Kuningan Festival. Mulang Pekelem is a series of ceremonies

Fig. 12.2. Ceremony Mulang Pakelem at the edge of Segara Anak
source: Imran Putra Sasak)
offering prayers and offerings (sesajen) in the form of gold,

silver and copper in the form of fish and shrimp, which are
offered to the Lord of the Ruler of Lake Segara Anak so that
the people obtain peace and prosperity (Fig. 12.2).
Ngayu-ayu Tirta Ceremony
A traditional ritual held by communities around the Sem-

balun valley. This customary program is held every 3 years
and has been passed down since more than 600 years ago.,
During the ritual, holy water from 12 springs is gathered, fol-
lowed by the burial of buffalo heads. Topat war rituals are
centered at Sembalun Bumbung Public Square, East Lombok
and shows in the form of dances and Gurantang Cupak art.
The program takes place following the tradition that has been

around for a long time. This ritual is a form of Gratitude to
God Almighty for giving abundance of crops, avoiding disas-
ters and the community is expected to be free from diseases
that are said to have been suffered in ancient times by local
people.
Beleq Village
According to spoken tradition, Beleq Village is the begin-
ning of the Sembalun civilization. Beleq Village itself means
the earliest house, or the oldest village. The number of houses
are seven with seven stairs going inside, and places to put
other objects or items such as cooking utensils and clothes
that are called para, have the total number of seven. There
are only two rooms available, namely the bedroom and the
storage room for agricultural equipment. There are two barns
that function to store agricultural products such as rice and
corn or the other is called geleng. These seven houses symbol-
ize the seven families that became the beginning of the life of
Sembalun Village (Fig. 12.3).
Kotaraja Mosque
At first the mosque was in the village of Loyok in the east
of Kotaraja ±5 km. Then it was moved to Kotaraja by the de-
scendants of Raja Langko named Sutanegara and Ling Negara
in 1111 H. According to the local community, Sutanegara and
Ling Negara were the founders of Kotaraja Village and their
ancestors. Raudhatul Muttaqim Mosque is a cultural preserve
for three provinces in Indonesia, namely Bali, NTB and NTT.
Selaparang Cemetery
This cemetery complex is located in Karangjero Village,
Selaparang Village, Suela District, East Lombok Regency. The

Fig. 12.3. Seven houses symbolize a Beleq Village as the beginning of
the Sembalun civilization.
cemetery complex consists of 3 yards. Yard I is at the front,

empty, there is only the house of the cemetery guard. Yard II
is in the center, used as a place of rest for visitors. Yard III is
the main yard used to place 30 ancient cemeteries. The cem-
etery complex which consists of three yards is also available
in the temple in Bali. At the temple in Bali, yard I is called the
jaba yard, the second yard is called the middle, and yard III
is called the jero, the most sacred yard.

CHAPTER 13
What’s Next ?
The next question is what the diversity of the Rinjani
Geopark means ? What opportunities for developing the
geological conservation concept ? How to protect various
biodiversity around the Rinjani Geopark. The following is
the answer.
Enjoy the morning at the top of Mount Rinjani.
What’s Next ? 187

Presidential Regulation Number 9 of 2019 as the
legal based for Geopark Development
Protection, utilitation and development of geopark as a
geological inheritance have not been specifically regulated in
a statutory regulation, the existing regulations still regulate
in general the designation of geopark area (Law Number 26
Year 2007 concerning Spatial Planning, and Presidential Regu-
lation Number 26 Year 2008 concerning RTRWN).
In the first National Geopark Conference held on July
12, 2018 at the Bappenas office Jakarta, which was attend-
ed by the Coordinating Minister for Maritime Affairs, Minis-
ter of PPN/Bappenas, Minister of Tourism, Head of Creative
Economic Agency (“Bekraf”), Head of Capital Investment
Coordinating Board (BKPM), and several Echelon I officials
of varies Ministries/Agencies, and all National Geopark Ad-
ministrators had agreed upon the need for regulation of the
regulatory framework, institutional framework, financing
framework, and the contribution of geoparks in sustainable
development (Sustainable Development Goals / SDG’s).
Six months after the first National Conference, the le-
gal basis for the development of a geopark was officially
announced with the issuance of Presidential Regulation No.
9/2019 concerning Geopark Development. This Presidential
Regulation aims to manage the Geopark Development in or-
der to realize the preservation of Geological Heritage, Bio-
diversity, and Cultural Diversity which are carried out jointly
between the Central Government, Regional Governments,
and Stakeholders through 3 (three) pillars that include conser-
vation, education, and economic development for the com-
munity in a sustainable manner
This Presidential Regulation also mandates several Minis-
tries to issue Ministerial Regulations in accordance with their

main duties and functions in developing geopark in a more
implementable manner. The Coordinating Minister for Mar-
itime Affairs as the Chairperson of the Steering Board issued
ministerial decrees related to the work procedures of the
Indonesian National Geopark Committee (Komite Nasion-
al Geopark Indonesia), the Minister of Energy and Mineral
Resources establishes the Geological Heritage (geoheritage)
and its governance, the Minister of Tourism issues ministerial
regulations related to Geopark management through the de-
velopment of tourism destinations, and the Minister of Na-
tional Development Planning / Head of Bappenas establishes
a ministerial union related to the National Action Plan for
Geopark development.
In the framework of implementing sustainable geopark
development, the National Action Plan for Geopark Devel-
opment in Indonesia is being prepared by integrating the Sus-
tainable Development Goals (SDGs), for a period of 5 (five)
years. The National Action Plan for Indonesia’s Geopark De-
velopment serves as a guideline for the Central Government,
Regional Governments, and Stakeholders in implementing
Geopark Development.
The National Action Plan for Indonesia’s Geopark Devel-
opment is set by the Minister of National Development Plan-
ning/Head of the National Development Planning Agency. In
preparing the National Action Plan for Indonesia’s Geopark
Development, the Minister of National Development Plan-
ning/Head of the National Development Planning Agency
involved Ministries/Institutions, Regional Governments, and
Stakeholders. The Central Government, Regional Govern-
ment, and Stakeholders must implement the National Action
Plan for the Development of Indonesian Geopark to support
the development of Geopark in accordance with its author
What’s Next ? 189

Scientific, International, Regional and Local
Meanings
The scientific meaning of Geopark Rinjani internationally is
the second highest active volcano in Indonesia. Mt. Rinjani hides
a lot of mysteries to discover. Mt. Rinjani remains an interesting
research object for geoscientists both nationally and internation-
ally. The recent discovery on the eruption of Mt. Rinjani is a
spectacular phenomenon that has changed the history of the
13th century.
The Rinjani-Lombok Geopark is located along the Wallacea
Line, an imaginary line that marks the world’s biodiversity map,
both flora and fauna into two distinctive zones. It has created
the Rinjani-lombok Geopark unique, a center of intersection be-
tween tropical Asian flora fauna with Australian flora fauna. As a
transition zone, this area has very diverse flora fauna with some
endemic nature.
The decision of the Indonesian government on the Mt. Rin-
jani Region as a National Strategic Area (KSN) has been in line
with the national initiative in addressing global warming issues.
The Mt Rinjani Geopark offers an immediate solution part of
the Indonesian government’s efforts to participate in overcom-
ing the world’s environmental problems. The KSN Spatial Plan-
ning Mt. Rinjani plays as the center of Lombok Island’s water
management and supports Lombok Island as an international
tourism destination.
As one of the most active volcanoes Mt. Rinjani always
draws attention, part of a national scientific research and contin-
ued monitoring. The volcanic activity is continuously monitored
by the central government by establishing the Volcano Obser-
vation Post (PGA) in the Sembalun area of East Lombok. Volca-
nologists and supporting personnel on duty in the PGA Post are
under the Center for Volcanology and Disaster Mitigation, the
Geological Agency, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources.

In addition to the International Award, the management
of the TNGR area has also obtained achievements at the Na-
tional level. The recognition includes the Award from the
Minister of Culture and Tourism in “The Tourism Conference
2004” as a successful institution. This tourism innovation in-
volves participation of the community in their management
so that they can share the benefit; Tourism of Citra Pesona
Award 2010.
Mt Rinjani plays a pivotal important role in securing wa-
ter sources for the region or the island. Mt. Rinjani area covers
a catchment area for 2 groundwater basins (CAT) on Lombok
Island, namely Mataram-Selong CAT and Tanjung-Sambelia
CAT. The boundary of CAT was has been defined on the basis
of the Presidential Decree number 26 of 2011 concerning De-
termination of Groundwater Basin.
Potential for new renewable environmentally friendly
energy sources, geothermal energy has been discovered in
the Sembalun area, East Lombok Regency. Preliminary inves-
tigation activities have been carried out, following the grant
of the ESDM Minister Decree Number: 2848/30 / MEM /
2012 dated 27 September 2012 concerning the establishment
of Geothermal Mining Working Areas. If the geothermal po-
tential can later be utilized, it will certainly affect the welfare
of the people on Lombok Island because of current energy
shortage.
The Gilis water conservation areas in the West consist-
ing of three small islands (Gili Trawangan, Gili Meno and Gili
Air) are the center of activity of Gili Eco Trust. The program
activities include coral reef regeneration, cleaning, educating,
coral gardening, arranging waste recycling options, conduct-
ing research and studies with universities, regulating sustain-
able ecotourism with green energy, providing animal care and
others.
What’s Next ? 191

Geopark Supporting Opportunities
The Rinjani Lombok Geopark area hosts mineral poten-
tial both metallic and industrial minerals. A series of explora-
tion activities for metallic minerals have been carried out for
gold, silver, copper, manganese, iron sand and lead. Industrial
minerals potential includes andesite quarry, pumice, soil clay,
rockfall, rock sand and limestone. Further north of the island,
discovery of hydrocarbon basins (oil and natural gas sources)
off the north coast of Lombok has also been made.
Large potential of mineral commodities and energy in
Lombok has opened up investment opportunities for the
regional and national development. A small scaled-mining
activities by local investors are operated by local miners for
andesite and limestone quarries. However safety and envi-
ronmental aspects remain concerning.
Land fertility due to volcanic nutrients around the Mt
Rinjani offers suitable large agricultural sites which are still in
line with the conservation spirit of the geopark. However in-
tensive changes in land functions can go uncontrolled, which
have the potential to push environmental sustainability and in
turn can bring treat to a life habitat.
Tourism is expected to boost along with the Geopark
intiative in Lombok. The Geopark provides excellent tourist
destination, covering various geological, anthropological, cul-
tural, historical and biodiversity aspects. Tourism will certainly
go along with environmental conservation as geotourism de-
veloped in the Rinjani-Lombok Geopark area is based on the
principles of green tourism and sustainability aspects. These
include ABC components (abiotic, biotic, culture), always
parts of the tourism objects and attractions which will ensure
environmental sustainability at all tourism destinations.

Biodiversity Protection
As part of the National Strategic Area the Lombok Rin-
jani Geopark is protected by the central government. This
is related to the Government Regulation Number 26 2008
concerning the National Spatial Planning.
The Rinjani Geopark is part of the Mt Rinjani National
Park, which covers an area of 41,330 ha as per the Minister of
Forestry Decree No. 185/kpts/1997 dated May 27, 1997. This
area is dedicated as research science, education, supporting
cultivation, tourism and recreation.
The Krandangan Nature Park covers an area of 396.10
ha as per the Decree of the Minister of Forestry Number: 494/
Kpts-II/1992, June 1, 1992. The Suranadi Nature Tourism Park
with an area of 52 hectares was determined in accordance
with the Decree of the Minister of Agriculture Number 646/
Kpts/Um/10/76, October 15, 1976 as tourism and recreation
nature.
The Nuraksa Sesaot Forest Park in an area of 3,155 ha is
defined in accordance with the Decree of the Minister of For-
estry and Plantation Number 244 Kpts-II/1999. This allows
conversion of the protected forest (3,155 ha) to the Tahura
(People Forest Garden) for the purpose of research science,
education, supporting cultivation, culture, tourism and rec-
reation.
The islands of Gili Air, Gili Meno, and Gili Terawangan
are designated as national water conservation with Decree of
the Minister of Marine and Fisheries No. Kep.67/MEN/2009
covering an area of 2,954 ha.
In line with legal protection by the central government
the west Nusa Tenggara Province has released provincial reg-
ulations. In accordance with the Provincial Spatial Plan the
What’s Next ? 193

region has been designated as a provincial strategic area as
per the West Nusa Tenggara Provincial Regulation No. 3 Year
PERDA 2010 Regarding the Nusa Tenggara Province Spatial
Planning West Southeast of 2009-2029.
Towards the 6 th APGN Host

The Asia Pacific Geopark Network (APGN) bi-annual
meeting has been planned to be held on Lombok. In order to
host this 6th international event meeting in September 2019,
the managing body of Geopark Rinjani, Lombok, West Nusa
Tenggara in collaboration with the Geopark Association in In-
donesia has prepared a series of agenda.
The activities have commenced with an international
geo-tourism seminar in June 2018. The seminar organized by
a joint committee of the managing body of Geopark Rinjani
and the Nusa Tenggara Geological Association involved key
stakeholders of geoparks throughout Indonesia, local govern-
ment officials and the APGN management including the chair-
man Prof. Dr. Ibrahim Komoo.
The agenda continued with a national geotourism sem-
inar, presenting 3 renown female professors in geology and
geo-tourism Prof. Dr. Emmy Suparka (ITB), Prof. Dr. Mega F.
Rosana (UNPAD) and Prof. Dr. Noor Zaeni Asman along with
the talk moderator Dr. Agusdin, MBA as senior lecturer at the
Faculty of Economics, University of Mataram (Fig. 13.1).
Another seminar activity was held with speakers from

Fig. 13.1. The talkshow program which presented 3 renown female
professors at the national geotourism seminar in Lombok.
geopark managers, community development practitioners

in the geopark area, representatives from the government
in charge of tourism and geopark, and the chairman of the
APGN.
The seminar activities ended with a fieldtrip to several
geological sites including: pyroclastic products of the erup-
tion of Mt. Samalas in the vicinity of Pamatan Village and the
Benang Kelambu waterfall that appeared between rock layers
in the middle and the upper cliffs.
What’s Next ? 195

The author discussed with Sukmandaru and Emmy Foreign tourist was telling story of his experience from
Suparka in the location of Samalas pyroclastic deposit. the top of Rinjani
Research Team of Mt. Rinjani from Geological Sampling Team of Mt. Rinjani, Geological Agency
Agency and Pdjadjaran University
Visit of participants of Cities on Volcanoes (CoV) in Research Team on the way to the top of Mt. Rinjani
the location of Samalas deposit
The author was showing artefacts in the Samalas Pyro- Rock sampling for Mt. Barujari lava flows
clastic flow deposit to archaeologist and paleontologist
in the field.
Boating on Lake Segara Anak towards the location of Erecting up a tend at coast of Segara Anak with the
Lava flow 2015. background of theh Lava flow 2015
The author was showing the products of paroxysmal The author reported the research result to the Gover-
eruption of Rinjani in the field. nor of West Nusatenggara Province.
The author discussed with Sukmandaru and Emmy Foreign tourist was telling story of his experience from
Suparka in the location of Samalas pyroclastic deposit. the top of Rinjani
Research Team of Mt. Rinjani from Geological Sampling Team of Mt. Rinjani, Geological Agency
Agency and Pdjadjaran University
Field Trip activity of the Seminar participants in the Inventory Team of IAGI Geological Site with the back-
location of Eruption 1257 product of Samalas deposit ground of Mt. Rinjani
Sighting pyroclastic flow deposit entering toward Guy Martini (Assessor of GGN UNESCO) was
the sea discussing with the author
A Survey Team in stage 3 were involved in their Prof Komo as an assessor for UGG was inspect-
activity. ed in the middle process of Rinjani Geopark de-
velopment.
Discussion among scientific research team The Scientific Research Team of Rinjani.
during sighting the Samalas pyroclastic flow
deposit
tic
ting the pyroclas
er e ga th er in g to discuss on sigh
esearch team w the Sea.
The Scientific R it w hi ch w as entering towards
flow depo is
Informing the artefacts in the Pyroclastic Flow Excavation artefacts in the thick Samalas pyro-
deposit to an archaeologist, and a palaeon- clastic flow deposits.
tologist.
Discussing among the palaeontologists and Making a report about artefacts by the Excava-
archaeologist concerning artefacts. tion Research team in the field.
Excavation Resea
rch Team for Rin
jani.
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LIST OF THERMINOLOGY
Aerosol - often also called aerosol sulfate means SO2 gas

which was ejected into the air through a later eruption oxi-
dized to form H2SO4 (sulfuric acid) that reaches stratospheric
layer (height > 40 km from the surface of the earth) and then
carried the wind throughout the world, among others to the
South Pole (Antarctica) and the North Pole (Artika). At both
poles there is core drilling in the environment. If the aerosol
deposit is deposited on these locations, ice cores (ice cores)
are very helpful in age determination of a volcanic eruption.
Affanitic - crystals are relatively smooth so they cannot be
identified with the naked eye.
Albite - Minerals are included in the felspar group with the
silicate class and the tectosylicate sub class.
Alteration - Changes in rock mineralogical composition (in
solid state) due to the influence of high temperatures and
pressures and not in isochemical conditions produce clay min-
erals, quartz, metal oxides or sulfides.
Member - A part of the Formation that shows the characteris-
tic in the rock Formation.
Anhedral - Minerals with erratic crystals and some do not
determine as texture in igneous rock.
APGN - Abbreviation of Asia Pacific Geopark Network
Igneous rocks - Types of rocks formed from cooling and hard-
ening, with or without crystallization, both beneath the sur-
face as intrusive (plutonic) or above the surface as extrusive
(volcanic) rocks.
Plutonic rocks - Igneous rocks are formed from freezing mag-
ma which is relatively slower so that its constituent minerals
are relatively large.
Block - fragment that are thrown out with sharp shapes and
larger than 64 mm in diameter.
List of Therminology 207

Bombs - fragment magma or rounded magma thrown out
when still quite liquid so that they can change shape or form
spheres while in the air. Bombs are larger than lapilli (64 mm)
and unlike blocks, do not have sharp shapes unless they break
during collisions.
Deflation - The process of transporting one material from one
place to another due to the presence of wind power.
Differentiation - The process of converting large-scale homo-
geneous magma into igneous rock with varying compositions.
Explosive - Eruption that occurs when the kitchen location of
the magma is deep, then there is a large volume of gas, and
also acidic magma.
Equigranular - Uniformity in the size of the crystals that
formed in the rock is equally large.
Phenocryst - Crystal texture that is larger than the matrix and
can be identified with the naked eye, as well as in petrogra-
phy under a polarizing microscope separation of crystals from
a liquid magma at the time of magma cooling.
Formation - A part of the stratigraphy science (part of geol-
ogy) which is the basic unit in rock grouping, consisting of a
body of rock that is usually sedimentary rock (sediment), but
can also be igneous, and is usually characterized by uniformity
of forming elements with distinctive features such as chemical
composition or fossil content and can be mapped.
Fractination - Separation of crystals from magma solution at
the time of cooling of magma.
Fumarola - A hole in the volcano area, emits gas and steam.
Geochemistry - The study of earth chemistry includes studying
the distribution and number of chemical elements between
layers of ice in minerals, ore, rocks, soil, water, and air, and its
circulation in nature.
Geopark - or park earth is an area or geological heritage site
(geological heritages) that has ecological and cultural heritage
values (cultural heritages) and functions as an area of conser-
vation, education, and sustainable development.

Volcanic Strato - Volcanoes formed due to the eruption of Ex-
plosive Extrusion (Eruption) and Effusive Extrusion (Eruption)
continuously and alternately. Strato volcano has a conical
form with steep slopes.
Hypidiomorph – Igneous rocks where most of the crystals are
euhedral and subhedral while others are anhedral.
Hypocrystalline - Igneous rocks composed of crystals and
glass.
Ilmenite - Titanium-iron mineral oxide with the ideal formula
FeTiO3. Ilmenite has a weak magnetism with a solid black or
gray-steel appearance.
Inequigranular - Uniformity in the grain size of crystals that
form different size rocks.
Inclusion - Appearance in the naked eye and under a polar-
izing microscope where Old Igneous Rocks are embedded in
the younger Igneous Rocks.
Intersertal - Texture used to show large spaces between crys-
tals (base minerals, matrix) filled with smaller sized glasses as
the base.
Intergranular - Texture where olivine, pyroxene, or iron ox-
ide is surrounded by plagioclase granules. Plagioclase minerals
such as piercing olivine minerals, etc.
Isopach Map - Map showing the thickness of the rock layer.
Caldera - Depression in volcanic areas that has a large basin
form, more or less like a circle, which has a much larger diam-
eter than the crater hole or volcanic crack inside it.
Crater - Depression that are usually found on the top of the
volcano, and more or less has a basic compatible with the
magma channel.
Labradorite - Mineral belonging to the feldspar group that are
most commonly found in mafic igneous rocks such as basalt,
gabbro and diorite.
Lahar - The heterogeneous flow of collapsing material mixed
with water at a temperature of lower than the boiling point,

may be formed during eruptions or afterwards or because of
unstable slopes.
Lapilli - Materials that fall from the air during volcanic erup-
tions which have a diameter between 2-64 mm.
Lava - The common term of igneous rock that emerges from
the crater.
Liquifaction - Symptoms of leaching of loose sand mixed with
water due to earthquake shaking where the trigger force ex-
ceeds the force of local lithology in holding shocks. Liquifac-
tion can cause several events such as rapid depression, build-
ing foundation to be tilting or partial depression (differential
settlement), and drying of well water which is replaced by
non-cohesion material.
Magma - Fluid or an incandescent silicate solution that is nat-
urally formed, mobile character, with temperatures between
900º - 1200ºC or more and comes from the lower crust of the
earth or the upper sheath of the earth.
Magmatism - Things related to magma conditions such as the
composition of magma, classification or grouping of magma,
temperature, pressure, and the place where magma is formed,
the origin of magma forming, genesis or magma forming pro-
cess, eveolution of magma forming.
Magnitude - earthquake strength scale on a scale of 1 to 10.
Mineral accessories - Minerals which are formed directly from
the freezing of magma but the amount is very little, so it does
not affect the name of rock.
Ophitic - Texture in igneous rock, where plagioclase minerals
are embedded in large crystals of pyroxene or olivine.
Panidiomorf - where most crystals are euhedral and subhe-
dral while others are anhedral.
Petrography - The branch of petrology that focuses on de-
tailed descriptions of rocks in which the mineral content and
the relationship of texture in rocks are explained in detail.
Petrology - Study of rocks and their forming conditions.
Pyroclastic - Clastic rocks formed from volcanic material.

Pyroxene - A group of inosilicate minerals that are found in
igneous rock and metamorphic rocks.
Pleocroism - Optical phenomena when mineral grains in a
rock look colorful when viewed from certain angles using a
polarized petrographic microscope.
Poicylitic - Texture where small granules are enclosed by a
large mineral.
Pre-caldera - Condition before forming caldera.
Syn-caldera - Condition when forming a caldera, simultane-
ously.
Post-caldera - Condition after forming caldera
REE - Abbreviation of Rare Earth Element.
Dyke – thin intrusion cuts other rocks around it.
Geological Time Scale - Earth’s age is obtained based on rock
analysis both in absolute terms using the isotope method, or
relatively by using fossil age methods.
Silica-oversaturated basalt - Basalt containig unsaturated silica
minerals, such as Si3O8.
Sill - Intrusion forms a tabular shape which intrudes through
between two older layers of sedimentary rock, volcanic lava
layers or tuff, or even along the foliation direction in meta-
morphic rocks.
Geology Site - Geological Heritage which has high aesthetic
value and has meaning for the development of the geology
and education sciences. For example, in the aspect of volca-
nicity, like caldera, young volcanic cones, solfatara fields, hot
springs, waterfalls and others.
Subhedral - Minerals with imperfect crystalline forms.
Plate tectonics - A solid object based on the Earth model char-
acterized by the presence of a little number of plates (10-25),
large, wide, and thick floating on a thick base, and can move
freely one to another, so that between one plate to another
can move in opposite directions (collide) or away from each
other.

Type of Volcano - The type of volcanic eruption based on the
way of its eruption, the height of the eruption material, and
the distribution of eruption material horizontally. From the
type of small to large eruptions successively named Hawaiian
Type, Strombolian Type, Volcanic Type, Plinian Type, and Ul-
tra Plinian Type.
Trachytic - Texture where mineral grains plagioclase shows
orientation because of a flow, and between plagioclase gran-
ules there is a glass or cryptocrystalin material.
VEI - Abbreviation of the Volcanic Explosivity Index or Volca-
nic Eruption Index (1 to 8) based on the height of the smoke
pillars and the volume of material thrown at a volcanic erup-
tion.
Vesiculer – Opening structures (cavities) in igneous rocks that
occur due to gas release during freezing.
Viscosity - Measurement of the resistance of a fluid that is
changed both by pressure and stress.
Vitrification - A glass forming process from a mineral or rock.
Volcanic neck - Volcanic landscape that forms when magma
hardens or freezes in volcanic holes on an active volcano.
Xenolith - Structure that shows the presence of a rock fragment
that enters or is compressed in igneous rock due to incom-
plete fusion of a accessory rock inside the intruded magma.
Benioff Zone - The zone of collision between plates that
moves against each other.
Subduction Zone - The zones found in convergent inter-plate
boundaries. As a result of the difference in density between
the two types of plates, the plate with a greater density pro-
truding the other plate.
Zoning - The forms of a longitudinal or circular path that indi-
cates a different chemical composition of each pathway.

Attachment
213
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Heryadi Rachmat, was

born in Ketapang, West Ka-
limantan, Indonesia on 28 Oc-
tober 1953. He was graduated
Bachelor degree in Geology
from Fac- ulty of Enginering
Geology, Padjadjaran Universi-
ty (UNPAD), he got the Master
degree in Management from Mataram University (UNRAM), and
he gained the Doctor Degree in Volcanology from UN- PAD too.
Starting 1982, he worked as a staff in Volcanological Survey
of Indonesia (VSI) in Bandung. In 1986, he moved to work for the
Regional Office of Mining and Energy, West Nusa Tenggara (NTB)
to occupy structural positions in 1987-
2009. The last position was Head of Department. In 2010,
he moved back to Bandung working for the Geological Museum
as Engineering Functional Employee. In October 2018 he retired
from the Geological Museum, with the last position of The Main
Engineering Specialist. From the beginning of 2019 until now as a
post-graduate lecturer, the master of sustainable tourism is UNPAD.
He is involved actively in professional organization as a mem-
ber of Indonesian Geologists Association (IAGI). Cur- rently, he is
the chairman of Indonesian Geotourism Society (MAGI) a branch
of IAGI. He attends frequently in national and international semi-
nars, symposium especially in geology dan geotourism both as pre-
senter and participant.
He received IAGI award as the best presenter in 2001 and
2004. In 2007, he was the Coordinator of geotourism within the
IAGI. He also received The awards from Prof. Dr. J.A Katili (Chair-
man of Indonesian Academy of Sciences) as the author of the book
“Gunungapi Nusa Tenggara Barat” in 2003, and that as the author

of the book entitle “Potensi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi Nusa
Tenggara Barat” in 2004. He received award of “Dharma Karya
Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral” from the Ministry of Energy and
Mineral Resources (ESDM)- Republic of Indonesia in 2008. He also
received an award from the IAGI central board as an Indonesian
geotourism activist and also as a pioneer in involving to develop
“the Rinjani Lombok Geopark” in 2018. He married a woman
and endowed with three daughters, one grandson, and one grand-
daughter.
Heryadi Rachmat can be contacted through e-mail address of

heryadirachmat220@gmail.com
215
ABOUT THE EDITORS
A. Djumarma Wirakusumah was born

in Bandung on January 1, 1954. He was
graduated from Geology Department of
Bandung Institute of Technology (ITB) in
1979 for his Bachelor degree. In 1883, he
got a “Diploma in Seismology” from the
International Institute of Seismology and
Earthquake Engineering (IISEE) at Tsuku-
ba, Japan. In 1991, he gained his PhD de-
gree in volcanology from Victoria University of Wellington,
New Zealand.
His formal job experiences was begun as a staff of Volca-
nological Survey of Indonesia (VSI) starting in 1981. In 1999-
2004, he was Director of VSI. In 2004-2008, he was Direc-
tor of Directorate of Environment Geology (DEG) and later
Head of the Center for Geological Survey (CGS) for 4 years.
The VSI, DEG, and CGS were under of the Geological Agen-
cy of Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources. In 2012, he
moved to be a lecturer at Polytechnic of Mineral and Energy
(“PEM”), under the Human Resources Development Agen-
cy of Energy and Mineral Resources, Ministry of Energy and
Mineral Resources for 7 years, and he retired from the PEM
in February 2019,.
Djumarma succeed to finish a government official course
so-called Indonesian National Defence course (Lemhannas)
for 9 months in 2006. He teach Volcanology at Geological
Engineering Faculty, Padjadjaran University since 1994. He su-
pervised some students for Master degree, and PhD degree,
and examined Master degree and PhD degree at Padjadjaran
University, Bandung Institute of Technology, and Gajah Mada
University.

He is involved as a member of the Association of Indo-
nesian Geologist (IAGI), as a member of Association of In-
donesian Geophysicist (HAGI), and a member of Indonesian
Association Geothermal (INAGA). He was chairman of IAGI
for West Java and Banten Province in 2008-2013. He was
chairman of Editor Board in Journal of ESDM at PEM in 2012-
2019. He is the author of two book on volcanology and ge-
ology. He edited several books on volcanology and geology.
He married Yetie Rooshartini and endowed with a
daughter, Putri Detie Nur Thana.
Adi Maryono was graduated from Ge-

ology Engineering Department, Gajah
Mada University in 1989. He got Mas-
ter in Geology from University of Bris-
tol, U.K and Uni of Toronto, Canada in
2007. In 2017 he gained in his PhD in
Economic Geology at University of Tas-
mania.
According to his Working Experi-
ences, Adi Maryono is a field-oriented
exploration geologist with a strong interest in exploration for
Cu-Au porphyry and epithermal deposits. He has experience
from grassroots exploration to advanced stage projects in a
variety of geological and cultural environments including In-
donesia, China, South America, Central America, PNG and
Australia. The highlight of his career was being a member of
the exploration team during the discovery and delineation of
the 1.9 billion tone (30.1 Moz Au, 19 Blbs Cu) Tumpangpitu
porphyry Cu-Au-Mo and high-sulfidation epithermal Au-Ag
deposit at the Tujuh Bukit Project, SE Java Indonesia, one of
the largest new discoveries in SE Asia. He has a keen interest
in the application of spectral alteration mapping to vector to-
wards hydrothermal ore deposits in field exploration, as well
217
as its use in deposit modelling and geo- metallurgy through
the use of the Terra-Spec spectrometer. This practical applica-
tion of spectral data resulted in new porphyry and epithermal
discoveries in Indonesia and at the Cascabel giant porphyry
discovery in Ecuador. I have presented these techniques that
led to discoveries at a number of international conferences.
Other record of his Working Experiences are being the
Independent Consultant Exploration Geologist at several min-
ing enterprises such as for Sunstone Metals in Ecuador since
2017, that for Cornerstone Capital Resources Inc since 2017
in Ecuador, and that for Almadex Mineral Ltd in Mexico since
2016. He is also being the Consultant Geologist at several
mining enterprises such as for PT. J Resources Nusantara (In-
donesia) since 2015, that for PT Antam Tbk (Indonesia) since
2018, and that for Avalon Minerals Ltd since Juni 2015, that
for Solgold Plc (Ecuador) in 2012-2016, that for Pamapersada
Nusantara (Indonesia) for a month in February 2016, that for
Australian Mineral Fields (Australia) in 2007-2008.
Adi is a member of various scientific and professional
association such as Association Indonesian Geologist (IAGI),
and Association of Indonesian Miner (PERHAPI). He was the
chairman of IAGI for Nusa Tenggara Province in 2013-2015.
He was the Head of Experts Board for Kageogama (Associa-
tion of Geology UGM Alumni) since 2018. He has published
20 technical 20 technical papers in International and national
Journals and proceedings.

TESTIMONY
Rinjani has been very well known

among geologists as one volcano in
Indonesia where the products of its
activities can clearly be seen out in the
field. Among the features are impressive
caldera – together with its lake and wall-
, cone, lava cave, hot spring, and water
fall, which form a very beautiful scenic
view of the volcano. Furthermore, the
above features are relatively accessible, so
that one can study it. Based on these facts,
the volcano, and its surrounding area, need to be preserved, for
the sake of our generation and the coming generations.
In 2007, Dr. Heryadi Rachmat and some other members of
the Association of Indonesian Geologists (IAGI) talked to me, as
Chairman of the organization at that time, about proposing Mt.
Rinjani to UNESCO as one member of its Global Geoparks. This
was the first proposed global geopark for Indonesia. IAGI com-
mittee, with no hesitation, for we realized the importance of this
matter, approved the idea and we went on with the proposal.
The author of this book, Rinjani From Evolution to Geopark,
is a prominent figure of geotourism in Indonesia. His broad and
complete knowledge on that branch of geology is well reflected
in this book. The text, diagrams, and beautiful colorful figures are
all arranged very nicely in popular manner, so that lay people,
not necessarily a geologist, can follow and understand the ideas.
Salute to him! I am sure that this book will contribute significant-
ly to the advancement of geological knowledge in Indonesia.
Bandung, 23 August 2019,

Prof. Lambok M. Hutasoit, Ph.D.
Geology Department
Bandung Institute of Technology.
219
This book presents the comprehensive
information about Rinjani UNESCO Global
Geopark. Being the pivot of the geopark the
uniqueness of Mt Rinjani is the the focus of
this book discussing the activities, the con-
figuration of the caldera and the mystery of
magma origin. With Mt Rinjani as the cen-
ter, the Island of Lombok is endowed with
many unique and rare diversities ranging
from beautiful landscape, rich biodiversity
and unique cultural heritage. All of those interesting uniqueness
are interestingly unveiled in this book.
Bandung, 24 August, 2019.

Professor Adjat Sudradjat,
Padjadjaran University.
I do believe that this book will be a

very useful, comprehensive catalogue for
Rinjani Geopark. The author seems to be
exploring (by heart) and explaining all he
has got related with Mt. Rinjani as a vol-
cano as well as a geopark in this book. I
should also say that this book is a symbol of
the emerging geopark of Indonesia.
Bandung, 15 August 2019

Prof. Emmy Suparka
Bandung Institute of Tchnology.

The book entitle “Rinjani ; From Evolu-
tion to Geopark” is very excellent one. I per-
sonally appreciate very much the publication
of the book which coincides with the 6 th
APGN Symposium held in 2019 in Lombok.
The book was written in a simple language
that is easily digested by public although
they are beyond a geological background,
so that the readres can better understand
the enormous volcanic formation evolution
of Samalas, of which is known as Rinjani at
precent. Coinciding with recognition of the
UNESCO Global Geopark of Rinjani was declared in 2018, this
book provides basic knowledge about culture that has ever been
glorious before the Rinjani volcanic eruption and its endemic flo-
ra and fauna. By the concept of development through geopark,
the community was invited to better understand nature through
wisdom of local culture to be able to continue protecting the
environment. so that it can provide an economic improvement
for the people who live in the area, as an appreciation for the
effort to take care its conservation.
Bandung, 24 August, 2019.

Prof. Mega Fatimah Rosana,
Head of Geopark and Geohazard Research Center,
Prof. Guy Martini
221
Prof. Ross Dowling
Heryadi, you have written a very interesting and informative

book on geotourism in West Nusa Tenggara. It will prove to be
a valuable asset for tourists wishing you understand experience
this unique part of the world. Well done ! Ross Dowling.
Remarks to Rinjani Book

It is an honor to have the opportu-
nity to deliver a remark to this excellent
book entitled ‘Rinjani-From Evolution to
a Geopark’. The content of the book is
very comprehensive and informative. It
covers all aspects of geological matters,
which can be a very good reference for
students, researchers, and all who is inter-
ested to Rinjani Volcano.
As a hydrogeologist, I usually called Rinjani as the soul of
Lombok Island. We know that there will be no life without wa-
ter and Mount Rinjani has a very important role in producing
aquifer layers all over Lombok Island. Its eruption activities since
the last 10.000 years are marked by the presence of gradual
grain size in a thick formation, which is good for trapping the
groundwater that flows from the peak of the Mount of Rinjani
to the lower elevation all over the area in the island. Some of the
groundwater springs out in the offshore of Papak Beach (North

Lombok) and Seruni Mumbul Village (Pringgabaya, East Lom-
bok). The springs are recognized as the submarine groundwater
discharge (SGD), which are very helpful to the fisherman in the
area in acquiring freshwater for their activities.
On this occasion, I would like to congratulate Dr. Heryadi
Rachmat and team for providing us a comprehensive, clear con-
cept and illustration, enriched with accurate scientific data to ap-
preciate more the Rinjani geological diversity. I believe this book
is very important as an introduction of Rinjani as the geopark.
Bandung 22 Agustus 2019

Prof. Dr. Robert M. Delinom
Hydrogeologist in Indonesian
Institute of Science (LIPI)
This book entitle “Rinjani ; From Evo-

lution to Geopark” is extraordinary. It dis-
cusses deeply both in terms of geological
substance and its implications in the devel-
opment of geopark in Indonesia. The book
was written in excellent, simple but com-
prehensive language, and easy to read. The
author of this book knows the practical as-
pects of scientifically and understanding of
its implication to development of geopark
in Indonesia. After it was declared as UNESCO Global Geopark
Rinjani Lombok, it is inspiring appearance of other geoparks in
Indonesia. In this occasion, I would like to congratulate and ap-
preciate Dr. Heryadi Rachmat, the author of this book and the
team who has well finished this book. I hope, this book will be
useful.

Prof. Nana Sulaksana,
Head of the Applied Geology Department,
Engineering Geology Faculty
223
This book is a complete reference
about Rinjani. Every important occurrence
those happened in Rinjani was recorded
and described in detail completely in each
chapter. Start from important occurrence
before the gigantic eruption, the time of
historic Samalas eruption in 1257 and oc-
currence after the eruption including the
formation of Rinjani current caldera and
the activities of the new volcano of Baru-
jari which is still active until now on.
Based on his extensive knowledge and long experiences
with Rinjani, the author could gather various sources nicely, so
this book shows the interesting scientific sides of Mt. Rinjani not
only it’s geological and biological sides but also the historical oc-
casions that occurred in Lombok and also abroad that related to
the huge eruption of this volcano. The myth about Rinjani and
Anjani Goddes was also described very well in relation with the
tarnished of a kingdom around Rinjani that caused by massive
destruction as the result of the eruption.
This book also described the long history of the process
of proposing Rinjani-Lombok Geopark as one of the member
of UNESCO Global Park. As one of pioneer person promoting
Rinjani-Lombok Global Geopark, in this book many important
untold processes were described very clearly so we can see the
important role played by author in making Rinjani as a member
of UNESCO Global Geopark (UGG).
At the end part of this book we could find the important of
Rinjani to Lombok island and for the world with the existence of
geological heritages with high value such as Rinjani Caldera, the
signature of Samalas Eruption , Waterfalls and the Gili’s. These
geological heritages not only has formed close association with
the richness of flora and fauna of Rinjani but also the cultural
richness of Lombok that make Rinjani worth as UNESCO Global
Park.

Reading this book bring us to surf the decades of Rinjani
history, the history that can not be dissociated with the identity,
nature and culture of Lombok island. Hence, anybody interested
in exploring Rinjani Geopark and Lombok island, to read this
book is highly recommended.
Mataram, 20 August 2019

Prof. Yusuf Sutaryono
Chairman Provincial Research Concil
West Nusa Tenggara.
In this nice book a scientific review of Mt

Rinjani is discussed deeply with touch of pop-
ular information. It is understandable not only
by earth scientist but everyone. The photos are
also pleasing to the eye and make these book
more interesting.

Dr. Vijaya Isnaniawardhani
Dean of Faculty of Geological Engineering
This excellent book entitle “Rinjani ;

From Evolution to Geopark” described nicely
concerning Mt Rinjani scientifically, starting
from history of volcanic formation, as well
as its development history of magma genet-
ic. On the other hand Mt Rinjani has a lot
of wonderful natural landscapes, that are
very good for tourists destinations. This book
also described that Mt. Rinjani is rich area
on unique and rarely geological diversities. The book can be
understood clearly both for academic and practical world pur-
poses. Even this book can deliver well to reader who lack and
225
do not understand what geopark is. In this opportunity, I would
like to congratulate and give a high appreciation to Dr. Heryadi
Rachmat, the author for his diligence and effort in presenting this
book. Hopefully, this book will be a gift from him for the entire
archipelago in enriching this extraordinary study of geopark.

Dr. Evi Novianti
Head of Sustainable Tourism, Magister Program,
Post Graduate School, Padjadjaran University.
This is one of the great book, which dis-

cover the mistery of Rinjani Mountain from A
to Z. Should be used as one of the refferences
for everybody who cares about volcanic activ-
ities in Indonesia.
*Rinjani Geoparks*, is the amazing natu-
ral museum in the wide caldera.
Blitar, 25 August 2019

M.J. Djuharlan on behalf of the 1974th group of
Geology University of Padjadjaran, Bandung
At that time, on May 9, 2018, I made

a five-page article on Facebook. The title is
Rinjani, the beauty but also the best. The re-
sults were unexpected. The articles along the
way got very positive responses. Was Like
by more than 12,500 people and reshared
12,300 times. This means that 98% of read-
ers redistribute articles they read. Yet if the
type of article, especially along that, many
people are reluctant to read it.
What makes the article interesting is the story behind the

charm of Rinjani’s beauty. That one time, in 1257 he had been
a really scary monster. When her name was still Samalas which
erupted and devastated the world. Even far to the continent of
Europe across there.
As a result of the Samalas eruption, exceeding Krakatoa
and Tambora. But all the greatness was buried, until 2013, when
Franck Lavigne of the Sorbonne found the fingerprint of the de-
stroyer monster.
The current and past information of Mt. Rinjani, was unex-
pectedly examined by Dr. Heryadi Rachmat. The author’s thick
friend since he was a student at SMPN 1 Cimahi, SMAN 1 Cimahi,
and also his fellow members of the Nature Lovers group Jana
Buana, Tjimahi Student Association (IMT).
After the earthquake disaster in Lombok in 2018, almost the
activity of volcano tourism in North Lombok was completely
destroyed. Though the community is very economically depen-
dent on this type of tourism activity. The rebuilding of tourism
infrastructure, especially volcano-tourism, must undoubtedly be
developed again. So that it can continue to progress sustainably.
On the other hand, we understand that progress must be
fully supported by literacy and education processes for all parties.
Hopefully this book compiled by Heryadi Rachmat can open a
path in that direction. For the sake of educating all the children
of the nation. So they know about the history of greatness, pride
and awesomeness of this country.
Cimahi, 25 August 2019

Yat Lessie
Board of Trustees at Jana Buana - IMT.
The Steering Board at the Nature Lovers Large Family
Communication Forum in Bandung Raya (FK KBPA BR).
227

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RINJANI

FROM EVOLUTION TO GEOPARK

DIRECTORATE OF ENERGY, MINERAL AND

Cover Ilustration, Layout & Grapchic Art

First Edition 2019

All rights reserved

GUBERNUR NUSA TENGGARA BARAT

Mt. Rinjani complex is one of areas in West Nusa Tenggara Province

Mataram, 16 Juli 2019

GUBERNUR NUSA TENGGARA BARAT

Dr. H. ZULKIEFLIMANSYAH, S.E., M.Sc.

RINJANI From Evolution To Geopark iii

I am grateful to the almighty God for

iv RINJANI From Evolution To Geopark

Vice President of GGN

RINJANI From Evolution To Geopark v

Supported by the rich and unique

vi RINJANI From Evolution To Geopark

Dr. Ir. Arifin Rudiyanto, M.Sc

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Lombok as one of Indonesia

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Deputy Minister of Industry and

N.W. Giri Adnyani

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M ount Rinjani dominates wonderful

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Head of Geological Agency

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R injani which is the second highest

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Jakarta, 10 July 2019

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The book with a tittle “Rinjani: From Evolution to Geopark” has

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Bandung, August 2019

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Foreword Governor of West Nusatenggara ......................................... iii

Chapter 8. Origin of Magma Rinjani Caldera Lava ............................. 113

Chapter 9. The Magmatic Evolution Model Rinjani Caldera................ 123

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Chapter 12. Biodiversity Cultural Wealth............................................. 171

Chapter 13. How Next ??.................................................................... 185

References .......................................................................................... 203

Masjid Hubbul Wathan Islamic Center, is one of the largest and

Welcome to the Thousand Mosque Island 3

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Welcome to the Thousand Mosque Island 5

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Welcome to the Thousand Mosque Island 7

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The Regional Geology of Lombok

Welcome to the Thousand Mosque Island 9

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Welcome to the Thousand Mosque Island 11

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Welcome to the Thousand Mosque Island 15

DEWI ANJANI PALACE

Savana landscape on the slope of Mt. Rinjani

Dewi Anjani Palace 19

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Kerinci in Sumatera only defeated the height of the peak of

Dewi Anjani Palace 21

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