CSC510 Lecture Slides 10/6/17

Statements About Specific Objects

n Propositional Logic only allows us to make absolute
statements or statements involving all objects like:
¨ Sharks are large white fish
Predicate Logic ¨ Athletes wear Nike
¨ If it rains, we get wet

n We often need to make statements about someone or

something like:
¨ Some sharks are large white fish
Muthukkaruppan Annamalai ¨ Arun is an athlete who wears Nike
¨ If it rains, anyone who is outside will get wet
mk@tmsk.uitm.edu.my

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From Propositional Logic to

Arguments Involving Objects
We also often need to construct arguments
involving quantified objects like:
n All athletes wear Nike; All students are athletes; Therefore, all
students wear Nike
n All athletes wear Nike; Some students are athletes; Therefore, some
students wear Nike
n Some athletes wear Nike; Some students are athletes; Therefore,
some students wear Nike
z Is each of the above argument valid?
Predicate Logic
n Predicate (or Quantified) logic is necessary for
¨ making statements about objects in a domain of
discourse (DoD)
¨ reasoning about properties of objects
¨ reasoning about relationships between objects
n Predicate is a propositional function describing
certain property or relations that returns true or
false as its value
n Recall: Proposition is a statement that affirms or denies
something, i.e., simply a statement that is either true or false

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CSC510 Lecture Slides 10/6/17

Predicate Quantified Logic

A predicate is a propositional function involving named object
(constant) and unnamed object (variable) wrt. a DoD n Variables in a predicate are bound by universal or
List of predicate terms
existential quantifiers
e.g 1. friend(ariff, shah) ¨ Universal quantifier (∀) indicates an expression is true for all
DoD is the group of CSC510 class students terms
predicate name ¨ Existential quantifier (∃) indicates an expression is true for some
e.g 2. even(X): X is an even terms
DoD is set of positive integers
n Quantified logical proposition
¨ In e.g. 1, the predicate friend(ariff, shah) describes the relationship ¨ Universally quantified statement
between the constant terms ariff and shah wrt. the students in the
CSC510 class, and friend(ariff, shah) is true if ariff and shah are friends, e.g. All cars have wheels
otherwise is false. ∀X hasWheel(X) denotes hasWheel(X) is true for every X in
DoD
¨ In e.g. 2, the predicate even(X) describes certain property associated
with the variable X wrt. positive integers, i.e., the predicate represents a ¨ Existentially quantified statement
class of proposition; the variable may be substituted with a positive e.g. Some birds can fly
integer, i.e., even(1), even(2), even(3), .., and for each X in the set of
positive integers, even(X) is true if X is even, even(X) is false if X is odd. ∃X canFly(X) denotes canFly(X) is true for some X in DoD
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Atomic and Compound Formula Quantifiers

n A quantified logical proposition is a logical expression
n Atomic formula is a single n-arity predicate with no free variable
e.g. even(X)
n All variables in a quantified logical proposition are bound
n Atomic formula can be combined using logical by universal or existential quantifiers
connectives to form a compound formula Universal (∀) Existential (∃)
e.g. (integer(X) ↔ even(X) ⊕ odd(X) ⊕ zero(X))
for every for at least one
n Quantifiers bind variables in a formula to form a for all there exists
quantified logical proposition (or expression) for each for some
for any someone
e.g. ∀X (integer(X) ↔ even(X) ⊕ odd(X) ⊕ zero(X))
anyone few
whenever many
if … then … most
majority
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CSC510 Lecture Slides 10/6/17

The Square of Opposites Exercise

All sharks are white No shark is white
∀X (shark(X) → white(X)) ∀X (shark(X) → ¬white(X)) Write the following statements as quantified logical
propositions. The DoD is about the students in a school.
¨ Every boy went home by bus
¨ Almost all athletes are also footballers
¨ Few footballers are not athletes
¨ Some students play many sports
¨ Whoever plays the thief will be apprehended by someone
¨ The boys play football while the girls play netball
¨ All boys and some girls will attend the function
Some sharks are white Some sharks are not white
∃X (shark(X) ∧ white(X)) ∃X (shark(X) ∧ ¬white(X))

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Nested Quantifiers Interpretation

n Many statements involve more than one variable n An interpretation is assignment of truth values to atomic formula that
n Write the following statements as logical propositions: helps to determine whether a quantified logical proposition is true or
¨ Given a positive number, there is another positive number greater than the given number, false in a domain of discourse DoD
¨ For every X, for some Y, X + Y = 0, where X and Y are integers, (Note: In addition, an interpretation also defines the predicate
¨ For some Y, for every X, X + Y = 0, where X and Y are integers
names and constants in the DoD)
(Note: The last two statements have different meaning)
e.g. Consider the logical propositions: ∀X p(X) and ∃X p(X)
n ∀X ∀Y trust(X,Y) is true if trust(X,Y) is true for all values of X and for all Let the interpretation be as follows:
values of Y in the DoD, i.e, everybody trusts everybody n DoD = {0,1,2, 3}; p(X) means X is an prime number
n ∀X ∃Y trust (X,Y) is true if there is an element Y in the DoD such that trust n p(0) = false; p(1) = false, p(2) = true, p(3) = true
(X,Y) is true for an arbitrary element X in the DoD, i.e, everybody trusts
somebody
n ∃X ∀Y trust (X,Y) is true if at least one element X in the DoD such that trust z Can you tell why ∀X p(X) and ∃X p(X) are false and true
(X,Y) is true for every Y in the DoD, i.e, somebody trusts everybody respectively in the above interpretation
n ∃X ∃Y trust (X,Y) is true if for one value of X and for one value of Y in the n An interpretation that satisfies a logical proposition (that makes it
DoD, trust(X,Y) is true, i.e, somebody trusts somebody true) is a model
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Satisfiability and Validity of a

Question Quantified Logical Proposition
n A proposition is satisfiable if it is true under an interpretation in the
Write the following logical expressions in English. Give a DoD , i.e., there is an interpretation that is a model for the
proposition
model for each of these expressions over a domain of
n A proposition is sound or valid if it is true under every interpretation
discourse involving three people and three stores. in the DoD, i.e., every interpretation is a model for the proposition
The predicate S(x, y) denotes person x shops in store y. n A proposition is invalid if it is not true under every interpretation in
the DoD, i.e., there is an interpretation that is not a model for the
proposition
1. ∀y S(y, Tesco)
n A proposition is unsatisfiable if it is false under all interpretations in
the DoD, i.e., there is no interpretation that is a model for the
2. ∀y ∃x S(x, y) proposition

n If there is only one interpretation, then

(satisfiability → validity) ∧ (unsatisfiability → invalidity)
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Generalised deMorgan’s Law Literal and Intended Meaning

n Statement: “All that glitters is not gold”
¬(∀x p(x)) ≡ ∃x (¬p(x)) The negation applies to gold or the entire statement?

n Literally: “Anything that glitters is not gold”

∀X (glitter(X) → ¬gold(X))
¬(∃x p(x)) ≡ ∀x (¬p(x))
n Intended: “Not all that glitters is gold”
¬∀X (glitter(X) → gold(X))

z Write the following propositions:

z All men do not smoke cigarette
z Every environment problem is not a tragedy
z No cow can fly
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