Professional Documents
Culture Documents
UNIT 1.
WHAT IS LAW AND THE NEED FOR LAW. HISTORY OF LAW
Basic legal terms
WHAT IS LAW
The question 'What is law?' has troubled people for many years. Scientists devote an entire field of
study known as jurisprudence to answering this question. Many definitions of law exist, but for our
purposes, we can define law as the set of rules and regulations by which a government regulates, the
conduct of people within a society. Law is a body of official rules and regulations, generally found in
constitutions, legislation, judicial opinions, and the like, that is used to govern a society and to control
the behavior of the members. The nature and functions of law have varied throughout history. In
modern societies, some authorized body such as a legislature or a court makes the law. It is backed by
the coercive power of the state, which enforces the law by means of appropriate penalties or remedies.
Even with this explanation, many questions arise. Where do laws come from? Do we need laws? Are all
laws written? Can laws change? If so, how? What is the difference between laws and morals?
Formal legal rules and actions are usually distinguished from other means of social control and guides
for behavior such as mores, morality, public opinion, and custom or tradition. Of course, a lawmaker
may respond to public opinion or other pressures, and a formal law may prohibit what is morally
unacceptable.
To understand the law, we must consider the relationship of law to morals. Traditional ideas of right and
wrong influence our legal system. Thus, most people condemn murder, regardless of what the law says.
However, everything that they consider immoral is not necessarily illegal. For example, lying to a friend
may be immoral but not really illegal.
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One thing is certain: every society has recognized the need for law. These laws may have been written,
but even primitive people had rules to regulate the conduct of the group. For a very long time now,
members of every community have made laws for themselves in self-protection. Without laws, there
would be confusion, fear, and disorder. This does not mean that all laws are fair or even good, but
imagine how people might take advantage of one another without some set of rules. We are far better
off with the imperfect laws which we have, than if we had none at all.
Most people think of the law as prohibitive or punitive - the police officer arresting a suspect or a judge
imposing sentence on a defendant. That can be true of criminal law, at least up to a point, but it
overlooks the role of law in regulating disputes and providing for a rational and civilized way of
ordering society.
Law serves a variety of functions. It helps
1) to maintain a peaceful, orderly, relatively stable society,
2) to contribute to social stability by resolving disputes in civilized fashion,
3) to facilitate business activities and private planning;
4) to provide some degree of freedom that would not otherwise be possible,
5) to inhibit social discrimination and
6) to improve the quality of individual life in matters of health, education and welfare.
In many ways, law is the cornerstone of our culture. The rule of law provides society with the rules by
which all of us live. Conversely, citizens have the right to rely on the law and be confident of the
protection provided by the courts.
Laws fall into two major groups: criminal and civil. Criminal laws regulate public conduct and set our
duties owed to society. A criminal case is a legal action by the government against a person charged
with committing a crime. Criminal laws have penalties requiring that offenders should be imprisoned,
fined, placed under supervision, or punished in some other way.
Civil laws regulate relations between individuals or group of individuals. A person can bring a civil
action (lawsuit) when this person feels wronged or injured by another person. Civil laws regulate many
everyday situations such as marriage, divorce, contracts, real estate, insurance, consumer protection and
negligence.
1. Give each paragraph a heading of your own. Compare your headings with other members of the
group. Are all the headings possible?
2. Give the Ukrainian equivalents to the following words and expressions.
For our purposes; relationship of law and moral; confusion, fear, disorder; to take advantage of one
another; to regulate public conduct; to maintain a peaceful, orderly, relatively stable society; to resolve
disputes; to facilitate business activities; to provide society with the rules; to imprison offenders; to
punish in some other way; to bring a case against somebody; be imprisoned, fined, placed under
supervision; to commit a crime; to feel wronged or injured; consumer protection; real estate;
negligence; to inhibit social discrimination; within the framework of an ordered society; to enjoy
rights; to live their lives accordingly.
3. Find the English equivalents to the following words and expressions in the text.
Ціла галузь знань; набір правил та розпоряджень; присвятити відповіді на це питання; поведінка
людей; у межах суспільства (2); створювати закони; піддавати осуду вбивство; не обов'язково
незаконний; незалежно від того, що каже закон; брехати другові; підтримувати відносно
стабільне суспільство; робити внесок у соціальну стабільність; вирішувати суперечки у
цивілізований спосіб; користуватися правами; сприяти господарській діяльності; забезпечити
певну ступінь свободи; стримувати соціальну дискримінацію; покращувати якість приватного
життя; верховенство закону; скоїти злочин; обвинувачувати в скоєнні злочину; порушувати
цивільну справу проти особи; нерухомість; халатність; захист прав споживача; у справах
здоров’я, освіти та добробуту ; наріжний камінь нашої культури.
4. Find in the text a word or a phrase that means:
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1) procedures taken in court synonymous to lawsuit; 2) rule made by authority for the proper regulation
of a society or correct conduct in life; 3) make less difficult or more easily to achieve;
4) legal ending of a marriage by law; 5) safeguard against loss, provision against sickness, death, etc. in
return for regular payment; 6) to put or keep in prison; 7) sum of money paid as a penalty for breaking a
law or rule; 8) happiness and prosperity; 9) to prevent an action or progress; 10) carelessness; failure to
take proper care or precautions
6. Choose a word or phrase (a, b, or c) which best completes the unfinished sentence:
1. Law regulates …… a) traditional ideas of what is right or wrong; b) the conduct of people within a
society; c) everything that is moral or immoral.
2. Jurisprudence answers the question ……
a) ‘Are all laws written?’ b) ‘What is good and fair?’ c) ‘What is law?’
3. There are two main groups of laws: ……
a) criminal and civil: b) international and constitutional; c) family and public.
4. Everything that they consider immoral is not necessarily …. a) legal; b) illegal; c) unjust;
5.Law …… to social stability by resolving disputes in civilized fashion.
a) inhibits; b) contributes; c) improves;
6. Criminal laws require ……
a) imprisonment; b) recovery of damages; c) payment of medical bills.
7. A civil action is brought against a person …
a) who suffered damages; b) who committed a crime; c) committed a wrong.
8. Laws …… business activities and private planning. a) inhibit; b) contribute; c) facilitate;
9. An example of a civil case is ….. a) a robbery; b) a murder; c) a divorce.
7. Look through the text again and decide whether the following sentences are true or false.
1. Traditional ideas of right and wrong don’t influence our legal system. 2. Immoral actions are always
illegal. 3. Every society needs laws. 4. All laws are fair and good. 5. Members of every community keep
guns in their houses for self-defence. 6. Penalties for crimes under civil law are imprisonment, fines,
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placing under supervision. 7. The law is an enabler, something that inhibits us to have rights. 8. Law
helps to provide some degree of freedom that is impossible to achieve in another way. 9. Law is the
cornerstone of jurisprudence. 10. A person can bring a civil action when another person commits a
crime.11. Primitive people didn’t have any rules that regulated people’s conduct.
as the offence. So a lower-ranking citizen who lost a civil case would be fined less than an aristocrat in
the same position – though he would also be awarded less if he won. Nevertheless, Hammurabi’s laws
represented an advance on earlier tribal customs, because the penalty could not be harder than the crime.
Another code of early law is the Code of Hebraic laws, or Mosaic Law of about 1400 B.C. This code is
set out in detail in the first five books of the Old Testament, which are called the Torah, meaning ‘law’
or ‘guidance’ These books recount the forty-year-long wandering of Moses and the tribes of Israel from
Egypt across the Sinai desert to the Promised Land of Canaan. While in the desert, Moses was
summoned to the top of Mount Sinai by God and was given the tablets of Ten Commandments. Like the
Babylonians, the Hebrew compilers believed that their laws were based on the will of God. Unlike the
commercially-oriented Code of Hammurabi, the Mosaic Law reflects the agrarian community which
Moses presided over. As chief lawgiver and magistrate, Moses was both a legislator and a judge in the
modern sense. The Ten Commandments still hold a central position today in the teaching of both the
Hebrew and the Christian faiths. As well, the Mosaic Law forms an important part of the laws of many
countries today.
Note. the Promised Land of Canaan [΄keinən] – земля обітована Ханаанка (стародавня назва
Палестини, Сирії та Фінікії)
2. Find the English equivalents to the following words and expressions in the text.
частина людського життя; осілі групи; мав справу головним чином з; компенсація за тілесні
ушкодження; покарання за чаклунство; біглі раби; карбувати на кам’яному стовпі; стосуватися
злочину, розлучення, шлюбу; майнові контракти; податки; дотримуватися принципу помсти;
наносити ушкодження та збитки; погрожувати смертною карою; наносити удар; поставити поза
законом кровну ворожнечу; головувати; заборонити традицію; до того ж / крім того; обставини
правопорушення; Мойсеєві Закони; програти цивільну справу; нижчий за рангом громадянин;
Старий Завіт; Десять Заповідей
3. A: Fill in the appropriate word from the list below.
revenge, thief, blood feud, victim, tax, debt, the Ten Commandments, inheritance, outlawed,
kidnapping, deals with, circumstance
1. ________ are a list of religious and moral imperatives that are given to Moses on the mountain
referred to as "Mount Sinai" in the form of two stone tablets. 2. Her offensive conduct is a _______ to
be taken into consideration. 3. The farmer and his family have had _______ with their neighbours on the
other side of the valley for thirty years. 4. All societies have _______ murderers and robbers. 5. A
_______ of a crime in criminal law is the person who has been harmed individually and directly by the
defendant, rather than merely society as a whole. 6. In criminal law, _______ is the taking away of a
person against the person’s will, usually to hold the person in false imprisonment without legal
authority. 7. Although many aspects of _______ resemble or echo the concept of justice, it usually has a
more injurious than harmonious goal. 8. A ________ is a financial charge imposed on an individual or a
legal entity by a state or a functional equivalent of a state. 9. _______ is the practice of passing on
property, titles, debts, and obligations upon the death of an individual. 10. He is heavily in ________
after losing the lawsuit. 11. In criminal law, the ________ is a person who illegally takes another
person’s property without that person’s freely-given consent. 12. Head Office ________ all complaints.
B: Fill in the appropriate preposition or adverb.
1. Laws and rules are descended ____ the customs and conventions. 2. This is the first question which
I propose to deal ____. 3. In 1787 George Washington was called to preside ____ the Constitutional
Convention in Philadelphia. 4. The committee’s plans are set ____ in the report. 5. He had to pay the
compensation ____ termination of contract. 6. He had to pay medical bills ____ civil code and he was
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charged with the crime of assault ____ criminal code. 7. The principle ____ revenge means an eye ____
an eye and a tooth ____ a tooth. 8. Her photograph corresponds ____ the description that he gave us. 9.
The accused inflicted bodily injury ____ his victim. 10. Hammurabi’s laws took account ____ the
circumstances of the offender as well ____ the offence. 11. The committee examined the case ____
detail. 12. ____ addition ____ a big fine, he faces imprisonment. 13. The Law was carved ____ twelve
bronze tablets, so it was called the Law of the Twelve Tablets.
4. Choose a word or phrase (a, b, or c) which best completes the unfinished sentence:
1. We don’t know anything about earliest laws because … . a) they were not written; b) they didn’t
exist; c) they were not codified;
2. The Code of Hammurabi was drawn up in… . a) about 1400 B.C.; b) about 1728 to 1686 B.C.; c)
between 451 to 449 B.C.;
3. The principle of revenge means … a) you must inflict the same damages if you had been offended;
b) that if a person committed a crime, he faced the death penalty; c) the punishment must be equal to the
crime;
4. Hammurabi’s Code outlawed … . a) murder; b) private blood feuds; c) theft;
5. One of the most known collections of laws is ….. called the Torah. a) Ur-Nammu-code; b) the laws
of Babylon; c) the law of the Tablets;
6. The Old Testament which is called the Torah means … . a) the sacred; b) the book; c) law;
7. The Code of Hebraic Laws…. . a) was commercially-oriented; b) reflected the agrarian community;
c) served the nobility interests.
8. Hammurabi’s code regulated both …. and civil matters. a) criminal; b) international; c) tribal
5. Match the definition in the right column to the word in the left.
1. outlaw a. a person guilty of unlawful killing of someone on purpose;
2. victim b. to pay attention to rules, laws, etc.;
3. observe c. to place a person outside the protection of law;
4. Old Testament d. a person, who does wrong, commits an offence;
5. murderer e. one of the division of the Bible;
6. revenge f. deliberate infliction of injury upon the person who has inflicted injury;
7. offender g. a civil officer acting as a judge in the lowest court;
8. magistrate h. a person suffering injury, pain, loss etc. because of circumstances,
events, the ill-will, etc.
away somebody by force and unlawfully in order to obtain ransom (викуп); 8) person who steals
secretly and without violence; 9) belief in divine truth, religion; 10) people living in one place, district
or country, considered as a whole.
7. Look through the text again and decide whether the following sentences are true or false.
1. The law was born in the primitive times. 2. Ur-Nammu was a Babylonian lawgiver. 3. The first
known legal text banned slave-trade. 4. Moses drew up the most ancient law code. 5. Hammurabi’s
Code only dealt with serious crimes. 6. The Babylonians observed the principle of an eye for an eye, a
tooth for a tooth. 7. All the Babylonian citizens were treated equally. 8. Mosaic Law is set out in the
Bible. 9. The Ten Commandments were given to Moses by God. 10. Ancient people believed that laws
were made by gods.
GRAMMAR (Linking elements)
I. Study the content of the table. And answer the following questions about the items
from the table:
II. Perhaps you have noticed that the first and the second columns of the table are left
without titles. Please, suggest the titles for them.
III. Make a report on any information you have recently learnt using the elements from
the table.
1. Analyse the information in the boxes A and B and select for each box a name out of
the following: “Ancient Laws (Codes / Rules / Artefacts)”, “Formulations /Content of
Ancient Laws / Codes / Rules”.
2. Watch the video and attach the Ancient laws (codes / rules /artefacts) to their
formulations?
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A) _____________________________
___Linear Pan Ceramic Culture or Linear Pottery Culture (Germany around 5500–4500 BC)
__2 _The Bible
___ Linear Pan Ceramic Culture or Linear Pottery culture (Germany around 5500–4500 BC,
town of Talheim)
___ Ma’at / Maat, Spiritual Principles of Truth (Egypt around 3000 BC, the time of Fifth
Dynasty; it was practiced by Vizier or Priest of Ma’at, later judge of Ma’at)
___The Laws of Ur Nammu (Ur Nammu, the ancient Sumerian Ruler, Iraq 2200 BC)
___Hammurabi’s Code (Babylon, King Hammurabi around 1760 BC)
___Ancient Athens
___Draconian Code (Draco, a lawgiver, wrote the first law code for Athens and Greece)
___ Roman Laws (the Twelve Tables around 439 BC)
____ The Justinian Code / Corpus Juris Civilis or Body of Civil Law ( Emperor Justinian
the Great , 6th century AD, Byzantium Empire (Eastern Empire, a part of former Roman
Empire)
B) ____________________________
1. It was codified and inscribed upon huge stone pillars, so that people might know the law.
The punishments were often rather ironic: “Stealing from a burning building was
punished by being burnt alive”
2. To be seen as a source of Devine Moral Code
3. Mass grave of 34 skeletons, possibly it could be either hunters and gatherers refusing to
convert to the new Neolithic lifestyle or results of rivalry for access to women (these
killings needed some form of community consent consensus)
4. Was characterised by social equality, impartiality and guided the application of Justice
(whether you were high born and wealthy or smb’s servant in theory you would have
received the same justice)
5. Was highly proponent of rights of citizens (accept women and slaves) and had no legal
code per se, rather they acknowledged divine law (cultural norms which were taken for
granted)
6. According to this Code the punishment for many offences was death
7. This consisted of a series of simple statements such as “If you steel my sweets, than I will
chop off your hand ,” The statements were further developed by King Hammurabi.
8. The people of Rome sent out the envoys to Greek colonies to learn the Laws of Greece
aiming at standardization of legal system. The standardised laws were written upon 12
ivory tables (they contained definitions of civil rights) and posted in The Forum so that
all could read them. Legal cases were argued to court along the lines of speech. The
better the orator, the more success. Judicial precedent was not reported, so each case was
judged afresh. Roman citizens were protected from unjustifiable tortures, by insisting on
their day in court.
9. The emperor looked back to the Golden Age of Roman Laws and recorded them.
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compiled under the direction of Justinian, Emperor of Rome. Justinian was concerned with elimination
of corruption and making justice available to everyone. The Code consisted of four works: a) all the
imperial edicts; b) the Digest, the decisions of the great Roman jurists; c) the Institutes, which served as
a hand-book for law students; d) the Novels, or ‘new laws’, passed by Justinian himself.
By 100 A. D., the Roman Empire had spread over much of Europe. It remained intact until the fifth
century A.D. As a result, the two Roman codes greatly influenced the laws of all European countries,
including France and England.
2. Find the English equivalents to the following words and expressions in the text.
розвинути концепцію права; приписувати закони богам; скласти кодекс законів; стосуватися
надзвичайно жорстоких мір; повністю афінський законодавець; поневолення боржників; розбити
на ворожі фракції; соціальні, політичні та економічні негаразди; тиранія, що настала; загально
задовільне рішення; впорядковане суспільство; належне місце та функція; шокуючи суворий;
написані кров’ю; прийняти закони; під керівництвом; переглянути; вбивство; більш людяний;
знищення корупції; зробити правосуддя доступним кожному; залишитися незайманим;
імператорські укази
4. Match the definition in the right column to the word in the left.
1. to appeal a. discontented, often self-interested group of persons within a party;
2. measure b. kind of government existing when a ruler has complete power, esp.
when this power has been obtained by force;
3. to contribute c. to join with others in giving help, money, ideas, suggestion for a
common purpose;
4. trial d. to examine and accept;
5. jury e. body of persons who swear to give a decision (verdicts) on issues;
6. faction f. killing of a human being;
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8. Writing Write a mini-composition for or against the following statement ‘There is some internal law.
It is good for all times and places.
1. The law-making has never been an easy process and the aim of this report is to outline
the negative and positive issues the ancient Greeks and Romans dealt with. The sentence
refers to ______________
2. However the Greeks believed that laws were made by the people and for the people
Draco’s Laws permitted enslavement for debt, moreover death was the penalty for almost
all criminal offences. The sentence maybe used in______________
3. Apparently the Solon’s law was altogether more humane. The sentence refers to
_______________
4. On the whole both the Draco’s and Solon’s laws illustrate the ancient attempts to
regulate the society. The sentence assigns may be assigned to _______________
3. Provide your own piece of assessment writing concerning law-making processes of
Ancient Greece and Rome.
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1. Analyse the information in the boxes A and B and select for each box a name out of
the following: “Ancient Laws (Codes / Laws)”, “Formulations / Content of Ancient Laws
/ Codes ”.
2. Watch the video and attach the Ancient laws /codes to their formulations / content?
A)_____________________________
__3_ Tang Code (Tang Dynasty, the 7th century AD, China)
___ Laws in China (Zhou /zuː/ Dynasty, 1000 BC, China)
___Legalist Philosophy (adopted by Lord Shang Yang, the Dynasty of Qin /tʃɪn/ 221-206
BC, China)
___ Magna Carta or The Great Charter (King John of England, June 1215, England)
___ Hoovel the Good (Prince of Wales, 10th century AD)
___ The Danelaw (Vikings who established a foothold in much of Britain AD 886)
___Common Law (after Norman Conquest of England in1066)
___ Charlemagne /ˈʃɑːrləmeɪn/ or Charles the Great (King of the Franks from 768, King of
the Lombards from 774, and Emperor of the Romans from 800, Europe)
___The laws written in 90 sections (King Aethelber and St. Augustine, AD 600)
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B) ____________________________
1. Such laws were carefully inscribed upon bronze cauldrons and also upon documents made of
bamboo. The laws reinforced the place of dynasty in the society as well as filial piety and
respect for the ancestors. This is compared to the feudal system in Medieval Europe. A ranked
society was rigidly enforced for hundreds of years; people knew their place in society.
Punishment from this era is ranging from a tattoo upon the face, maiming, dismemberment to
being drawn and quartered.
2. It postulated: ”People are fundamentally flawed and civil rights are to be ignored in service of
the state". Corporal punishment could include death by boiling, chariots, beating, permanent
mutilation etc.
3. The Code synthesised Legalist Philosophy with Confucianism: “human beings would better
themselves when given the opportunity”. The Code in 12 sections stands as towering
achievement of traditional Chinese Law.
4. The developed laws were inspired by Byzantium System of Laws and the Germanic
Traditions.
5. These were the first written laws in English. According to them the crimes against church were
punished harshly.
6. The Code focused upon the compensation as opposed to punishment and seemed to draw upon
long-standing local legal tradition.
7. Means “the land where the Law of the Danes’ hold sways”. Nowadays, the widths of many
shops in York and the plots of land upon which they are built are based upon the Viking Laws
of the city.
8. It was the Norman reckoning of the law and judiciary system. The new English Kings, the
judges developed a body of precedent. Later King Henry II established a system of Royal
Courts administered by Judges. The application of the laws was standardized and number of
trials was drastically reduced.
9. It enforced the rights of people and introduced the limitations of King’s Law.
to represent to declare
to authorize to proscribe
to prevent to provide
D)
Noun / verb Person Noun / verb Person
to represent monarchy
to guarantee protection
to provide succession
abuse to eliminate
appeal murder
moderation to apply
diverse legal systems of France. The resulting Code was a triumphant attempt to create a legal system
that treated all citizens as equals without regard to their rank or previous privileges. It was also so
clearly written that it could be read and understood by ordinary people. The code was adopted intact in
most of the areas of Europe and spread from there across the Atlantic. Many of its principles are still in
force.
2. Find in the text English equivalents for the following words and expressions.
обмежений уряд; представницький уряд; всемогутній уряд; загроза громадянської війни;
передбачати захист; втрата життя, свободи та власності; утримувати у в’язниці; збирати податки;
народна згода; славнозвісна; мировий суддя; ордер на арешт; варварське ставлення; повстання;
вторгнення; невдоволення громади; заточити до в’язниці; викликати гнівний протест; привести
до прийняття закону; отримати сувору догану; предстати перед судом; бути виправданим; бути
призупиненим; від імені народу; особливо пишатися; свобода слова; автократія; наступний
спадкоємець трону; хід здійснення правосуддя; утримання діючої армії; позбутися королівського
втручання у парламентські страви; конституційний документ; зловживати владою; прийняти без
змін; незважаючи на статус; удосконалити та організувати різноманітні правові системи;
ставитися до громадян як до рівних; зрозумілий простим людям
4. Match the definitions in the right column to the words given in the left.
1. representative а. to rebuke smb severely and officially (for a fault, etc.);
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2. warrant b. to stipulate;
3. writ c. a person elected or appointed to represent or act for others;
4. reprimand d. to examine and accept;
5. pass e. a written order issued in the name of a ruler to an official to do
or not to do smth;
6. provide for f. a written order giving official authority for smth;
7. equal g. forbid, esp. by law
8. heir h. a person entitled to property or rank as a legal successor of its
former owner;
9. proscribe i. having the same rights;
6. Look through the text once more and decide whether the following statements are true or false.
1. The principles of limited and representative government were first set out in Habeas Corpus Act. 2.
The Magna Carta provided for protection against unreasonable arrest. 3. The Great Charter is a
cornerstone of British freedoms. 4. The Magna Carta was the first document to restrict the Monarch’s
power. 5. The Habeas Corpus Act provided for prohibition of levying taxes without popular consent. 6.
The Habeas Corpus Act is still in force in Great Britain and the USA. 7. To commit a person to jail an
official must produce a writ of Habeas Corpus. 8. The Bill of Rights was passed as a result of
constitutional confrontation between the Monarch and Parliament. 9. The Bill of Rights provided for
prohibition of traditional rights of the English. 10. Napoleon’s Code provided for equality to all citizens.
___________ for money. It eventually __________ Charles I to sign the Petition of Rights in 1628,
which further __________ the monarch’s powers and was intended to ___________ him from
__________ without Parliament’s Consent.
1. Look through the statements about Magna Carta and decide whether they are true.
King John reluctantly signed Magna Carta
Magna Carta wasn’t imposed on the King by the Barons
King John had to sign Magna Carta in order to get a respite from baronial forces
Magna Carta contained 65 clauses
Clauses 12 & 13 deal with taxation and state that the King is allowed to impose
the tax without the consent of a taxpayer
Clause 39: no punishment accept under law (no arrest=no imprisonment)
Clause 40: no delay or denial of justice
Clause 45: Judges are not supposed to know the law excellently
Nowadays Magana Carta is still referred to by some courts (eg. In Australia) as a
symbol of the Rule of Law
3. Discuss the significance of Magna Carta in further development of Law in Great Britain
and do the quiz.
c) person who rules with limits on their power and follows the law
d) person appointed by the King to enforce the law
Which clause of Magna Carta relates to the idea of 'no taxation without representation'?
a) Clause 100
b) Clause 10
c) Clause 22
d) Clause 12
Three ideas which come from Magna Carta are:
a) Rule of law, no limits on power and anarchy
b) Tyranny, fairness and democracy
c) Punishment fits the crime, limits on power and rule of law
d) Independent judiciary, fairness and monarchy
What was the purpose of the clauses in the Magna Carta relating to women?
a) to provide equality between men and women
b) to give women the right to vote
c) to allow the King to make money from widows if they remarried
d) to protect women from being exploited by the King
Note: The segment Interactive Magna Carta contains the coloured fragments of the clauses which by
pressing on them produce the full text of the clause on your screen.
REVISION
Napoleonic Code (French Civil Code) represented the __15______ between the Germanic Law (today’s
Germany) and the Justinian Code popular in Southern France
was popular because of its non-_16______style, that made the
law accessible to the public
English Common Law is influential on American Legal system
revolves around the legal precedents
takes Roman Law and Religious Law (_17_____)
In Monarchy the _18____ sets goals and has control over the system, but over time the system is going to be more and
more powered to parliament and __19______ and they are going to focus more on what is called statutes written
mostly by legislators instead of tradition in what the King would have said.
Civil law
Civil law is the legal system used in most countries around the world today. In civil law the sources
recognised as authoritative are, primarily, legislation—especially codifications in constitutions or
statutes passed by government—and custom. Codifications date back millennia, with one early example
being the Babylonian Codex Hammurabi. Modern civil law systems essentially derive from the legal
practice of the 6th-century Eastern Roman Empire whose texts were rediscovered by late medieval
Western Europe. Roman law in the days of the Roman Republic and Empire was heavily procedural,
and lacked a professional legal class. Instead a lay magistrate, iudex, was chosen to adjudicate.
Precedents were not reported, so any case law that developed was disguised and almost unrecognised.
Each case was to be decided afresh from the laws of the State, which mirrors the (theoretical)
unimportance of judges' decisions for future cases in civil law systems today. From 529-534 AD the
Byzantine Emperor Justinian I codified and consolidated Roman law up until that point, so that what
remained was one-twentieth of the mass of legal texts from before. This became known as the Corpus
Juris Civilis. As one legal historian wrote, "Justinian consciously looked back to the golden age of
Roman law and aimed to restore it to the peak it had reached three centuries before." The Justinian Code
remained in force in the East until the fall of the Byzantine Empire. Western Europe, meanwhile, relied
on a mix of the Theodosian Code and Germanic customary law until the Justinian Code was
rediscovered in the 11th century, and scholars at the University of Bologna used it to interpret their own
laws. Civil law codifications based closely on Roman law, alongside some influences from religious
laws such as Canon law, continued to spread throughout Europe until the Enlightenment; then, in the
19th century, both France, with the Code Civil, and Germany, with the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch,
modernised their legal codes. Both these codes influenced heavily not only the law systems of the
countries in continental Europe (e.g. Greece), but also the Japanese and Korean legal traditions. Today,
countries that have civil law systems range from Russia and China to most of Central and Latin
America. The United States follows the common law system described below.
Common law and equity
Common law and equity are legal systems where decisions by courts are explicitly acknowledged to be
legal sources. The "doctrine of precedent", or stare decisis (Latin for "to stand by decisions") means that
decisions by higher courts bind lower courts. Common law systems also rely on statutes, passed by the
legislature, but may make less of a systematic attempt to codify their laws than in a "civil law" system.
Common law originated from England and has been inherited by almost every country once tied to the
British Empire (except Malta, Scotland, the U.S. state of Louisiana, and the Canadian province of
Quebec). In medieval England, the Norman conquest led to a unification of various tribal customs and
hence a law "common" to the whole country. The common law developed when the English monarchy
had been weakened by the enormous cost of fighting for control over large parts of France. King John
had been forced by his barons to sign a document limiting his authority to pass laws. This "great
charter" or Magna Carta of 1215 also required that the King's entourage of judges hold their courts and
judgments at "a certain place" rather than dispensing autocratic justice in unpredictable places about the
country. A concentrated and elite group of judges acquired a dominant role in law-making under this
system, and compared to its European counterparts the English judiciary became highly centralised. In
1297, for instance, while the highest court in France had fifty-one judges, the English Court of Common
Pleas had five. This powerful and tight-knit judiciary gave rise to a rigid and inflexible system of
common law. As a result, as time went on, increasing numbers of citizens petitioned the King to
override the common law, and on the King's behalf the Lord Chancellor gave judgment to do what was
equitable in a case. From the time of Sir Thomas More, the first lawyer to be appointed as Lord
Chancellor, a systematic body of equity grew up alongside the rigid common law, and developed its
own Court of Chancery. At first, equity was often criticised as erratic, that it varied according to the
length of the Chancellor's foot. But over time it developed solid principles, especially under Lord Eldon.
In the 19th century the two systems were fused into one another. In developing the common law and
equity, academic authors have always played an important part. William Blackstone, from around 1760,
25
was the first scholar to describe and teach it. But merely in describing, scholars who sought explanations
and underlying structures slowly changed the way the law actually worked.
Religious law
Religious law is explicitly based on religious precepts. Examples include the Jewish Halakha and
Islamic Sharia—both of which translate as the "path to follow"—while Christian canon law also
survives in some church communities. Often the implication of religion for law is unalterability, because
the word of God cannot be amended or legislated against by judges or governments. However a
thorough and detailed legal system generally requires human elaboration. For instance, the Quran has
some law, and it acts as a source of further law through interpretation, Qiyas (reasoning by analogy),
Ijma (consensus) and precedent. This is mainly contained in a body of law and jurisprudence known as
Sharia and Fiqh respectively. Another example is the Torah or Old Testament, in the Pentateuch or Five
Books of Moses. This contains the basic code of Jewish law, which some Israeli communities choose to
use. The Halakha is a code of Jewish law which summarises some of the Talmud's interpretations.
Nevertheless, Israeli law allows litigants to use religious laws only if they choose. Canon law is only in
use by members of the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Anglican Communion.
Until the 18th century, Sharia law was practiced throughout the Muslim world in a non-codified form,
with the Ottoman Empire's Mecelle code in the 19th century being first attempt at codifying elements of
Sharia law. Since the mid-1940s, efforts have been made, in country after country, to bring Sharia law
more into line with modern conditions and conceptions. In modern times, the legal systems of many
Muslim countries draw upon both civil and common law traditions as well as Islamic law and custom.
The constitutions of certain Muslim states, such as Egypt and Afghanistan, recognise Islam as the
religion of the state, obliging legislature to adhere to Sharia. Saudi Arabia recognises Quran as its
constitution, and is governed on the basis of Islamic law. Iran has also witnessed a reiteration of Islamic
law into its legal system after 1979. During the last few decades, one of the fundamental features of the
movement of Islamic resurgence has been the call to restore the Sharia, which has generated a vast
amount of literature and affected world politics.
Common law (case law) systems derive from, and are named after, the law
developed in England between 1066 AD and about 1400 AD. Although the law was
developed in England, it has been exported globally as a result of the British Empire. It is
the basis of the legal system of Australia, Singapore, Malaysia and the US. We shall use
Australia, England, the US, Singapore and Malaysia as exemplar of the common law
systems.
Statute law is made either by the legislature as primary legislation, or by some other
body in exercise of law-making powers delegated by the legislature, known then as
delegated or subordinate legislation.
Sharia law
As can be seen above, the main principle of Sharia law is that it is the divine way
ordained for man to follow by Allah. The law, therefore, is sourced directly from Allah
and this has a significant. The key source of law in Sharia is the Quran, which contains
various injunctions of a legal nature. The major difference between Sharia law and the
other legal systems we have introduced in this chapter is that Sharia law is explicitly
based on, and connected with, the religion of Islam. We shall describe Sharia law in
general terms, but also use Pakistan and Iran as exemplars of countries that have adopted
26
Sharia. Sharia is 'a way to a watering place', in other words, a path to be followed.
Sharia law is ordained by Allah as guidance for mankind.
Legal pluralism
In fact most countries have multiple legal systems:
Australia has a uniform common law system based on English common law, but of
primary importance is the Australian Constitution. Australia is a federation of previously
autonomous states and territories combined under the Commonwealth of Australia.
Further, there are federal statutes enacted by the Parliament of Australia which apply to
the whole of Australia, and laws enacted by the self-governing Parliaments of the
Australian states and territories. These are separate jurisdictions with their own systems
of courts and parliaments; the legal systems in the self-governing states and territories
influence each other, but do not bind each other.
In India legal pluralism takes the form of different laws governing different groups
within the country; there are special Muslim courts that address concerns in Muslim
communities by following Sharia law principles. Secular courts (based on English
common law) deal with the issues of other communities.
Malaysia operates a dual legal system similar to India and is a federation of various
states, like Australia. There are separate state Sharia court systems (Syariah courts)
which have jurisdiction over all Muslims and hear all matters pertaining to Islamic law.
These run alongside the federal common law court system.
Canada has multiple legal systems within one geographic area, namely a common law
system in the majority of the country, but a civil law system in Quebec.
In South Africa there is a mix of a civil law system (e.g. for the law of tort), a common
law system (e.g. for the law of contract), and African customary law. Though South
Africa has elements of a civil law system it does not have codified law.
27
2. Fill the gaps in the text with words from the box
3. Watch the video and check your answers.
The concepts we associate with the rule of law can be traced back to the Magna ____ (1215), which stated
that no person could be punished except under the ________. They also can be found in Greek philosopher
Aristotle’s Ideas for Good Governance . The term ‘rule of law’ can be traced back to the British Professor of
English at Oxford University, AV Dicey in 1885.
Why is the rule of law important?
The key concept in the rule of law is equality and government ruling under the law. A government that is
above the law leads to ________, or a society not following the law at all leads to abuse of power and
______.
4. Define the following concepts.
1.Separation is … a. the idea that all should be equal before the law, and that the legal system has
of powers a set of checks and balances in
place to ensure power is exercised according to the law, not outside of it.
2.The rule of is … b. rooted in ideas of Aristotle, and popularized by the French writer
law Montesquieu, this precept notes that there are three types of governmental
function: legislative, executive and judicial.
5.Judiciary is … e. a collective term for the 43,000 judges, magistrates and tribunal members
who deal with legal matters in England and Wales. It is made up of the courts
and judges.
6.Tyranny is … f. the absence of the rule of law where a ruler takes control of a state and
exercises their power without following legal processes or restrictions.
5. Project: You are divided into small teams of 4/5 members in each. Imagine that
the societies you live in are being drowned in total anarchy and tyranny. You are
the leaders whose aim is to establish the principles of the rule of law. Work out
the rules your societies must follow.
You can find more information about Rule of law application in Ukraine:
http://ccu.gov.ua/storinka-knygy/34-verhovenstvo-prava
29
1. Review the clarifications of the terms; make sure you can translate them. Select 2-
4 key words in each clarification and add them to the table below.
Custom
Defendant
Istihan
Judgment
Jurisdiction
Legislature
Legislation
Legislator
Quran
Rule of law
Prosecution
Precedent
Quran
Separation of
powers
Statute
2. Use the table and try to explain each term with the help of key words you selected.
3. Take the list of the terms and sort them according to the following categories they
might refer to.
Source of Law
Concepts of law System of laws
Judgments and
People decisions
31
Section 7:
PERFORMANCE SECTION
STUDENT’S GRADEBOOK
UNIT 2.
LEGAL ENGLISH
Reading 1: Legalese
1. Read the text about Legal English and answer the questions.
1. What way legal writing in English is characterized by?
2. What do characteristics of legal writing include?
3. What has encouraged the use of English rather than Latin in the English justice system?
4. What do a number of linking terms used in older written legal texts refer to?
Legalese
Lawyers use Latin words and expressions when writing legal texts of every kind, from statutes to
emails.
Legal Language
Legal writing in English has developed over hundreds of years and is characterised by specific features,
some of which can make it difficult for the non-lawyers to understand. Characteristics of legal writing
include: using Latin terms; using technical terms (“subsidiarity”); using old-fashioned words not much
in general use; using pair of words with reciprocal relationship (‘lessor’/’lessee’); using legal jargon
(‘without prejudice to’) including the use of pairs of words (‘terms and conditions’), or triplets (‘build,
erect or construct’); having special meanings for words in ordinary use (‘the judge determined the fact
of the case’), where ‘determined’ means ‘decided’; using vague words (‘provide a sufficient service’);
using long sentences with little punctuation; inverting word order (‘title absolute’); using capital letters
to signal important or defined terms (‘the terms of the Lease…’) avoiding personal pronouns (‘you’,
‘we’, ‘I’); the specific use of the modal verb ‘shall’ to impose an obligation or duty on someone (‘The
tenant shall not sub-let the whole or part of the premises.’); the use of ‘shall’ in a directory sense
(‘Notice of an appeal shall be filed within 28 days.’)
There is a movement to draft legal text in standard, modern, ‘plain’ English but any change will be slow.
Note: Some legal drafters argue that the use of ‘shall’ in a directory sense is to be avoided because of
confusion. Note also the general English use of ‘shall’ to refer to future intentions (‘I shall write to
him’), although this use is increasingly uncommon.
34
Latin terms
There are many legal terms in written English legal texts, although recent reforms in the English justice
system have encouraged the use of English rather than Latin. Some Latin terms are used so frequently
that they are in general English use (e.g. ad hoc, bona fide, pro rata, etc.). It is useful to be able to
recognize their meaning and a dictionary or online glossary will help. Forms of pronunciation vary.
ad hoc – for this purpose in situ – in its original situation
affidavit – witnessed, signed inter alia – among other things
statement
bona fide – in good faith ipso facto – by the fact
caveat – warning per pro – on behalf of another
de facto – in fact per se – by itself
de jure – by right prima facie – at first sight
et cetera (etc.) – and so on pro rata – in proportion
exempli gratia for example quasi – as if it were
(e.g.) –
ex parte (ex p.) – by a party without notice sub judice – In the course of trial
id est (i.e.) – that is ultra vires – beyond the power
in camera – hearing a case in private videlicet (viz) – namely
in curia – in open court
2. The following excerpt is from the legal document known as an 'answer'. It was submitted to the court
by the defendant. Underline the common Latin words and phrases in the text. Do you know what they
mean?
The claim for breach of contract fails inter alia to state facts sufficient to constitute a cause of
action, is uncertain as to what contract plaintiffs are suing on, and is uncertain in that it cannot be
determined whether the contract sued on is written, oral or implied by conduct.
The complaint alleges breach of contract as follows: ‘At all times herein mentioned, plaintiffs
were a part [sic] to the Construction Contract, as well as intended beneficiaries to each sub-
contract for the construction of the house. In light of the facts set out above, defendants, and each
of them, have breached the Construction Contract.’
On its face, the claim alleges only that defendants ‘breached the Construction Contract’. But
LongCo is not a party to the Construction Contract. Therefore LongCo cannot be liable for its
breach. See e.g. GSI Enterprises, Inc. v. Warner (1993).
35
3. Match each Latin word or expression (1-8) with its English equivalent and the explanation of its use
(a-h).
1. ad hoc a thus (used after a word to indicate the original, usually incorrect, spelling
or grammar in a text)
2. et alii (et al.) b for example (used before one or more examples are given)
3. et cetera (etc.) c for this purpose (often used as an adjective before a noun)
4. exempli d against (versus is abbreviated to ‘v.’ in case citations, but to 'vs.’ in all
gratia (e.g.) other instances)
5. id est (i.e.) e and others (usually used to shorten a list of people, often a list of authors,
appellants or defendants)
6. perse f and other things of the same kind (used to shorten a list of similar items)
7. sic g by itself (often used after a noun to indicate the thing itself)
8. versus (vs. or h that is (used to signal an explanation or paraphrase of a word preceding
v.) it)
4. Match each Latin term (1-10) with its English equivalent (a-j).
1 de facto a among other things
2 ipso facto b per year
3 inter alia c number of shareholders or directors who have to be present at
a board meeting so that it can be validly conducted
4 per annum d in fact
5 pro forma e of one’s own right; able to exercise one’s own legal rights
6 pro rata f proportionally
7 quorum g by that very fact itself
8 sui juris h as a matter of form
9 ultra vires i as follows
10 videlicet (viz.) j beyond the legal powers of a person or a body
1. Read the text about Legal English and answer the questions.
1. Why are the English proud of their legal system?
2. What is the difference between solicitor and barrister?
3. What are the Bar and the Bench, and why are they called so?
36
One of the proudest boasts of the Englishman is of the British justice and the English legal system. In
their pride they follow the tradition of Rome, but in their law they owe less to the Romans than almost
any country in Europe. Much less, for instance, than Scotland, which has a quite different system of law
from England. This peculiar English system has its own peculiar terms: to understand them you must
understand a little of the system itself.
In England the legal profession is really two separate professions: solicitors and barristers. The
solicitor is probably the more ancient profession. He descends from the notaries and attorneys of
Elizabethan times and indeed even earlier. Only on the introduction of a solicitor can a client employ a
barrister, who is referred to as a counsel. The solicitor summarises his client’s case for counsel, and the
document on which he does so is called a brief. A barrister retained by a solicitor for a client is said to
be briefed for him.
It is from the ranks of the Bar, as barristers corporately are called, that judges are chosen. The Bar
referred to is a physical bar (it is actually a barrier [ INCLUDEPICTURE
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the privileged Queen’s Counsel who have been called within the bar. Judges, thus, are not themselves a
separate profession; they are barristers who have been elevated to the Bench, itself name derived from
the part of the Court where they sit.
The judge decides the interpretation of the law, but, in serious criminal cases, all questions of fact are
decided by a jury. Juries may also be found in civil cases, that is disputes other than criminal trials. By
means of the jury, the man in the street enters upon the legal scene. In England a jury in a criminal case
can return only one of two verdicts: Guilty or Not Guilty.
In order to prove its case beyond reasonable doubt the prosecution calls evidence. Since the
prosecution is conducted in the name of the Queen / King, a criminal who decides to give evidence
against his accomplices is to turn the King/Queen’s evidence.
In examining his witnesses counsel is forbidden to ask questions which suggest the answers he
wants. Such questions are called leading questions and are permitted only in cross-examinations, that is,
the procedure by which, after he/she has given his/her evidence-in-chief, a witness is further questioned
by counsel for the other side. In this way the full meaning and value of the evidence is tested.
After all the evidence has been given the judge summarises the case, both law and facts, for the
benefit of the jury. This is called the summing-up.
UNIT 3
A CAREER IN LAW. LEGAL PROFESSIONS
C)
Noun / verb Person Noun / verb Person
to defend to accuse
to preside jury
to prosecute practice
crime to vote
election to inquire
To become a solicitor a young man joins a solicitor as a «clerk» and works for him while
studying part time for the Law Society exams. When you have passed all the necessary exams, you may
apply to the Law Society to be «admitted». After that you can practise, which means you can start
business on your own.
Barristers
There are about 9,000 barristers who defend or prosecute in the higher courts. Although
solicitors and barristers work together on cases, barristers specialise in presenting clients in court and the
training and career structures for the two types of lawyers are quite separate. In court, barristers wear
wigs and gowns in keeping with extreme formality of the proceedings. The barristers of the highest level
have the title QC (Queen’s Counsel). A barrister’s main work is to provide representation in the courts,
where they are referred to as counsel, to draft documents associated with court procedure, and give
opinions, that is specialist advice. They are normally instructed by solicitors or other recognised
professionals on behalf of lay clients. A barrister must be capable of prosecuting in a criminal case one
day, and defending an accused person the next, or of preparing the pleadings and taking the case for a
plaintiff in a civil action one day, and doing the same for a defendant the next. As the law has become
more complex, barristers increasingly specialise in particular areas, such as personal injury, crime,
family or commercial law. Barristers are experts in the interpretation of the law. They are called in to
advise on really difficult points.
Unlike solicitors, barristers can’t form partnerships but must act as sole traders with unlimited
liability. Some barristers are in employed practice and may only represent their employer, for example
as in-house counsel or in government departments like the Crown Prosecution Service. Many work
independently in self-employed practice in groups called chambers or sets and practise at the Bar as a
barrister. Chambers are traditionally located in the four Inns of Court in London and are also located in
the UK regions, known as circuits. The Inns are principally non-academic societies which provide
collegiate and educational resources for barristers and trainees. Members of the chambers, known as
tenants, share common expenses and support services, which are administrated by the administrative
manager as the Clerk.
A would-be barrister must first register as a student member of one of the four Inns of Court. A
student must pass a group of examinations to obtain a law degree and then proceed to a vocational
course (Bar Vocational Course, or BVC), the passing of which will result in his being called to the
Bar. All practising barristers are junior counsels unless they have been designated Queen’s Counsels
(QC). QС is expected to appear only in the most important cases.
Judges
There are a few hundred judges trained as barristers, who preside in more serious cases. There is no
separate training for judges; they are barristers who have been elevated to the bench itself, a name
derived from the part of the Court where they sit. The professional judges, ‘High Court Judges’, deal
with the most serious crimes. They are paid salaries by the state. The judge decides the interpretation of
the law. After all the evidence has been given the judge summarizes the case, both law and facts, for the
jury. This is called his summing up.
Judges cannot be removed from office on account of political considerations — the independence of
the judiciary is, at least theoretically guaranteed.
There are following types of judges in England and Wales:
Judicial Office Court
Justices of the Supreme Court the Supreme Court
Lord Justice of Appeal Court of Appeal
High Court Judges High Court of Justice
Circuit Judges Crown Court and County Court
Recorders Crown Court and County Court
District Judges County Court
Deputy District Judges (Civil) County Court
District Judges (also known as Stipendiary Magistrates’ Court
39
Magistrates)
Deputy District Judges Magistrates’ Court
Judicial Appointments
The appointment of judges has always been considered one of the most important responsibilities of the
Lord Chancellor. “One of my priorities as Lord Chancellor is to modernise the judicial appointments
process. I am committed to creating an open, effective and accessible system where everyone who is
eligible for appointment and who wants appointment shall have a fair chance to secure appointment.
This is an exciting and challenging time for the judiciary with the changes brought about by civil justice
reforms and the incorporation of the European Convention of Нuman Rights into United Kingdom law.
More than ever there is a need for the best cndidates to be appointed to all the different judicial posts for
which I have responsibility. I am on record as saying that I want every vacancy on the Bench to be filled
by the best person available but I can only appoint the judiciary from those who are ready and willing to
do the job. I therefore want all eligible practitioners to bit the confidence to apply. Appointments must
and will be made on merit – irrespective of ethnic origin, gender, marital status, political affiliation,
sexual orientation, religion or disability. These are not mere words. They are firm priciples. I will not
tolerate any form of discrimination.
А modern judicial appointments system needs to draw on the best recruitment practices available. That
is why more emphasis has been placed in recent years on open competition giving all eligible candidates
an equal chance to demonstrate that they meet the criteria for appointment. Open selection procedures,
on the basis of applications, can only strengthen the principle of appointment on the merit and enhance
public confidence in the appointments process.”
(The right Honourable the Lord Irvine Lairg)
The administration of appointments
The administration of the judicial appointments system is carried out on the Lord Chancellor's behalf by
staff of the Judicial Group in the Lord Chancellor's Department. The appointments procedures are
administered by two of the Divisions in the Group. These are: Judicial Division 1, which provides
support to the Lord Chancellor on the appointment of High Court Judges and above, Circuit Judges,
Recorders and Assistant Recorders: and Judicial Division 2, which supports the Lord Chancellor on the
appointment of Masters and Registrars of the Supreme Court, District Judges, Stipendiary Magistrates
and a wide range of tribunal and other appointments.
A principal function of the Judicial Group is to supply all the information and advice which the Lord
Chancellor requires to enable him to fulfil his responsibilities in this field, and to provide him with the
material on which to make a fair and informed judgment about every appointment. This includes
corresponding with, informing and interviewing those who are, or may become, candidates for
appointment; consulting judges, senior members of the profession and others as required; filing and
recording the results; administering the selection procedures; and following and executing the Lord
Chancellor’s instructions and guidance, both on individual appointments and candidates and on his
general policy.
Career Advice
The Lord Chancellor regards it as an important function of his Department to advise members of the
legal profession about judicial appointments. Anyone who would like information about appointments
or a discussion with a senior member of staff is welcome to contact the Judicial Group. Statutory
provisions specify minimum eligibility qualifications for each judicial office. The provisions governing
the qualifications for judicial appointment were revised by the Courts and Legal Services Act 1990.
Guiding Principles
40
Three fundamental principles underpin the Lord Chancellor's policies in selecting candidates for
judicial appointment:
a) appointment is strictly on merit. The Lord Chancellor appoints those who appear to him to be
the best qualified regardless of gender, ethnic origin, marital status, sexual orientation, political
affiliation, religion or disability, except where the disability prevents the fulfilment of the
physical requirements of the office.
b) part-time service is normally a pre-requisite of appointment to full-time office. Before being
considered for any full-time judicial post, a candidate must usually have served in that or a
similar post in a part-time capacity for long enough to establish his or her competence and
suitability for full-time appointment: and
c) significant weight is attached to the independent views of members of the professional
community (and others) as to suitability for judicial appointment. The Lord Chancellor regards
the knowledge, experience, and judgment of the professional community (judges and members
of the legal profession) as the best available source of informed opinion on relative merits of
applicants for judicial appointment. Before and during judicial service, views and opinions
about applicants and their work are collected on a structured and systematic basis, in terms of
the criteria for appointment, from a wide range of judges, senior practitioners from both
branches of the profession and others who are in a position to assess the candidate's work and
abilities. The Lord Chancellor regards it as an important principle that no one person's view
about a candidate, whether negative or positive, and however eminent that person, is decisive in
itself.
All senior judicial appointments are made by The Queen on the recommendation of the Prime Minister,
who receives advice from the Lord Chancellor. The Lord Chancellor will normally consider for
appointment properly qualified applicants who have gained sufficient experience and are aged between
40 and 60. A full statement of the criteria to which the Lord Chancellor has regard in selecting
individuals for recommendation for appointment is available from the Judicial Group. In summary, the
criteria are:
legal knowledge and experience integrity
intellectual and analytical ability fairness
sound judgment understanding of people and society
decisiveness maturity and sound temperament
communication skills courtesy and humanity
authority commitment to public service
Jury
A jury consists of twelve people (jurors), who are ordinary people chosen at random from the Electoral
Register (the list of people who can vote in elections). The jury listen to the evidence given in court in
certain criminal cases and decide whether the defendant is guilty or innocent. If a person is found guilty,
the punishment is passed by the presiding judge. Its verdict must be unanimous (it is essentially one of
«guilty» or «not guilty») and, in the event of failure to reach agreement, the case is retried before
another jury. Only 6 - 7% of jury decisions are by a majority verdict. Juries are rarely used in civil
cases.
Magistrates
41
There are about 30,000 magistrates (Justices of the Peace or JPs), who judge cases in lower courts. They
are usually unpaid and have no formal legal qualifications, but they are respectable people who are
given some training. They are ordinary citizens who are selected not because they have any legal
training but because they have ‘sound common sense’ and understanding of their fellow human beings.
They give up their time voluntarily.
Coroners
Coroners have medical or legal training (or both), and inquire into violent or unnatural death.
Clerks of the court
Clerks look after administrative and legal matters in the courtroom.
Attorney-General and Director of Public Prosecutions
The Attorney-General is the Government’s chief Law Officer and his deputy is the Solicitor-General.
They are primarily concerned with representing the Crown in Courts. The Attorney-General advises the
Government on legislative proposals and on criminal proceedings which have a political or public
element. He may take advice from his colleagues in the Government but he cannot be instructed by
them. The Attorney-General is a member of Government; he is not actually a member of the Cabinet
itself.
The Attorney-General has the power to stop proceedings for any indictable offence. He has certain
administrative functions of which the most important is the control of the Director of Public
Prosecutions. The DPP’s office was established under the Prosecution of Offences Act 1879. The
Director undertakes about 7,000 prosecutions a year himself and is constantly required to give advice to
the police, the main prosecuting agencies, as well as to central government departments and magistrates
clerks.
Lord Chief Justice
The Lord Chief Justice (LCJ) holds the senior judicial office in the country. He presides over the
Queen’s Bench Division of the High Court and the criminal division of the Court of Appeal. He has
supervisory and procedural duties relating to the administration of justice generally.
3. A potential foreign client is talking to an English solicitor. Complete the solicitor’s statements with
phrases from the list below.
advocacy; solicitor; draft; appear; barrister; conveyancing
1. I am looking for a lawyer to help me buy some land for a business. – My firm undertakes a lot of
________________. We could advise you and help to ____________ contracts.
2. We’ve had some trouble in the past with getting large invoices paid. – We can do _________. If your
case goes to court, I can ___________ in the lower courts.
3. Can you appear in the Appeal Court? – No, I’m a _____________ but my firm would instruct a
____________ if a case were to go to the Appeal Court.
5. Match the judicial offices in the box with the required qualifications below. Bear in mind the hierarchical
structure on the courts.
Justices of the Supreme Court Lord Justice of Appeal
Circuit Judges District Judges (Magistrates’ court)
Judges
Judges in the USA initially come to the bench from other lines of legal work and after a substantial
number of years of professional experience. American judges differ from judges of the common-law
countries and civil-law systems in other parts of the world. Many judges have been legislators, but some
have been office lawyers or counsel to organizations such as corporations or private associations.
Numerous judges have been lawyers in government service as prosecuting attorneys or counsel to
government agencies, either state or federal. Some judges are former law professors, but their number is
small. Persons can enter the judicial system at any level. A lawyer can initially become a judge on the
highest court, the lowest court, or any court between. In other words, a lawyer who has never been a
judge can become a judge on a court of last resort or an intermediate appellate court or a trial court, in
either a state or the federal system. Lawyers who come on the bench at the trial or intermediate appellate
levels have no real promise of moving to a higher court.
Federal magistrate judges perform two kinds of functions. First, they hold hearings on variety of
motions, such as motions seeking to control lawyers’ conduct of discovery in civil cases, and make
recommendations to the district judge as to the disposition. Assistance of this sort enables district judges
to dispose of these matters without having to sit to conduct hearings themselves; they can simply accept
the magistrates’ recommendations. Magistrate judges also hold evidentiary hearing on prisoner’s
petitions challenging the legality of their convictions, and they recommend factual findings to the judge.
Second, magistrate judges are authorized to conduct trials in civil cases and in criminal misdemeanor
cases if the parties consent. In other words, the parties can choose to go to trial before a magistrate judge
instead of a district judge. If the parties exercise this opinion, the magistrate judge is empowered to
decide the case and enter final judgment in the name of the district court.
The Attorney General
The federal system is the best known example of executive nomination with legislative confirmation.
The Attorney General of the United States and the Department of Justice, which he heads, are key
executive branch participants in the selection process, along with the White House staff. In selecting
44
Supreme Court nominees, the President has even more leeway, but he still must take into account
sentiment in the Senate, as that body has in effect a veto over the nomination.
Law Clerks
In the common-law tradition and in American practice prior to the twentieth century, judges functioned
without assistance in judicial decision making. There has always been a clerk of the court, a court
employee who handles the papers and maintains case files. Judges also have long had secretarial help
for typing and other clerical chores.
A law clerk is usually a recent law school graduate. Most clerks have strong academic records in law
school. Many appellate judges require experience on a student-edited law school journal. Typically a
clerk serves one year, although some serve two. There are few career clerks. The law clerks, sometimes
called ‘elbow clerks’, is a personal assistant to the judge. In general clerks do legal research, prepare
memoranda on the cases, summarizing facts and issues and giving the clerk’s analysis, edit drafts of
opinions written by the judge, and serve as a sounding board and discussion partner for the judge. Work
as a clerk is considered an excellent professional experience for a new law school graduate, a year long
transition from the academic to the ‘real’ world, with an opportunity to see the workings of the judicial
process from the inside.
The work of law clerks in trial courts differ somewhat from that of law clerks in appellate courts.
Appellate clerks spend much time in editing, and sometimes drafting, opinions that their judges are
assigned to prepare for the court. Trial clerks also draft some memoranda and short opinions, but in
addition they assist the judge with motions of all sorts and in pretrial conferences and hearings. They
often deal with parties’ lawyers to assist the judge in managing his docket. To a considerable extent
these different duties reflect the difference between the work of a trial court and that of appellate court.
Staff attorneys
The distinction between staff attorneys and law clerks in that the latter work for an individual judge in
that judge’s chambers; the relationship is direct and personal, with the clerk responsible to no one except
that judge. Central staff attorneys, on the other hand, work for the court as a whole. Central staff in
appellate courts writes memoranda on cases for the use of the judges to whom those cases are assigned.
In some courts they also draft proposed dispositions, usually short opinions in cases with issues that are
not especially difficult or novel. Central staff attorneys often do the screening, a process of identifying
those appeals that can appropriately be decided through truncated processes, usually involving the
elimination of oral argument.
Adjuncts
In many state trail courts there are adjuncts variously entitled commissioners, referees, and part-time
judges. In some state appellate courts there are commissioners who assist the court much as staff
attorneys do.
Clerks of the court
Every court, whether trial or appellate, state or federal, has a clerk of the court who has a staff. The
clerk’s office is the place where lawyers and litigants file pleadings, motions, and other papers in the
cases brought in the court. The clerk’s office keeps a file on each case and maintains the docket book
and the official record of the court’s actions in all of its cases. All matters that come before the judges
flow first through the clerk’s office.
There is a type of judicial adjunct much older than law clerks and central staff attorneys. This is the
“master” or “special master.” This quasi-judicial position has long been used in various ways by
American trial courts, state and federal. A master's position is typically part time, filled by court
appointment on an ad hoc basis for a specific purpose. For example, in a civil action involving an
elaborate financial accounting the trial judge might designate a lawyer as a master to conduct the
45
accounting and report the result to the court. In cases requiring the testimony of numerous widely
scattered witnesses, the court could appoint a master to preside over the taking of the testimony and
transmit that testimony to the court with recommendations for factual findings. Courts have also used
masters in some complex cases; in public law litigation they assist in supervising implementations of
decrees. Their actions are in the form of recommendations to the judges, who exercise the final decision-
making authority.
Every state has a state court administrator. This is the top administrative official in the statewide
system, usually responsible directly to the chief justice of the state. The administrator assists the chief
justice in a wide array of matters such as developing the annual budget for the state's court system,
supervising non-judicial personnel, maintaining statistics on the state's judicial business, overseeing
court buildings, and supplying equipment for the courts.
In addition, each of the federal judicial circuits has a circuit executive who serves as an administrative
assistant to the chief judge of the circuit in managing the circuit's business. Secretaries to judges are
essential for the handling of the paper in the judges' chambers.
Judicial educator
The newest type of administrative official, now found in every state judicial system, is the state judicial
educator. This officer, who usually works under the direction of the state chief justice or a judicial
council of some sort, is responsible for planning and carrying out programs of continuing education for
the state’s judges and other court personnel. In most states such educational undertakings are offered for
judges at all levels, most commonly for trail judges of the general and limited jurisdiction courts.
Administrative and supporting personnel
In addition to all of these administrative and supporting personnel, there are battalions [bə´tæljən] of
others who help keep the courts running. These include bailiffs, computer operators, court stenographers
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maintenance staffs.
American Bar Association
In the United States admission to the practice of law is the matter of state concern. There is no such
thing as ‘the American bar’ in any official or formal sense. That expression is used loosely to refer to all
the lawyers in the United States, each of whom has been state-licensed. There is no national or federal
authority to admit persons to the legal profession. The entity known as the American Bar Association is
a private, voluntary, nationwide organization of some 370,000 lawyers from all states; it is the largest
organization of lawyers in the country, although there are many other private bar associations, often
based on areas of legal specialization.
Within the legal profession there is no formal division; there are no barristers or solicitors. Anyone
admitted to the bar in a state is legally authorized to engage in any kind of legal practice in that state. As
a practical matter, though, there is an increasing degree of specialization among lawyers. Typical area of
specialization are litigation, taxation, labor law, patent law, family law, trusts and estates, and various
branches of administrative law.
46
Many lawyers are employed by government – federal, state, and local – in positions such as prosecuting
attorneys, counsel to agencies, and staff attorneys in innumerable government departments and offices.
Many other lawyers are ‘house counsel’ in private corporations and other nongovernmental
organizations; they work full-time exclusively for those employers. As all of this suggests, there is a
varied and rich array of career paths open to American lawyers.
As is evident, a huge number of American lawyers are not involved with the courts; they spend their
time in law offices, government bureaus, corporate buildings, conference rooms, and legislative halls.
Only a relatively small number of practicing lawyers are actively engaged in litigation. Civil litigation
today consists in large measure of pretrial activity such as drafting pleadings and motions, examining
documents, questioning witnesses, preparing and answering interrogatories, and participating in
negotiations with other lawyers and in pretrial conferences with judges. In criminal cases much time is
devoted to investigation, negotiation between prosecutors and defense counsel about charges and pleas,
and the sentencing process.
3. Match the following words and phrases with their Ukrainian equivalents: A):
1. law clerk a. секретар суду
2. staff attorney b. суддя
3. trial adjunct c. міністр юстиції і генеральний прокурор в США
4. clerk of the court d. помічник на судовому процесі
5. justice e. юрист, який входить у штат суду
6. Attorney General f. судовий пристав, помічник шерифа
7. court administrator g. державний обвинувач, прокурор
8. bailiff h. помічник судді
9. prosecuting attorney i. адміністратор суду
B)
1. motion a. заява в суд, подання заяви в суд
2. pleading b. судове рішення, висновок спеціаліста
3. negotiation c. службова записка, меморандум, директива
4. memorandum d. книга записів по справі, досьє судочинства; виписка рішення
справи; список справ для слухання
5. docket e. клопотання, прохання; пропозиція
6. opinion f. 1. розміщення аргументів в логічному, розумному порядку; 2.
розпорядження, (pl.) плани
7. disposition g. переговори
C)
1. to come to the bench a. надати канцелярське дослідження
2. to handle the papers b. служити резонатором та партнером судді для
обговорення
3. to maintain case files c. призначати суддю для ведення справи
4. to do legal research d. готувати план розміщення аргументів в
логічному порядку
5. to prepare memoranda on the cases e. підсумовувати факти і питання, яке становить
предмет суперечки
6. to summarize facts and issues f. вести книгу записів по справі
7. to give the clerk’s analysis, g. займатися документами
8. to edit drafts of opinions h. вирішувати за допомогою спрощеного процесу
9. to serve as a sounding board and i. готувати доповідну записку по справі
discussion partner for the judge
10. to draft some memoranda j. стати суддею
11. to manage the docket k. не включати усне обговорення
47
12. to assign the judge to the case l. редагувати проект (начерк) судового рішення
13. to draft proposed dispositions m. вести записи по справам
14. to decide through truncated processes n. зробити начерк доповідної записки
15. to involve the elimination of oral o. проводити юридичні дослідження
argument
D)
1. to carry out programs of continuing a. ставити від сумнів законність засудження
education
2. to report the result to the court b. проводити судове слухання доказів
3. to draft pleadings and motions c. забезпечити повне та справедливе
представлення справ
4. to transmit the testimony to the court d. проводити подальшу освіту
5. to ensure the full and fair presentation e. подавати заяву в суд чи клопотання
of cases
6. to seek to control lawyers’ conduct of f. позбавлятися справ
discovery
7. to dispose of the matters g. складати заяви в суд чи клопотання
8. to hold evidentiary hearing h. передавати покази свідків до суду
9. to challenge the legality of their i. займатися всіма видами юридичної діяльності
convictions
10. to file pleadings / motions j. повідомляти суд про результати
11. to keep a file on each case k. прагнути контролювати поведінку адвокатів,
що стосується знайдення документів для
підтримання доказів по страві
12. to engage in any kind of legal practice o. вести досьє по кожній справі
4. Give the English equivalent for the following words and phrases.
стати суддею; ключові посадовці; помічник судді; юрист, який входить у штат суду;
юрисконсульт організацій; державний обвинувач (прокурор); суддя у суді останньої інстанції;
проміжний апеляційний суд; суд першої інстанції; обирати кандидатів на посаду судді
Верховного суду; мати право накладати вето на призначення (висування) суддів; міністр юстиції
США; Міністерство юстиції; мати свободу вибору; займатися документами; досвід роботи
редагування юридичного журналу в юридичному інституті; проводити юридичні дослідження;
канцелярська робота; готувати доповідну записку по справі; готувати план розміщення
аргументів в логічному порядку; вести досьє по кожній справі та вести книгу записів справ;
вирішувати апеляцію за допомогою спрощеного процесу; подавати заяви до суду; подавати
клопотання; Американська колегія адвокатів
7. Choose a word or phrase (a, b, or c) which best completes the unfinished sentence:
1. A meeting between lawyers and their client is called a … .
a) negotiation; b) conference: c) interview
2. The clerk of the court … .
a) develops the annual budget for the court; b) challenges the legality of their convictions; c) handles
the papers and maintains case.
3. The … is usually a recent law school graduate.
a) law clerk b) court administrator; c) magistrate
4. Editing and drafting opinions is the responsibility of … .
a) bailiffs; b) clerks of the court; c) appellate clerks
5. … work for the court as a whole.
a) Staff attorneys; b) Prosecuting attorneys; c) General attorneys
6. A …keeps a file on each case and maimtaims the docket book and the official record of the actions in
all of its cases.
a) court administrator; b) clerk of the court; c) master;
7. A … conducts an elaborate financial accounting.
a) court administrator; b) law clerk; c) master;
7. … hold hearings on variety of motions, such as motions seeking to control lawyers’ conduct of
discovery in civil cases, and make recommendations to the district judge as to the disposition and also
hold evidentiary hearing on prisoner’s petitions challenging the legality of their convictions.
a) Justices; b) Attorneys; c) Magistrates
8. Magistrate judges conduct trials in civil cases and in … cases if the parties consent.
a) felony; b) misdemeanor; c) homicide
9. The clerk’s office maintains the … .
a) opinion book: b) memorandum book; c) docket book
8. Read the text again and decide if the following statements are true and false. Correct those, which are
false.
1. Court clerks are the decision makers, the key officials around whom all else is arranged. 2. Law
clerks, staff attorneys, and trial adjuncts are intimately connected with the judges and assist them in the
process of deciding issues and cases. 3. Judges in the USA initially come to the bench from the ranks of
the American Bar Association. 4. Once on the bench they, in the main, follow a promotional pattern
through the ranks of the judiciary to the highest position of Chief Justice. 5. The federal system is the
best known example of executive nomination: the Attorney General of the United States and the
Department of Justice appoint and approve nominees. 6. A law clerk is usually career clerk. 7. The law
clerk is a personal assistant to the judge.8. The trial clerks are sometimes called ‘elbow clerks’. 9. The
work of law clerks in trial courts is similar to that of law clerks in appellate courts. 10. Trial clerks
spend much time in editing, and sometimes drafting, opinions that their judges are assigned to prepare
49
for the court. 11. Appellate clerks draft some memoranda and short opinions, in addition they assist the
judge with motions of all sorts and in pretrial conferences and hearings. 12. The distinction between
staff attorneys and law clerks in that the staff attorneys work for an individual judge in that judge’s
chambers; and law clerks work for the court as a whole. 13. Staff attorneys in appellate courts write
memoranda on cases for the use of the judges assigned to those cases. 14. Federal magistrate judges
perform two kinds of functions. 15. Federal magistrates hold hearings on variety of motions, such as
motions seeking to control lawyers’ conduct of discovery in civil cases, and make recommendations to
the district judge as to the disposition. 16. Magistrate judges conduct trials in criminal cases and in civil
misdemeanor cases if the parties can’t consent. 17. The clerk’s office is the place where the trials are
held. 18. The American Bar Association is a government, compulsory, nationwide organization of some
370,000 lawyers from all states.
GLOSSARY
UNIT 1
Reading 1: The Need for Law. Functions of Law. Kinds of Law
to devote (to) [di´vəut] присвячувати;
e.g. She devoted herself to serving people. Вона присвятила своє життя служінню людям.
to define [di´fain] визначати, давати визначення;
e.g. In the contract agreed between the За угодою між профспілками та роботодавцями
union and the employers, overtime is до над нормованих робіт входить робота після 6
defined as work after 6 p.m. on weekdays, вечора в робочі дні та робота у вихідна та
and anytime on Saturdays, Sundays, and національні свята.
public holidays.
definition [,defə´ni∫n] визначення;
e.g. to formulate, give, provide, write a дати визначення;
definition
to exist [ig´zist] існувати;
e.g. I exist by what I think... and I can't stop Я існую, тому що думаю …. І ніяк не можу
myself from thinking. перестати думати.
purpose [΄pə:pəs] ціль, мета;
e.g. to accomplish, achieve, fulfill a досягти мети;
purpose
for a purpose з метою;
regulation регулювання; наказ, розпорядження; статут,
інструкція (мн.)
e.g. regulation of prices регулювання цін;
to adopt, enact a regulation прийняти розпорядження (наказ);
to apply, enforce a regulation виконувати розпорядження;
to regulate регулювати, приводити в порядок;
e.g. to regulate the industries of a country стабілізувати різні галузі промисловості в країні;
set набір, склад;
e.g. to make up a set складати комплект;
conduct [´kondΛkt] = behaviour поведінка;
e.g. You will be called over the coals for Ви отримаєте за вашу поведінку.
your conduct.
society [sə´saiəti] суспільство;
e.g. to polarize a society розділити суспільство на два протилежних
табори;
to unite a society об’єднати суспільство;
civilized society цивілізоване суспільство;
primitive society первісне суспільство;
arise (arose, arisen) виникати; з’являтися;
e.g. A new difficulty has arisen. Виникло нове ускладнення.
immoral аморальний;
e.g. It's immoral to steal. Красти – аморально.
relationship відношення, співвідношення, зв'язок;
e.g. to bear, have a relationship мати відношення;
to break off a relationship розірвати відношення;
illegal [i´li:gl] незаконний;
e.g. It is illegal to drive while intoxicated. Заборонено вести машину у нетверезому стані.
thus [∂Λs] таким чином;
e.g. Thus we have man modifying nature, Таким чином, ми маємо людину, що змінює
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e.g. Children are not permitted in without
their parents.
cornerstone [ INCLUDEPICTURE наріжний камінь;
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54
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owe [əu] (to) завдячувати; бути в боргу;
e.g. He owes me $5. Він винен мені 5 доларів.
We owe this idea to Greek philosophy. Ми завдячуємо цю ідею грецькій філософії.
action позов, обвинувачення; судовий процес;
e.g. to bring, institute, take an action порушити справу проти когось;
against smb. for smth
to dismiss an action відхилити позов;
He brought legal action against his Він подав позов проти своїх сусідів.
neighbour.
lawsuit [´lo:sju:t] судовий процес, позов;
e.g. to bring, file, institute a lawsuit розпочати судовий процес;
to lose (win) a lawsuit
to settle a lawsuit програти (виграти) судовий процес;
улагодити суперечливу ситуацію;
to commit [kə´mit] скоїти, здійснити, вчиняти;
e.g. to commit a crime скоїти злочин;
to commit suicide покінчити життя самогубством;
to charge with обвинувачувати в (злочині);
e.g. The prisoner is charged with attempted В’язня обвинувачували у спробі пограбування.
robbery.
penalty [´penlti] покарання, кара;
e.g. to impose a penalty призначати покарання;
severe, stiff, strict penalty суворе покарання;
death penalty смертна кара;
to punish [´pΛni∫] покарати; карати;
e.g. to punish harshly, severely жорстоко покарати;
to punish lightly, mildly накладати м’яке покарання;
You can’t punish me for something I didn't Ви не можете покарати мене за те, чого я не
do. робив.
to require [ri´kwaiə] вимагати; наказувати;
e.g. You are required to obey. Ти повинен слухатися.
Hard work will be required of students in При вивчення цього курсу від студентів
this course. вимагається напружена робота.
offence [ə´fens] правопорушення, злочин;
e.g. to commit an offence скоїти правопорушення;
minor offence дрібне правопорушення; проступок;
petty offence незначне правопорушення;
serious offence, capital offence тяжке правопорушення;
offender [ə´fendə] правопорушник; злочинець;
e.g. first offender злочинець, якого судять вперше;
old offender (= recidivist, repeater, chronic рецидивіст;
offender, habitual criminal)
prison [´prizn] в’язниця;
e.g. to be released from prison звільнитися з в’язниці;
to break out of prison, to escape from втікати з в’язниці;
prison сісти у в’язницю, бути засудженим до
55
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e.g. to announce a marriage
to annul a marriage
to break up, dissolve a marriage
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e.g. divorce decree
no-fault divorce
real estate нерухоме майно;
insurance [in´∫uərəns] страхування;
e.g. to effect insurance застрахувати, укласти договір про страхування;
to provide insurance for застрахувати когось;
to carry / take out insurance мати страховку, застрахуватися;
to cancel insurance анулювати страховий полюс;
Our firm carries fire insurance. Наша фірма має страховий поліс на випадок
пожежі.
consumer [kən´sju:mə] споживач;
e.g. consumer commodities споживчі товари;
negligence [´neglidЗəns] недбальство, халатність;
e.g. criminal negligence кримінальна халатність;
gross negligence гранична недбалість
work.
belief [bi΄l:f] віра; довіра;
to express a belief висловити довіру;
false / mistaken belief помилкове переконання;
to shake one’s belief похитнути чиїсь переконання;
to give up one’s belief припинити довіряти;
to draw up (drew, drawn) складати, укладати; розробляти;
Has your lawyer drawn up the Ви вже розробили угоду?
contract yet?
extremely [iks΄tri:mli] [eks΄tri:mli] надзвичайно;
measure [´meЗə] міра; захід;
draconian measure драконівська міра;
harsh/ drastic measure суворі міри;
compulsory measure примусові міри;
emergency /extreme/ radical крайні заходи; надзвичайні міри;
measure
to take measures against smuggling вживати заходів проти контрабанди;
to apply (to) [ə΄plai] 1. стосуватися, відноситися; 2. застосовувати,
вживати; 3. звертатися з проханням, заявою
What I am saying does not apply to (письмово)
you. Те, що я кажу, вас не стосується.
to apply the new method
We applied to the authorities for застосовувати новий метод
assistance. Ми звернулися до повноважних органів про
допомогу.
ultimately [´Λltimətli] остаточно, повністю; в основі; в решті решт;
These questions, however, cannot Проте ці питання не можна остаточно вирішити
be decided ultimately today. сьогодні.
to devise [di´vaiz] винайти; придумати; розробляти;
trial [´traiəl] судовий розгляд, судовий процес, суд;
at a trial на суді;
trial by jury [´dЗuəri] розгляд справи за участю присяжних;
to retain [ri´tein] зберігати;
The Bank of England has taken Національний банк Англії вдався до подальших
further steps to retain control over кроків, щоб зберегти контроль над вартістю фунта
the value of the pound. стерлінгів.
ancient [´ein∫ənt] стародавній; античний;
the remains of ancient art at Athens залишки античного мистецтва в Афінах;
to split (split, split) розбивати; ділити;
to split one’s vote голосувати одночасно за кандидатів різних партій;
They are easily split into parties by Їх легко розколоти на окремі групування за
intrigue. допомогою інтриг.
rival [´raivl] ворожий, конкуруючий;
rival firms конкуруючі фірми;
rival candidates конкуруючі кандидати;
faction фракція; групування;
extremist faction екстремістське групування;
rebel faction угрупування повстанців;
white necktie faction «фрачна фракція» (іронічна назва політичної еліти)
to culminate [´kΛlmineit] кульмінувати, досягти апогею; привести до;
Years of waiting culminated in a Роки очікування закінчилися сльозливим
tearful reunion. примиренням.
60
The event culminates in a black tie Кульмінацією заходу буде офіційний обід.
dinner.
subsequent [´sΛbsikwənt] наступний, подальший;
subsequent chapter наступна глава;
It was subsequent to the death of Це було після смерті обох його батьків.
both his parents.
tyranny [´tirəni] тиранія;
to overthrow a tyranny скинути тиранію;
ruthless tyranny безжалісна тиранія;
dictatorship [dik´teitə∫ip] диктатура;
to establish, set up a dictatorship встановити диктатуру;
an absolute dictatorship абсолютна диктатура;
satisfactory задовільний;
satisfactory result задовільний результат;
solution [sə΄lu:∫(ə)n] рішення;
to apply a solution застосувати рішення;
to find a solution знайти рішення;
satisfactory solution задовільне рішення;
solution of case розкриття справи (поліцією);
to be eligible [΄elidЗəbl] мати право; мати право бути обраним; підходити;
to be eligible for an office підходити на посаду;
to be eligible for parole мати право на умовне-дострокове звільнення;
moderation урегулювання; стриманість; рівність; пом’якшення;
proper належний; характерний;
to prohibit [prəu´hibit] забороняти;
Visitors are prohibited from feeding Відвідувачам забороняється годувати тварин.
the animals.
humane [hju´mein] гуманний, людяний;
assembly [ə´sembli] асамблея; збори;
e.g. legislative assembly законодавчі збори;
United Nations General Assembly Генеральна асамблея ООН;
to establish [is΄tæbli∫] встановлювати; запровадити;
to establish a committee заснувати комітет;
to establish contact / relationship встановити контакт / відносини;
to establish the cause of death встановити причину смерті;
severe [si´viə] суворий;
severe discipline сувора дисципліна;
to appeal [ə´pi:l] подавати апеляцію; апелювати; звертатися;
to appeal to a higher court звернутися з апеляцією до вищого суду
homicide [´homisaid] вбивство;
homicide department відділ по розслідуванню вбивств;
in essence [´esns] в основному; по суті;
He was in essence an honest person. По суті він був чесною людиною.
to be based on [baist] бути заснованим на;
certain [´sə:tn] певний;
almost, nearly certain майже певний;
absolutely /completely certain повністю певний;
profound effect глибокий вплив;
have a profound effect on / upon мати глибокий вплив на щось;
to compile [kəm´pail] укладати;
The French Academy took forty Національна Академія наук Франції витратила 40
years to compile their Dictionary. років, щоб укласти словник.
61
UNIT 2
Reading 1: Legalese
feature [´fi:t∫ə] особливість, характерна риса; якість,
specific feature специфічна, особлива, характерна риса;
legal writing юридичний текст;
subsidiarity [səb,sidi´ærəti] делегування ініціативи нижчим підрозділам виконавчої
влади;
reciprocal [ri´siprək(ə)l] еквівалентний; відповідний;
prejudice [´predЗədis] упередженість, упереджена думка; забобон; шкода,
збитки; завдання збитків;
without prejudice неупереджено;
to arouse / stir up prejudice викликати упередженість, сформувати упереджену
to break down / eliminate думку;
prejudice подолати упередженість;
deep / deep-rooted / strong сильна, глибока упередженість;
prejudice расові забобони, расова упередженість;
race / racial prejudice релігійні забобони;
religious prejudice без обмеження свободи чи особистих прав (при
without prejudice to smth. відшкодуванні збитків)
triplet [´triplət] трійка, (три предмети, особи);
to erect [i´rekt] споруджувати, зводити, будувати, створювати;
legal drafter автор документа (законопроекту);
ad hoc для цього; спеціальний, для даної, конкретної мети;
ad hoc committee спеціальний комітет;
bona fide [,bəunə´faidi] чесно, сумлінно;
caveat [´kæviæt] / [´keiviæt] застереження; протест; заява про припинення судового
розгляду;
de facto [,dei´fæktəu] насправді, фактично, де-факто;
We had de facto declared war on Ми фактично оголосили їм війну.
them.
de jure [,dei´dЗuərei] юридично, де-юре;
de jure recognition визнання де-юре;
et cetera (etc.) [it´set(ə)rə] / [et і таке інше, тощо;
´set(ə)rə]
exempli gratia (e.g.) [ig,zemplai наприклад;
´gratia]
ex parte (ex p.) [,eks´pa:tei] на користь однієї сторони, з перевагою для однієї
сторони; односторонній, сприятливий для однієї
сторони;
id est (i.e.) (= that is) тобто; іншими словами;
in camera [´kæm(ə)rə] без сторонніх; не на судовому засіданні (про дії суду);
у суддівській кімнаті; за зачиненими дверима, на
закритому засіданні;
in curia [´kjuəriə] у суді; на відкритому судовому засіданні;
in situ [in´sitju:] /[in´saitju:] / [in на своєму місці;
´sit∫ju:]
inter alia [´intər´eiliə] до речі; крім того;
ipso facto [,ipsəu´fæktəu] в силу самого факту; тим самим;
per pro [,pə:´prəu] за дорученням; за посередництвом когось;
per se [,pə:sei] у чистому вигляді; безпосередньо; по суті;
66
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He’s very proud of his daughter’s
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(2. = proper pride)
to take great pride in one's children
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empty / idle / vain boast
proud boast
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to descend the stairs
to be descended from Vikings
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notary public
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71
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lawyer’s clients
to employ [ INCLUDEPICTURE надавати роботу; наймати; тримати на службі,
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to be employed by smb
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( = legal counsel)
to be heard by counsel
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Text='s%CA%8Cm(%C9%99)ra
%C9%AAz" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text='s%CA%8Cm(%C9%99)ra
%C9%AAz" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
]
brief / to brief (n.) 1. короткий письмовий виклад справи (складене
[ INCLUDEPICTURE соліситором для баристера); 2. справа, клієнт; (v.)
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl давати інструкції адвокатові; доручати ведення
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx? справи;
Text=bri%CB%90f" \* мати велику практику (про адвокату);
MERGEFORMATINET взяти на себе ведення справи;
INCLUDEPICTURE вести справу в суді (як адвокат);
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl відмовитися від подальшого ведення справи
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
73
Text=bri%CB%90f" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text=bri%CB%90f" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text=bri%CB%90f" \*
MERGEFORMATINET ]
to retain an attorney
to retain in custody
rank [ INCLUDEPICTURE звання; чин; достоїнство; посада, службове
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl становище; ранг (дипломатичний)
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx? військовий знак розрізнення;
Text=r%C3%A6%C5%8Bk" \* аристократія; високопоставлені особи
MERGEFORMATINET зарозумілість
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text=r%C3%A6%C5%8Bk" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
74
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text=r%C3%A6%C5%8Bk" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text=r%C3%A6%C5%8Bk" \*
MERGEFORMATINET ]
rank badge
persons of rank
pride of rank
the Bar [ INCLUDEPICTURE адвокатура, колегія адвокатів; стан адвокатів;
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl баристери (у Великій Британії);
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx? бути адвокатом;
Text=b%C9%91%CB%90" \* отримати право адвокатської практики
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE брусок; планка; рейка; поперечина
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text=b%C9%91%CB%90" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text=b%C9%91%CB%90" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text=b%C9%91%CB%90" \*
MERGEFORMATINET ]
to be at the Bar
to be called to the Bar (= to call
within the bar)
bar
beyond [ INCLUDEPICTURE 1. поза, за межами; 2. удалині; далеко від, далі;
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl по той бік океану;
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx? це за межами мого розуміння;
Text=b%C9%AA'j%C9%94nd" \* за межами досяжності
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text=b%C9%AA'j%C9%94nd" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
75
Text=b%C9%AA'j%C9%94nd" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text=b%C9%AA'j%C9%94nd" \*
MERGEFORMATINET ]
beyond the ocean
it is beyond me
beyond reach
the Bench місце суддів (у залі суду); суд; суддівська посада;
судді, суддівська колегія
to elevate to the Bench призначити на посаду судді
jury [ INCLUDEPICTURE присяжні (засідателі); суд присяжних;
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl наставляти, давати інструкції присяжним;
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx? розпустити суд присяжних;
Text='d%CA%92%CA привести присяжних до присяги;
%8A(%C9%99)r%C9%AA" \* виступати у ролі присяжних
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text='d%CA%92%CA
%8A(%C9%99)r%C9%AA" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text='d%CA%92%CA
%8A(%C9%99)r%C9%AA" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text='d%CA%92%CA
%8A(%C9%99)r%C9%AA" \*
MERGEFORMATINET ]
to charge / instruct a jury
to dismiss a jury
to empanel, swear in a jury
to serve on a jury
by means of за допомоги (чогось), через (щось)
verdict [ INCLUDEPICTURE вердикт, рішення присяжних
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl виправдання підсудного вердиктом присяжних
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx? винести вердикт про винність (невинності)
Text='v%C9%9C%CB%90d
%C9%AAkt" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text='v%C9%9C%CB%90d
76
%C9%AAkt" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text='v%C9%9C%CB%90d
%C9%AAkt" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text='v%C9%9C%CB%90d
%C9%AAkt" \*
MERGEFORMATINET ]
verdict of acquittal
to bring in /to return a verdict of
guilty (not guilty)
guilty [ INCLUDEPICTURE винний, винуватий;
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl винний у вбивстві;
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx? обвинувальний вирок
Text='g%C9%AAlt%C9%AA" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text='g%C9%AAlt%C9%AA" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text='g%C9%AAlt%C9%AA" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text='g%C9%AAlt%C9%AA" \*
MERGEFORMATINET ] (of)
guilty of murder
verdict of guilty
beyond reasonable doubt поза всякими обґрунтованими сумнівами
[ INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text=daut" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text=daut" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
77
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text=daut" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text=daut" \*
MERGEFORMATINET ]
prosecution [ INCLUDEPICTURE судове переслідування; пред'явлення позову;
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl обвинувачення (як сторона в карному процесі);
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=
%CB%8Cpr%C9%94s%C9%AA'kju
%CB%90%CA%83(%C9%99)n" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=
%CB%8Cpr%C9%94s%C9%AA'kju
%CB%90%CA%83(%C9%99)n" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=
%CB%8Cpr%C9%94s%C9%AA'kju
%CB%90%CA%83(%C9%99)n" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=
%CB%8Cpr%C9%94s%C9%AA'kju
%CB%90%CA%83(%C9%99)n" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
]
to conduct [ INCLUDEPICTURE вести, керувати; проводити;
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl проводити кампанію
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text=k%C9%99n'd%CA%8Ckt" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text=k%C9%99n'd%CA%8Ckt" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text=k%C9%99n'd%CA%8Ckt" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text=k%C9%99n'd%CA%8Ckt" \*
78
MERGEFORMATINET ]
to conduct a campaign
accomplice [ INCLUDEPICTURE спільник, співучасник (злочину);
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl співучасник злочину
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=
%C9%99'k%C9%94mpl
%C9%AAs" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=
%C9%99'k%C9%94mpl
%C9%AAs" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=
%C9%99'k%C9%94mpl
%C9%AAs" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=
%C9%99'k%C9%94mpl
%C9%AAs" \*
MERGEFORMATINET ]
accomplice in crime
to turn the King/Queen’s evidence стати свідком обвинувачення
witness [ INCLUDEPICTURE свідок, очевидець
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text='w%C9%AAtn%C9%99s" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text='w%C9%AAtn%C9%99s" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text='w%C9%AAtn%C9%99s" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text='w%C9%AAtn%C9%99s" \*
MERGEFORMATINET ]
to forbid (forbad(e) – forbidden) забороняти, не давати дозволу
to suggest [ INCLUDEPICTURE пропонувати, радити; висувати; припускати
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl Архітектор запропонував реконструкцію будівлі.
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
79
Text=s%C9%99'%CA%A4est" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text=s%C9%99'%CA%A4est" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text=s%C9%99'%CA%A4est" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text=s%C9%99'%CA%A4est" \*
MERGEFORMATINET ]
The architect suggested restoring the
building.
leading question навідне запитання
evidence [ INCLUDEPICTURE свідчення; доказ; показання свідка або
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl обвинувачуваного;
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx? показання з чужих слів;
Text='evid(%C9%99)ns" \* свідчення, які отримані на головному допиті
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text='evid(%C9%99)ns" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text='evid(%C9%99)ns" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?
Text='evid(%C9%99)ns" \*
MERGEFORMATINET ]
hearsay evidence
evidence-in-chief
summing-up [ INCLUDEPICTURE заключна промова судді; резюме
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=
%CB%8Cs%CA%8Cm%C9%AA
%C5%8B'%CA%8Cp" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=
%CB%8Cs%CA%8Cm%C9%AA
80
%C5%8B'%CA%8Cp" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=
%CB%8Cs%CA%8Cm%C9%AA
%C5%8B'%CA%8Cp" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handl
ers/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=
%CB%8Cs%CA%8Cm%C9%AA
%C5%8B'%CA%8Cp" \*
MERGEFORMATINET ]
81
UNIT 3
Reading 1: Types of legal profession in England and Wales
rapidly [ INCLUDEPICTURE швидко
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text='r
%C3%A6p%C9%AAdl%C9%AA" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text='r
%C3%A6p%C9%AAdl%C9%AA" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text='r
%C3%A6p%C9%AAdl%C9%AA" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text='r
%C3%A6p%C9%AAdl%C9%AA" \*
MERGEFORMATINET ]
will (last will and testament) заповіт, остання воля;
to make a will скласти заповіт
magistrates’ court магістратський суд; мировий суд
petty [ INCLUDEPICTURE дрібний злочин
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text='pet
%C9%AA" \* MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text='pet
%C9%AA" \* MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text='pet
%C9%AA" \* MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text='pet
%C9%AA" \* MERGEFORMATINET
] crime
82
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=
%C9%99d'm%C9%AAt" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=
%C9%99d'm%C9%AAt" \*
MERGEFORMATINET ]
%C9%AA'h%C9%91%CB%90f" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=b
%C9%AA'h%C9%91%CB%90f" \*
MERGEFORMATINET ]
lay [ INCLUDEPICTURE світський, мирський; не духовний; непрофесійний
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=le
%C9%AA" \* MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=le
%C9%AA" \* MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=le
%C9%AA" \* MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=le
%C9%AA" \* MERGEFORMATINET
]
in-house counsel юрисконсульт /радник / рада, що працює в
компанії
Crown Prosecution Service Служба кримінального переслідування
to defend [ INCLUDEPICTURE захищати на суді, виступати як захисник;
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler захищатися, заперечувати свою провину або
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=d причетність до злочину;
%C9%AA'fend" \* захищатися на суді; оспорювати позов;
MERGEFORMATINET відповідати за позовом;
INCLUDEPICTURE відповідати за позовом, виступати в якості
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler відповідача
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=d
%C9%AA'fend" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=d
%C9%AA'fend" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=d
%C9%AA'fend" \*
MERGEFORMATINET ]
to defend a case
to defend an action
to defend a suit
85
to prosecute a criminal
to prosecute an action
to prosecute on indictment
[ INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=
%C9%AAn'da%C9%AAtm
%C9%99nt" \*
86
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=
%C9%AAn'da%C9%AAtm
%C9%99nt" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=
%C9%AAn'da%C9%AAtm
%C9%99nt" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=
%C9%AAn'da%C9%AAtm
%C9%99nt" \*
MERGEFORMATINET ]
He was prosecuted for fraud.
wig перука
gown [ INCLUDEPICTURE мантія (судді, викладача університету)
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=ga
%CA%8An" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=ga
%CA%8An" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=ga
%CA%8An" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=ga
%CA%8An" \*
MERGEFORMATINET ]
proceeding [ INCLUDEPICTURE судовий розгляд, судова справа; судочинство;
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler судова процедура
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=pr
%C9%99'si%CB%90d%C9%AA
%C5%8B" \* MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=pr
%C9%99'si%CB%90d%C9%AA
%C5%8B" \* MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
87
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=pr
%C9%99'si%CB%90d%C9%AA
%C5%8B" \* MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=pr
%C9%99'si%CB%90d%C9%AA
%C5%8B" \* MERGEFORMATINET
](= legal proceedings,
proceedings at law)
capable (of) [ INCLUDEPICTURE здібний, обдарований; умілий; знаючий
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler Він був здатний на крадіжку.
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text='ke
%C9%AAp%C9%99bl" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text='ke
%C9%AAp%C9%99bl" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text='ke
%C9%AAp%C9%99bl" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text='ke
%C9%AAp%C9%99bl" \*
MERGEFORMATINET ]
He was capable of stealing.
to accuse (of) [ INCLUDEPICTURE обвинувачувати, звинувачувати; висувати
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler обвинувачення (проти кого-небудь);
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text= обвинувачувати когось у брехні;
%C9%99'kju%CB%90z" \* Його звинуватили в вбивстві.
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=
%C9%99'kju%CB%90z" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=
%C9%99'kju%CB%90z" \*
MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://lingvo.abbyyonline.com/Handler
s/TranscriptionHandler.ashx?Text=
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to take into consideration
to leave out of consideration
in consideration of...
office служба, місце, посада, пост; знаходження при
владі, на посаді;
term of office термін повноважень
judiciary [ INCLUDEPICTURE судова влада; судоустрій; суд, суди; судді
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grand juror
random [ INCLUDEPICTURE зроблений або сказаний навмання; випадковий;
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at random
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electoral register
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without the right to vote
to vote for (against) a proposal (a
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to vote in the affirmative (in the
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to win an election
to concede / lose an election
to hold an election
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innocent in fact
innocent in law
innocent of crime
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Attorney-General Генеральний аторней (Eng. приблизно відповідає
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deputy director
Solicitor-General Генеральний соліситор (заступник генерального
прокурора)
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(with)
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indictable offence
Lord Chief Justice Лорд-головний суддя
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supervisory body
prior to
106
to file pleadings
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array of problems