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Human Domination of Earth’s Ecosystems
Peter M. Vitousek, Harold A. Mooney, Jane Lubchenco, Jerry M. Melillo
Human alteration of Earth is substantial and growing. Between one-third and one-half interact with the atmosphere, with aquatic
of the land surface has been transformed by human action; the carbon dioxide con- systems, and with surrounding land. More-
centration in the atmosphere has increased by nearly 30 percent since the beginning of over, land transformation interacts strongly
the Industrial Revolution; more atmospheric nitrogen is fixed by humanity than by all with most other components of global en-
natural terrestrial sources combined; more than half of all accessible surface fresh water vironmental change.
is put to use by humanity; and about one-quarter of the bird species on Earth have been The measurement of land transforma-
driven to extinction. By these and other standards, it is clear that we live on a human- tion on a global scale is challenging; chang-
dominated planet. es can be measured more or less straightfor-
wardly at a given site, but it is difficult to
aggregate these changes regionally and glo-
bally. In contrast to analyses of human al-
All organisms modify their environment, reasonably well quantified; all are ongoing. teration of the global carbon cycle, we
and humans are no exception. As the hu- These relatively well-documented changes cannot install instruments on a tropical
man population has grown and the power of in turn entrain further alterations to the mountain to collect evidence of land trans-
nance or alteration of
several major compo- 60 Phase III-
nents of the Earth sys- Mature
tem, expressed as (from 40
left to right) percentage 20 Phase I- Phase II-
of the land surface trans- Undeveloped Developing
formed (5); percentage 0
1951
1955
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1994
NP
60°
30°
EQ
30°
60°
SP
180° 120°W 60°W 0° 60°E 120°E 180°
Fig. 4. Geographical distribution of fossil fuel sources of CO2 as of 1990. The global mean is 12.2 g m22 year21; most emissions occur in economically
developed regions of the north temperate zone. EQ, equator; NP, North Pole; SP, South Pole. [Prepared by A. S. Denning, from information in (18)]