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Abstract
Carrageenans are used in a wide range of industries, especially the food industry, where their gelling
qualities and viscointensifying properties are greatly valued. The structure of Carrageenans has a major role when
it comes to characteristics and properties. Kappa and Iota Carrageenans have very similar structures and therefore
share many properties. These polymers have a backbone of galactose but differ in the proportion and location of
ester sulfate groups and the proportion of 3,6-anhydrogalactose. Kappa carrageenan is able to interact synergistically
with other gums, such as locust bean gum and konjac mannan, to modify further the gel texture.
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taxonomic position of several red algae (Usov intensive as the seaweed is collected by raking
[6]). or hand-gathering, mechanical harvesters have
Carrageeenans are extensively, gel or texture been tested but have shown little to no
enhancers, stabilisers, etc. These additives give improvement in yield. The seaweed is then
textural properties and protective effects to a washed to remove sand, stones and other
wide range of products such as frozen desserts, impurities. Then the seaweed is taken to the
chocolate, cottage chesse, whipped cream, production plant and extracted under alkaline
instant breakfasts, yoghurt, jellies, pet foods, conditions to produce quality carrageenans.
relishes, sauces and syrups (Tojo end Prado This lasts several hours at temperatures close to
[5]). the boiling point of the alkaline solution. The
extract is then filtered and concentrated to a
Source. The term “carrageenan ” describes a final carrageenan concentration of 3%. It is
class of sulphated galactan poliyaccharides then precipitated by the addition of 2-
that occur as cell wall constituents in numerous propanol, dried, and ground to the desired
species of red seaweed (marine algae of the particle size. Often additives are blended into
class Condrus crispus found on the coasts of the final product, such as sucrose and glucose,
Irland, England and Spain, Eucheuma species to increase viscosity or gelling properties. The
near the Philippines, Rhodophyceae) major device that affects the gelling properties
(carbohidrates [10]). of the final carrageenan product is alkali used
k-Carrageenan is predominantly obtained by and time of extraction used (Lamond [9]).
extraction of the tropicalseaweed Kappaphycus
alvarezii, known in trade as Eucheuma cottonii Structures. Structure of carrageenans are a
(or simply cottonii). Eucheuma denticulatum family of water soluble, linear, sulfated
(trade name Eucheuma spinosum or simply galactans. The backbone of the polysaccharide
spinosum) is the main species for the is formed of D-galactose units linked
production of ι-carrageenan. λ-Carrageenan is alternately with α-(1-3) anb β- (1-4) linkages.
obtained from diffrent species from the The carrageenans are clasified according to the
Gigartina and Chondrus genera. The presence of 3,6-anhidro-D-galactose on the 1,4-
sporophytic plants of these seaweeds produce linked residue and the position and number of
λ-carrageenan whereas the gametophytic plants sulpfated groups (fig. 1). Greek letters have
produce a k/ι-hibrid type of carrageenan. These been assigned to varions ”idealised”
k/ι-hibridcarrageenans consist of a mixed chani disaccharide repeating unites. However, natural
containing both k-and ι-units and range from carrageenans containining only one type of
almost pure ι-carrageenan to almost pure k- repeating disaccharide may not exist but
carrageenan. The production of λ-carrageenan consist of molecular hybrids of two or more
implies the selection of samples in the idealised structures. The properties of such
sporophyte stage while the extraction can be hybrids depend very much on the distribution
carried out with hot water as the cyclization, in of the different disaccharide unites along the
alkaline medium,. to θ-carrageenan is difficult polymeric chain.
and this product has essentially the same The three principal types of industrial
properties as λ-carrageenan (F.van de Velde, et importance are kappa, iota and lambda
al. [2]). carrageenans. Kappa (k) and iota (i) forms are
gelling polymers, white lambda (λ) is a non-
Manufacturin. There are many different gelling, thickening agent (Tojo and Prado [5]).
methods used to extract Carrageenans from
seaweed and processing conditions are usually Solubility. All carrageenan are soluble in hot
considered trade secrets by the manufactures as water. Sodium salts of both kappa and iota
these produce the variables in the Carrageenan carrageenans are soluble in cold water.
properties. Firstly the Carrageenan-containing potassium and calcium salts do not dissolve;
seaweeds are harvested which is labour however, they exhibit the ability to swell.
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Swelling is variable and is dependent upon the double helices then must aggregate to form a 3-
particle density. iota carrageenan is sensitive to dimensional network. A general mechanism of
calcium ions and it will swell to form gelation is shown in Figure 2. The mechanism
thixotropy results from the formation of indicates that both kappa and iota gels are
bivalent calcium bridges between the swollen thermoreversible gels. The gels will become
particles to form a losse 3- Dimensional fluid when heated above their melting
network (Budnis [7]). temperature and will reset upon cooling with
The influence of temperature is an important minimal to no loss of their original gel strength
factor in deciding which carrageenan should be (Budnis [7]).
used in a food system. All carrageenans The gelation mechanism is controversial, and
hydrate at high temperatures and kappa and the domain model has been suggested to
iota carrageenans in particular exhibit a low explain gelation in terms of coil-to helix
fluid viscosity. On cooling, these carrageenans transition followed by aggregation of domains
set between 40–60ºC, depending on the cations of double helices in the presence of gel-
present, to form a range of gel textures (Imeson inducing ions. The i-carrageenan displays a
[8]). greater hydrophilic character than the k-
carrageenan because of the presence of
additional sulphate grout in the anhydrons
galactose residue. This also enhances its ability
to inhibit syneresis, even though its gels are
less rigid than those of k-carrageenan owing to
its lower aggregation capacity (Medina-Torres
[3]).
Figure 2.Thermoreversibility of
Figure 1. Structures of kappa, lambda and Carrageenan gels (Lamond, 2004)
iota carrageenan
Hot solutions of kappa and iota carrageenans
set to form a range of gel textures when cooled
Carrageenan gelation mechanism. Kappa and to between 40 and 60ºC depending on the
iota are gelling carrageenans. In order for cations present. Carrageenan gels are thermally
gelation to occur, the helix of a single reversible and exhibit hysteresis or a difference
carrageenan molecule must come in close between setting and melting temperatures.
proximity to a second identical single These gels are stable at room temperature but
carrageenan helix to form a duble helix. The can be remelted by heating to 5–20ºC above
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the gelling temperature. On cooling the system and types of carrageenan suitable to such food
will re-gel. applications (Budnis [7]).
The ionic composition of a food system is
important for effective utilisation of the Synergism whith other gums. Kappa
carrageenan. For example, kappa carrageenan carrageenan is synergistic with locust bean
selects for potassium ions to stabilise the gum and konjak mannan. Hot solutions of
junction zones within the characteristically kappa carrageenn-locust bean gum strong
firm, brittle gel as shown in Fig. 3 (a). Iota elastic gels with low syneresis when cooled
carrageenan selects for calcium ions to bridge below 50-600C. Locust bean gum is a
between adjacent chains to give typically soft galactomannan with a level of substitution of
elastic gels in Fig. 3(b). one part mannose to four units of galactose.
The presence of these ions also has a dramatic However, this substitution is not regular and
effect on the hydration temperature of the regions of the locust bean gum are
carrageenan and on its subsequent setting and unsubstituted. The mannose-free regions of the
remelting temperatures. For example, iota locust bean gum are able to associate whith the
carrageenan will hydrate at ambient repeating helicalstructure of regions of the
temperature in water but the addition of salt locust bean gum are able to associate with the
raises the gel point so that the solution is repeating helical structure of carrageenan
converted into a gel with distinct yield point dimers to form gels. The maximum interaction
which is used for cold-prepared salad and hence pik rupture gel strongth, occurs at a
dressings. Sodium salts of kappa carrageenan rations betwen 60:40 and 40:60 kappa
will hydrate at 40ºC but the same carrageenan carrageenan to locust bean gum. These polymer
in a meat brine will only show full hydration at combinations are used in very large quantities
55ºC or above. Gelation of kappa and iota in cooked meats and in gelled petfoods
carrageenans with cations (fig. 3). (Imeson [8]).
As a carrageenan dispersion is heated there is These synergistic interactions enhance the gel
no significant particle swelling or hydration strength and water binding capabilities, as well
until the temperature exceeds about 40–60ºC. as modify the gel texture to be more elastic and
As the particles hydrate the viscosity rises as resilient (Budnis ).
the swollen particles offer more resistance to
flow. Further heating to 75–80ºC produces a
drop in viscosity. On cooling, the solution
shows a marked increase in viscosity followed
by gelation below temperatures of 40–50ºC.
The hydration and gelation temperatures are
strongly dependent on the salts associated with
the carrageenan or added separately to the
solution. For example, levels above about 4%
sodium chloride can prevent full hydration of
carrageenan in meat products. In contrast, the
very dilute levels of around 200ppm of
carrageenan used to stabilise chocolate milks
and other dairy beverages may not form a
stabilising gel network until the temperature
drops below 20ºC. The presence of high solids,
such as in confectionery, effectively
concentrates the carrageenan and cations on the
aqueous phase so the gelation may occur at 80–
85ºC or higher placing limitations on the levels
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