Chapter 11.

1 on biodiversity

**1. Biodiversity:**
- Biodiversity encompasses all living organisms on Earth and the variety of life forms, ranging
from microscopic bacteria to massive whales. It also includes the diversity of their genetics,
behaviors, and ecological roles.

**2. Genetic Diversity:**

- Genetic diversity is crucial because it provides the raw material for adaptation and evolution.
Within a single species, there can be various versions of genes (alleles) that contribute to
differences in traits among individuals.
- This diversity allows populations to adapt to changing environmental conditions and reduces
the risk of extinction in the face of environmental challenges.

**3. Species Diversity:**

- Species diversity is a measure of the number of different species within a particular
community or ecosystem.
- Understanding species diversity helps ecologists assess the complexity and stability of
ecosystems. Higher species diversity often indicates a healthier and more resilient ecosystem.

**4. Ecological Diversity:**

- Ecological diversity goes beyond species count and assesses the richness and complexity of a
biological community.
- It includes the number of niches (unique roles) occupied by different species, the trophic
levels (feeding positions) in a food web, and the various ecological processes that govern
energy flow and material cycling in an ecosystem.

**5. Species Richness vs. Species Evenness:**

- Species richness refers to the total number of species in a community. It gives us a count of
different species.
- Species evenness measures how evenly distributed the individuals are among the various
species in a community. A community with high evenness has similar numbers of individuals in
each species.

**6. The Species Concept:**

- Historically, the species concept relied on the physical characteristics or morphology of adult
organisms for classification.
- The reproductive isolation species concept defined species as organisms that can naturally
breed and produce fertile offspring.
- The phylogenetic species concept (PSC) emphasizes the evolutionary relationships among
species based on their genetic and evolutionary history.
- The evolutionary species concept (ESC) considers species in terms of their historic and
evolutionary roles rather than focusing solely on reproductive potential.
**7. Molecular Techniques in Taxonomy:**
- DNA sequencing and molecular techniques are revolutionizing taxonomy by providing more
accurate methods for identifying and classifying species.
- DNA analysis is particularly useful when dealing with difficult-to-capture or rare species.
- It has practical applications in conservation, helping to differentiate populations and
determine their importance in an evolutionary context.

**8. Estimating the Number of Species:**

- While we've identified around 1.7 million species, there are likely millions more awaiting
discovery, especially among less conspicuous organisms like insects and fungi.
- The estimate of 3 million to 50 million different species alive today reflects the uncertainty in
biodiversity assessments.
- Genetic studies and advances in taxonomy continue to refine these estimates.

**9. Biodiversity Hot Spots:**

- Biodiversity hot spots are regions with exceptionally high levels of biodiversity and
significant habitat loss.
- They are essential for conservation efforts because they contain many unique species that
are at risk of extinction due to human activities such as deforestation and habitat destruction.
- Identifying hot spots helps prioritize conservation efforts to protect these critical areas.

**1. Fragmentation due to Railroad Construction:**

- In the 19th century, the U.S. government incentivized railroad construction by granting large
amounts of public land to companies like the Northern Pacific Railroad.
- These companies engaged in a practice called "checkerboarding," where they chose
alternating sections of land, effectively blocking off large areas from public access.
- This tactic allowed them to control even more land, making it difficult for others to access
timber on the public property.

**2. Clear-Cutting and Fragmentation:**

- Clear-cutting is a logging method where all trees in a designated area are removed. This
often results in a loss of deep-forest characteristics.
- Even when large portions of the forest remain uncut, the remaining areas become "forest
edge," which can have negative impacts on species that require deep-forest habitats.

**3. Habitat Destruction from Resource Extraction:**

- Industries like mining, dam construction, and certain fishing methods can lead to habitat
destruction.
- Surface mining, for example, removes the top layers of soil and vegetation, impacting
ecosystems. Mining waste can pollute water bodies.
- Dam construction can flood vital stream habitats, affecting aquatic species' food sources and
breeding grounds.
 - Indiscriminate fishing methods, like bottom trawling, damage the ocean floor and catch
unintended species.

**4. Invasive Species:**

- Invasive species are non-native organisms that establish themselves in new environments
and often outcompete native species.
- The introduction of invasive species can disrupt ecosystems, reduce biodiversity, and cause
economic and environmental damage.
- Examples include the barred owl invading the habitat of the northern spotted owl, Eurasian
milfoil in aquatic ecosystems, kudzu vine in the southeastern U.S., and the emerald ash borer
affecting ash trees.

**5. Disease Organisms as Threats:**

- Pathogens, such as viruses and bacteria, can also be considered threats to biodiversity.
- When introduced to new environments, pathogens can cause epidemics and harm local
species. Balance between pathogens and hosts is crucial for ecosystem health.
- Diseases introduced to new environments can cause catastrophic impacts on wildlife
populations.

**6. Human Activities as the Most Ubiquitous Invasive Species:**

- Human activities, including habitat alteration and species introduction, are among the most
significant drivers of biodiversity loss.
- Human actions have led to habitat destruction, pollution, and overexploitation of resources,
all of which threaten ecosystems and species.

**7. Overharvesting:**
- Overharvesting, such as hunting, fishing, and the commercial exploitation of species, has led
to the depletion and even extinction of many species.
- Examples include the extinction of the passenger pigeon, near extinction of the American
bison, and overfishing in many parts of the world's oceans.
- The African bushmeat trade and the trade in wildlife for pets are also serious threats.

**8. Conservation Efforts:**

- Over the years, governments and organizations have established protected areas,
conservation laws, and wildlife refuges to protect biodiversity.
- Conservation efforts have led to the recovery of some species, like white-tailed deer, wild
turkeys, and wood ducks.
- However, challenges persist, including the need to educate the public about the importance
of biodiversity and address issues like overpopulation and habitat loss.

This passage discusses the importance of legislation in protecting biodiversity, focusing on the
U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA) and the Canadian Species at Risk law. Here are the key
points:
1. **ESA and Canadian Species at Risk Law**: These laws are described as powerful tools for
wildlife protection. They aim to identify and protect endangered species and populations,
irrespective of their utility to humans. The ESA defines endangered and threatened species and
regulates various activities related to these species.

2. **Definitions**: The ESA defines endangered species as those facing imminent extinction,
while threatened species are likely to become endangered in the foreseeable future. The
passage mentions several species, including bald eagles, gray wolves, brown bears, sea otters,
and native orchids, that are classified as threatened despite being abundant in some regions.

3. **Regulation of Activities**: The ESA regulates a wide range of activities involving

endangered species, including hunting, trapping, importing, exporting, possessing, selling, and
shipping. Violators can face fines and imprisonment, and their equipment may be confiscated.
The law also protects critical habitat for species.

4. **Number of Species Listed**: The U.S. has 1,372 species listed as endangered or
threatened, with additional candidate species awaiting consideration. The passage notes that
the selection of species for protection is influenced by human interests rather than equal
representation from every phylum.

5. **Conservation Efforts**: The passage discusses the efforts to weaken or eliminate the ESA
by some political groups and administrations. It highlights the differing approaches of past
presidents in listing and protecting endangered species.

6. **Recovery Plans**: Once a species is listed as endangered, the Fish and Wildlife Service is
required to prepare a recovery plan detailing how to rebuild their populations. However,
recovery efforts face challenges such as costs, politics, and compromised habitats.

7. **Funding Priorities**: Funding for endangered species protection often prioritizes

charismatic species over invertebrates and plants. Different terms are used for species that
merit special attention, including keystone, indicator, umbrella, and flagship species.

8. **Large-Scale Conservation**: The passage suggests that focusing on continent-wide

preservation of ecosystems supporting biodiversity, rather than species-by-species
conservation, might be more effective. Gap analysis is mentioned as an approach to identifying
unprotected landscapes rich in species.

9. **Captive Breeding**: Breeding programs in zoos and botanical gardens are discussed as a
means to save severely threatened species. Examples of successful captive breeding programs
for California condors, nene geese, and white rhinos are provided.
10. **Limitations of Captive Breeding**: The passage notes limitations of captive breeding
programs, such as the difficulty of breeding certain species, inbreeding issues, and the potential
loss of natural habitat while focusing on breeding.

11. **Ethical Questions**: The passage raises ethical questions about which species should be
saved and how much should be invested in preserving different types of organisms.

This passage highlights the importance of legislation like the ESA in biodiversity conservation
and discusses various strategies and challenges in protecting endangered species and their
habitats.