Gem Ident LabManual

INSTRUMENTATION
AND TESTING
THE GEM
IDENTIFICATION
PROCESS
SEPARATING
RED, PINK, AND
PURPLE GEMS
SEPARATING
BLUE AND
VIOLET GEMS
SEPARATING
GREEN GEMS
SEPARATING
ORANGE, YELLOW,
AND BROWN GEMS
SEPARATING
COLORLESS AND
WHITE GEMS
SEPARATING
GRAY AND
BLACK GEMS
GEM IDENTIFICATION IDENTIFYING

Lab Manual PHENOMENAL
GEMS
IDENTIFYING
IMITATIONS, ROUGH,
AND SYNTHETIC
CRYSTALS
GEM IDENTIFICATION
RI CHART
Table of Contents
Instrumentation and Testing 5
The Gem Identification Process 65
Separating Red, Pink, and Purple Gems 77
Separating Blue and Violet Gems 135
Separating Green Gems 181
Separating Orange, Yellow, and Brown Gems 239
Separating Colorless and White Gems 297
Separating Gray and Black Gems 337
Identifying Phenomenal Gems 371
Identifying Glass and Plastic 429
Identifying Assembled Stones 437
Identifying Rough Gems 448
Identifying Synthetic Crystals 469
Gem Identification RI Chart 481
1
Acknowledgements
The Gemological Institute of America gratefully acknowledges the following people for
their participation in the preparation of this lab manual:
Technical Assistance
Abba Steinfeld, Alison Mader, Bill Herberts, Brenda Harwick, Brian Genstel, Brook Ellis,
Carl Chilstrom, Catherine Genstel, Christopher Smith, Dan Campbell, Dino DeGhionno,
Elizabeth Harvey, Eric Tollefson, Jim Shigley, Jim Viall, John Kearney, John Koivula,
Lisa Schoening, Louisa Turner, Mark Johnson, Martin Harmon, Mary Johnson,
Melissa Watson-Lafond, Michael Evans, Michael Wobby, Michele Daniels, Michelle DeVore,
Norine Honea, Phil York, Ric Taylor, Richard Hughes, Seung-Hae Moon, Sue Johnson,
Shane McClure, Tom Moses, Veronica Clark-Hudson
Photo Courtesies
The following people loaned us gem materials or otherwise assisted in gathering or
producing some of the images used in this manual:
Abe and Anisa Suleman; American Siba Corp. and Rima Investors Corp.; Andy Lucas;
Apollo Diamond Inc.; Arthur Skuratowicz; Benjamin Zucker; Bill Korst—World Gem
Resources, Ltd.; Bill Vance—Waldport, Oregon.; Brian Davenport; Charlie Eitzen—Larimar
Jewelry, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands; Crystal Kingdom; Duncan Pay; DW Enterprises;
Elena Bologova—GemStones from Russia; Etienne Perret; Gary B. Wilson—Lapidary
Design Group; Gary Bowersox; Gordon Bleck; High Desert Gems; J.R. Dunn Jewelers;
Jayrock; JEOL USA, Inc.; Jonte Berlon; K&K International; Kyocera Corp.; LE MINERAL
BRMT; Marc Bielenberg; Marc Sarosi; Marisa Goebel; Mary Mathews; Mason-Kay Fine
Jade Jewelry; Meg Berry; Merilee Chapin; Michael Schramm Imports; Morion Company;
Mountain-Mark Trading Ltd.; Nafco Gems; Pala International; Revelations In Stone;
Robert Van Wagoner; Rod Griffin—Yowah, S.W.Q. Australia; Roxanne Kremer;
Steven Bookbinder; Temple Trading Company; The Gemesis Corporation; Top Geo Ltd.;
William Larson; Zareh Boyadjian
All spectra/illustrations by Peter Johnston, GIA Course Development Senior Illustrator
©
©2005 The Gemological Institute of America
All rights reserved: Protected under the Berne Convention.
No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, transferred, or
transmitted in any form or by any means whatsoever without the
express written permission of GIA.
Printed in the United States.
This manual owes its inspiration to past editions of the GIA Gem Identification Lab Manual and
Handbook of Gem Identification by Richard T. Liddicoat, Jr.
Cover photos by Eric Welch/GIA, Joel Beeson/GIA, John Koivula/GIA, Shane McClure/GIA,
Terri Weimer/GIA, and Vincent Cracco/GIA
Facing page: Gem identification is a fundamental part of the gem and jewelry business. You must
be able to identify a gem before you can grade it or place a value on it.
2
Joel Beeson/GIA
GEM IDENTIFICATION LAB MANUAL

Welcome to the Gem Identification Lab Manual. It’s designed to be equally helpful
to students who are taking the GIA Gem Identification course as it is to working
gemologists. This manual will help you identify most commercially important gem
materials as well as some gems and minerals you’ll encounter less frequently.
The manual covers everything you need to know to become skilled at identifying a
multitude of common and uncommon gem materials. It includes:
Instrumentation and testing procedures—An overview of the procedures and
precautions that relate to common gemological instruments and tests. The infor-
mation about each instrument or test includes a brief listing of the gemological
properties that can be determined with it.
Gem identification worksheet and procedures—Detailed instructions on how to
use the GIA worksheet to guide your gem identifications, including an outline of
the logical sequence for determining and interpreting gemological properties and
for recording them on the worksheet. There’s also a list of common gem terms and
phrases, with abbreviations you can use on the worksheet.
Gem separations—A detailed reference, divided by color and transparency, that
provides information to help you identify gems and separate them from each other.
The listings expand on each gem’s most important properties and indicate which
instruments and tests to use for specific separations.
3
RI chart—A chart that lists all the gem materials in the manual in descending RI
order. Each listing has page references to guide you to the proper entries in the
gem separation sections.
HOW TO IDENTIFY GEMS USING THIS MANUAL

This manual separates gems by color. It also divides red, pink, and purple; blue and
violet; green; and yellow, orange, and brown gems into transparent and translucent-
to-opaque categories. Colorless and white, gray and black, and phenomenal gems
each have their own sections. A final separation section includes glass, plastic,
assembled, and rough gems and synthetic crystals.
A chart at the beginning of each section lists the gems in descending RI order and
divides them into ranges. This helps you eliminate many unlikely possibilities and
concentrate on the much smaller number of likely possibilities.
For example, if you’re trying to identify a green translucent cabochon with a 1.66
spot RI, you would turn to the translucent-to-opaque part of the manual’s green
section. As long as the RI reading is accurate, you need to consult only the list of
gems with RIs between 1.60 and 1.70. Of these, there are only five possibilities
with RIs close to 1.66. The chart refers you to the pages with detailed listings for
these five choices. The listings give each gem’s most important properties and
indicate which instruments and tests you’ll need to separate them.
The first section describes the instruments and tests you’ll be using to identify
gems. In the section after that, you’ll find a detailed description of the gem
separation process along with sample gem identifications.
INFORMATION FOR GIA STUDENTS

The title at the top of each gem’s detailed listing reflects common trade use. Listed
below the title is the variety name when it’s necessary for identification purposes,
followed by the species. Groups and required treatments are also listed when
applicable. These terms are provided for GIA Gem Identification students. If
you’re a student, these terms reflect the requirements of your practical coursework.
To correctly identify the gems you’re provided with, you must write these terms
on your gem identification worksheets.
Sometimes a gem listing’s title might differ slightly from the species and variety
terms underneath it. For example, the manual provides separate listings for the
types of synthetic ruby manufactured for jewelry use. These include flame-fusion
synthetic ruby, flux-grown synthetic ruby, and hydrothermal synthetic ruby. The
listings are separated because each type has different characteristics that are valu-
able for identification purposes. However, you aren’t required to distinguish
between them for the purposes of your practical GIA coursework. For this reason
the terms for species—synthetic corundum—and variety—synthetic ruby—are the
same for all forms of synthetic ruby.
In the trade, it’s important to disclose all gem treatments. However, GIA recognizes
that it’s not always possible to detect some modern treatments. For this reason,
students who are taking the GIA Gem Identification course are required to identify
only those treatments that are detectable with standard gem-testing equipment. If a
gem’s listing includes a required treatment call, you must list it on the GIA work-
sheet. For users in the trade, the manual indicates when it’s advisable to submit a
particular gem to a reputable gem laboratory for advanced testing.
4
INSTRUMENTATION AND TESTING
General Observation 5
Color 7
Transparency 8
Cutting Style 8
Phenomena 8
Luster 10
Breaks in the Stone 11
Dispersion and Fire 11
Heft 11
Assembled Stones 12
Using the Refractometer 13

Flat-facet Testing 15
Testing for DR and Calculating Birefringence 17
Curved-surface Testing 18
Determining Optic Character and Optic Sign 21
Using the Polariscope 31

Testing for SR, DR, and AGG 32
Resolving Optic Figures 34
Using the Dichroscope 37

Procedure and Results 37
Other Ways to Detect Pleochroism 38
Using Magnification 39
The Loupe 40
The Gemological Microscope 41
Using the Spectroscope 47

Types of Spectroscopes 48
Transmission Method 49
Internal Reflection Method 50
External Reflection Method 51
Techniques for Handheld Spectroscopes 51
Precautions and Limitations 51
Results 52
Fluorescence Testing 53
Procedure and Results 53
Precautions and Limitations 54
Additional Tests 55
Determining SG by Hydrostatic Weighing 55
Determining SG with Heavy Liquids 56
Using the Color Filter 59
Using a Thermal Conductivity Meter 60
Immersion 61
The Read-through Effect 62
Pavilion Flash 62
Thermal Reaction Tests 62
GENERAL OBSERVATION
During the general observation stage, you should look for characteristics that point to a gem’s most likely identity. This helps
you narrow your choices and often reduces the number of necessary tests.
INSTRUMENTATION AND TESTING

Gem identification is a lot like detective work: You keep gathering information
until you have enough to identify the “suspect.” This part of the Gem Identification
Lab Manual provides you with descriptions and information about the tools and
procedures you need to positively identify a gem.
A structured testing procedure involves general observation as well as the use of
standard gem-testing instruments, which are the refractometer, polariscope,
dichroscope, loupe, microscope, spectroscope, and ultraviolet light. This section
also outlines some additional tests that might be useful for identifying certain
gems.
GENERAL OBSERVATION
Before you start testing with instruments, you begin the gem identification process
with general observation. During this stage, you look for characteristics that point
to certain gem species and varieties and rule out others. Narrowing your choices
early helps reduce the steps needed to finally make an identification. An important
first step is to use a gemcloth to clean the gem you’re working with.
5
Tino Hammid/GIA
General observation focuses on key attributes like color and transparency to narrow gem identification
possibilities.
6
GENERAL OBSERVATION
COLOR
Color is the combination of hue, tone, and saturation created by the various wave-
lengths of light that a stone absorbs, transmits, or reflects. Hue is the most impor-
tant factor to consider for gem identification. Tone and saturation can be useful,
but they’re generally more important for grading purposes.
To evaluate color:
1. Examine the stone under daylight-equivalent reflected light. Look at it face-up
against a white or light gray background from a distance of about 10 inches. If
you don’t have a daylight-equivalent light source, use an ordinary fluorescent
lamp. Incandescent light isn’t suitable because many stones, especially reddish
ones, look slightly different under incandescent light.
As a general rule, don’t shine light through a stone from behind to judge its
color. However, if a gem appears black in reflected light—which might occur
with a dark greenish blue sapphire or tourmaline, for example—you might have
to use transmitted light to determine the color.
2. Describe the hue, tone, and saturation of the stone. Determine the dominant and
modifying hues. When you record them, use a capital letter for the dominant
hue and lower case for the modifying hue. There’s a list of hue abbreviations in
the chart below.
Describe tone as very light, light, medium light, medium, medium dark, dark, or
very dark. Abbreviate the tone terms: for example, “vl” for very light.
Describe saturation as strong, moderate, or weak.
3. Record the presence of any unintended color zoning or banding (such as growth
zoning) as an inclusion in the magnification section of the worksheet.
4. Place the stone under incandescent light to check for color change. Record
color change only if it’s moderate or strong.
Gem Hues and Abbreviations

Purple P yellowish Green yG
reddish Purple rP slightly yellowish Green slyG
Red-Purple or Purple-Red RP/PR Green G
strongly purplish Red stpR very slightly bluish Green vslbG
slightly purplish Red slpR bluish Green bG
Red R very strongly bluish Green vstbG
orangy Red oR Green-Blue or Blue-Green GB/BG
Red-Orange or Orange-Red RO/OR very strongly greenish Blue vstgB
reddish Orange rO greenish Blue gB
Orange O very slightly greenish Blue vslgB
yellowish Orange yO Blue B
orangy Yellow oY violetish Blue vB
Yellow Y bluish Violet bV
greenish Yellow gY Violet V
Yellow-Green or Green-Yellow YG/GY violetish Purple vP
strongly yellowish Green styG
7
TRANSPARENCY
Transparency is a material’s relative ability to transmit light. To check transparency,
shine a bright light, like a penlight or fiber-optic light, through the stone. Judge the
area where the stone’s transparency is greatest. Classify the stone’s transparency as:
Transparent (TP)—Capable of transmitting light with little or no distortion, so
objects appear clear and sharp
Semitransparent (STP)—Capable of transmitting light with some distortion, so an
object viewed through the material is indistinct
Translucent (TL)—Capable of transmitting and diffusing light so an object viewed
through the material cannot be distinguished
Semitranslucent (STL)—Capable of transmitting light only through thin areas,
usually at the edges
Opaque (O)—Incapable of transmitting light
CUTTING STYLE
Cutting style is the shape and fashioning pattern of a finished gemstone. Classify
the cutting style of the gemstone as:
Faceted (Fac)—Bound by flat, geometric, polished surfaces
Cabochon (Cab)—A curved, convex form. A single cabochon (S-cab) has a convex
top and flat base, while a double cabochon (D-cab) has a convex top and base
Buff-top (B-top)—Cabochon top and faceted bottom
Tablet (Tab)—Flat with parallel surfaces
Cameo (Cam)—A low-relief carving, often fashioned from material layered in
different colors, so the carving is raised above the underlying layer
Intaglio (Int)—A design engraved below the surface of the gem
Bead (Bd)—A gem of any shape with a drill-hole
Sphere (Sph)—Round shape with no drill-hole
Tumbled (Tum)—Polished and rounded in a mechanical tumbler and irregular
in shape
Rough (Ro)—A natural crystal or irregular shape with unpolished surfaces
Carving (Car)—Shaped into a three-dimensional form, sometimes abstract, but
often resembling an animal
PHENOMENA
Phenomena are optical effects that occur in some gem species. Phenomenal gems
are often fashioned as cabochons or tablets to display their phenomena. To look
for a phenomenon, move a strong, concentrated light source, such as a penlight or
fiber-optic light, above the stone. The types of phenomena are:
Asterism (A)—A star effect usually produced by light reflecting from minute,
precisely oriented, needle-like inclusions. In a cabochon, asterism looks like
several arms or rays of light radiating from a common center.
Adularescence (Ad)—A billowy light seen in moonstone varieties of feldspar.
Caused by diffraction, interference, and diffusion of light by minute concen-
trations within the stone of another feldspar with a refractive index (RI) slightly
different from the main mass.
Joel Beeson/GIA
Aventurescence (Av)—A colored spangle or glitter effect produced by light
The penlight is an important tool for reflecting from platelets. Seen in goldstone glass, aventurine quartz, and sunstone
detecting phenomena. feldspar.
8
GENERAL OBSERVATION
Robert Weldon/GIA Robert Weldon/GIA Maha Tannous/GIA
Asterism Adularescence Chatoyancy
Maha Tannous/GIA
Aventurescence Color change Iridescence
Robert Weldon/GIA Mike Havstad/GIA Robert Weldon/GIA
Orient Labradorescence Play-of-color
Chatoyancy (C)—Cat’s-eye effect caused by light reflecting from minute, parallel,

needle-like inclusions, as seen in cat’s-eye chrysoberyl. Can also be caused by
internal fibrous structure, as in tiger’s-eye quartz, or by parallel tubes, as in cat’s-
eye tourmaline.
Color change (CC)—A distinct difference between a gem’s bodycolor in
incandescent light and its color in daylight or fluorescent light. Seen most notably
in alexandrite chrysoberyl.
Iridescence (I)—The presence of interference colors inside or on the surface of a
gem. Caused by layers or gaps in the material that break white light into spectral
colors. Seen in fire agate and iris agate, it can resemble an oil slick on water.
Labradorescence (L)—A broad color flash seen across the surface of labradorite
feldspar. Caused by light interference by a thinly layered twinning structure.
Orient (O)—A form of iridescence found on or just below the surface of a pearl,
cultured pearl, or mother-of-pearl shell. Layers of minute crystals on the pearl
surface separate white light into spectral colors.
Play-of-color (P)—Flashes of spectral colors in opal, produced when layers of
minute spheres and voids break up white light.
9
LUSTER
Luster is the appearance of a material’s surface in reflected light. You judge luster
on the part of the gem where it’s highest, or where the gem has the best polish,
and you describe luster in terms of its quality and intensity. A gem’s luster can
also indicate its hardness or RI.
To determine luster:
1. Reflect light off the surface of the stone.
2. Look at all polished, rough, and fractured surfaces.
3. Classify the luster as high, medium, or low and indicate whether you’re describing
a fashioned or rough stone. Record the luster of polished surfaces under P.LUS
and the luster of fractured surfaces under FR.LUS.
Use these abbreviations on your worksheet:
HIGH LUSTER
Metallic (Metal)—The highest luster, with metal- or mirror-like reflections, as in
hematite.
Adamantine (Adam)—Reflections are sharp, as in well-polished diamond. The
highest luster possible for most transparent stones. Seen in some high-RI and OTL
materials.
Subadamantine (S-adam)—Reflections are sharp but not as sharp as adamantine.
Seen in high-RI and OTL materials such as zircon and demantoid garnet.
MEDIUM LUSTER
Vitreous (Vit)—Glass-like surface appearance. The most common luster for trans-
parent stones and glass.
Subvitreous (S-vit)—The surface might appear slightly greasy and not as glass-like
as vitreous.
LOW LUSTER
Greasy (Gre)—The surface appears coated with grease or oil, with bright but not
sharp reflections. Seen in nephrite and jadeite.
Resinous (Res)—Reflections are distinct, but neither sharp nor bright. Seen in
amber.
Waxy (Wx)—Reflections are dim and blurred, as in turquoise. The surface looks
like a wax candle or an unpolished fingernail.
Dull (Dl)—Reflections are very dim and blurred, as in poorly polished, unpolished,
or worn gems.
SHEEN
Sheen is a subcategory of luster that appears in some gems. It’s a reflection that
occurs just below the stone’s surface. If you see it, describe it using one of these
abbreviations:
Silky (Sky)—Bright but diffused reflections, similar to silk or satin fabric,
produced by a fibrous or patterned structure. Commonly seen in tiger’s-eye and
amazonite.
Pearly (Prl)—A sheen produced by structural characteristics, commonly seen in
pearl and rough moonstone.
10
GENERAL OBSERVATION
BREAKS IN THE STONE

Gemstones break in characteristic ways, depending on crystal structure. To detect
breaks:
1. Illuminate the stone with overhead, reflected light and look at its surface.
2. Examine areas that are likely to be damaged, such as the girdle and the culet.
3. Describe the type of break and the luster of the break’s surface.
The three types of breaks are:
Fracture (Fr)—Any break not in the cleavage direction or along a twinning plane.
Cleavage (Cl)—A smooth, flat, or step-like break parallel to planes of atomic
weakness.
Parting (Part)—A flat break along a twinning plane, often seen in black star
sapphire.
Classify the surfaces of breaks in gems as:
Conchoidal (Conch)—A curved, shell-like surface, often with concentric ridges.
This is the most common fracture in glass and in transparent, single-crystal materials.
Even (Ev)—A smooth, flat break with low contour, also called subconchoidal. It
sometimes looks like cleavage without a step-like pattern.
Granular (Gran)—A sugary or grainy fracture that appears in microcrystalline
aggregates.
Splintery (Spl)—A fracture with a fibrous appearance, like broken wood.
Uneven (Unev)—Rough, irregular, and coarser than granular.
Some aggregates, like chalcedony and sometimes turquoise, have conchoidal frac-
ture surfaces and dull fracture luster. Their fractures lack vitreous luster because
their small grains prevent that shell-like, glassy appearance. If you can’t identify
an internal break as a fracture or cleavage, call it a feather.
DISPERSION AND FIRE

Dispersion is the separation of white light into spectral colors. In a polished gem,
it results in flashes of color, an effect called fire.
To observe and classify fire:
1. Light the stone from above with a strong, concentrated light source, such as a
penlight.
2. Classify fire as weak, moderate, strong, or extreme.
Since few stones other than diamond have visible fire, its presence is a valuable
clue for gem identification. It’s especially useful for separating diamond from
diamond simulants. For example, fire is strong in CZ, extreme in synthetic
moissanite, and weak in YAG.
Cutting style and gem size can make a difference in the amount of fire you see.
A round brilliant displays more fire than an emerald cut, for example. And fire is
more visible in large fashioned gems than in small ones. In some gems—like
demantoid garnet and sphene—the gem’s strong bodycolor might mask fire and
make it harder to detect.
HEFT
Heft is the weight of an object compared to its size. You usually estimate it by feel,
and it gives an indication of a gemstone’s specific gravity (SG) or physical density.
It can help you separate materials with very low SG, like amber and plastic, and
very high SG, like hematite and GGG. Classify heft as high, moderate, or low.
11
ASSEMBLED STONES
Garnet-and-glass Assembled stones consist of two or more separate
DoubletDoublet garnet pieces of material glued or fused together to form a
single piece. The most common assembled stones are
glass
doublets, with two parts, and triplets, with three
parts. The components of an assembled stone can
be natural or synthetic gems or a variety of other
colorless synthetic spinel manmade materials. Detecting them often requires
magnification, but you can sometimes see evidence
Synthetic Spinel Triplet colored of assembly during General Observation.
cement layer
Visible signs that suggest the specimen is an assem-
colorless synthetic
bled stone include:
spinel • A separation plane
Sapphire and
Synthetic Ruby • A luster difference on the crown, which
Doublet indicates a garnet-and-glass doublet
natural sapphire
• The red-ring effect, which indicates a garnet-
synthetic ruby
and-glass doublet
• A girdle plane that appears colorless when you
shine a penlight toward you, through the gem’s
girdle area, which indicates a triplet
Opal Doublet opal layer
LOOKING FOR THE RED-RING EFFECT

backing
1. Place the stone table-down on a white back-
ground.
2. Shine a penlight through the pavilion of the stone
Opal Triplet colorless dome from several different angles.
3. Look for a red ring, caused by light shining
opal layer
through the red garnet crown.
backing If you detect the red ring, look for a garnet cap by
examining the stone under an overhead light
source, with or without 10X magnification.
It’s very difficult to see the red-ring effect in red
Peter Johnston/GIA
or purplish stones, and you might not see it in
Assembled stones are made from two or more parts cemented or fused together.
You’ll usually see a separation plane where the parts meet. You might also see stones with very thin garnet caps. It’s also more
differences in luster or wear if the parts are made of different materials. difficult to see in some step-cut stones.
12
USING THE REFRACTOMETER
GIA DUPLEX REFRACTOMETER
cover
removable magnifier
polarizing filter
hemicylinder Eric Welch/GIA
scale You need to use a light source with the refrac-

tometer. An effective one is the light in the Gem
Instruments polariscope. If possible, close the
refractometer’s cover when you take an RI
viewing lens reading to keep stray light out.
mirror
light portal
baffle
Peter Johnston/GIA
The refractometer provides essential gem identification information as long as the gem you’re
identifying has a testable polished surface.

The refractometer is probably the most important standard gem-testing instrument.
With it, you can establish a gem’s RI and birefringence, determine whether the
gem is singly refractive (SR) or doubly refractive (DR), and find out what its optic
character and optic sign are. Using the refractometer along with the correct tech-
nique, you can quickly identify a wide range of polished gem materials.
You can take an RI reading on any polished gem material, including opaque stones
and stones with flat, curved, or irregular surfaces. In general, the better the polish,
the more accurate the RI reading will be. The RI of the contact liquid, which is
about 1.80, determines the highest RI readings you can obtain. Several stones,
including diamond, exceed the limits of the refractometer. They’re considered over
the limits (OTL). The lower limit for an RI reading is about 1.35.
13
White Light Monochromatic Light
1.76 1.762
Peter Johnston/GIA
An RI reading taken with white light (left) is typically not as well defined as one taken with
monochromatic light (right).
The accuracy of an RI reading depends on the:

• Quality of the stone’s polish
• Flatness of the polished surface
• Cleanliness of the stone
• Condition of the hemicylinder
• Calibration of the refractometer
• Type of light source
• Amount of contact liquid
To check the refractometer’s calibration, use a familiar stone to test it. Single-
crystal quartz is a good standard, at 1.54 to 1.55.
Joel Beeson/GIA
Make sure you use the right light source. Use white light, then switch to mono-
A pinhead-sized drop of contact liquid is all you
need to take an RI reading. To get a drop that’s
chromatic light if possible. Overhead or ambient light makes reading the RI
just the right size, touch the applicator a few difficult. Shine light on the gem through the refractometer’s light port. You might
times against the metal stage or the lip of the also need to close the refractometer cover.
RI bottle.
To be sure you have the right amount of contact liquid, always begin with a small
amount, about the size of a pinhead. Too much can distort the reading or cause the
stone to float on the hemicylinder. If you see spectral colors or have difficulty
seeing a reading, pick up the stone with your fingers and gently wipe the hemi-
cylinder with a clean tissue. A broken or scattered image might indicate that there’s
not enough RI liquid. Pick up the stone and add more, then place the stone back
on the hemicylinder.
14
FLAT-FACET TESTING
Use the following procedure to determine a gem’s RI with flat-facet testing:
1. Find the largest facet that also has the best polish.
2. Rub the facet on a piece of paper to remove dust or other material.
3. Begin with white light and no magnification (remove the eyepiece). Looking
first without magnification will help you avoid misinterpreting an OTL reading
or a vague reading.
4. Use the applicator to place a very small, pinhead-sized drop of RI liquid on the
metal stage, just behind the hemicylinder. You can remove excess RI liquid
from the applicator by touching it against the inside of the bottle first.
5. Using your fingers, place the stone on the drop of RI liquid. Slide the stone
gently from the far end, toward the center of the hemicylinder. If you’re testing
an oval, marquise, pear, or emerald cut, align the length of the stone with the
hemicylinder.
As an alternate to steps 4 and 5, you can touch the applicator a few times
against the metal stage of the refractometer, or against the lip of the RI bottle,
making increasingly smaller dots of liquid. When the last dot is about the size of
a pinhead, touch the applicator directly to the center of the hemicylinder. With
your fingers, place the stone directly on that final dot. Press very gently on the
stone to make sure it’s in contact with the hemicylinder and not floating on the
RI liquid.
If you suspect that you have too much contact liquid, pick up the stone, wipe the
hemicylinder with a tissue, and carefully replace the stone. Repeat either applica-
tion process until you have the correct amount of liquid.
6. Look at the scale on the refractometer from a distance of about 10 in. (25 cm).
Nod your head up and down and look for the facet’s outline on the scale where
the stone and hemicylinder meet. If you’re having trouble finding the outline,
slide the stone slightly forward and backward on the hemicylinder. For higher
RIs, the outline will appear as you slide the stone toward you. For lower RIs,
the outline will appear as you slide the stone away from you.
7. Find the green shade cutoff in the outline and note the approximate RI reading
at the bottom of the cutoff.
OTL stones show a shade cutoff or spectral color cutoff at approximately 1.80.
You can see this under white light with no magnification. If you’ve followed the
procedures correctly but the only reading you get is around 1.80 or 1.81—the RI
of the contact liquid—the stone is OTL and you’re finished with refractometer
testing.
8. Look at the scale under magnification to refine your reading. Place the eyepiece
on the refractometer when you see the green shade cutoff in the stone’s outline.
The green shade cutoff appears as a narrow blue-green band that covers about
two scale divisions. The RI is the highest numerical reading, which appears at
the bottom of the blue-green band. Round the RI to the nearest hundredth
(0.01).
If possible, switch to monochromatic light to sharpen the reading. The blue-green
band will change to a sharp gray line or cutoff. Read the RI at that location and
round it to the nearest thousandth (0.001).
15
1 5
0° 1.621 1.641 120° 1.625 1.641
2 6
30° 1.624 1.641 150° 1.623 1.641
3 7
60° 1.627 1.641 180° 1.621 1.641
DETERMINING MAXIMUM BIREFRINGENCE

Highest RI reading = 1.641
Lowest RI reading = 1.621
Highest RI reading — lowest RI reading = birefringence

1.641 — 1.621 = 0.020
4
90° 1.641 1.641
Peter Johnston/GIA
To calculate a DR gem’s birefringence, rotate it 180° on the hemicylinder and note its maximum and minimum RIs every 30°. Birefringence is
the difference between the highest and lowest of all the readings. This tourmaline’s minimum RI reading is 1.621 and its maximum is 1.641. Its
birefringence is 0.020.
16
TESTING FOR DR AND CALCULATING BIREFRINGENCE

To determine whether a stone is SR or DR and to calculate a DR stone’s birefrin-
gence, use the following procedure (the stone must have at least one flat facet):
1. Place the polarizing filter on the magnifying eyepiece. If it’s available, use
monochromatic light for this test. Monochromatic light sharpens RI readings
and makes it easier for you to see closely spaced shade cutoffs in gems with
low birefringence.
2. Rotate the polarizing filter 90° back and forth over the magnifying eyepiece.
This lets you see each of a DR gem’s shade cutoffs separately and makes the
difference between them more obvious. If the shade cutoff doesn’t move, the
gemstone might be SR. Make sure you’re not looking in an optic axis direction
by turning the gem on the hemicylinder and checking for birefringence in three
positions. If the shade cutoff appears to jump, the gemstone is DR and you can
continue with your birefringence calculation.
3. Record the reading at the bottom of the shade cutoff, rotate the filter 90°, and
record the second reading. Turn the stone 30° on the hemicylinder and repeat
the process. Continue turning the stone 30° and rotating the filter 90° in each
position. Record both readings for each of the seven positions until you’ve
turned the stone 180°. By turning a DR gem in this way, you can obtain maxi-
mum birefringence on any well-polished facet.
4. To calculate birefringence, subtract the lowest reading from the highest reading.
Birefringence is the difference between the maximum and minimum readings
on any facet when you turn the stone 180°.
A DR stone shows its maximum birefringence when it’s analyzed in a direction
that’s farthest from its optic axes. By rotating the stone correctly, you can determine
maximum birefringence on any facet of a DR stone. If the optic axis is perpendicular
to the facet you’re testing, you’ll get maximum birefringence with every reading
as you rotate the stone on the hemicylinder.
The presence of birefringence proves double refraction because a DR stone shows
two RI readings in all directions except the optic axis. A lack of birefringence,
however, doesn’t prove single refraction. One constant RI reading as you rotate the
stone 180° suggests the stone is SR, but you’ll need to perform additional tests
with the polariscope or dichroscope to confirm this.
PRECAUTIONS AND LIMITATIONS

The RI liquid can be hazardous if you don’t handle it carefully. During use, wear
surgical or latex gloves if possible, and make sure you wash your hands after using
RI liquid. Make sure your work area is well ventilated, and close the RI liquid’s lid
tightly after each use. If you’re pregnant, avoid any exposure to RI liquid. Follow the
instructions that come with the liquids as well as those in Gem Identification
Assignment 3.
If the RI liquid evaporates and deposits sulfur crystals on the hemicylinder, don’t try
to wipe the crystals off because this can scratch the hemicylinder. Instead, dissolve
the crystals by moistening them with more RI liquid or pure methylene iodide.
If the hardened sulfur crystals cause the stone to stick to the hemicylinder, place
more RI liquid or pure methylene iodide around the stone until the crystals soften and
dissolve. Remove the stone carefully and clean both the stone and the hemicylinder.
The hemicylinder scratches very easily, so use your fingers to place the stone on
the hemicylinder and to remove it. Never use tweezers.
Any stone with an RI greater than 1.70 can show spectral colors, but the presence
of spectral colors doesn’t prove a stone is OTL. Spectral colors also result from
excess RI liquid, an uneven facet, or dispersion from an overhead light source.
17
Garnet-and-glass doublets can show the red-flag effect, which is a red reflection at
the bottom of the stone’s image. You might see this reflection when you use white
light and no magnification to take an RI reading on a stone’s table. If the garnet
cap is very thin, you might get a second, lower RI from the glass or you might see
only the RI of the glass.
Some aggregates and rocks—lapis lazuli, for example—have very poor polish, with
pitted or irregular surfaces. You can form a better seal and get a clearer reading if
you add a little extra RI liquid to fill the cavities.
If a facet isn’t perfectly flat or if there’s too much RI liquid, the facet might not be
parallel to the hemicylinder. This misalignment can cause readings to waver
between scale divisions, in an effect called parallax. Analyze another facet or
adjust the amount of RI liquid. Don’t mistake parallax for double refraction. If
parallax occurs while you’re determining birefringence, hold your head steady as
you turn the stone and polarizing filter.
If you don’t expect to use the refractometer for a month or so, coat the hemicylinder
with a thin film of petroleum jelly to prevent tarnishing. You can remove tarnish
from the hemicylinder by hand-polishing it with a paste of cerium oxide powder
moistened with water. This won’t remove scratches: If the hemicylinder becomes
too scratched or pitted, you’ll have to replace it.
CURVED-SURFACE TESTING
You have to use a method called spot reading to find the RI of a stone with curved
surfaces. The point of contact between the gem and the hemicylinder appears as a
round or oval spot on the scale. Its shape reflects the shape of the contact area.
Here’s how to take a spot reading:
1. Locate the curved area on the gem with the best polish and smoothest surface.
Since the top gets the most wear, one of the sides might be best.
2. Rub the area on a piece of paper or a gemcloth to remove dust or other material.
3. Use white light and no magnification (remove the eyepiece).
4. With the applicator, place a pinhead-sized drop of contact liquid on the metal
stage, just behind the hemicylinder.
5. Touch the curved surface of the stone to the contact liquid. To reduce the size of
the liquid drop on the stone, gently touch the stone against the metal stage on
the refractometer. With practice, you can judge the amount of contact liquid on
the stone by observing the size of the drop left behind on the metal stage.
6. Place or hold the stone gently on the hemicylinder, making sure the area with
the spot of RI liquid is in contact with the glass. If the curved surface is elon-
gated, place the stone so the long direction of the spot is parallel to the long
direction of the hemicylinder.
7. Look for the spot on the scale from approximately 10 in. (25 cm) away. The
spot should cover no more than two or three scale divisions.
The polish quality of the stone’s surface can make a difference in the appearance
of the spot. Its appearance determines the method you use to take the RI reading:
50/50, blink, or average.
With a 50/50 reading, read the stone’s RI at the point where the spot is exactly
half light and half dark. The dark or green shade is usually the bottom half of the
spot because the image of the curved surface is reversed. Well-polished stones
often give a 50/50 reading, and it’s typically the most accurate spot-RI reading.
With a blink reading, read the stone’s RI where the spot changes abruptly, or
blinks, from light to dark. This typically occurs on stones with low polish quality,
a slightly irregular surface, or sharp curves. The blink reading is usually less accu-
rate than the 50/50 reading.
18
Terri Weimer/GIA
Use the spot-reading method to take an RI on stones with curved surfaces.
50/50 Blink Average
1.58 1.58 1.58
All by Peter Johnston/GIA
Of the three types of spot readings, 50/50 readings are the most accurate (left). You read the
stone’s RI where the spot is exactly half light and half dark. With blink spot readings (center), you
read the stone’s RI at the point where the spot changes abruptly from light to dark. With average
readings (right), average the values of the last completely dark spot and the first completely light
spot on the scale.
Terri Weimer/GIA
If a cabochon or tumbled gem won’t rest on the hemicylinder, you can hold it gently in place to
take a reading.
With an average reading, the spot lightens gradually over a number of scale divisions.
To take the stone’s RI reading, average the last completely dark spot and the first
completely light spot (add them together and divide by two). This RI reading is the
least accurate spot reading, and it’s generally seen only on stones with poor polish.
19
BIREFRINGENCE BLINK
Stones with low hardness often have poor polish, so spot and flat-facet methods
often don’t give you accurate RI readings on them. The birefringence blink method
works for stones with poor polish and high birefringence. To check for birefringence
blink, use white light and no magnification. Follow the steps for curved-surface spot
readings. The spot should be about two to three scale divisions in size.
1. Look for one of the typical spot reactions: 50/50, blink, or average.
2. After you see it, rotate the polarizing filter over the viewing lens at least 90°
and watch the spot closely.
3. If the stone has high birefringence, the spot might blink light to dark, or light green
to light red or pink, as you turn the filter back and forth. You’ll have to move your
head up and down a bit to see the blinking over the scale range. Birefringence
blink can resemble a regular spot blink, but a spot blink occurs at a specific point
on the scale, while birefringence blink occurs over a much larger area.
4. Take readings at the points where the blinking starts and stops. Estimate bire-
fringence by subtracting the low reading from the high reading.
Birefringence blink typically occurs on carbonates like azurite, azurmalachite,
calcite, calcareous coral, malachite, natural and cultured pearls, rhodochrosite, and
shell. These materials have birefringence ranging from 0.106 to 0.228, and they
might even show birefringence blink on flat-facet readings.
Spot readings on gems with moderate birefringence—like peridot and tourmaline—
sometimes show birefringence blink. Flat facets on materials with low hardness
and high birefringence, such as single crystal rhodochrosite or calcite, can also
show birefringence blink instead of a more precise reading.
You can sometimes determine birefringence

with the blink method. When you see a typical Coral
spot reading, rotate the polarizing filter at least
HIGH RI LOW RI
90° and watch the spot closely. If it blinks, take
readings at the points where the blinking starts
and stops. The difference between the
numbers is the stone’s birefringence. 1.49
1.66
birefringence = 0.17
Rhodochrosite
HIGH RI LOW RI
1.60
blinking
stops at
OTL
birefringence = 0.20
Peter Johnston/GIA
20

Always take spot readings with white light and no magnification. Never try to take
a spot reading with magnification or while using monochromatic light.
With spot readings, use an especially small amount of RI liquid. Too much can
make the spot too large, produce a dark ring around it, or cause a curved cutoff
inside the spot’s image. As with flat-facet readings, too much liquid can also give
a false OTL reading because the scale displays the RI of the liquid rather than the
RI of the gem.
If the spot covers more than three scale divisions, there’s too much liquid on the
stone. Lift the stone, wipe the liquid from the hemicylinder, and then gently
replace the stone. Keep repeating this process until the reading is the correct size.
If you can’t find the spot, you might not be using enough liquid. Add a little more
liquid and repeat the procedure. You might have to try several times to get the spot
the right size.
Be careful not to scratch the glass when you hold a cabochon, bead, or tumbled
gem in place on the hemicylinder.
Readings from flat surfaces are generally more accurate than spot readings,
so check the back of a cabochon for a flat, polished surface. But watch out for
parallax—a wavering of RI readings that’s common when a cabochon’s base is
concave.
On OTL stones, the spot looks completely dark down to 1.80, and you might see
spectral colors.
The birefringence blink should be confined to one end of the scale or a specific
range of the scale. A false reading might appear as an unusual light to dark ran-
dom blinking across the entire scale.
Allow tolerances of plus or minus 0.01 on 50/50 readings, 0.02 on blink readings,
and 0.03 on average readings with the spot method.
DETERMINING OPTIC CHARACTER AND OPTIC SIGN

Usually, a stone’s RI and birefringence are the only properties you need to test for
with the refractometer. However, optic character—whether a stone is uniaxial or
biaxial—can be helpful for certain separations or for confirmation of your identifi-
cation. Optic sign—whether a gem’s optic character is positive, negative, or inde-
terminable—can also sometimes be useful. Because SR stones have just one RI
and no birefringence, they have no optic character and no optic sign.
For most optic character and optic sign determinations, you can use a method
called visual plotting, which involves rotating a DR stone 180° on a hemicylinder
and watching for variations in the RI readings.
There are certain circumstances when you’ll need to perform the more advanced
and complex tests that are outlined later in this section. One test involves the use
of a polarizing filter. You might need to use this test with a uniaxial stone when
you don’t see the typical reaction of one shade cutoff moving and one remaining
stationary when you rotate the stone on the hemicylinder. You might also need it
with a biaxial stone when you don’t see the typical movement of both shade cut-
offs when you rotate the gem. If you have trouble determining the optic sign of
a biaxial gem, a second test involves careful observation and plotting of the RI
values and their variations.
21
VISUAL PLOTTING
Visual plotting provides seven possible results: uniaxial positive, uniaxial negative,
uniaxial with optic sign indeterminable, biaxial positive, biaxial negative, biaxial
without sign, and biaxial with optic sign indeterminable.
For visual plotting to be successful, the stone must have a flat, well-polished sur-
face and show clear RI readings. This is the visual plotting procedure:
1. Use monochromatic light and magnification.
2. Position the stone on the hemicylinder with its long direction parallel to the
length of the hemicylinder.
3. Rotate the polarizing filter over the eyepiece and look for two RI readings. You
might need to rotate the stone slightly to see both readings if you’re looking in
an optic axis direction. The readings appear as a dark gray and lighter gray cut-
off. Read the RIs at the bottom of these cutoffs and record both readings.
4. Turn the stone slowly 180° without readjusting the polarizing filter. You can
determine whether the stone is uniaxial or biaxial by observing the behavior of
the two numerical RI readings.
If one numerical RI remains constant and one varies, the stone is uniaxial. This
reflects the behavior of the ordinary ray, whose RI remains constant, and the
extraordinary ray, whose RI varies. In uniaxial stones, both RIs share a common
value. If both numerical RI readings vary, the stone is biaxial. Once you’ve deter-
mined optic character, you can take the next step, which is determining optic sign.
OPTIC SIGN OF A UNIAXIAL STONE

In uniaxial stones, both RIs share a common value, but one RI varies and one remains
constant. The movement of the numerical RI readings tells you the stone’s optic sign.
If the high numerical RI varies and the low numerical RI remains constant, the
stone is uniaxial with a positive optic sign.
If the low numerical RI varies and the high numerical RI remains constant, the
stone is uniaxial with a negative optic sign.
If a uniaxial gem’s table is cut at right angles to its optic axis, both shade cutoffs
remain constant as you rotate the stone on the hemicylinder. Although you can
obtain maximum birefringence, you can’t determine optic character because you
can’t tell which shade cutoff is the ordinary ray. You can either try a different facet
or use the polarizing filter technique described later in this section.
OPTIC SIGN OF A BIAXIAL STONE

If both numerical readings vary, the stone is biaxial. If they share a common
value, you can determine the stone’s optic sign by observing the movement of
the numerical RI readings.
If the high numerical RI varies more from the common value, the sign is biaxial
positive.
If the low numerical RI varies more from the common value, the sign is biaxial
negative.
If the high and low numerical RIs vary equally from the common value, the biaxial
stone is without sign. This is rare: It occurs when a 90° angle separates the two optic
axes of a biaxial stone.
If you’re using visual plotting on a biaxial stone and the high and low numerical
RI readings don’t share a common value, you should try a different facet. There
are also two advanced techniques that you can try if visual plotting doesn’t give
you the information you need.
22
In uniaxial gems, only one shade cutoff moves

VISUAL PLOTTING FOR UNIAXIAL GEMS during a 180° rotation.
Uniaxial Negative Uniaxial Positive
Lower numerical cutoff Lower numerical cutoff

moves remains constant
Higher numerical cutoff Higher numerical cutoff
remains constant moves
0o 180o
0o 180o
VISUAL PLOTTING FOR BIAXIAL GEMS
Biaxial
Biaxial Biaxial Biaxial

Negative Positive Without Sign
0o 180o
common
point common
point
common
Both shade point
cutoffs move
Lower numerical Higher numerical

cutoff moves Both cutoffs move
cutoff moves more equally from the
more from the from the common
common point common point during
point during a 180° a 180° rotation
during a 180° rotation
rotation
Both by Peter Johnston/GIA
In biaxial gems, both shade cutoffs move during a 180° rotation.
23
ADVANCED TECHNIQUE USING THE POLARIZING FILTER

The polarizing filter can help you if visual plotting isn’t enough to give you a
gem’s optic sign. This might happen if a uniaxial gem’s shade cutoffs remain
constant or if one shade cutoff moves and one remains constant in a biaxial
gem.
In both cases, the first step is to find the polarizing filter’s transmission direction.
There are two ways to do this:
1. If you have a polariscope, switch it on and turn the filters to the open—or
bright—position. Rotate the refractometer’s polarizing filter above the
polariscope’s top filter until you find the brightest view. At this point, you
know that both are parallel and you’ve found the refractometer filter’s
transmission direction.
2. Use a stone of known identity—and optic character—like a tourmaline. Because
tourmaline is uniaxial negative, you know that the shade cutoff with the higher
numerical value remains constant as you rotate the stone on the hemicylinder.
This is the ordinary ray. Rotate the polarizing filter on the eyepiece until you
see only the ordinary ray. At this point the transmission directions of the
ordinary ray and the polarizing filter are parallel with the refractometer scale’s
horizontal divisions.
Once you’ve found the polarizing filter’s transmission direction, it’s a good idea to
mark the filter so you can quickly rotate it back to the required position when you
place it onto the refractometer’s eyepiece. To determine the optic sign of a uniaxial
gem, you begin by placing the filter into the required position.
If the polarizing filter’s transmission direction is parallel to the refractometer
scale’s horizontal divisions and only the higher numerical value shade cutoff is
visible, the stone is uniaxial negative.
If the polarizing filter’s transmission direction is parallel to the refractometer
scale’s horizontal divisions and only the lower numerical value shade cutoff is
visible, the stone is uniaxial positive.
In a very few instances, biaxial stones might give you one fixed and one variable
reading. The polarizing filter technique can help confirm their optic character.
Place the polarizing filter onto the refractometer’s eyepiece with its transmission
direction parallel to the refractometer scale’s horizontal divisions. If the constant
shadow edge is still visible, the stone is uniaxial. If the constant shadow edge
disappears, the stone is biaxial. This test still won’t give you optic sign, however,
so you have to perform the test outlined next.
ADVANCED TECHNIQUE TO DETERMINE OPTIC SIGN IN A BIAXIAL

STONE
If the visual plotting method isn’t sufficient for determining optic sign in a biaxial
gem, you have to use a more advanced method that involves observing and recording
the positions of the gem’s shade cutoffs.
If both shade cutoffs remain constant during a Gemologists call the high RI value in biaxial gems gamma, the low RI value alpha,
180° rotation (top), you can use the polarizing
and the intermediate RI—or common point—beta. Remember that you’ll be able
filter to help determine a uniaxial gem’s optic
sign. In this example, only the high numerical to view only two of these as shade cutoffs at one time. You determine beta by
shade cutoff is visible when the polarizing carefully observing the movement of the higher and lower shade cutoffs. You
filter’s transmission direction is parallel to the obtain a biaxial gem’s birefringence by subtracting alpha from gamma.
refractometer’s horizontal scale divisions. This
gem—a tourmaline—is uniaxial negative (center). Alpha is the minimum RI value for the lower numerical value shade cutoff as you
With the filter’s transmission direction per- rotate the gem—the lowest of the low readings. Gamma is the maximum RI value
pendicular to the refractometer’s horizontal
scale divisions, only the lower numerical value
for the higher numerical value shade cutoff as you rotate the gem—the highest of
shade cutoff is visible. This confirms the gem’s the high readings. The position of beta defines a biaxial gem’s optic sign. Here’s
uniaxial negative optic sign (bottom). how you plot a graph to determine a biaxial stone’s optic sign:
24
In this example, the RI readings are for chrome

DETERMINING OPTIC SIGN IN BIAXIAL GEMS diopside. Carefully record the highest and the
lowest readings for both shade cutoffs.
Calculate the midpoint by adding the lowest RI
reading to the highest RI reading and dividing
by two. In this case, the common point falls
closer to the low numerical shade cutoff.
Chrome diopside is biaxial positive.
Lowest value of low

numerical shade cutoff
(1.670)
Calculated midpoint (1.684)
Highest value of low
(1.679)
common point
Lowest value of high
(1.679)
Highest value of high

(1.698)
Peter Johnston/GIA
1. Record the lowest value for the low numerical shade cutoff (alpha) and the
highest value for the high numerical shade cutoff (gamma).
2. Add the two values together and divide by two. This gives you the midpoint
between the two readings.
3. Record the lowest RI value for the high numerical shade cutoff and the highest
RI value for the low numerical shade cutoff. This allows you to determine the
common point (beta), which is the value that crosses the midpoint. It might be
the lowest RI value you record for the high numerical shade cutoff or the highest
RI value you record for the low numerical shade cutoff.
4. Determine whether the common point is closer to the low numerical shade cutoff
or closer to the high numerical shade cutoff. If the common point is less than the
value you calculated for the midpoint and closer to the low numerical shade cut-
off, the gem is biaxial positive. If the common point is greater than the midpoint
value and closer to the high numerical shade cutoff, the gem is biaxial negative.
If both the lowest RI for the high numerical shade cutoff and the highest RI for the
low numerical shade cutoff reach the midpoint—if the value of the common point
is exactly halfway between the high and low numerical shade cutoffs—the stone is
without optic sign.
If the high and low RI readings don’t share a common point—if neither passes
through the midpoint—you can try a different facet or use the polarizing filter to
find the intermediate RI, or common point. As you turn the filter parallel to the
refractometer scale’s horizontal divisions, one of the shade cutoffs will disappear.
The remaining shade cutoff is the common point. Once you know where the
common point is, you can work out the gem’s optic sign.
25
Plotting RI readings as a graph can help you

interpret the movement of each shade cutoff on RI PLOT FOR CHROME DIOPSIDE
the hemicylinder and make it easier to deter-
mine a biaxial gem’s optic sign. This example
uses readings for chrome diopside taken at 15°
intervals during a 180° rotation on the hemi-
cylinder. The graph shows that the common
point for both shade cutoffs (1.679) is closer to
the low readings for the lower numerical shade
cutoff (1.670) than the readings for the high
numerical shade cutoff (1.698). This means
chrome diopside is biaxial positive. 0o 15o 30o 45o 60o 75o 90o 105o 120o 135o 150o 165o 180o
1.670 1.670 1.671 1.671 1.672 1.673 1.673 1.675 1.678 1.679 1.678 1.677 1.670
1.679 1.680 1.681 1.681 1.689 1.691 1.697 1.698 1.695 1.689 1.680 1.680 1.680
Lowest value for low

Common point (highest
value of low numerical
shade cutoff)
Common point (lowest

value of high numerical
shade cutoff)
Highest value for high

Peter Johnston/GIA
PLOTTING A BIAXIAL STONE’S RI VALUES ON A GRAPH

It’s difficult to determine a biaxial gem’s optic sign by visual plotting if both RIs
appear to move approximately the same distance from the common point. Making
a graph and plotting carefully recorded RI values on graph paper can help. Here’s
how:
1. Position the stone on the hemicylinder with its long direction parallel to the
length of the hemicylinder.
2. Light the stone with monochromatic light and look at it under magnification
with the eyepiece magnifier in place.
3. Rotate the polarizing filter over the eyepiece and look for two RI readings.
Record both readings. Finish all readings before you begin plotting.
4. Turn the stone 15° and repeat step 3. Don’t forget that when you place the stone
on the refractometer in an optic axis direction, you’ll see only one reading.
5. Continue the process until you’ve rotated the stone 180° on the hemicylinder.
6. Plot the 13 sets of readings on graph paper. Draw two lines—one that connects
all the numbers from the high readings and one that connects all the numbers
from the low readings.
26
CHARACTERISTIC PLOTS FOR UNIAXIAL GEMS
Uniaxial positive Uniaxial positive—low numerical shade cutoff

1.40 remains constant, higher numerical shade cut-
off moves.
1.50
1.60
1.70
1.80
0o 30o 60o 90o 120o 160o 180o

Uniaxial negative Uniaxial negative—high numerical shade cutoff
1.40 remains constant, lower numerical shade cutoff
moves.
1.50
1.60
1.70
1.80
0o 30o 60o 90o 120o 160o 180o

Uniaxial with sign Uniaxial with optic axis perpendicular to facet
indeterminable being tested—both shadow edges remain con-
1.40
stant with maximum birefringence. Try another
facet, or use the polarizing filter to determine
1.50 optic character.
1.60
1.70
1.80
0o 30o 60o 90o 120o 160o 180o
Peter Johnston/GIA
CHARACTERISTIC PLOTS
These illustrations show examples of characteristic plots for uniaxial and biaxial
gems.
In uniaxial gems one shade cutoff typically remains constant during a 180° rotation
while the other moves. Gemologists sometimes call the shade cutoff that moves the
extraordinary ray. They refer to the constant shade cutoff as the ordinary ray.
If the low numerical shade cutoff remains constant during a 180° rotation and the
high numerical shade cutoff moves, the gem’s optic character is uniaxial positive.
Quartz is an example of a uniaxial positive gem.
If the high numerical shade cutoff remains constant during a 180° rotation and the
low numerical shade cutoff moves, the gem’s optic character is uniaxial negative.
Examples of uniaxial negative gems are corundum and tourmaline.
27
Both shade cutoffs move, but the high

numerical shade cutoff moves farther from the CHARACTERISTIC PLOTS FOR BIAXIAL POSITIVE GEMS
common point than the low numerical
shade cutoff. 1.40
1.50
Low numerical shade cutoff (alpha)
1.60
common point
(beta)
1.70
High numerical shade cutoff (gamma)
1.80
0o 30o 60o 90o 120o 160o 180o
1.40
1.50
1.60
common point
(beta)
1.70
1.80
0o 30o 60o 90o 120o 160o 180o
Both shade cutoffs move, but the low numerical

shade cutoff moves farther from the common CHARACTERISTIC PLOTS FOR BIAXIAL NEGATIVE GEMS
point than the high numerical shade cutoff. 1.40
1.50
1.60
common point
1.70 (beta)
1.80
0o 30o 60o 90o 120o 160o 180o
1.40
1.50
1.60
common point
1.70 (beta)
1.80
0o 30o 60o 90o 120o 160o 180o

28
Both shade cutoffs move equally from the

CHARACTERISTIC PLOTS FOR BIAXIAL GEMS WITHOUT SIGN common point.
1.40
1.50
1.60
common point
(beta)
1.70
1.80
0o 30o 60o 90o 120o 160o 180o
1.40
1.50
1.60
common point
(beta)
1.70
1.80
0o 30o 60o 90o 120o 160o 180o

Peter Johnston/GIA
In biaxial gems, both shade cutoffs move during a 180° rotation.

In biaxial positive gems, the high numerical shade cutoff (gamma) varies more
from the common point (beta). In other words, the low numerical shade cutoff
(alpha) is closer to the common point.
In biaxial negative gems, the low numerical shade cutoff varies more from
the common point, while the high numerical shade cutoff varies less from the
common point.
In some biaxial gems, both shade cutoffs move an equal distance from the
common point. When this happens, gemologists describe the gem as biaxial
without sign. This plot is rare. It occurs when 90° separates the gem’s two
optic axes.
29

You should consider using visual plotting only when you’ve narrowed the identifi-
cation possibilities to a few stones. At that time, you can decide if determining
optic character and optic sign is a key separation test.
After testing, always try to verify a stone’s optic character with the polariscope. If
you’re unsure about the visual plotting results, disregard them.
By rotating the stone correctly, you can determine maximum birefringence on
every facet of a DR stone. This will almost always provide the information you
need for identification.
Some aggregates that are made up of masses of DR crystals might show birefrin-
gence. If in doubt, check the stone under the polariscope.
During visual plotting, be careful not to make a mistake and identify a strongly
positive or strongly negative biaxial stone as uniaxial. And if the ordinary ray of a
uniaxial stone appears to waver due to parallax, don’t misinterpret the reading as
biaxial.
When you design a graph for plotting RI readings, remember that the refractome-
ter scale runs from a low RI of 1.30 at the top to a high RI of 1.80 at the bottom.
When you plot, make the graph’s vertical scale duplicate the refractometer scale,
with the low value at the top and the high value at the bottom. It’s easy to confuse
positive and negative values if you number the scale the opposite way.
If a biaxial stone is strongly positive or strongly negative, be careful not to misin-
terpret the plot as uniaxial. This might occur, for example, if beta is only 0.001 or
0.002 from alpha or gamma.
If the ordinary ray of a uniaxial stone wavers, be careful not to misinterpret the
plot as biaxial.
If you’re uncertain of your plotting results, don’t make any conclusions based
on them. If possible, resolve an optic figure in the polariscope to confirm optic
character.
30
USING THE POLARISCOPE
GIA POLARISCOPE
analyzer
Eric Welch/GIA
polarizer You can use the polariscope to determine if

a transparent-to-translucent gem is SR, DR,
or AGG. With the optic figure sphere, you
might also be able to determine the optic
character of a single-crystal stone.
power button
stoneholder attachment
light source
light portal
Peter Johnston/GIA
The polariscope has two polarizing filters: the polarizer at the bottom and the analyzer at the top.
You can move the analyzer back and forth to align the filters in the dark, or crossed, position or
the light, or uncrossed, position.

The polariscope can provide you with information that’s critical to gem identifica-
tion. It can help you determine if a gem is SR, DR, or an aggregate (AGG), and it
can also test for optic character or even detect pleochroism.
Before you test any stone with the polariscope, make sure it’s transparent to
translucent. Shine the light from a penlight or other concentrated light source
through the gem from below to see if the light passes through it. Wipe the stone
clean with a gemcloth to ensure maximum light transmission.
31
AGG Reaction SR Reaction DR/ADR Reaction

A gem will give one of three reactions when you rotate it in the polariscope with the analyzer in the dark position. If the stone stays light during
rotation, it’s probably AGG (left). If it stays dark, it’s SR (center). If it blinks from light to dark and back again, it’s either DR or it’s SR with ADR (right)
and requires a confirmation test.
TESTING FOR SR, DR, AND AGG

These are the steps to follow when you use the polariscope to determine whether a
stone is SR, DR, or AGG:
1. Switch the polariscope light on and rotate the analyzer to the crossed position.
Make sure it’s in the darkest possible position.
2. Place the stone on the polarizer or hold it between the polarizer and the analyzer
with your fingers.
3. Rotate the stone horizontally, turning it a full 360° while you look down at it
through the analyzer.
As you rotate the stone, it might:
• Stay dark the whole time
• Stay light the whole time
• Blink from light to dark and back to light again
If the stone stays dark, it might be SR, or it might be a DR stone that you’re
looking at along an optic axis (the light traveling along the optic axis in a DR
gem is unpolarized). If this happens, tilt the stone at an angle and rotate it again.
Repeat this step until you’ve checked the stone from at least three different
directions.
If a gem stays dark in three different directions, you can be sure it’s SR. Once
you’ve reached an SR result, you can move from the polariscope to the next step
in the identification process.
If the stone stays light as you rotate it, it’s probably AGG. Some DR stones—like
some types of corundum or feldspar made up of a series of very thin plates caused
by repeated twinning—can give an AGG reaction. Gems with frosted surfaces,
numerous inclusions, or extremely high RIs can also give false AGG reactions in
the polariscope.
If the stone blinks from light to dark and back to light again as you turn it, it
might be DR. Or it might be an SR gem that displays anomalous double refraction
(ADR), which is a false indication of double refraction. ADR stones have internal
strain that occurs during formation. They include glass and plastic; red, purple,
and orange garnet; synthetic spinel; amber; opal; and diamond.
32
The crosshatch effect appears in ADR materials

like flame-fusion synthetic spinel. It’s a good
way to distinguish this type of synthetic spinel
from the natural gem.
Terri Weimer/GIA
During rotation under crossed polarizing filters, SR materials like this blue glass often show ADR
as moving bands of light and shadow. The bands are called snake-like bands, and they sometimes
merge to form a cross.
Rather than true blinking, SR materials with ADR might show moving bands of
light and shadow—often called snake-like bands—during rotation. The bands
sometimes intersect in a cross shape.
The crosshatch effect, a network of intersecting, shadowy lines that resembles
woven fabric, is typical of ADR materials like synthetic spinel.
If you see blinking, or if you think you recognize an ADR reaction, use the
confirmation test below to find out if the gem is truly DR, or if it’s SR with ADR.
CONFIRMATION TEST
There is a way to confirm double refraction with the polariscope if you see
blinking. These are the steps of that confirmation test:
1. Set the analyzer in the dark position. Shield the stone to block all light except
the light from the polariscope that’s passing through it. Use a piece of opaque
material with a small hole in it or surround the stone with your fingers.
2. Rotate the stone to the point where it appears lightest.
3. Keep looking at the lightest area of the stone as you quickly turn the analyzer
to the light position.
Both by Joel Beeson/GIA
If the gem gets noticeably lighter as you turn the analyzer, it’s SR with ADR.
If the material remains the same or appears darker as you turn the analyzer, To perform the confirmation test, set the polar-
iscope’s analyzer in the dark position and rotate
it’s DR. the gem to the position where it appears light-
est (top). Watch the lightest part of the stone
carefully as you rotate the polarizer to the light
PRECAUTIONS AND LIMITATIONS position. If the gem remains the same or gets
darker, it’s DR (bottom).
A gem must be transparent to translucent for testing with the polariscope. Don’t
test opaque and near-opaque stones with a polariscope.
The gem must be large enough for you to detect and interpret its reactions to
polarized light. If the stone is very small, try placing the magnifier from a refrac-
tometer on top of the polariscope’s analyzing filter. The magnifier can help you
see the reaction a little better.
Highly included SR or DR stones can give AGG reactions if they contain inclusions
that scatter light. Consider only the transparent areas of the stone you’re testing.
33
All synthetic spinels and many red, orange, and purple garnets show strain, which
affects how light passes through a gem and can cause a false polariscope reading.
Gems like amber, glass, and opal, assembled stones, and OTL gems can also give
indefinite results with the polariscope. Some SR gems that are OTL can appear to
be DR. It’s best to confirm SR or DR in OTL stones by looking for the absence or
presence of doubling under magnification.
If you have a high-RI gem—especially a round brilliant cut—don’t place it face-
down because most of the light will reflect back into the polarizer from the gem’s
pavilion facets. Turn the gem on its side, and try that orientation instead.
If you get an SR reaction, examine stones in at least three different directions to
make sure you’re not analyzing an optic axis direction in a DR stone.
You must confirm any DR or ADR reaction, but you don’t need to confirm an SR
or AGG reaction.
Joel Beeson/GIA
The optic figure sphere provides a curved sur-

face to help you locate a stone’s optic figure. RESOLVING OPTIC FIGURES
To detect a DR gem’s optic figure:
1. Turn the analyzer to the crossed (dark) position. To get a better view, you can
place the magnifier from a refractometer upside down on top of the analyzer.
2. Hold the stone between the polarizer and the analyzer and rotate the stone
between your fingers as you look through the analyzer. If the stone is small, you
can hold it in tweezers.
3. Look for iridescent colors on the stone’s surface. The colors resemble the
rainbow hues on the surface of an oil slick. They’re called interference colors.
When you see them, you know you’re close to the gem’s optic axis.
4. Lower the optic figure sphere toward the stone. When the sphere is close to or
touching the area that displays the brightest interference colors, you should see
a clear optic figure through the sphere.
There’s another method you can try if you don’t see interference colors. Rotate the
stone horizontally and look for a brush moving across the surface. The brush will
usually look narrower at one end.
Turn the stone until you see the narrowest point of the brush. You might also see
interference colors there, but whether you see them or not, touch your optic figure
sphere to the narrowest point of the brush and look for an optic figure. Once
you’ve found a clear optic figure, you can determine the stone’s optic character—
whether it’s uniaxial or biaxial—and your polariscope testing is complete.
Touch the optic figure sphere to all parts of the stone while you turn it. This might
Both by Terri Weimer/GIA help you find an optic figure, even if you didn’t see any sign of an optic axis
To find a gem’s optic figure, turn the direction earlier.
polariscope’s filters to the dark position. Look
To reduce surface reflection and internal refraction, place a drop of water or heavy
for interference colors as you rotate the stone
(top). You should see the optic figure when you liquid on the optic figure sphere, or put the stone in an immersion cell filled with
place the optic figure sphere on the area that water or heavy liquid.
shows the interference colors (bottom).
34
A typical uniaxial figure con- A bull’s-eye is a special

sists of a pair of brushes that type of uniaxial figure that’s
intersect at the center of a displayed only by quartz, syn-
series of concentric circles. thetic quartz, and assembled
quartz. The brushes don’t
cross in the center like they do
in a typical uniaxial figure.
You won’t find interference colors on every gem you test. When The “double L” is a uniaxial The Airy’s spiral is a uniaxial
you don’t, you can look for a dark shadow—the brush—that optic figure that resembles a optic figure that’s unique to
sweeps across the stone as you move it. Touch the optic figure cross with distorted L-shaped quartz.
sphere to the narrowest part of the brush to find the gem’s optic arms. Make sure you don’t
figure. mistake it for a biaxial optic
figure.
A typical biaxial optic figure You might see this type of If the angle between a biaxial
resembles a bow-tie dividing biaxial optic figure if a biaxial gem’s optic axes is very small,
concentric circles. gem’s two optic axes are the brushes might appear to
close together. It resembles a intersect. This makes a figure
“figure 8” divided by a dark that’s very similar to a uniaxial
shadow. figure. Fortunately, stones with
this type of biaxial optic figure
are rare.
35
CONFIRMATION TEST
Perform this test when you resolve only a partial optic figure, such as one-half of
a biaxial or one-fourth of a uniaxial figure. This might occur with a highly frac-
tured stone.
1. Find the partial optic figure under crossed polarizing filters.
2. Rotate the stone horizontally while you’re looking at it exactly in the optic axis
direction.
3. If the brush moves in the direction opposite the rotation, the stone is biaxial; if
the brush doesn’t move, the stone is uniaxial.

For reliable test results, look exactly in the optic axis direction.
It can be difficult to distinguish between a stone with a uniaxial figure and a biaxial
stone with a double-brush biaxial figure because the biaxial stone’s optic axes
intersect at a small angle.
Some uniaxial stones—like low-property zircon—show anomalous optic figures
because of a breakdown in their crystal structure.
Some twinned stones—like twinned corundum—might show a distorted uniaxial
figure.
Uniaxial Reaction Biaxial Reaction
Partial optic figures are more difficult to identify than full ones. With the polariscope in the dark position, locate the partial optic figure, which
resembles a brush. If the brush doesn’t move as you turn the stone 180°, the figure is uniaxial (left). If the brush turns away from the direction of
rotation, the figure is biaxial (right).
36
USING THE DICHROSCOPE
Terri Weimer/GIA
You can use a dichroscope on rough or fashioned, loose or mounted, transparent or semitransparent
stones. If a stone is pleochroic, a dichroscope shows two colors in most viewing directions.
USING THE DICHROSCOPE

The dichroscope is a compact, portable instrument that’s equally useful on rough
and fashioned gems. It’s designed to detect two of the different colors that
pleochroic gems show in most viewing directions. Use the dichroscope to detect
pleochroism and help confirm whether a gem is SR or DR.
PROCEDURE AND RESULTS

To observe pleochroism with the dichroscope, the stone must be DR, moderately
or strongly colored, transparent or nearly transparent, and a single crystal (not an
aggregate).
Light has to come through the stone and the dichroscope to your eye. It’s often
enough just to hold the gem and dichroscope up to a bright sky. You can also use a
lamp, as long as it provides unpolarized light. If the gem is very dark, you can use
the focused light from a penlight or fiber-optic light to illuminate it.
Follow these steps to observe pleochroism with a dichroscope:
1. Hold the stone with tweezers or your fingers about 0.25 in. (6 mm) from the
light source. Use strong, diffused, unpolarized white light. If you use fluores-
cent light, make sure it’s from the center of the tube, because light from the
edges of a fluorescent tube shows some polarization.
2. Hold the dichroscope about 0.25 in. (6 mm) from the stone. Place your eye
about the same distance from the round end of the dichroscope. Align the light,
the stone, the dichroscope, and your eye so the light shines through the stone
and the dichroscope.
3. Hold the stone steady and observe it as you rotate the dichroscope. In a
pleochroic stone, you’ll see a split image with a different color on each side. If
both sides of the split image are the same color, the stone is not pleochroic.
4. Rotate the dichroscope until you see the most distinct difference between the
side-by-side colors. Then rotate it 90° from that point. If the colors switch sides,
the gem is pleochroic.
37
5. Repeat the process until you’ve looked at the stone from at least three
PLEOCHROISM CONFIRMATION TEST
directions. If you examine a pleochroic stone in an optic axis direction, you
won’t see its different colors. If you look in only one direction, you might
mistake an optic axis view for a non-pleochroic result. If you look in at least
three directions and still see no color differences, the stone is not pleochroic.
If you see the same two colors from different viewing directions, the stone is
dichroic. The presence of two pleochroic colors proves the stone is DR, but
doesn’t tell you whether it’s uniaxial or biaxial. Continue checking the stone in
other directions for a third pleochroic color. If it’s present, it will be paired with
one of the other two colors. If this occurs, the stone is trichroic. The presence of
three pleochroic colors also proves the stone is biaxial.

Always look through the thickest areas of the stone. Those areas usually show the
If you see two side-by-side colors, you can
strongest pleochroism, unless they’re so dark that they affect transparency.
confirm pleochroism by turning the dichroscope Don’t confuse color zoning with pleochroism. Color zone colors don’t switch
90° from that point. If the two colors switch
sides, the gem is pleochroic.
sides in the split image when you rotate the dichroscope 90°.
Don’t mistake the blending of two colors as a third color and think the stone is
Tanzanite trichroic. Make sure any third color is distinctly different from the other two.
Analyze only light that’s transmitted through the stone, not light around the stone
or reflected from the stone’s table or other facets.
Be careful not to let the light source heat the stone. Heat can make pleochroism
more difficult to detect.
Disregard the test if you’re unsure of the results. Be skeptical about weak
pleochroism. And if you see colorless and gray together, disregard them. They
don’t make up a pleochroic pair.
If the dichroscope reveals three distinct

pleochroic colors, as it did with this tanzanite,
you can be sure the gem is biaxial. OTHER WAYS TO DETECT PLEOCHROISM
If you don’t have a dichroscope, you can also detect pleochroism with a polar-
iscope or a polarizing filter. With either method, remember to examine the stone
from at least three different orientations to be sure you’re not looking through an
optic axis.
To detect pleochroism with a polariscope, set its polarizing filters to the light, or
uncrossed, position. Look through the polariscope and place or hold the stone
between the filters. Rotate the stone without moving the analyzer. If the stone’s
bodycolor changes as you rotate it, you know it’s pleochroic. When you use this
method, you won’t see the pleochroic colors side by side, as you would with the
dichroscope. Disregard strain colors, and check the stone in several different
positions to make sure you’ve looked in all crystal directions.
To detect pleochroism with a polarizing filter, turn the filter rather than the stone.
If the stone changes color when you turn the filter 90°, you know the stone is
pleochroic. You can use the polarizing filter from the GIA Gem Instruments
refractometer for this test.
38
USING MAGNIFICATION
Terri Weimer/GIA
Magnification is the most important tool for separating natural gems from their synthetic counter-
parts.
USING MAGNIFICATION
Magnification can help you determine if a gem is treated or if it contains internal
fractures, vulnerable cleavages, or other structural defects. It’s one of the most
important tools for separating natural gems from synthetics. This is a vital separation
because there’s such a large value difference between many synthetic gems and their
natural counterparts of equivalent quality.
39
THE LOUPE
Loupes are portable, affordable, and versatile gem identification tools. By practicing
the techniques outlined below, you can master the loupe and maximize its effective-
ness in the gem identification process. Make sure you have a fully corrected 10X
triplet loupe.
HOW TO USE A LOUPE

Here’s the basic procedure for using a loupe:
1. Turn on the light source and position it at a convenient height for working—a
little below eye level is fine. Make sure the shade keeps light from shining in
your eyes. If possible, turn off other lights in your workspace.
It’s important to position the loupe correctly for
best results. 2. Clean the stone thoroughly with a gemcloth or, if it’s very dirty, use warm
soapy water and a soft brush. Make sure the loupe’s lens is also clean: Use lens
cleaner and lens tissue.
3. Pick up the loupe. Insert your index finger into the metal cover and use it for a
handle. Most people hold the loupe with the right hand and look with the right
eye or use the left hand with the left eye, but you might prefer a “crossover”
style (right hand, left eye or left hand, right eye). If you’re just beginning to use
the loupe, try both ways to see which is the most comfortable.
4. Pick up the stone. To examine a stone face-up or pavilion-up, hold it at the
girdle. Turn it table-down on a clean, flat surface. Align the tweezers with the
stone’s girdle by resting them on the surface and squeeze the tips together
around the stone. To examine the gem from the side, hold it table-to-culet. Place
it table-down on a gemcloth, then slide one tip of the tweezers under the table
and center the other on the culet. Don’t squeeze too hard—the culet is the most
vulnerable part of the stone.
5. Position the loupe and stone for examination. Hold the 10X loupe about an inch
from your eye and hold the stone about an inch from the loupe. To hold every-
thing steady, rest the hand that’s holding the tweezers against your loupe hand,
and your loupe hand against your cheek. If you’re sitting at a desk, rest your
elbows on it. If you’re standing, hold your elbows firmly to your sides. Keep
both eyes open to avoid straining them.
6. Examine the stone carefully and thoroughly, turning it so you can view it from
every angle.
CREATING DARKFIELD LIGHTING FOR A LOUPE

You can use a desktop lamp and black paper to create darkfield illumination for a
Both by Eric Welch/GIA standard 10X loupe. Follow these steps:
You can create darkfield lighting for the loupe 1. Use tape strips to hang a sheet of black, non-reflective paper from the back
by taping a sheet of black paper to the back edge of the lampshade.
edge of a lampshade.
2. Turn the room lights off. Turn the lamp on, and direct the light straight down.
3. Hold the stone face-up with tweezers. Position the stone so the girdle plane
lines up approximately with the front edge of the lampshade.
4. Examine the stone’s interior against the black background, adjusting the stone’s
position to find the best view. Keep the stone in the light and the loupe out of
the light. This directs light in from the sides of the stone without creating too
many distracting reflections off the crown.
If you’re trying to distinguish lattice diffusion treatment, diffused lighting can be
helpful. You can create diffused lighting by placing a sheet of translucent white
material, such as a facial tissue, between the light source and the stone.
40
USING MAGNIFICATION
GEMOLOGICAL MICROSCOPE
oculars
pod
zoom adjustment
objectives
overhead light
focus adjustment
light well
stage
base
control for light well
Eric Welch/GIA
The microscope is a standard gem-testing instrument that’s highly sophisticated. Familiarize your-
self with its parts before you begin using it.
THE GEMOLOGICAL MICROSCOPE

With its sophisticated optical system, integrated lighting, and greater working
distance, the gemological microscope can almost always help you identify treat-
ments and make the vital separations between natural and synthetic gemstones.
41
FOCUSING THE MICROSCOPE

It’s important to focus your microscope before you begin each work session. You
should also refocus it periodically during long work sessions. Follow these steps:
1. Turn the well light on. Make sure the baffle and iris diaphragm are closed. At
10X magnification and using both eyes, focus on the iris diaphragm, which is
near the center of the field of view. Most gem microscopes have one ocular
(usually the left) that you can focus without the focus-control knob. Remove
that ocular and look through the right ocular, keeping both eyes open.
2. Turn the focus-control knob until the iris diaphragm is in focus in your right
eye. Release the focus-control knob. Don’t touch it again until after you focus
the left ocular.
3. Replace the left ocular. Remove the right ocular and look through the left
ocular, keeping both eyes open. Hold the left ocular firmly in place and bring
the iris diaphragm into focus by turning the ring at the bottom of the ocular.
4. Replace the right ocular. Adjust the distance between the oculars for your
comfort. Confirm the focus by looking at the iris diaphragm through both
oculars at the same time. You should see a single image, and it should look
sharp and three-dimensional. If it doesn’t, repeat the focusing process.
EXAMINING THE STONE

Examine the stone thoroughly. If the gem is transparent to translucent, examine
both its surface and its interior. As you examine the stone, record what you see on
the Gem Identification Worksheet. If possible, turn off the other lights in your area
while you’re working.
1. Set the magnification to 10X, and always start at this level of magnification.
2. Start with the well light turned off and use the microscope’s overhead light to
examine the gem’s surface. Position the light and hold the stone in the tweezers
so light reflects from its facets. Rest your tweezers on the edge of the well to
keep the stone steady. Look for durability problems such as fractures and cleav-
age. Look at the top and the bottom, then all the way around the sides.
3. If your stone is transparent to translucent, examine its interior next. Turn off the
overhead light and turn on the microscope’s internal light source. Make sure the
baffle is closed and the iris diaphragm is completely open.
4. To examine the interior, start by focusing on the surface, then hold the stone
still and gradually move the focus down until the back of the gem comes into
focus. Slowly raise the focus back to the gem’s upper surface.
5. Repeat the process from the top, from the bottom, and from every side to make
sure you view the interior of the stone from every possible viewing angle. Look
for inclusions that suggest whether the material is natural or manmade. Look
for characteristics of assembled stones, including separation planes, different
inclusions in the crown and pavilion, and gas bubbles in a single plane parallel
to the girdle.
6. Switch to higher-power magnification to examine any characteristics you can’t
identify at 10X. This will also help you determine the nature of hard-to-see
characteristics. If you have a microscope with a zoom system, you’ll soon learn
to move easily from low to high magnification.
Low power is best for detecting overall patterns of clarity characteristics, while
high power is best for identifying and examining individual characteristics in
detail. Use only as much magnification as you need to identify an inclusion. If
you magnify the feature too much, you might get lost in the details and miss
larger patterns.
42
USING MAGNIFICATION
To create darkfield illumination, close the baffle With the light well’s baffle open, brightfield
and turn on the well light. illumination transmits light up through a trans-
parent stone to your eye.
To create diffused illumination, open the baffle To produce reflected illumination, use the To create polarized illumination, open the
and place a tissue, a translucent white plastic microscope’s overhead light. Make sure you microscope’s baffle, place one polarizing filter
plate, or the white plastic cover from the micro- turn the well light off. over the light well, and hold another between
scope light over the well on the stage. the stone and the objectives. Rotate the hand-
held polarizing filter to cross the filters.
TYPES OF ILLUMINATION
A microscope offers many lighting options. Different types of lighting work best
for seeing different gem features. The most useful techniques are darkfield, bright-
field, diffused, reflected, and polarized lighting.
Darkfield illumination—View the stone against a black, non-reflective back-
ground (the baffle) and light it from the side by turning on the well light with the
baffle in place. Inclusions stand out as bright objects against a dark background.
This is the most common type of illumination in gemology.
Brightfield illumination—Open the baffle and light the stone directly from
below. Inclusions should stand out as dark objects against a bright background. All by Eric Welch/GIA
This method helps you find curved striae or other low-relief or structural To create pinpoint brightfield illumination, keep
inclusions. the baffle open and close the iris diaphragm
until its opening is smaller than the stone.
Diffused illumination—Open the baffle and place a diffuser plate, facial tissue, or
other translucent material over the light. Illuminate the stone from behind. The
light softens and scatters, helping you see color zoning and banding.
Reflected illumination—Light the stone from above and look for surface charac-
teristics in reflected light. Also called vertical overhead illumination.
Polarized illumination—Look at the stone in an illuminated field between
crossed polarizing lenses. This helps you see optic figures, pleochroism, strain,
and other effects normally seen in the polariscope.
Pinpoint brightfield illumination—Open the baffle and close the iris diaphragm
to restrict the light source to a small opening directly beneath the stone. This lets
you see curved striae and other structures more clearly.
43
Both by Eric Welch/GIA
To create horizontal illumination, direct a fiber- To create oblique illumination, direct a fiber-
optic light at the gem from the side. optic light toward the gem at an angle between
horizontal and overhead.
Horizontal illumination—Direct a narrow beam of light toward the side of the

stone. When you look at the stone from above, pinpoint crystals, flux inclusions,
and gas bubbles stand out as bright objects.
Oblique illumination—Direct a narrow beam of light at the stone from an
oblique angle (any angle other than vertical or horizontal). This helps you see thin-
film effects, such as iridescence in liquid inclusions and in tiny cleavages.
Shadowing—Light the stone directly from below. Insert an opaque shield between
the light and part of the stone. Inclusions look much more three-dimensional,
helping you find growth structures such as curved striae and twinning.

Using high magnification poses some challenges. For one thing, the shorter working
distance makes lighting the stone more difficult. The depth of field is shallower
and the width of field is smaller. These factors can cause you to misinterpret fracture
surfaces. For example, a dull conchoidal fracture can look granular. It can also
make you overlook any overall pattern to the inclusions.
Sometimes it’s difficult to separate a gem’s surface blemishes from internal char-
acteristics. Use these methods to help separate them:
Reflected light—Reflect light off the surface of the stone. A blemish stands out
in direct light. If the characteristic is internal, however, you’ll see an unbroken,
mirror-like reflection from the facet.
Plane of focus—Look at the characteristic under high magnification. If you can
focus on the object and on the surface of the stone at the same time, you’re probably
looking at a blemish.
Rocking—Choose a surface feature to use as a reference. As you rock the stone
back and forth, an internal characteristic will move less than the surface feature.
An external feature will move across the same arc.
44
USING MAGNIFICATION
Eric Welch/GIA
To use a standard immersion cell to examine a gem’s interior, place the cell on a diffused light
source like the microscope’s upturned fluorescent light. To use magnification, place a diffuser plate
or a facial tissue over the well light and place the immersion cell on top.
IMMERSION
Immersion makes it easier to see into the stone. This is the procedure:
1. Fill the immersion cell with methylene iodide, glycerin, mineral oil, or water to
reduce reflection and refraction.
2. Use brightfield illumination, and place a diffuser plate or facial tissue under the
immersion cell to diffuse the light.
45
Taijin Lu/GIA
Doubling proves double refraction. It’s especially helpful for identifying OTL gems.
LOOKING FOR DOUBLING

If you see doubling, you know a gem is DR. Use this procedure to look for
doubling with a loupe or microscope:
1. Look through the stone under 10X magnification, and keep the magnification
constant while you look for doubling. Higher magnification might help you find
doubling in smaller stones.
2. Look as deeply into the stone as possible and try to see doubled images of facet
junctions, inclusions, and scratches. Don’t look through a facet junction. If you
do, you might see an image on both sides of a facet junction and mistake it for
doubling.
3. Look in at least three different directions to avoid looking only in the optic axis
direction.
4. Rotate a polarizing filter back and forth at least 90° over the stone. A doubled
image will appear and disappear as you turn the filter.
46
USING THE SPECTROSCOPE
Eric Welch/GIA
With the correct illumination, the spectroscope is one of the most useful gem-testing instruments. For best results, use a
concentrated light source.

The spectroscope can provide crucial information to help detect a treatment or
identify a synthetic. What’s more, it doesn’t require a polished surface to give you
a result. You can use a spectroscope on rough or mounted gem material, as well as
on loose fashioned gems.
Unfortunately, many people find the spectroscope more difficult to use than the
refractometer or the microscope. But once you’ve mastered it, it provides key evi-
dence that can drastically shorten the gem identification process. The spectroscope
can help you:
• Distinguish natural and synthetic ruby from other red stones and glass
imitations
• Distinguish natural and synthetic emerald from other green stones and glass
imitations
• Detect the presence of dye in green jadeite and green chalcedony
• Distinguish synthetic blue spinel imitations from aquamarine, zircon, and
blue sapphire
• Positively identify demantoid, almandite, pyrope-almandite, and pyrope garnet;
synthetic blue spinel, natural blue spinel, and red spinel; zircon, peridot, and
non-alexandrite chrysoberyl
• Sometimes detect treatment in diamond
47
PRISM SPECTROSCOPE
slit control
drawtube
prisms
lens
A prism spectroscope usually has an adjustable slit to control the amount of light that enters the
instrument. A drawtube lets you focus on different parts of the spectrum.
DIFFRACTION-GRATING SPECTROSCOPE
fixed slit diffraction grating
lens
A diffraction-grating spectroscope is simpler than the prism type.
TYPES OF SPECTROSCOPES
There are two basic types of spectroscopes, the prism spectroscope and the
diffraction-grating spectroscope. Each one shows the spectrum in a different way.
• With a prism spectroscope, the hues in the spectrum don’t spread evenly.
They’re stretched out in the blue and violet end and compressed in the red
end. This makes it more difficult to see absorption in the red, but easier in the
violet. The spectrum itself is usually bright. Most desktop models are prism
spectroscopes.
48
Each type of spectroscope displays the

spectrum slightly differently. In the prism type,
the blue and violet portion appears stretched
out, but the red end appears compressed. The
diffraction-grating type displays the spectral
colors evenly.
Prism type
Diffraction-
grating type
• With a diffraction-grating spectroscope, the spectral hues spread evenly, but

the spectrum is not always as bright, and absorption is not as distinct. Most
handheld models are diffraction-grating spectroscopes.
TRANSMISSION METHOD
The transmission method is best for transparent to translucent stones. With this
method, you shine light directly through the gemstone from below. If the stone is
faceted, turn it table-down so there are fewer reflections to interfere with your
reading. You might have to try other orientations, too. Start with the light on a low
setting and bring the brightness up slowly so you don’t overwhelm the spectrum
and miss any fine lines that might be there.
With a desktop spectroscope, follow these steps:
1. Close the iris diaphragm in the instrument’s base and place the stone on it.
2. Adjust the iris opening to a size appropriate for the size of the stone. Only light
passing through the stone should enter the slit of the spectroscope.
3. Adjust the intensity of the light with the rheostat. Try a lower intensity for light-
colored stones and a higher intensity for dark or translucent stones.
4. Adjust the distance between the spectroscope and the stone until you see the
spectrum. You might need the stone to be as close as 0.5 inch or as far as 2
inches (about 1.25 cm to 5.00 cm) from the spectroscope.
5. Close the slit on the spectroscope completely, and then open it slowly until you
see the entire spectrum. The slit should be barely open when you look at a
transparent stone’s spectrum. Open the slit a little more when you work with
translucent stones, or to see absorption in the violet and blue regions. For best
results, look for an absorption spectrum just as the slit begins to open.
6. Start with the drawtube pulled all the way up and use it to focus the spectrum. Peter Johnston/GIA
If you push in or shorten the tube, absorption in the blue looks sharper. If you To use the transmission method to see a trans-
then pull the tube out slightly, absorption in the red looks sharper. parent-to-translucent gem’s absorption spec-
trum, you shine light directly through it from
7. Change the position of the stone until you find the maximum absorption. A below.
stoneholder can make handling the stone easier.
49
With the internal reflection method, light enters the gem’s pavilion, reflects off its table, and exits
through its pavilion. The method works well with small, light-toned, transparent stones because it
forces the light to follow a longer path through the gem.
Use the external reflection method, which reflects light off the stone’s surface, only for opaque
stones.
INTERNAL REFLECTION METHOD

With the internal reflection method, you direct the light through the stone from the
side. Use this method for faceted stones that are large and pale or very small and
transparent, or if the transmitted light method doesn’t give good results. Place the
stone table-down and angle the light so it reflects off the inside of the table. This
forces the light to follow a longer path through the stone, increasing the amount of
absorption and making the spectrum more distinct and easier to see.
To use the internal reflection method with a desktop spectroscope, follow these
steps:
1. Place the stone table-down on the closed iris diaphragm.
2. Shine light from an angle so it reflects off the inner surface of the table and
emerges from the opposite side of the stone.
3. Position the spectroscope so the reflected light enters it.
4. Adjust the slit and use the drawtube to focus on the gem’s spectrum.
50
EXTERNAL REFLECTION METHOD

With the external reflection method, you reflect light off the stone’s surface. This
method is best for opaque gems like turquoise. You might also be able to use this
method with mounted stones if you use a stoneholder.
To use the external reflection method with a desktop spectroscope, follow these
steps:
1. Place the stone in a stoneholder or on the closed iris diaphragm.
2. Use a fiber-optic light source to reflect light off the surface.
3. Position the spectroscope so the reflected light enters it.
4. Adjust the slit and use the drawtube to focus as described for the transmission
method.
TECHNIQUES FOR HANDHELD SPECTROSCOPES

Techniques for handheld spectroscopes are essentially the same as for desktop
models, but lighting and positioning the stone is a little trickier.
The diffraction-grating spectroscope is portable and affordable, and there are
certain techniques that help you get the most out of it. If you use the diffraction-
grating model with fixed slit and focus, you won’t need to make any adjustments.
When you use the handheld spectroscope, the most important thing is lighting.
You can use a high-intensity flashlight, but you’ll need to improvise some kind of
baffle to produce pinpoint illumination. With practice, you’ll be able to use one
hand to hold the light upright with the stone on the baffle and the other hand to
hold the spectroscope.
Use an opaque shield to keep stray light out of the spectroscope. Many overhead
fluorescent lights have strong emission lines that the spectroscope can pick up if
the stone isn’t shielded from them. Try to examine the stone in different direc-
tions. To make sure the lines you see aren’t from another light source, move the
spectroscope away from the stone. If you still see the lines, they’re not part of the
gemstone’s spectrum.

No matter which spectroscope model you use, there are ways to get the best possible
results. If you’re trying to see a weak line, don’t look directly at it. It’s often easier
to see fine lines out of the corner of your eye. When you’re trying to see a faint
absorption spectrum, move your head up, down, right, and left. Sometimes the
slight movement can help you see faint features in a gem’s spectrum.
It can help to start with a gem with a readily visible spectrum—like almandite—
and “tune” your eyes. Don’t expect to see the sharp lines that you see in textbook
diagrams. The quality of the spectrum depends on a number of factors:
• Light intensity: If it’s too bright or too dim, you might not see anything.
• Light quality: Use a white light that doesn’t have absorption characteristics of
its own.
• The distance between the stone and the spectroscope: Too much or too little
space might obscure the spectrum.
• The size of the stone: Small stones have weaker absorption than large stones
of the same variety.
• The transparency of the stone: Use reflected light for opaque stones.
• Depth of color: Darker stones have stronger absorption than lighter stones of
the same variety.
51
FEATURES OF THE ABSORPTION SPECTRUM
cutoff
lines band
Typical features of an absorption spectrum include lines, bands, and cutoffs.
• Cut or shape: For best results, transmit light through the long direction of
light-colored, transparent stones and through the short direction of dark,
translucent stones.
• Dust or dirt in the slit: This can cause distracting dark, horizontal lines in the
spectrum.
• Heat: If the temperature is too high, this changes the spectrum or makes it
difficult to see.
If you don’t succeed at first, try a different lighting method. For example, if you
can’t see a spectrum with transmitted light, try reflected light.
Cooling a diamond in liquid nitrogen helps make its spectrum more visible.
Remember, not all types of stones have diagnostic absorption spectra, so the
instrument can’t be used with every stone. However, if a stone shows a consistently
distinctive absorption spectrum, that can help a lot in its identification.
Remember that some pleochroic gemstones show different spectra from different
directions, so examine a gem from more than one direction. In addition, it’s best to
examine the stone with a 10X loupe before using the spectroscope. This helps you
avoid misinterpreting the spectra of assembled stones.
RESULTS
A spectroscope shows absorption in nanometers (nm), which equal one millionth
of a millimeter. The types of absorption patterns include:
Lines—Narrow and sharply defined
Bands—Well defined and wider than lines
Cutoff—Complete absorption, extending from a distinct edge to the end of the
spectrum. Often found in the blue or violet area.
General absorption—Vaguely defined absorption that covers a large area of the
spectrum.
Emission lines—Bright, sharp, vertical lines seen in the red area of the absorption
spectra of some gems colored by chromium.
52
FLUORESCENCE TESTING
FLUORESCENCE TESTING
Characteristic reactions to ultraviolet (UV) radiation can help you separate certain
natural gems from their synthetic counterparts. It can also tell you if a stone is
assembled. A modern use of UV fluorescence testing is to detect emerald treat-
ments that use oils and manmade resins.

To test for fluorescence, you need a UV lamp with longwave (LW) and shortwave
(SW) options, a black non-fluorescent background, a comparison stone, and eye
protection—either contrast-control spectacles or a viewing cabinet. Here’s the
procedure:
1. Clean the stone before you begin because grease and lint can fluoresce. Wiping
with a gemcloth is usually enough, but if the stone is very dirty, clean it with
warm, soapy water. Dry the stone and set it on the background—or in the viewing
cabinet—beside the comparison stone.
2. Turn on the LW or SW. You can test with either first, but always test in the
same order for consistency.
3. If you use a viewing cabinet, look through its window. If you don’t use a viewing
cabinet, hold the UV lamp about four inches above the stone. Make sure it directs
the UV radiation down onto the stone, not into your eyes.
4. Look at the stone from several directions. Use tweezers to place it in different
positions on the background. Don’t hold it in the tweezers during testing because
most tweezers reflect the UV light. If you must use tweezers to look at the stone
from different directions, wrap them with a non-reflective black material.
Eric Welch/GIA
You need a UV lamp and either a viewing cabinet or contrast-control spectacles to test gems for
fluorescence and phosphorescence.
53
5. If the stone looks inert when it’s sitting beside the comparison stone, remove
the comparison stone. Strong fluorescence in the comparison stone can over-
whelm weak fluorescence in the tested stone.
Make sure the “fluorescence” is not simply light reflecting from the stone. Beware
of red, violet, or purple reflections that look like weak fluorescence. If you’re testing
with SW and you want to check for reflections, put a piece of window glass between
the lamp and the stone. If the effect remains, the reflections are not fluorescence.
SW does not pass through ordinary glass.
6. Record the energy source (LW or SW) and what you see. If there’s no fluores-
cence, write “inert.” If the stone fluoresces, describe both the strength and the
color.
Describe the strength of fluorescence as weak (barely visible), moderate (distinctly
visible), or strong (bright). You can abbreviate the strength description as W, M, or
S, or circle the appropriate letter on the worksheet. Also note if the fluorescence is
uneven, patchy, or zoned.
Fluorescent color is most often described by its hue. Occasionally, gemologists
use modifiers that refer to tone or saturation, such as “light” or “brownish.” You
might sometimes want to use descriptive terms like “chalky white” or “brick red.”
For some gems, fluorescent reactions differ When you judge a stone’s fluorescence, think about its transparency as well.
with the type of UV radiation. Under LWUV, the
natural ruby at left reacts with weak red fluores-
Fluorescence in translucent and opaque stones often looks like a glowing surface
cence, while the flame-fusion synthetic ruby at coating. In transparent stones, it looks like an internal glow combined with a
right glows a very strong orangy red (top). glowing surface.
Under SWUV, the natural ruby is almost inert,
but the synthetic ruby appears a moderate to 7. Turn the lamp off and watch for phosphorescence. Note how long it lasts if
strong orangy red (bottom). you’re making a separation that depends on that reaction and its duration.
8. Switch to the other UV light source. Look for fluorescence and record what
you see.
9. Turn the lamp off and watch for phosphorescence. Note how long it lasts if you
want to make a separation that depends on that reaction and its duration.
10. Make absolutely sure that the UV lamp is switched off. Then, if you used
contrast-control spectacles, you can take them off. If you used a viewing
cabinet, remove the stone from the cabinet.

SWUV radiation can cause severe eye damage—even blindness. Never look
directly into the UV unit while it’s turned on. Never hold the stone in your fingers
when you test with SWUV. Repeated exposure to SWUV radiation can damage
your skin.
Consider the transparency of the stone when you judge fluorescence. When they
fluoresce, transparent stones often look different from opaque stones.
Don’t mistake reflections for fluorescence. UV units often emit a small amount of
reddish to violet light that can reflect off the stone and look like weak reddish to
All by Eric Welch/GIA violet fluorescence.
Flame-fusion synthetic blue spinel fluoresces
red under LWUV (top), but chalky blue under Don’t trust weak fluorescence. True fluorescence has a glowing appearance.
SWUV (bottom). Keep in mind that fluorescence varies from one stone to another because of such
factors as chemical impurities, matrix, and structural irregularities. Some stones
show patchy or zoned fluorescence, or fluoresce only in certain areas. For example,
oil in some oiled emeralds and calcite inclusions in lapis lazuli fluoresce differently
from the host stones.
Fluorescence is only a supplemental test. It isn’t conclusive proof for identification.
Don’t let your comparison stone touch the stone you’re testing. It will mislead you
and can influence your results.
54
ADDITIONAL TESTS
Eric Welch/GIA
To use an electronic scale for hydrostatic weighing, you need a special holder, a beaker, a wire stand, and a wire basket.
ADDITIONAL TESTS
The additional and advanced tests in this section are grouped separately because
the tests might be limited to specific separations, the test results—and conclusions
drawn from them—might vary widely depending on the type of specimen, and
some of the tests might be destructive.
DETERMINING SG BY HYDROSTATIC WEIGHING

When a gem is immersed in water, its weight is different from its weight in air.
Immersion forces a volume of water that’s equal to the gem’s size out of the way.
The difference between the gem’s weight in air and its weight in water is equal to
the weight of the water that the gem displaces. When you divide the object’s
weight in air by the weight of the water it displaces, you end up with its SG. This
process is called hydrostatic weighing.
Hydrostatic weighing usually requires an electronic scale with a hydrostatic
attachment. The attachment is a holder for a beaker of water that sits above, but
doesn’t touch, the scale’s weighing platform. A wire stand sits directly on the
weighing platform and lets you suspend an object in the beaker for weighing.
55

1. If the object is a small fashioned gem, clean it thoroughly before you test it.
This is because grease might cause air bubbles to stick to the stone and affect
your result. This doesn’t matter as much for a larger object, like a carving.
2. Set up the scale with the hydrostatic attachments and fill the beaker with
enough water to completely cover the object you’re weighing.
3. Install the wire support on the scale’s weighing platform, along with whatever
attachment you use to hold the object. For a carving, it might be a length of
wire, while for a loose stone it might be a small wire basket.
4. Turn the scale on and set it to zero (0.000) so you don’t make a mistake and
include the weight of the water and attachments in your reading.
5. Place the object on the weighing pan and weigh it to the nearest 0.001 ct.
Record the result as “weight in air.”
6. Determine and record the object’s “weight in water.” Attach the object to the
support using the length of wire, or place the object in the wire basket, and
make sure the object is completely immersed in the water. If it isn’t, remove
the stone, add more water, and repeat from step 4.
7. Read the weight from the scale’s digital display.
8. Now that you know the item’s weight in air and in water, you can work out its
SG by using this formula:
SG = weight in air ÷ (weight in air – weight in water)
Round the result to the nearest hundredth (0.01 ct.).

Make sure the scale is level and in balance, and the weighing pan is clean and dry.
Check for friction. For example, the beaker support should not touch the weighing
pan and the wire basket should not touch the beaker.
If necessary to reduce surface tension that might support the basket and affect the
reading, add a drop of liquid detergent to the water.
If you see trapped air bubbles on the stone or the basket, tap the basket lightly
against the inside of the beaker until the bubbles break away and rise to the surface.
Close the scale’s doors completely when you weigh the stone.
Be careful when you weigh small stones. Generally, the heavier the stone, the
more accurate the SG reading. Hydrostatic weighing is most accurate on stones
that weigh at least 0.50 ct. If you’re weighing a bead, make sure no air bubbles are
trapped in the drill-hole as this will affect your result.
The SG of a gem sometimes varies because of factors like inclusions, irregular
structure, and impurities.
Because assembled stones have different components, you can’t use SG to identify
them.
The SG test is for loose stones only. You can’t determine the SG of a mounted
stone.
DETERMINING SG WITH HEAVY LIQUIDS

There’s an alternative to the hydrostatic method for determining SG. It involves
the use of heavy liquids, which are chemicals with known high SGs. If a stone’s
SG is lower than the liquid’s, it floats. If their SGs are the same, the stone stays
wherever you put it in the liquid. If the stone’s SG is higher, it sinks, or it stays on
the bottom if you put it there.
56
ADDITIONAL TESTS
Stone 1 Stone 2 Stone 3

Peter Johnston/GIA
You can use special calibrated liquids to determine a stone’s SG. The stone at left floats because its
SG is lower than the liquid’s. The stone in the center stays in position because its SG is about the
same as the liquid’s. The SG of the stone at right is higher than the SG of the liquid, so it sinks.
A typical set of SG liquids includes five liquids with SGs of 2.57, 2.62, 2.67, 3.05,
and 3.32. Because the liquids are toxic, each liquid comes in a small bottle with a
childproof screw cap.
The 2.57-SG liquid can often help separate feldspars like microcline (2.54 SG)
and orthoclase (2.58 SG) from chalcedony (2.60 SG). Chalcedony usually sinks
fairly quickly, while the feldspars float, remain suspended, or sink very slowly.
The 2.62 liquid can be useful for separating chalcedony (2.60 SG) from quartz
varieties with larger twin or single crystals and SGs around 2.65.
The 2.67 liquid was useful for separating natural emerald from some flux-grown
synthetic emeralds. Today, newer types of hydrothermal synthetic emeralds have SGs
within the range of natural emeralds, so it’s not as easy to use SG to separate them.
The 3.05 liquid can be useful for separating tourmaline, with an SG between 3.00
and 3.12, from the gems that resemble it, such as spodumene (3.18 SG) and topaz
(3.52 SG).
The 3.32 liquid can separate nephrite (2.90 to 3.02 SG) from jadeite (3.30 to 3.50 SG).

1. Try to get an idea of the stone’s SG by hefting it in your hand. This will help
you decide which liquid to try first.
2. Clean the stone.
3. Hold the stone in tweezers and immerse it completely in the liquid. Tap the
tweezers against the inside of the bottle to remove any trapped air bubbles, then
release the stone while it’s immersed in the liquid.
4. Estimate the stone’s SG.
If the stone sinks, its SG is higher than the liquid’s. If it floats, its SG is lower
than the liquid’s SG. If it does neither, and remains suspended, its SG is about the
same as the liquid’s SG.
5. Test the stone in a series of liquids. Determine which liquid has an SG closest
to that of the stone. Remember to wipe the stone clean of each liquid before
you proceed to the next.
Using SG liquids is a process of elimination. Try the stone in one liquid to see if it
sinks or floats. Then clean the stone with a tissue and try it in other liquids with
higher or lower SGs until you find the one with the closest SG.
You make the final estimate of a stone’s SG by observing the rate at which it sinks or
floats in the liquid with the closest SG. Try using calibration stones for comparison.
57
CALIBRATION STONES
To maintain their accuracy, heavy liquids must be periodically checked and cali-
brated. To check a liquid’s SG, gemologists use comparison stones of known SG.
They’re also known as calibration stones or indicator stones.
• 2.57-SG liquid: top, microcline (SG = 2.56); bottom, chalcedony (SG = 2.60)
• 2.62-SG liquid: top, chalcedony (SG = 2.60); bottom, quartz (SG = 2.66)
• 2.67-SG liquid: top, synthetic emerald (SG = 2.66); bottom, calcite (SG = 2.70)
• 3.05-SG liquid: top, pink tourmaline (SG = 3.04); bottom, green tourmaline
(SG = 3.06)
• 3.32-SG liquid: bottom, jadeite (SG = 3.34), synthetic corundum (SG = 4.00),
CZ (SG = 5.80)
HEAVY LIQUID SAFETY

Heavy liquids can be hazardous if you handle them improperly. They can cause
irritation if they contact your skin for a prolonged period, and they’re highly poi-
sonous if taken internally. They can also harm your eyes and mucous membranes.
A few are corrosive or volatile. Some produce harmful fumes, so use them in a
well-ventilated area.
Wear surgical or latex gloves and protective eyewear for an extra margin of safety.
And wash your hands thoroughly after each use.
Be sure to follow the directions that come with the liquids, and learn first-aid
procedures for them. Because most of the liquids are toxic, pregnant women
should avoid them altogether.
Keep SG liquids out of the reach of children, and replace the childproof cap on
each bottle immediately after each use.
During heavy-liquid testing, watch the stone at eye level to estimate its rate of
sinking or rising. Don’t hold the bottle in your hand. Keep the bottle on a flat
surface where there’s less risk of knocking it over and spilling its contents.
Close bottles tightly and store them safely when you’re finished testing. Store heavy
liquids in a cool, dry, dark area to prevent chemical breakdown. You can keep the
liquids from darkening by placing a small piece of copper in each SG bottle.
Heavy liquids are flammable. Keep them away from extreme heat, sparks, and
flames.
Follow the rules for handling hazardous chemicals when you dispose of liquids
and the tissues you use for clean-up.

Open only one bottle at a time, and test only one stone at a time.
Wipe the stone and tweezers with tissue before changing SG liquids.
Before you begin testing, look for inclusions, irregular structures, and impurities
in the gem. They might cause a stone’s SG to vary.
Don’t test porous materials like lapis lazuli in SG liquids because they can soak up
the heavy liquid, affect your estimate, and become contaminated. If necessary,
clean the stone thoroughly.
SG liquids can damage assembled, dyed, and coated stones.
Temperature affects the density of SG liquids, and high temperatures reduce their
SGs. Use calibration stones to verify that liquids are correctly calibrated, but make
sure you don’t switch the stone you’re testing with a calibration stone.
58
ADDITIONAL TESTS
Be careful when you test transparent gems. If a transparent gem’s RI is close to

that of the SG liquid, the lack of contrast might make the stone very difficult to
find once you’ve immersed it.
The saturated salt solution is another type of heavy liquid. To create it, add salt
to water until it no longer dissolves and a layer of salt forms on the bottom of
the container. The solution’s main use is to separate plastic imitations from
natural amber. Plastic usually sinks in a saturated salt solution, and amber
usually floats.
USING THE COLOR FILTER

A gemological color filter actually consists of two separate filters. One transmits
only deep red and the other transmits only yellowish green. You can use it to
separate several types of gems from imitations and to detect dyes in certain stones.
It can also indicate the presence of the coloring elements chromium and cobalt.
The color filter can help identify these common gem imitations and dyed materials:
• Synthetic blue spinel appears pink to red to orange under the filter.
• Synthetic blue quartz appears pink to red under the filter.
• Blue cobalt glass and other cobalt-colored materials appear pink to red under
the filter.
• Dyed green chalcedony appears red to orange-red to pinkish orange under the
filter.
• Dyed blue chalcedony appears red to pink to pinkish orange under the filter.
• Dyed blue howlite appears red to pink to pinkish orange under the filter.
• Variscite appears pink under the filter.
Both by Terri Weimer/GIA
Cobalt causes the blue color you see in synthetic blue spinel under incandescent light (left). Gems colored by cobalt transmit red light but absorb
yellowish green light, so they appear pink to red through a color filter (right).
59

To test with the color filter:
1. Illuminate the stone with an intense white light source, preferably one with variable
control, like a FiberLite or a Maglite. If the stone is transparent or translucent,
shine the light directly through it. If it’s opaque, reflect the light off its surface.
2. Adjust the intensity of the light based on the stone’s depth of color. Use lower-
intensity light with lighter-colored stones. Try to pass the light through the thick
areas of transparent or translucent stones. Materials that look opaque are some-
times actually semitranslucent, so try passing intense light through their thinner
areas, which are usually around the edges.
3. Hold the filter between the stone and your eye, about an inch (2.54 cm) from
the stone and about 10 inches (25.40 cm) from your eye. Observe the stone
Eric Welch/GIA
through the filter.
To use a diamond tester, press its tip against
the stone so it’s perpendicular to the surface.
Take care to avoid any metal parts of the
mounting because they’ll give you a false
positive reading. The size, shape, and transparency of the stone influence the saturation of the color
you see through the filter. Small, lightly colored, or opaque stones sometimes give
weak reactions.
Every stone reacts a little differently, depending on the type and amount of color-
ing agent.
The color filter, even though it was once called the “emerald filter,” is unreliable
for separating emerald from synthetic emerald and some simulants.
This is only a supplemental test. Alone, a positive reaction with the color filter
proves nothing. It helps to use known comparison stones.
Disregard any weak reactions that appear grayish or brownish.
USING A THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY METER

A thermal conductivity meter, or diamond tester, separates diamonds from most
simulants by detecting the rate at which a material conducts heat. The thermal
conductivity of diamonds is higher than that of most simulants, with the exception
of synthetic moissanite. Diamonds conduct heat rapidly away from a heat source,
while most simulants do so more slowly.
There are several diamond-tester models. Some units have an LED light display
that turns green to indicate diamond and red to indicate simulant. Others have a
calibrated dial with a needle. Be sure you’re familiar with the model you use.
Many models have built-in calibration plates so you can check that they’re func-
tioning correctly. If the model you’re using doesn’t have one, you can use a sam-
ple of known identity to check the calibration.

Eric Welch/GIA To separate a diamond from any simulant except synthetic moissanite:
Some diamond testers have a dial with a
needle that swings to indicate “diamond” or
1. Turn the diamond tester on.
“simulant.” 2. Clean the stone if necessary. A thick film of grease on a stone might give you
an incorrect result.
3. Press the tip of the diamond tester against the stone, perpendicular to the stone’s
surface, and check the readout.
When the tip touches a diamond, the stone conducts heat away efficiently, a rapid
temperature drop occurs, and the tester should indicate “diamond.”
When the tip touches most diamond simulants, the temperature falls more slowly,
and the tester should indicate “simulant.”
60
ADDITIONAL TESTS

To ensure accuracy, make sure the batteries in battery-operated testers are fully
charged.
When you test a stone for thermal conductivity, make sure you touch only the sur-
face of the stone. You won’t get valid test results if you touch the metal mountings
or neighboring stones.
A diamond tester can’t detect the difference between natural and synthetic diamond,
so you’ll have to use other tests—magnification or fluorescence—to make that
separation.
Unless the instrument is designed to separate diamond and synthetic moissanite, it
won’t detect a thermal conductivity difference between the two. Separate diamond
from synthetic moissanite by looking for doubling with a loupe or microscope.
Robert Weldon/GIA
Diamond is SR, while DR synthetic moissanite shows visible doubling.
Immersion reveals the glue plane and colorless
crown and pavilion of this synthetic spinel
triplet.
IMMERSION
Immersion involves submerging a material in a liquid. If the stone’s RI is close to
the liquid’s RI, immersion makes the interior more visible. The surrounding liquid
reduces the effects of refraction and surface reflection and lets you see a gem’s
inclusions or color distribution more easily.
Immersion can help during polariscope and microscope testing. It can make it
much easier to view crystal growth structures, which might help you separate
natural from synthetic corundum. Features like curved growth in flame-fusion and
pulled synthetics, or separation planes in assembled stones, are often far easier to
see if the stone is immersed. It can also help you detect lattice diffusion treatment,
which is a common corundum color treatment.

1. To perform this test, you need an immersion cell. Fill it with methylene iodide,
glycerin, mineral oil, or water. Methylene iodide works best, but it’s toxic and
requires care in use. Water, mineral oil, and glycerin are safe substitutes that
usually work well. Make sure the cell is not so full that the liquid flows over the
edge when you immerse the gem.
Immersion cells come in illuminated and standard versions. If you use a
standard immersion cell, place it over a diffused light source. A microscope’s
overhead diffused fluorescent light turned face-up works well. Or you can place
a diffuser, such as a piece of translucent plastic, over the microscope’s well
light. Be extra cautious, because heat from the light can add to methylene
iodide’s toxic effects.
2. Gently place the stone table-down in the immersion cell. Make sure the liquid
fully covers it. Place the immersion cell with the stone in it over the light source
and examine the stone under magnification.

Methylene iodide can be hazardous if you handle it improperly. Handle it and all
liquids in a well-ventilated area and wash hands after use.
Study Gem Identification Assignment 9 and the instructions that come with the
liquids.
Pregnant women should avoid methylene iodide.
Surgical or latex gloves are recommended.
61
Read-through in Round Brilliants

Diamond Synthetic CZ Synthetic Strontium Zircon GGG YAG
moissanite rutile titanate
Eric Welch/GIA
Comparing read-through in round brilliants can help you separate diamond from its simulants. The
diamond at far left shows no read-through, while the YAG at far right shows extreme read-through.
THE READ-THROUGH EFFECT

The read-through effect allows you to see text through a fashioned gem. This test
works most effectively on well-proportioned round brilliant cuts. It’s most useful
for separating unmounted colorless diamond simulants. In general, the higher a
gem’s RI, the less read-through you’ll see.
1. Place the stone table-down on printed or colored paper.
2. Note how easily you see the text or color through the stone.
Well-proportioned round brilliant-cut diamonds show no read-through. Neither
Anthony de Goutière
will strontium titanate, synthetic rutile, or synthetic moissanite, but the last two
A round-brilliant CZ often shows an orange
flash when you view it from the pavilion and simulants are easily separated from diamond by their excessive fire and double
rock it back and forth in darkfield lighting. refraction. CZ, GGG, and YAG all show varying degrees of read-through.
Remember that the cut of the stone (round brilliant, emerald cut, etc.) influences
the amount of read-through. Any stone—even diamond—can show read-through,
depending on its size, shape, and proportions.
PAVILION FLASH
Checking for pavilion flash might help you distinguish among certain OTL, SR,
colorless diamond simulants. You might want to use it in conjunction with the
read-through test, as it’s most useful for separating the three SR diamond simu-
lants that show some read-through when cut as well-proportioned round brilliants:
CZ, GGG, and YAG.
1. Hold the stone table-down and examine it under magnification. If you’re using a
microscope, darkfield lighting works well, although you can use reflected light.
2. Gently rock and tilt the stone until you see colors flash across the pavilion.
Don’t dip the stone into the well light because this can create unwanted reflections.
Diamond simulants show a broad monochromatic flash across some or all of the
pavilion.
• CZ usually shows a broad orange flash over most of its pavilion surface.
Both by Mike Havstad/GIA • GGG also shows an orange and blue pavilion flash, but it’s less extensive than CZ.
A round-brilliant GGG shows an orange and • YAG generally shows a blue and violet flash over about one half of its pavilion.
blue pavilion flash (top) while a similarly cut
YAG shows blue and violet (bottom).
THERMAL REACTION TESTS

A thermal reaction tester (TRT) is a handheld electronic device designed specifi-
cally to test for reactions to high temperatures. Electricity heats the fine point on
the tester to a temperature that can cause a reaction in the material you’re testing.
Alternative hot points include fine-point soldering irons and any other pointed
device that can be heated to a high temperature.
62
ADDITIONAL TESTS
To use a hot point, touch or nearly touch the test specimen with the instrument in
an inconspicuous place and then smell or observe the results.
The TRT can detect oil- or polymer-filled fractures in transparent gems. It can
also help identify some organic gems by causing them to produce distinctive odors
when they’re brought close to the heated tester.
Testing with the TRT is generally destructive to the specimen. It should always be
done with great care and with permission from the stone’s owner. You should
never use destructive tests on the gems in GIA stone sets.
TESTING FOR CHARACTERISTIC ODORS

1. Choose an inconspicuous part of the stone for testing. Choose an area that’s
unlikely to show any minor damage resulting from the test.
2. Adjust the temperature so the tip of the TRT glows a dull red.
3. Bring the TRT very close to the specimen. If necessary, touch the stone very
lightly for a brief moment.
4. Bring the specimen to your nose quickly while it’s hot and note the odor.
• Tortoise shell—protein odor, like burning hair
• Black coral—protein odor, like burning hair
• Golden coral—protein odor, like burning hair
• Jet—coal or oily odor, similar to tar or asphalt
• Amber—resinous odor, similar to incense
• Plastic—generally an acrid odor, but any of these odors are possible:
camphor, carbolic acid, protein, vinegar, sweet fruit, formaldehyde, fish,
and sour milk
DETECTING SURFACE COATINGS

Treaters typically use wax to enhance the surface appearance of jade carvings
and turquoise, and to seal the dye in lapis lazuli. The hot point can help you
detect wax, plastic, and other surface coatings.
To test for surface coatings with a hot point, hold it about 1/16 of an inch (1.5 mm)
away from the stone. If the stone is coated with wax or paraffin, you’ll see a
sweating effect under low magnification as the material liquefies and flows.
A stone that’s coated with plastic will give off an acrid odor as the coating burns.
DETECTING OIL- OR POLYMER-FILLED FRACTURES

Perform the test under magnification. Hold the hot point about 1/16 of an inch
(1.5 mm) from the stone. Look for movement of the oil or polymer in fractures
that extend to the surface. Oils or polymers can flow out, making the gem look as
if it’s sweating. Use extreme caution when testing emeralds. Hot-point testing is
generally destructive, so you should test an inconspicuous area and take great care.
Never touch the hot point directly to an emerald.
63
THE GEM IDENTIFICATION PROCESS
Instrument Tests 67
Additional Tests 68
Species, Variety, and Group 68
Gem Identification Procedure and Examples 69
Completing the Worksheet 73

RI and Birefringence 73
SR/DR/AGG and Optic Character 73
Pleochroism 74
Magnification and Inclusions 74
Absorption Spectrum 74
Additional Tests 74
Variety, Species, and Group 74
Worksheet Abbreviations 75
GENERAL OBSERVATION
Color, transparency, cut, phenomena, luster,
dispersion/fire, heft, assembly
10X MAGNIFICATION
Assembly, fracture, fracture luster,
doubling, cleavage
REFRACTOMETER
Refractive index, birefringence,
sr/dr
POLARISCOPE
Determine or confirm sr/dr, agg, DICHROSCOPE
sr/adr Confirm sr/dr (when
polariscope is not
recommended)
CHARTS/ LAB MANUAL

Narrow possibilities, determine required key tests
IDENTIFY STONE OR PERFORM KEY TESTS

After narrowing the possibilities, either identify
the stone or perform required key separation tests. Refer to the lab manual
for variety and treatment calls.
MAGNIFICATION SPECTROSCOPE DICHROSCOPE

FLUORESCENCE
Inclusions, Spectrum Pleochroism
Longwave,
natural/synthetic, shortwave
treatments
POLARISCOPE SPECIFIC GRAVITY COLOR FILTER

Uniaxial/biaxial
IDENTIFY STONE
Species, required treatments, variety, and group
as necessary
Successful gem identification depends on following a logical sequence of tests and observations.
65

Successful gem identification requires careful testing and recording of results. As you
progress through general observation and a series of instrument tests, you eliminate
possibilities until you come to the correct identification. As you complete each step,
you record your findings on the Gem Identification Worksheet. Every step takes you
closer to the gem’s identity.
Set up your lighting and a neutral white or light gray background. Clean the stone with a
gem cloth and have your loupe and worksheet handy. Complete the information at the
top of the worksheet. Enter your full name, student number, and the number of your
assigned stone set. List the stone numbers in the first vertical left-hand column.
Work on one stone at a time and use one row for each stone. As you observe each
stone’s characteristics, record them from left to right in the columns on the worksheet.
GENERAL OBSERVATION
Begin the gem identification process with general observation, first with your unaided
eye and then with a loupe. The characteristics you observe and record at this stage
help you narrow the possibilities. Place a dash (—) next to categories that don’t
apply to the gem you’re testing.
1. Start by observing the stone’s color. Look at the stone face-up against a neutral
white or light gray background, about 10 inches below a source of daylight-
equivalent light. At the COLOR position in the GENERAL OBSERVATION
column on the worksheet, record the stone’s tone, hue, and saturation.
2. Look for eye-visible pleochroism and color zoning or banding by turning the gem
in the light and looking at it from different angles. If you see eye-visible pleochro-
ism, wait until you’ve checked with the dichroscope before you mark the
PLEOCHROISM section on your worksheet.
3. Determine the gem’s transparency. After completing the color and transparency steps,
you’ll usually narrow your choices from dozens to just a few possibilities. Color and
transparency are key indicators that narrow your gem-identification options.
4. Examine the gem’s cutting style because it can sometimes provide clues to identity.
5. Check for the appearance of a phenomenon. It might also narrow the possible
identifications. To look for phenomena, move a strong, concentrated light like a
penlight or fiber-optic light back and forth above the stone. Also, check the gem
for color change by looking at it under daylight-equivalent light and then switching
to incandescent light.
6. Luster is another clue to a gem’s identity. Stones with higher RIs and hardness ratings
generally have better polish and luster. Poor polish, wear, and abrasions can mask a
gem’s luster, so you should judge luster on the area with the best polish.
7. Dispersion is a gem’s ability to separate white light into spectral colors. This property
can help you get closer to a gem’s identity because gems vary in their ability to dis-
perse white light and display the resulting flashes of color called fire. It’s most useful
with colorless OTL gems that simulate diamond. Based on the amount of fire you see,
record dispersion as weak, moderate, strong, or extreme.
8. Heft is a gemstone’s weight in relation to its size. Heft can help you separate
stones with low specific gravity (SG) from stones with high SG. You can’t test
mounted stones for heft.
9. Examine the stone as well as you can with your unaided eye and your loupe. Look for
signs that the gem might be assembled, like luster differences or separation planes.
10. Examine the stone for surface breaks with your loupe under reflected light. The
nature and luster of a break can provide clues to the stone’s identity. The three
types of breaks are cleavage, parting, and fracture. Pay close attention to vulnerable
areas like the girdle and culet.
66
Once you’ve completed the general observation stage, you should have a much narrower
list of possible identifications. Then you can move on to the instrument tests.
INSTRUMENT TESTS
You won’t be able to confirm a stone’s identity with general observation alone. There
are limits to what you can observe and conclude with just your eyes and a loupe. To
continue the identification process, you must use more sophisticated gem-testing
instruments. With careful use of these tools, you can identify most commercially
available gems. If you’re still in doubt about a gem’s identity after you perform all
required tests, send the gem to a reputable gemological laboratory—like the GIA
Gem Laboratory—for positive identification.
REFRACTOMETER
The refractometer is the most important primary instrument for gem identification.
With it, you can get an RI reading from the polished surface of all but the few stones
that are OTL. Because many RIs are specific to certain stones, they’re especially
valuable for making identifications.
1. Begin by testing under white light with no magnification. When you see the green
shade cutoff, you can refine your reading by looking at the scale under magnification
and switching to monochromatic light, if available. If the shade cutoff doesn’t
move, the gemstone might be SR. Test the gem in three different positions, rotating
the polarizing filter 90° each time. If the shade cutoff remains stationary, the gem
is probably SR. Enter the stone’s RI at the HI position in the RI/BIREFRINGENCE
column on your worksheet.
2. If the shade cutoff moves when you rotate the polarizing filter 90°, the gem is DR.
Rotate the stone 180°, stopping every 30° to check and record the highest and lowest
numerical RI readings. Subtract the lowest of the low numerical readings from the
highest of the high numerical readings to get the gem’s birefringence.
3. In the RI/BIREFRINGENCE column on your worksheet, record a DR stone’s RI
figures at HI, LO, and BIRE.
4. If you’re testing a curved surface with the spot method, write your results in the SPOT
position.
POLARISCOPE
The polariscope determines if a gem is SR, DR, SR/ADR, or AGG. You can also use
a polariscope to resolve a gem’s optic figure and to detect pleochroism.
1. If you get an SR reaction when you’re testing for SR/DR/ADR/AGG, test the
stone in three directions.
2. Use the confirmation test to distinguish between DR and SR/ADR.
3. Record your results in the worksheet’s OPTIC CHARACTER column.
4. If after consulting the lab manual, you find that optic character is a key separation
test, use your optic figure sphere to determine it.
Now that you’ve listed the gem’s characteristics under general observation and
recorded its RI, birefringence, and polariscope reactions, check this manual’s separa-
tion sections and RI chart. The separation sections of the manual list gems by color
and transparency in descending RI order and list key separation tests that will help
you make a final identification.
If you can’t narrow the possibilities using the color and transparency lists, you can refer
to the RI chart. The chart lists RIs in descending order to make it easier to search for
that property alone. Once you find the RI that matches the gem you’re testing, turn to
the page listed on the chart for key separation tests and more information.
67
DICHROSCOPE
The dichroscope helps you detect characteristic pleochroism and confirm double
refraction. To determine if the dichroscope is a required test, refer to the relevant
separation section in this manual. Enter your results in the worksheet’s
PLEOCHROISM column.
MICROSCOPE OR LOUPE
Magnification is the next step. It’s the key tool for separating natural from synthetic
gems and for detecting treatments. Enter your results in the INCLUSIONS column
on your worksheet.
SPECTROSCOPE
The spectroscope reveals distinctive absorption in some gems. Refer to the relevant
separation section in this manual to determine when it’s a required test and which
absorption patterns to look for. If you see a recognizable spectrum, sketch the results
in the ABSORPTION SPECTRUM column.
ADDITIONAL TESTS
At this point, you might have to use one or more additional tests to identify the stone.
1. Although fluorescence rarely identifies a gemstone, it’s information that can
help separate one gem from another and confirm the results of other tests.
Record the strength and color of the stone’s reaction to both LWUV and
SWUV. If the stone doesn’t fluoresce, record it as inert.
2. Record the numerical estimate that results from any SG tests. Record an L if you
use heavy liquids to determine SG. Record an H if you use the hydrostatic SG
method.
3. If you use any other tests, like thermal conductivity or the color filter, record
their results.
SPECIES, VARIETY, AND GROUP

In the gem separation sections of this manual, you’ll find gems separated by color
and described in detail. The listings include natural gems as well as synthetics,
imitations, other manmade materials, and treated gems.
Many gems are identified by species name alone. On your worksheet, you must
always list the species name. You only have to name a variety if you see it in the
gem’s manual entry. If a gem species is part of a group, list the group name too.
There are also some required treatment identifications. If you detect one of them,
list the treatment on the variety line. Also, glass and plastic are considered gem
species for the purposes of GIA coursework only.
As a reminder, here are some definitions:
• Gem species—A broad gem category based on chemical composition and
crystal structure
• Gem variety—A subcategory of species, based on color, transparency, or
phenomenon
• Group—A family of gems made up of several closely related mineral species
Remember that you don’t have to perform every test for every stone. Perform only
those tests that are necessary for a final identification. When you list the results for
each stone, list only the properties you’ve determined from the tests you made.
Don’t copy properties from the RI chart or the lab manual’s separation sections.
Record only what you actually see.
68
Gem Identification Procedure and Examples

In condensed form, here’s the general procedure for identifying gems. As you’ll see
from the sample identifications that follow, you won’t need to use all the steps in this
process for every gem. However, there are some tests you’ll need to identify virtually
all stones.
You’ll always start with general observation and an RI determination. You’ll also test for
SR/DR/ADR/AGG as long as the stone’s transparency makes it possible. Other than these
basics, use only the key tests that are necessary to identify the stone.
1. Use your unaided eye to assess the gem’s color and transparency. This helps you begin
eliminating possible choices. Use a 10X loupe to check for signs of assembly and to
identify any breaks.
2. Use the refractometer to determine the gem’s RI and narrow the identification possi-
bilities further. If present, determine birefringence with the refractometer, magnifier,
and the polarizing filter. Use monochromatic light if it’s available.
3. Use the polariscope to confirm whether the gem is SR, DR, ADR, or AGG. If the gem’s
optic character is a key test, use the optic figure sphere to determine it.
4. Use the dichroscope to check for pleochroism and confirm DR or SR if refractometer
and polariscope testing are inconclusive.
5. Refer to this manual’s separation sections to narrow down the gem’s possible identities.
Perform the key tests. At this point, you might be able to conclusively identify the gem.
6. To separate a natural gem from a synthetic, identify characteristic inclusions, or
detect signs of treatment, use a 10X loupe or microscope to check the stone under
magnification.
7. If necessary, use the spectroscope to see if the gem has a recognizable absorption
spectrum.
8. If necessary, perform any additional tests.
9. Refer to this manual’s separation sections to identify the gem’s species. List group,
variety, and required treatment, if they apply. Record the stone’s identity on your
worksheet.
Here are some examples of gem identifications that should help you become more familiar
with the process:
Identification No. 1 The stone is transparent, dark bluish green, and faceted.
It has vitreous luster and no noticeable dispersion. There’s no evidence that it’s assembled,
and no sign of fracture or cleavage. The gem has moderate heft.
Step 1—GENERAL OBSERVATION: List the gem’s color, transparency, etc.
Step 2—RI/BIREFRINGENCE: Using monochromatic light, you get a maximum RI reading
Tucker Gems
of 1.644 and a minimum reading of 1.624 with the refractometer. Subtracting the low read-
Tourmaline
ing from the high reading gives you a birefringence of 0.020. As you rotate the gem, both
RIs meet at a common point, but only the shadow edge that marks the lower numerical read-
ing moves. This tells you that the gem is DR and uniaxial negative.
Step 3—LAB MANUAL: You consult the lab manual’s “transparent green” section to narrow
the stone’s possible identities and to determine key separation tests. The manual gives tour-
maline as the only choice and lists RI and birefringence as key tests. There’s no need for fur-
ther testing.
Step 4—VARIETY/SPECIES: Record the gem’s species as tourmaline. There’s no required
variety call for this gem.
69
Identification No. 2 The stone is a transparent, light yellowish green,

rough crystal. Some of the crystal faces have vitreous luster. The stone has moderate
heft and there’s no sign of fracture or cleavage.
Step 1—GENERAL OBSERVATION: List the gem’s color, transparency, luster, etc.
Step 2—RI/BIREFRINGENCE: Using white light, you get a spot-RI reading of 1.68 on
a crystal surface.
Eric Welch/GIA Step 3—SR/DR/AGG OPTIC CHARACTER: You get a DR reaction with the polar-
Peridot iscope, and a biaxial optic figure with the optic figure sphere, ruling out SR glass as a
possibility.
Step 4— LAB MANUAL: You check the lab manual’s “transparent green” section. It lists
diopside, kornerupine, and peridot as possibilities. The manual gives magnification and
the spectroscope as key separation tests for these three stones.
Step 5—MAGNIFICATION/INCLUSIONS: You check with a loupe or a microscope to
see if the stone has any diagnostic inclusions. You find tiny black octahedral crystals
and lily-pad inclusions.
Step 6—ABSORPTION SPECTRUM: You see a typical peridot spectrum with the spec-
troscope.
Step 7—VARIETY/SPECIES: Record the gem’s species as peridot. There’s no required
variety call for this gem. RI, polariscope reaction, magnification, and absorption spec-
trum were the key tests.
Identification No. 3 The gem is transparent and slightly purplish red.

You note its vitreous polish luster. You see no evidence that it’s assembled, and there’s
no sign of fracture or cleavage. The gem has moderate heft.
Step 2—RI/BIREFRINGENCE: Using monochromatic light, you get a maximum RI
reading of 1.770 and a minimum reading of 1.762 with the refractometer. Subtracting
Eric Welch/GIA
the low reading from the high gives you a birefringence of 0.008. As you rotate the
Synthetic ruby/synthetic
gem, both RIs meet at a common point, but only the shadow edge that marks the
corundum lower numerical reading moves. This tells you the gem is DR and uniaxial negative.
Step 3—PLEOCHROISM: Because the gem’s RI is within the range of red garnet, you
check for single or double refraction with the dichroscope. The gem has strong
pleochroism that’s slightly purplish red and orangy red. The pleochroism confirms its
DR nature.
Step 4—LAB MANUAL: You consult the lab manual’s “transparent red, pink, and purple”
section to narrow the stone’s possible identities and to determine key separation tests.
The combination of color, RI, and birefringence limits the gem’s identity to ruby, synthetic
ruby, or lattice diffusion treated corundum. The manual gives magnification as the key
separation test for all three possibilities.
Step 6—MAGNIFICATION/INCLUSIONS: You check with a loupe or a microscope to
see if the stone has any diagnostic inclusions. You find curved striae and gas bubbles,
which tells you that the ruby is a flame-fusion synthetic.
Step 7—VARIETY/SPECIES: Record the gem’s species as synthetic corundum and its
variety as synthetic ruby. RI, birefringence, dichroscope reaction, and magnification
were the key tests.
70
Identification No. 4 The stone is transparent and medium-dark

greenish blue. You note its high luster and moderate dispersion. You see no
evidence that the gem is assembled, and there’s no sign of fracture or cleavage.
The gem’s heft is moderate to high.
Step 2—RI/BIREFRINGENCE: You get an OTL result with the refractometer.
Step 3—DICHROSCOPE: Because the gem is OTL, you use the dichroscope to try Robert Weldon/GIA
and determine single or double refraction. You see two pleochroic colors: greenish Zircon
blue and nearly colorless. This confirms the gem is DR.
Step 4—LAB MANUAL: You consult the lab manual’s “transparent blue” section to
narrow the stone’s possible identities and to determine key separation tests. The
manual lists zircon, with doubling and spectrum as the key tests.
Step 5—MAGNIFICATION/INCLUSIONS: You check with a loupe or a microscope
for doubling. You observe strong doubling and many tiny abrasions along the facet
junctions.
Step 6—ABSORPTION SPECTRUM: You see a typical zircon spectrum with the
spectroscope.
Step 7—VARIETY/SPECIES: Record the gem’s species as zircon. There’s no
required variety call for this gem. Magnification (doubling), absorption spectrum,
and dichroscope reaction were key tests.
Identification No. 5 The gem is transparent, faceted, light-toned

pink, with vitreous luster. You see no evidence that the gem is assembled, and
there’s no sign of fracture or cleavage. The gem’s heft is moderate.
Step 1—GENERAL OBSERVATION: List the gem’s color, transparency, luster,
etc.
Step 2—RI/BIREFRINGENCE: Using monochromatic light, you get a maximum
RI of 1.637 and a minimum RI of 1.629 with the refractometer. Subtracting the
Robert Weldon/GIA
low reading from the high one gives you a birefringence of 0.008, which tells
Topaz
you the gem is DR.
Step 3—SR/DR/AGG OPTIC CHARACTER: You confirm the gem’s DR nature
with the polariscope.
Step 4—LAB MANUAL: You consult the lab manual’s “transparent red, pink, and
purple” section to narrow the stone’s possible identities and to determine key
separation tests. The manual lists two possibilities: topaz and danburite. The gem’s
RI and birefringence are closer to topaz than danburite, but the lab manual also
lists SG as a key test.
Step 5—ADDITIONAL TESTS: The lab manual lists topaz’s SG as 3.53 and
danburite’s SG as 3.00. You use an SG liquid test or hydrostatic weighing and
determine that the stone’s SG is about 3.50. This confirms its identity as topaz.
Step 6—VARIETY/SPECIES: Record the gem’s species as topaz. There’s no
required variety call for this gem. RI, birefringence, and SG were the key tests.
71
Identification No. 6 The gem is an opaque, freeform cabochon,

showing a play-of-color phenomenon against a black background. It has vitreous luster.
Examining the stone in profile, you detect evidence that the gem is assembled. You
see a dark backing, a thin layer containing the play-of-color phenomenon, and a
colorless top portion.
Step 1—GENERAL OBSERVATION: List the gem’s color, phenomenon, and its assem-
bled nature.
Terri Weimer/GIA
Opal triplet Step 2—RI/BIREFRINGENCE: Using white light, you get a spot-RI reading of 1.54 on
the stone’s top portion.
Step 3—LAB MANUAL: You consult the lab manual’s “assembled” section to narrow
the stone’s possible identities and to determine key separation tests. The manual lists
opal triplet and synthetic opal triplet as possibilities. The manual lists magnification as
a key test.
Step 5—MAGNIFICATION: Viewing the stone through its colorless top, you detect
play-of-color patches of varying size and color distribution. These are characteristic of
natural opal. There are no mosaic patches of color with a snakeskin or scale-like
structure that would be typical of synthetic opal. This confirms that the layer with
play-of-color is natural.
Step 6—VARIETY/SPECIES: Record the gem’s species as opal triplet. There’s no
required variety call for this gem. General observation and magnification were the key
tests.
Identification No. 7 The gem is translucent, cabochon-cut, dark-toned

bluish green, with vitreous luster. You see no evidence that the gem is assembled, and
there’s no sign of fracture or cleavage. The gem’s heft is moderate.
Step 2—RI/BIREFRINGENCE: Using white light, you get a spot-RI reading of around
1.54.
Eric Welch/GIA Step 3—SR/DR/AGG OPTIC CHARACTER: You get an AGG reaction with the polar-
Dyed green chalcedony iscope.
Step 4—LAB MANUAL: You consult the lab manual’s “translucent to opaque green”
section to narrow the stone’s possible identities and to determine key separation tests.
The manual lists chrysoprase, chrome chalcedony, dyed chalcedony, aventurine quartz,
and prase as possibilities. Indicated separation tests are spectrum and color filter.
Step 5—SPECTRUM: You detect vague bands at 645 nm and 670 nm, together with
general absorption of the red, a cutoff at about 450 nm, and general absorption of the
violet part of the spectrum with the spectroscope. This identifies the gem as dyed
chalcedony.
Step 6—ADDITIONAL TESTS: The gem appears pinkish through the color filter,
confirming its identity as dyed chalcedony.
Step 7—VARIETY/SPECIES: Record the gem’s species as chalcedony. While there’s
no required variety call for this gem, you’re required to list the treatment. You enter
“dyed” in the variety box on your worksheet. RI, spectrum, and the color filter were the
key tests.
72
COMPLETING THE WORKSHEET

Complete the information at the top of the worksheet. Enter your full name, student
number, and the stone set number. At the bottom of the worksheet, also check off
the instruments you’re using. Doing this lets your instructor know which instruments
you have access to.
List the stone numbers in the first vertical left-hand column. Use one row for each
stone. As you observe each stone’s characteristics, record them on the worksheet.
Place a dash (—) next to categories that don’t apply to the gem you’re testing.
GENERAL OBSERVATION
Start by judging the gem with your unaided eye. Use a 10X loupe to detect breaks
or evidence of assembly. Record your observations.
COLOR—Record the gem’s tone, hue, and saturation.
TP—Record the gem’s transparency.
CUT—Record whether the gem is faceted, a cabochon, a bead, etc. (It’s not
necessary to specify the cut in any detail.)
PH—Identify the phenomenon, if present.
P.LUS—Judge the gem’s polish luster where the polish is best.
DISP—Record the strength of dispersion, if fire is present.
HEFT—Record whether the gem feels heavy or light in relation to its size.
ASSEM—Record any sign of an assembled stone: red ring, separation plane, etc.
FR—Record the type of fracture, if present.
FR. LUS—Record the luster of the fracture surface, if present.
CL—Record the number of cleavage directions and the angle of intersection, if any.
RI AND BIREFRINGENCE
Test for RI—and birefringence on DR stones—and use this section to record your
results.
HI—Record the highest RI of a DR stone or the single RI of an SR stone.
LO—Record the lowest RI of a DR stone.
BIRE—Record a DR stone’s birefringence.
SPOT—Record a spot reading if a flat-facet reading isn’t possible.
MISC—Record any extra comments, such as poor polish, a red-flag effect on a
garnet-and-glass doublet, etc.
SR / DR /AGG AND OPTIC CHARACTER

For transparent and translucent stones, determine SR, DR, AGG, or SR/ADR and
optic character with the polariscope. For OTL gems, determine SR or DR by
checking for doubling. For reddish stones, determine SR or DR by the presence or
absence of birefringence and pleochroism.
SR—Circle SR if you detect single refraction.
ADR—Circle ADR along with SR if you detect anomalous double refraction in an
SR stone.
DR—Circle DR if you detect double refraction.
AGG—Circle AGG if you get an aggregate reaction.
73
If the stone is DR and transparent, you might look for a uniaxial or biaxial optic
figure when this information is necessary to identify the stone. If you find evidence
that the stone is uniaxial or biaxial, circle the U or B. If you observe a very specific
type of optic figure, like a bull’s-eye or Airy’s spiral, note it. You can also determine
optic character with the refractometer by using visual plotting.
U—Circle U for a uniaxial optic figure.
B—Circle B for a biaxial optic figure.
You might need to find optic sign for a few advanced separations. You can
generally determine it by plotting the refractometer readings. Record the results
of your test. Circle + (positive) or – (negative), or write in w/o (without) or i/d
(indeterminable).
At this point, consult the separation section or RI chart in this manual to refine
your list of possibilities. The manual will also tell you which key separation tests
are best for making a final identification.
PLEOCHROISM
Use a dichroscope if one is available. If not, use a polariscope. If you detect
pleochroism, note its strength by circling S (strong), M (moderate), or W (weak).
List the colors you see next to the numbers 1, 2, and 3. You might need to use this
test to check whether some gems—such as red garnet or ruby—are DR.
MAGNIFICATION AND INCLUSIONS

Start at 10X and record your findings in the magnification section. You might need
to use a microscope if you’re trying to identify a stone as natural or manmade, or if
you need to look for characteristic inclusions. List any obvious inclusions or other
identifying characteristics, like color zoning. Also list visible doubling, which is
necessary to determine single or double refraction for OTL gems.
ABSORPTION SPECTRUM
If you see a recognizable absorption pattern, record it by drawing any lines, bands,
or cutoffs on the blank spectrum diagram.
ADDITIONAL TESTS
Indicate any additional tests you might have performed:
SG—If necessary, record an estimate of the stone’s SG. Circle L if you used SG
liquids or H if you used hydrostatic weighing.
CF—If necessary, record the stone’s reaction to the color filter.
LW—If necessary, record the stone’s reaction to LWUV.
SW—If necessary, record the stone’s reaction to SWUV.
VARIETY, SPECIES, AND GROUP

Record the gem’s variety, species, and group names where applicable. Refer to the
color sections of the manual to find the correct names. Also list any required treat-
ments where they apply.
74
WORKSHEET ABBREVIATIONS
Because space on the worksheet is limited, you might want to use the abbreviations
listed on the next pages. If no abbreviation is listed, write out the full word.
General Observation
Color vB violetish blue Phenomena (PH)

bV bluish violet A asterism
V violet Ad adularescence
Tone
vP violetish purple Av aventurescence
vl very light
l light C chatoyancy
ml medium light Saturation CC color change
m medium Wk weak I iridescence
mdk medium dark Mod moderate L labradorescence
dk dark Stg strong O orient
vdk very dark P play-of-color
Other
Hue C colorless Polish Luster (P.LUS)
P purple W white Metal metallic
rP reddish purple Gr gray Adam adamantine
RP/PR red-purple/purple-red Bl black S-adam subadamantine
stpR strongly purplish red Pi pink (light tones and low Vit vitreous
slpR slightly purplish red saturations of red or pur-
S-vit subvitreous
ple)
R red Gre greasy
Br brown (low saturations of
oR orangy red red, orange, and yellow) Res resinous
RO/OR red-orange/orange-red
Wx waxy
rO reddish orange
Transparency (TP) Dl dull
O orange
TP transparent Sky silky
yO yellowish orange
oY orangy yellow STP semitransparent Prl pearly
Y yellow TL translucent
gY greenish yellow STL semitranslucent
Dispersion (DISP)
YG/GY yellow-green/green-yellow O opaque
Ex extreme fire
styG strongly yellowish green St strong fire
yG yellowish green Cut Mod moderate fire
slyG slightly yellowish green Fac faceted Wk weak fire
G green Cab cabochon
vslbG very slightly bluish green Bd bead
bG bluish green Sph sphere Heft
vstbG very strongly bluish green Tab tablet Hi high
GB/BG green-blue/blue-green Cam cameo Mod moderate
vstgB very strongly greenish blue Int intaglio Lo low
gB greenish blue Car carving
vslgB very slightly greenish blue Tum tumbled
B blue Ro rough continued on next page....
75
Assembled Stones Pleochroism (PLEO) Fluorescence (F)

(ASSEM) St strong LW longwave ultraviolet
Doub doublet Mod moderate SW shortwave ultraviolet
Trip triplet Wk weak St strong reaction
Sep pl separation plane Mod moderate reaction
R ring red-ring effect Magnification Wk weak reaction
Inclusions (INCL)
2-ph incl
two-phase inclusion Color Filter or Chelsea Filter
Fracture (FR)
3-ph incl
three-phase inclusion (CF)
Conch conchoidal
Cld cloud
Ev even
Cur CB curved color banding
Gran granular
Cur St curved striae
Spl splintery
Fl flux
Step step-like Fpt fingerprint
Unev uneven Ftr feather
Part parting GB gas bubble
Incl inclusion/included
Lq liquid
Fracture Luster (FR.LUS)
Same as “Polish Luster” listing, page M mineral
75 Ndl needle
Neg xtl negative crystal
NH nailhead (spicule in
Cleavage (CL) hydrothermally grown
Specify the number of cleavage direc- synthetics)
tions and the angle of intersection, if Plate platelet
possible. For example, write “2 at 90°”
St/A Gr straight or angular growth
Tw twinning
Refractive Index (RI) and UP Gr uniform parallel growth
Birefringence (BIRE) Xtl crystal
OTL over-the-limits
Blink birefringence blink
Spectroscope
Spec spectrum
Polariscope Reactions
SR singly refractive
Additional Tests
ADR anomalous double refraction
Specific Gravity (SG)
DR doubly refractive
L (estimated with) heavy
AGG aggregate liquids
H (determined by) hydrostatic
Optic Character weighing
U uniaxial Est estimate
B biaxial S sinks
+ positive sign F floats
- negative sign Hft heft
w/o without sign MI methylene iodide
76
SEPARATING RED, PINK, AND PURPLE GEMS
Transparent Red, Pink, and Purple Gems 77

RI Charts 78
Detailed Listings 83
Key Separations 114
Translucent-to-opaque Red, Pink, and

Purple Gems 116
RI Charts 116
Key Separations 133
Eric Welch/GIA
Many important stones fall into the category of transparent red to purple gems. The list includes
corundum, garnet, quartz, and topaz.
SEPARATING RED, PINK, AND PURPLE GEMS

Each section in this part of the manual contains information on gems within a
specific color range, divided into transparent and translucent-to-opaque categories.
The sections list gems by refractive index (RI) and also include their common
identifying characteristics.
TRANSPARENT RED, PINK, AND PURPLE GEMS

The transparent red, pink, and purple gems you’re most likely to see in the trade
are garnet, tourmaline, amethyst, and natural and synthetic corundum, including
ruby and pink and purple sapphire. Less likely choices include topaz, the kunzite
variety of spodumene, and natural or synthetic spinel. Finally, while you probably
won’t see naturally colored red-to-pink diamond because of its rarity, you’ll very
likely find pink synthetic cubic zirconia (CZ) used as an affordable alternative.
You should also always consider the possibility that the stone you’re testing might
be an imitation made of manmade glass or plastic or an assembled stone. When
you’re testing gems in the lab or in the field, it’s important to consider all the
possibilities until your tests reduce the alternatives down to one result.
77
Transparent Red, Pink, and Purple OTL Gems

RI and SR/DR/AGG Gem Material Commonly confused with:
2.417 Naturally colored diamond Irradiated diamond, synthetic diamond, CZ, zircon, YAG
SR (Page 83)
2.417 Irradiated-color diamond Naturally colored diamond, synthetic diamond, CZ, zircon, YAG
SR (Page 84)
2.417 Synthetic diamond Diamond, CZ, zircon, YAG

SR (Page 85)
2.150 CZ (synthetic cubic zirconia) Diamond, irradiated diamond, synthetic diamond, zircon, YAG
SR (Page 86)
1.925 to 1.984 (high type) Zircon Diamond, irradiated diamond, synthetic diamond, CZ, YAG, spessar-
1.810 to 1.815 (low type) (Page 86) tite, almandite
DR
1.833 YAG (yttrium aluminum garnet) Diamond, irradiated diamond, synthetic diamond, CZ, zircon, spessar-
SR (Page 86) tite, almandite
1.810 Spessartite garnet Zircon, YAG, almandite

SR (Page 87)
Transparent Red, Pink, and Purple Gems with RIs between 1.70 and 1.80
1.780 to OTL range Almandite garnet Zircon, YAG, spessartite, ruby, synthetic ruby, pyrope-almandite, pyrope
SR (Page 87)
1.762 to 1.770 Corundum; ruby, fancy sapphire Almandite, synthetic corundum, pyrope-almandite, pyrope, synthetic
DR (Page 88) spinel, spinel
1.762 to OTL Corundum, lattice diffusion treated Ruby, fancy sapphire

DR (Page 89)
1.762 to 1.770 Synthetic corundum; synthetic ruby, Ruby, fancy sapphire, almandite, pyrope-almandite, pyrope, synthetic
DR synthetic fancy sapphire spinel, spinel
(Pages 90 to 92)
1.762 to OTL Corundum with synthetic ruby over- Ruby, lattice diffusion treated corundum, synthetic ruby
DR growth
(Page 94)
1.762 to 1.770 Corundum, color-change sapphire Synthetic color-change sapphire, color-change garnet, alexandrite
DR (Page 95) chrysoberyl, synthetic alexandrite chrysoberyl
1.762 to 1.770 Synthetic corundum, synthetic color- Color-change sapphire, color-change garnet, alexandrite chrysoberyl,
DR change sapphire synthetic alexandrite chrysoberyl
(Page 95)
1.750 to 1.780 range Pyrope-spessartite garnet (including Pyrope-almandite, pyrope, synthetic spinel, spinel, alexandrite
SR “malaya,” color-change) chrysoberyl, synthetic alexandrite chrysoberyl, color-change sapphire
(Page 96)
1.750 to 1.780 range Pyrope-almandite garnet (including Almandite, corundum, synthetic corundum, pyrope-spessartite, pyrope,
SR rhodolite) synthetic spinel, spinel
(Page 96)
continued on next page....
78
SEPARATING TRANSPARENT RED, PINK, AND PURPLE GEMS

1.746 to 1.755 Alexandrite chrysoberyl Color-change sapphire, synthetic color-change sapphire, color-change
DR (Page 97) garnet, synthetic alexandrite chrysoberyl
1.746 to 1.755 Synthetic alexandrite chrysoberyl Color-change sapphire, synthetic color-change sapphire, color-change
DR (Page 98) garnet, alexandrite chrysoberyl
1.733 to 1.747 Rhodonite (single-crystal) Single-crystal rhodochrosite

DR (Page 99)
1.730 to 1.750 range Pyrope garnet Almandite, corundum, synthetic corundum, pyrope-spessartite, pyrope-
SR (Page 99) almandite, synthetic spinel, spinel
1.722 (red) Flame-fusion synthetic spinel Corundum, synthetic corundum, pyrope-spessartite, pyrope-almandite,
1.728 (pink) (Page 100) pyrope, spinel
SR
1.719 Flux-grown synthetic spinel Corundum, synthetic corundum, pyrope-spessartite, pyrope-almandite,

SR (Page 100) pyrope, spinel
1.718 Spinel Corundum, synthetic corundum, pyrope-spessartite, pyrope-almandite,

SR (Page 101) pyrope, synthetic spinel
1.719 to 1.723 Taaffeite Spinel

DR (Page 101)
79
1.691 to 1.700 Zoisite, tanzanite Apatite, tourmaline

DR (Page 102)
1.660 to 1.676 Kunzite spodumene Apatite, topaz, tourmaline, danburite

DR (Page 102)
1.634 to 1.643 Andalusite Tourmaline

DR (Page 102)
1.634 to 1.638 Apatite Tanzanite, kunzite spodumene, danburite, topaz, tourmaline

DR (Page 103)
1.630 to 1.636 Danburite Kunzite spodumene, apatite, topaz, tourmaline

DR (Page 103)
1.629 to 1.637 Topaz Kunzite spodumene, apatite, danburite, tourmaline

DR (Page 103)
1.624 to 1.644 Tourmaline (including parti-colored) Tanzanite, kunzite spodumene, andalusite, apatite, danburite, topaz,
DR (Page 104) pezzottaite
1.608 to 1.617 Pezzottaite Tourmaline

DR (Page 105)
1.470 to 1.700 range Glass Any red, pink, or purple transparent gem material
SR (Page 113)
1.460 to 1.700 range Plastic Any red, pink, or purple transparent gem material
SR (Page 113)
80
1.597 to 1.817 (OTL) Rhodochrosite (single crystal) Single-crystal rhodonite

DR (Page 105)
1.583 to 1.590 Beryl, morganite Synthetic pink beryl, scapolite, synthetic pink quartz, labradorite
DR (Page 106)
1.571 to 1.578 Hydrothermal synthetic red and pink beryl Morganite, red beryl, synthetic pink quartz
DR (Page 106)
1.566 to 1.572 Red beryl Hydrothermal synthetic red beryl

DR (Page 107)
1.559 to 1.568 Labradorite feldspar (sunstone) Beryl, scapolite

DR (Page 107)
1.550 to 1.564 Scapolite Beryl, labradorite, amethyst, synthetic amethyst, synthetic pink
DR (Page 108) quartz
1.544 to 1.553 Quartz, amethyst Scapolite, synthetic amethyst

DR (Page 108)
1.544 to 1.553 Quartz, ametrine Synthetic ametrine

DR (Page 109)
1.544 to 1.553 Synthetic quartz, synthetic amethyst Scapolite, amethyst

DR (Page 109)
1.544 to 1.553 Synthetic quartz, synthetic ametrine Ametrine

DR (Page 110)
1.544 to 1.553 Synthetic pink quartz Beryl, synthetic beryl, scapolite, rose quartz
DR (Page 110)
1.544 to 1.553 Quench-crackled dyed quartz Ruby

DR (Page 111)
SR (Page 113)
SR (Page 113)
81
Transparent Red, Pink, and Purple Gems with RIs below 1.50
1.486 to 1.658 Calcite Fluorite, glass

DR or AGG (Page 111)
1.450 Opal Synthetic opal, glass, plastic

SR (Page 111)
1.434 Fluorite Calcite, glass

SR (Page 112)
1.430 to 1.470 range Synthetic opal Opal

SR (Page 112)
SR (Page 113)
SR (Page 113)
82
NATURAL-COLOR PINK DIAMOND

DIAMOND
Species Diamond
Prism
General observation Purple, purple-pink, purplish pink, pink to orangy pink, and brownish
pink, often with light tone and low saturation. Vivid red gems exist,
but they’re extremely rare. Under 10X, look for naturals, waxy to 415.5
granular or faceted girdle surface, bearding, sharp facet junctions.

Adamantine polish luster, step-like fracture. Perfect cleavage in four
Diffraction
directions. Polish lines never oriented the same way on adjacent facets.
Positive reaction to diamond tester.
415.5
Typical cutting style Faceted, often in radiant cuts to help intensify bodycolor. Girdle
often faceted or polished.
Dispersion 0.044 (moderate fire—might be masked by bodycolor)

Naturally colored pink diamond’s spectrum has
a broad band centered on 563 nm and no
RI OTL sharp lines in the red. A cape line at 415.5 nm
might be present.
Birefringence/doubling None
SR/DR/AGG SR (might show ADR and strain colors in a mosaic pattern under
crossed filters in the polariscope)
Pleochroism None
Magnification Angular mineral inclusions, fractures and cleavages, bearding,

naturals with trigons or parallel growth marks, surface and internal
graining, red or pink color zoning concentrated in angular graining
Spectrum Broad band centered on 563 nm and possibly a line at 415.5 nm. John Koivula/GIA
Some stones also display a line at 575 nm. (Cooling diamond with Naturally colored pink diamond often has
liquid nitrogen helps make its spectrum more visible.) unevenly distributed color, concentrated along
parallel bands.
Fluorescence Some stones show no reaction or a very faint reaction to UV, but
many show a medium to strong reaction under LW, most commonly
blue. Reaction to SW varies from inert to faint blue. Some Type II
stones might show medium to strong orange fluorescence under both
LW and SW.
SG 3.52 (+/-0.10)
Comments Key tests are polish luster, OTL RI, SR nature, magnification,
positive reaction to diamond tester, and possibly spectrum.
Treatments such as irradiation and surface coating can be applied
to off-color diamonds to make them appear fancy-colored. Shane McClure/GIA
Treatments like fracture filling and laser drilling might be used Natural pink diamonds generally display
to improve the appearance and apparent clarity of fancy-colored strong strain patterns under magnification and
diamonds. Fancy-colored diamonds often require advanced testing polarized light.
at a gemological laboratory to determine origin of color.
83
IRRADIATED PINK TO RED DIAMOND

IRRADIATED DIAMOND
Species Diamond
Prism
General observation Evenly distributed pink to red color, with no colored graining or
linear color zones. Might show facet-related color zoning.
503 575 637
595 658
Diffraction
RI OTL
503 575 637
595 658
SR/DR/AGG SR (might show ADR)
IRRADIATED PINK TO RED DIAMOND Pleochroism None
Magnification Inclusions typical of natural diamonds, including angular mineral

inclusions, fractures, and cleavages
Prism
Spectrum Typical of treatment by irradiation and annealing, with sharp lines at

503 575 637
595
503 nm, 575 nm, 595 nm, 637 nm, and 658 nm, and possibly also at
617 nm and 625 nm with no line at 658 nm. (Cooling diamond with
liquid nitrogen helps make its spectrum more visible.)
Diffraction
Fluorescence Characteristic strong orange fluorescence to both LW and SW

503 575 637
595 SG 3.52 (+/-0.10)
Comments Combination of strong orange fluorescence and sharp lines in the

The spectrum of irradiated pink to red diamond spectrum are characteristic of treated diamond. Irradiated diamonds
might show sharp lines at 503 nm, 575 nm, often require advanced testing at a gemological laboratory to deter-
595 nm, 637 nm, and 658 nm, along with mine origin of color. Some red to pink diamonds owe their color to a
general absorption in the violet area (top). combination of irradiation and HPHT treatments.
Another possible irradiated pink to red diamond
spectrum lacks the 658-nm line, but has addi-
tional lines at 617 nm and 625 nm (bottom).
Vincent Cracco/GIA Shane McClure/GIA
Diamonds with irradiated color can show zones of

concentrated color at their culets.
84
IRRADIATED PINK TO RED SYNTHETIC DIAMOND

SYNTHETIC DIAMOND
Species Synthetic diamond
Prism
General observation Tend to occur as either light-toned pinks or dark reds. Pink to orangy
or brownish pink to purplish pink in weak to strong saturations and
light to medium tones. Red to orangy red to purplish red to purple in
moderate to strong saturations and medium to dark tones. Red and pink
Diffraction
colors produced by a combination of irradiation and annealing.
RI OTL
IRRADIATED PINK TO RED SYNTHETIC DIAMOND
SR/DR/AGG SR
Magnification Darker red stones show distinct color zoning consisting of intersecting
Prism
square and cross-shaped yellow zones surrounded by larger areas of
red. Lighter-toned stones often show uneven coloration with alternating
pink and colorless, pink and yellow, or lighter and darker pink zones.
Elongated or rounded opaque inclusions of metallic flux often occur as
pinpoints and small groups of larger grains.
Diffraction
Spectrum Some stones show sharp lines at 637 nm and 658 nm and broad
absorption from 500 nm to 640 nm, increasing toward the violet.
Others show sharp lines at 575 nm, 595 nm, and 637 nm. (Cooling
diamond with liquid nitrogen helps make its spectrum more visible.)
Fluorescence Inert through moderate to strong orange or orange-red under LW and The spectrum of an irradiated pink to red
weak to moderate orange or orange-red under SW. Some red stones synthetic diamond might show sharp lines at
might show intense green cross-shaped, square, or hourglass-shaped 637 nm and 658 nm and broad absorption
areas over reddish orange areas that correspond to the color zoning. from 500 nm to 640 nm, followed by increasing
Green areas might phosphoresce for several seconds after the SWUV absorption toward the violet (top). Or it might
is turned off. show a series of sharp lines from the green
through the red of the spectrum, including lines
SG 3.52 (+/-0.10) at 503 nm, 527 nm, 553 nm, 575 nm, 595 nm,
637 nm, and 658 nm (bottom).
Comments Key tests are magnification and fluorescence, which can help with
detection of cross-shaped, square, or hourglass-shaped internal growth
patterns. Spectrum might also be helpful. If in doubt, submit diamond
to a gemological laboratory for advanced testing.
John Koivula/GIA John Koivula/GIA James Shigley/GIA James Shigley/GIA
Metallic flux inclusions and The characteristic fluorescent This pink synthetic diamond’s The metallic inclusion in this
cross-shaped color zoning are pattern in irradiated red syn- color zoning consists of dis- synthetic pink diamond has a
characteristic of red synthetic thetic diamond is a strong tinct areas of purplish pink and brownish halo. It’s a tension
diamond. green cross surrounded by orangy pink. fracture that occurred when the
weak orange color. inclusion solidified.
85
CZ ZIRCON YAG
Species CZ (synthetic cubic zirconia) Zircon YAG (yttrium aluminum garnet)
General observation Commonly a light-toned pink, but can be Often dark brownish red. Facet Light to dark purplish red, pink.
strong ruby-like red or orangy red. edges might show chipping. Vitreous Vitreous to subadamantine
Subadamantine polish luster, conchoidal to subadamantine polish luster, con- polish luster, conchoidal to
fracture with subadamantine fracture choidal fracture with vitreous to uneven fracture with vitreous to
luster. Heft reveals that loose stones are subadamantine fracture luster. subadamantine fracture luster.
much heavier than diamonds of similar Negative reaction to diamond tester. Negative reaction to diamond
size. Negative reaction to diamond tester. tester.
Typical cutting style Faceted Faceted Faceted
Dispersion 0.060 (strong fire—might be masked by 0.038 (moderate fire—might be 0.028 (weak fire—might be
bodycolor) masked by bodycolor) masked by bodycolor)
RI OTL OTL OTL
Birefringence/doubling None Can range from almost none up to None

0.059 (strong)
SR/DR/AGG SR DR SR
Optic character Not applicable Uniaxial positive Not applicable
Pleochroism None Moderate purplish red and purplish None

brown dichroism
Magnification Generally inclusion free, but might Natural inclusions, moderate to strong Might show gas bubbles
contain unmelted zirconium oxide particles doubling that might be eye-visible in
and gas bubbles. larger stones. Always check for dou-
bling in three directions.
Spectrum Variable, not diagnostic Key line at 653.5 nm, with several Not diagnostic
other lines possible (a few red
zircons might lack absorption lines)
Fluorescence Variable, not diagnostic Variable, not diagnostic Inert
SG 5.60 to 6.00 3.90 to 4.73 4.50 to 4.60
Comments Key tests are OTL RI reading, lack of Key tests are OTL RI reading, Key tests are OTL RI reading,
doubling, negative reaction to diamond strong doubling, and spectrum. lack of doubling, negative reac-
tester, and SG. Conchoidal fracture tion to diamond tester, and SG.
distinguishes CZ from diamond. CZ is a YAG is a manmade material with
manmade material with no gem-quality no natural counterpart.
natural counterpart.
ZIRCON Zircon’s spectrum usually shows a key line at

653.5 nm. There might also be up to 40 fine
lines distributed throughout the rest of the
spectrum. Some stones might show only the
Prism
653.5 nm line, and a few red stones might

show no spectral features at all.
653.5
Diffraction
653.5
86
SPESSARTITE GARNET
SPESSARTITE GARNET ALMANDITE GARNET
Species Spessartite Almandite
Prism
Group Garnet Garnet
412 432
General observation Orange, brownish orange, Generally dark-toned brownish orange
424
yellowish orange, reddish to brownish red to purplish red hue
orange, red-orange (always with low saturation. Vitreous to sub-
Diffraction
has an orange component adamantine polish luster, conchoidal
and never shows any purple). fracture with greasy to vitreous
Vitreous to subadamantine fracture luster. Large sizes might be
412 432
polish luster, conchoidal especially dark, and large gems are 424
fracture with vitreous to sub- often cut shallow to compensate for
adamantine fracture luster. dark tone. Cabochons might be cut in
hollowback style for same reason. Bands in the violet at 412 nm, 424 nm, and
432 nm, along with bands at 505 nm, 527 nm,
Typical cutting style Faceted Faceted gems or cabochons and 575 nm in the green-yellow, are often pres-
ent in spessartite garnet’s spectrum.
RI 1.810 (+0.004/-0.020) 1.780 to OTL
Birefringence/doubling None None
SR/DR/AGG SR, often with ADR SR, often with ADR
Pleochroism None None
Magnification Two-phase inclusions, Needle-like inclusions, usually inter-

feather-like liquid inclusions; secting at 70° and 110° angles in
needle-like inclusions also the same plane, high- and low-relief
possible crystals, and zircon crystals with
strain halos You’ll often see intersecting mineral needles in
almandite garnet.
Spectrum Manganese-related bands at Three strong bands in the green
412 nm, 424 nm, and 432 and yellow of the spectrum at ALMANDITE GARNET
nm—which sometimes 505 nm, 527 nm, and 575 nm
merge to form a cutoff at
around 430 nm—along with
Prism
iron-related bands at 505 nm,

527 nm, and 575 nm.
505 575
527
Fluorescence Inert Inert
Diffraction
SG 4.15 (+0.05/-0.03) 4.05 (+0.25/-0.12)
Comments Key tests are RI, SR nature, Key tests are RI, SR nature, and
505 575
spectrum, and possibly spectrum. Color is also helpful. 527
color. Bands in the blue
area of spessartite garnet’s
spectrum help separate it from The main features of almandite’s spectrum are
almandite. three very strong bands at 505 nm, 527 nm,
and 575 nm in the yellow-green.
87
RUBY, PINK AND PURPLE SAPPHIRE

RUBY AND FANCY SAPPHIRE
Variety Ruby, sapphire (designate by color)

Prism
Species Corundum
468 693 General observation Light pink through slightly orangy red to strong red, slightly to strongly
476
purplish red to purple. Ruby can be orangy red through strongly purplish
red, but the dominant color must be red. Vitreous to subadamantine
Diffraction
polish luster, conchoidal fracture with vitreous fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Faceted gems or cabochons. Translucent or opaque material might be
468 693
476 carved.
RI 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005)

Natural and synthetic rubies share the same
spectrum, consisting of lines at 659 nm, Birefringence/doubling 0.008 to 0.010
668 nm, and 693 nm; a broad absorption
between 500 nm and 610 nm in the green- SR/DR/AGG DR
yellow area; and two strong, fine lines in the
blue area at 468 nm and 476 nm. There’s also
a cutoff around 460 nm. With proper lighting, Optic character Uniaxial negative
some dark rubies might show iron-related
bands at 450 nm. Pleochroism Ruby—Orangy red, slightly purplish red (lighter tones for pink sapphire)
Purple sapphire—Violet and orange
PURPLE SAPPHIRE Magnification Untreated natural corundum—Unaltered mineral inclusions

(high- or low-relief crystals) that might show angular faces; intact,
fine, needle-like rutile inclusions intersecting at 60º angles in the same
plane; other fine needles at near right angles; fingerprint inclusions,
Prism
intact two-phase inclusions, straight and hexagonal growth banding;

straight, angular, possibly hexagonal color banding; and twinning lines
450 471 (see photos, page 93)
461
Heat-treated natural corundum—Altered, burned mineral inclusions
with rounded, often whitish, “snowball” or “cotton” appearance;
Diffraction
broken silk (partially reabsorbed rutile needles), ruptured two-phase

inclusions and negative crystals; sintered surface areas, especially
around the girdle; fine needles at near right angles. Discoid fractures
450 471
461 with tension halos (disk-like fractures with lace-like outer healing rims,
caused by expansion of inclusions) are also indicative of heat treatment,
but these features might also occur in some untreated corundum of
Some purple sapphires show a ruby-type magmatic origin. (see photos, page 93)
spectrum. Others might display bands at
450 nm, 461 nm, and 471 nm in the blue area, Spectrum Natural and synthetic rubies and pink and purple sapphires share the
a broad absorption in the yellow-green area,
and fine lines in the red area.
same distinctive chromium spectrum, with fine lines in the orange-red
at 659 nm, 668 nm, and 693 nm, and a broad absorption over the yellow
and most of the green at approximately 500 nm to 610 nm. The 693-nm
line often appears as a bright fluorescent line. Two fine, dark lines in the
blue at 468 nm and 476 nm distinguish ruby from red garnet and spinel.
There’s also a strong cutoff in the violet. Purple sapphire and some iron-
rich ruby might show a mixture of ruby-type and sapphire-type spectra,
with chrome lines in the red combined with iron bands in the blue.
Fluorescence Ruby—Weak to strong red under LW and SW, with best reaction
Joel Beeson/GIA under SW. Slightly weaker than synthetic ruby. Heat-treated rubies
Natural corundum occurs in a wide range might show chalky fluorescence.
of hues, including orangy reds through Pink sapphire—Strong orange-red to red under LW, faint to weak
purples. orange to red under SW
SG 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05)
Comments Key tests for separating natural corundum from other similarly colored
natural gems are RI, birefringence, pleochroism, magnification and
spectrum. Magnification is the key test for separating natural from
synthetic corundum.
88
LATTICE DIFFUSION TREATED CORUNDUM
Species Corundum
Required treatment Lattice diffusion

call
General observation Purple to pink, reddish purple to purplish red, orangy red to red, Nicholas DelRe/GIA
medium to dark in tone. Face-up color might be uneven, giving the Color concentrations at facet
gem an unnatural, watery appearance. Some stones have an orange junctions in chromium lattice
color component because repolishing removes some of the treated diffusion treated corundum.
layer from yellow starting material.
Typical cutting style Faceted gems or cabochons
RI 1.762 to OTL (chromium lattice diffusion treated red corundum might

have much higher RI). Readings can be very patchy or localized, and
vary greatly within a single stone when polishing removes some of the
diffusion-treated surface.
John Koivula/GIA
Birefringence/doubling 0.008 to 0.010
Dark blue halo around rutile crys-
tals in beryllium lattice diffusion
SR/DR/AGG DR
treated corundum.
Optic character Uniaxial negative
Pleochroism Some stones show typical pleochroism, but others show a combination
of purplish pink to purplish red and brownish yellow. Individual
stones might show pairs of different pleochroic colors on adjacent
facets where repolishing removed some of the treated layer.
Magnification Lattice diffusion with heavy elements like chromium or titanium

produces color concentrations along facet junctions and girdle
edge and localized or blotchy color that bleeds into pits and surface-
reaching fractures. These indications are best seen through a gem’s
pavilion under immersion or diffused light. Facet junctions and girdle
outline stand out in high relief. (see photos, page 93)
Lattice diffusion with lighter elements like beryllium might penetrate
much more deeply, sometimes throughout the entire stone. Use
immersion with methylene iodide (see page 58 for heavy liquid safety
precautions) and look for a core that’s a different color than the stone’s
surface. The core might be surrounded by a different surface-related
color that follows the gem’s outline. (see photos, page 93)
Lattice diffusion with beryllium
Note: Undamaged inclusions provide direct evidence of a lack of sometimes results in a layer of
synthetic overgrowth. With polar-
treatment. ized lighting (top), it looks like
light areas over the dark body of
Spectrum Generally similar to natural red, pink, and purple corundum, but the fine the stone. In darkfield lighting
lines in the red and blue might be considerably weaker or even absent. (bottom), the randomly oriented
crystals have a slightly different
Fluorescence Lattice diffusion with chromium—Unusual patchy response to SW. look.
Interior of the stone appears inert, but patches of weak to moderate
chalky bluish white to yellowish white appear at the surface. These
luminescent patches are confined to specific facets or groups of facets.
Lattice diffusion with beryllium—Inert to strong orange to reddish
orange
SG 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05)
Comments Key test is magnification with immersion. Higher than normal RIs,
along with a patchy response to SW and atypical pleochroism, can
indicate lattice diffusion treatment with chromium. Might require Lattice diffusion with beryllium
can result in fern-like recrystalliza-
advanced testing. tion of former zircon crystals within
discoid fractures.
89
FLAME-FUSION SYNTHETIC RUBY AND FANCY SAPPHIRE
Variety Synthetic ruby, synthetic sapphire (designate by color)
Species Synthetic corundum
General observation Light pink through slightly orangy red to strong red, slightly to
strongly purplish red to purple. Synthetic ruby must show red as the
dominant color. Might show poor polish, with polishing marks on
most facets due to rapid polishing.
Typical cutting style Faceted gems or cabochons, often symmetrical and cut to precise
calibrated sizes. Often brilliant style, including scissors cut.
RI 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005)
SR/DR/AGG DR
Pleochroism Same as natural, but might be visible directly through the table facet,
which is usually not the case with natural ruby
Magnification Curved growth (striae) often confused with polish marks, but curved
striae are internal and cross facet junctions. Strings of gas bubbles
might resemble needles. Twinning planes possible, but very rare or
difficult to observe. When present, they’re usually formed by rapid
cooling of the boule. These are known as Plato lines. They’re best seen
with magnification, polarized light, and immersion. The stone also
has to be viewed parallel to its optic axis. The twinning then appears
as sets of lines that intersect at 60°or 120° angles. Sometimes quench-
crackled and heated in the presence of a chemical—usually borax—
to create natural-looking fingerprints. This process might make the
striae less visible. (see photos, page 93)
Spectrum Same as natural
Fluorescence Flame-fusion synthetic ruby—Strong red under LW and SW, with

best reaction under SW. Typically slightly stronger than natural ruby.
Flame-fusion synthetic pink sapphire—Moderate to strong red under
LW, weak orangy red to pinkish violet under SW
SG 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05)
Comments The key test for separating flame-fusion synthetic corundum from
natural is magnification. Immersion might help with detection of faint
curved growth structures, especially in pink and purple gems.
90
PULLED SYNTHETIC RUBY AND FANCY FLOATING -ZONE SYNTHETIC RUBY

SAPPHIRE AND FANCY SAPPHIRE
Variety Synthetic ruby, synthetic sapphire Synthetic ruby, synthetic sapphire

(designate by color) (designate by color)
Species Synthetic corundum Synthetic corundum
General observation Light pink through slightly orangy red to strong Light pink through slightly orangy red to
red, slightly to strongly purplish red to purple. strong red, slightly to strongly purplish red to
Synthetic ruby must show red as the dominant purple. Synthetic ruby must show red as the
color. dominant color.
RI 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005) 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005)
Birefringence/doubling 0.008 to 0.010 0.008 to 0.010
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Optic character Uniaxial negative Uniaxial negative
Pleochroism Same as natural Same as natural
Magnification Often nearly inclusion free. Might contain faint Swirls of color and gas bubbles, sometimes
curved striae, gas bubbles, or smoke-like, swirling, distorted in shape
veil-like inclusions, especially in pulled synthetic
star ruby.
Spectrum Colored by chromium—Same as natural Same as natural

Colored by titanium—Weak, with no lines in red
Fluorescence Ruby—Strong red under LW and SW, with best Strong to very strong red under LW, moderate
reaction under SW. Typically slightly stronger than to strong red under SW
natural ruby.
Pink sapphire colored by chromium—Moderate to
strong red under LW, weak orangy red to pinkish
violet under SW
Pink sapphire colored by titanium—Inert to LW,
characteristic chalky blue under SW
SG 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05) 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05)
Comments Key test is magnification, but inclusion-free stones Key test is magnification, but inclusion-free
might need laboratory analysis. stones might need laboratory analysis.
91
FLUX -GROWN SYNTHETIC RUBY HYDROTHERMAL SYNTHETIC RUBY AND

AND FANCY SAPPHIRE FANCY SAPPHIRE
Variety Synthetic ruby, synthetic sapphire (designate by color) Synthetic ruby, synthetic sapphire
(designate by color)
General observation Light pink through slightly orangy red to strong red, slightly to Light pink through slightly orangy red to strong
strongly purplish red to purple. Synthetic ruby must show red as red, slightly to strongly purplish red to purple.
the dominant color. Synthetic ruby must show red as the dominant
color.
RI 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005) 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005)
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Pleochroism Same as natural, although Kashan flux-grown synthetics typically Same as natural
show more orange pleochroism than natural rubies
Magnification Flux inclusions are generally white and high-relief, but might Strong growth zoning possible. To avoid confus-
appear near-colorless, whitish, brownish, or yellow to orange. ing subparallel growth structures with those seen
Flux might also appear as two-phase, wispy veils that look like in natural gems, examine stones in several
natural fingerprints, or as coarse globules that might appear orientations and look for mosaic-type, chevron,
drippy, tubular, rod-like, or icicle-like, or as droplets or dashed or zigzag growth zoning. Sometimes two- or
lines or clouds of minute particles. Flux corundum can have three-phase inclusions in fingerprint patterns;
uniform, parallel growth planes. Sharp-edged triangular or small whitish inclusions; possibly tiny, flake-like
hexagonal platelets or stubby needle-like metallic inclusions copper crystals that show a metallic luster in
(usually platinum) strongly indicate synthetic. Platinum platelets fiber-optic lighting. (see photos, page 93)
show as bright metallic reflections in reflected light, but appear
black when backlit. Some types of flux-grown synthetic ruby
might contain remains of a seed crystal with natural inclusions,
but this is rare. (see photos, page 93)
Spectrum Same as natural Same as natural
Fluorescence Ruby—Strong red, possibly with a bluish overtone under LW. Weak to moderate red under LW, inert to weak
Might be slightly weaker under SW and often slightly stronger red under SW
than natural ruby.
Pink sapphire—Moderate to strong red, possibly chalky under
LW, moderate red to strong orangy red, possibly chalky under
SW. LW and SW reactions might have roughly the same intensity.
SG 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05) 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05)
Comments The key test for separating natural from flux-grown synthetic The key test for separating natural from
corundum is magnification. hydrothermal synthetic corundum is magnifica-
tion.
92
INCLUSION PHOTOGRAPHS
Robert Kane/GIA John Koivula/GIA Robert Kane/GIA John Koivula/GIA
Untreated natural Burmese ruby: Short Untreated natural Afghan ruby: Untreated natural Vietnamese ruby: Untreated natural ruby:
rutile needles and rounded mineral Included crystals of colorless, rounded Apatite crystals and blue color zoning. Negative crystal.
crystals. apatite and dark rutile.
John Koivula/GIA Robert Kane/GIA Duncan Pay Duncan Pay
Heat-treated natural Thai ruby: Melt Heat-treated natural ruby: Heat- Heat-treated natural ruby from Mong Heat-treated natural Mong Hsu
relic with “lacy” fingerprint. damaged crystals (snowballs) with Hsu, Myanmar: Faint hexagonal growth ruby: White hexagonal core.
tension cracks. banding and healed fractures.
John Koivula/GIA Shane McClure/GIA Kay Morrow John Koivula/GIA
Heat-treated natural ruby: Glass-filled Heat-treated natural ruby: Partially Flame-fusion synthetic ruby: Curved Flame-fusion synthetic ruby:
surface-reaching cavity. healed fracture with flux-like residue. striae. Cloud of gas bubbles.
Alan Jobbins Nicholas DelRe/GIA John Koivula/GIA John Koivula/GIA
Flame-fusion synthetic ruby: Curved Flame-fusion synthetic ruby: Partially Flux-grown synthetic ruby: Platinum Flux-grown synthetic ruby:
striae and gas bubbles. healed fractures resulting from quench inclusions. Fingerprint-like inclusion of flux
crackling and heat treating with borax. droplets.
Robert Kane/GIA John Koivula/GIA John Koivula/GIA
Ramaura flux-grown synthetic ruby: Ramaura flux-grown synthetic ruby: Kashan flux-grown synthetic ruby: Hydrothermal synthetic ruby:
Irregular flux inclusions with trapped Wispy veils. “Comet tail” inclusion. Zigzag growth structures.
gas bubbles.
93
SYNTHETIC RUBY OVERGROWTH ON NATURAL

CORUNDUM SEED
Variety Synthetic ruby overgrowth
Species Synthetic corundum/corundum
General observation Color appears strongly saturated red face-up, but patchy table-down
on white paper. Color is actually confined to a thin layer of synthetic
ruby (0.1 to 0.3 mm thick) over an essentially colorless faceted natural
corundum seed. Repolishing removes areas of the overgrowth, leading
to uneven color distribution.
RI Normal corundum readings of 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005) in areas

where the synthetic overgrowth was removed by repolishing, but OTL
in areas where the chromium-rich overgrowth remains
Birefringence/doubling 0.008 to 0.010 where overgrowth was removed
SR/DR/AGG DR
Magnification Fashioned stones might show areas of crystal growth that are smooth
and slightly wavy or stepped with a series of small, flat crystal
Both by Christopher P. Smith/Gübelin Gem Lab
surfaces. They might also show indentations or cavities with similarly
Looking at corundum with a synthetic over-
stepped sides that were missed in the repolishing process. There’s a
growth layer under magnification in darkfield
(top) and reflected light (bottom), you can see very sharp boundary between the red overgrowth layer and the color-
that the facet junctions of the core material and less seed, along with a high concentration of aligned, linear inclusions
the overgrowth layer don’t align. along the boundary between the synthetic ruby overgrowth and the
seed. These inclusions outline the seed’s original facets, which might
not match the repolished surface above. With immersion, you might
also see a “mottled” or “roiled” texture within the overgrowth layer.
This contrasts with the heat-treated natural inclusions visible in the
seed corundum.
Spectrum Typical of natural or synthetic ruby; might be weak or very strong
Fluorescence Inert to faint red under LW, inert to SW
SG 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05)
Comments Key tests are immersion and magnification.
94
NATURAL COLOR-CHANGE SAPPHIRE

COLOR -CHANGE FLAME-FUSION SYNTHETIC
SAPPHIRE COLOR-CHANGE SAPPHIRE
Variety Color-change sapphire Synthetic color-change sapphire
Prism
Species Corundum Synthetic corundum
450 470
460
General observation Commonly pink-brown through Typically reddish purple or purple in
brownish pink and purple, very incandescent light, changing to gray-
Diffraction
rarely reddish brown in incan- ish blue in daylight and fluorescent
descent light, changing to lighting. Vitreous to subadamantine
yellowish brown, grayish violet, polish luster, conchoidal fracture
450 470
grayish blue, or very rarely with vitreous fracture luster. 460
green in daylight and fluores-
cent light. Vitreous to
subadamantine polish luster, Natural color-change corundum often shows
conchoidal fracture with vitre- chromium lines in the red with iron-related lines
ous fracture luster. at about 450 nm, 460 nm, and 470 nm.
Typical cutting style Faceted gems, cabochons Faceted gems, cabochons
RI 1.762 to 1.770 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005)

(+0.009/-0.005)
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Magnification Fingerprint and two-phase Gas bubbles, curved growth (striae)

inclusions; dark red-brown
crystals (possibly rutile), Flame-fusion synthetic color-change sapphire
typically appears purplish under incandescent
needles, and other natural
light (left) and grayish blue under fluorescent
mineral crystal inclusions. light (right).
Might also show strong color
zoning in yellow, green-blue,
FLAME-FUSION SYNTHETIC COLOR-CHANGE
blue, purple-pink, and brownish SAPPHIRE
pink when viewed under
incandescent light.
Prism
Spectrum Typically combines features of Cutoff at about 460 nm, strong line
ruby and pink sapphire or band due to vanadium at 474 nm,
(chromium lines in the red) faint broad absorption between 550 474 690
with iron-related lines at about nm and 610 nm, and possibly a fluo-
450 nm, 460 nm, and 470 nm. rescent line in the red at 690 nm
Diffraction
Might show a vanadium line at

a position similar to the one
seen in a synthetic’s spectrum.
474 690
Fluorescence Generally inert Moderate orange to red under LW

and SW. Might fluoresce red under
Flame-fusion synthetic color-change sapphires
LW and mottled blue under SW.
show a cutoff around 460 nm and a strong line
or band at 474 nm. There’s also a faint broad
SG 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05) 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05) absorption between 550 nm and 610 nm, and
an emission line in the red at 690 nm.
Comments Key tests are detection of color Key tests are detection of color change,
change, RI, birefringence, and RI, birefringence, magnification, and
magnification. Magnification spectrum.
is the key test for separating
natural from synthetic color-
change sapphire.
95
PYROPE-SPESSARTITE GARNET
PYROPE -SPESSARTITE PYROPE-ALMANDITE GARNET
GARNET
Variety Color change (if present) Rhodolite, only if the gem has a
Prism
purple color component.

Otherwise, list the species.
410 430
420
Species Pyrope-spessartite Pyrope-almandite
Diffraction
Group Garnet Garnet
General observation Usually light to dark, slightly Orangy red to brownish red, dark
410 430
420
pinkish orange, reddish red to purplish red to light reddish
orange, or orangy red to purple. Rhodolite variety must have
yellowish orange. Vitreous a purple color component. High-
Pyrope-spessartite garnet’s spectrum shows to subadamantine polish quality gems have medium to
strong bands at 410 nm, 420 nm, and 430 nm luster, conchoidal fracture medium-dark tone. Vitreous polish
in the blue-violet area of the spectrum and a with vitreous fracture luster. luster, conchoidal fracture with
combination of lines at 460 nm, 480 nm, 504 Might show color change. greasy to vitreous fracture luster.
nm, 520 nm, and 573 nm in the blue-green to
yellow area.
Typical cutting style Faceted gems or cabochons Faceted gems or cabochons
PYROPE-ALMANDITE GARNET RI 1.750 to 1.780 1.750 to 1.780

Prism
SR/DR/AGG SR, often with ADR SR, often with ADR
505 575 Pleochroism None None

527
Magnification Mineral inclusions (rutile, Similar to almandite, with needle-

Diffraction
apatite, pyrite), often seen as like inclusions, usually intersecting

intersecting needles at 70° and 110° angles in the same
plane, high- and low-relief crystals,
505 575 and zircon crystals with strain
527
halos
Pyrope-almandite and rhodolite spectra Spectrum Strong bands at 410 nm, 420 Same as almandite, with three
typically show very strong bands at 505 nm, nm, and 430 nm occasionally strong bands in the green and
527 nm, and 575 nm in the yellow-green area. merge to form a cutoff at yellow of the spectrum at 505 nm,
435 nm. Also often shows 527 nm, and 575 nm. Most red-
lines in the blue-to-green and garnet mixtures of pyrope and
yellow of the spectrum at almandite, including rhodolite,
460 nm, 480 nm, 504 nm, show this spectrum.
520 nm, and 573 nm.
SG 3.78 to 3.85 3.84 (+/-0.10)
Comments Key tests are color, RI, SR Key tests are RI, SR nature, and
nature, and spectrum. spectrum. Purple color component
Bands in the blue area of must be present for rhodolite
pyrope-spessartite garnet’s variety.
spectrum help separate it
from pyrope-almandite.
Sometimes sold as “malaya”
or “malaia” in the trade.
96
ALEXANDRITE (PURPLE-RED DIRECTION)

ALEXANDRITE
Variety Alexandrite
Prism
Species Chrysoberyl
General observation Color change from yellowish, brownish, grayish, or bluish green in
daylight or fluorescent light to orangy or brownish red to purplish
red in incandescent light. Vitreous to subadamantine polish luster,
Diffraction
conchoidal fracture with greasy to vitreous fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Faceted
RI 1.746 to 1.755 (+0.004/-0.006)

In the purple-red pleochroic direction, alexandrite’s
Birefringence/doubling 0.008 to 0.010 spectrum has strong lines in the red at 678 nm
and 680.5 nm; weaker ones at 645 nm and 655
SR/DR/AGG DR nm; a broad absorption between 540 nm and 605
nm; weak lines in the blue at 468 nm, 473 nm, and
Optic character Biaxial positive 476.5 nm; and a cutoff in the violet.
Pleochroism Strong green, orange, and purple-red trichroism ALEXANDRITE (GREEN DIRECTION)
Magnification Might show fingerprints, angular included crystals, negative crystals,
Prism
liquid inclusions, needle-like inclusions, or twinning
Spectrum Typical chromium spectrum varies with pleochroism:

Purple-red pleochroic direction—Strong lines in the red at 678 nm
and 680.5 nm; weaker ones at 645 nm and 655 nm; a broad absorption
Diffraction
between about 540 nm and 605 nm; weak lines in the blue at 468 nm,
473 nm, and 476.5 nm; and a cutoff in the violet
Green pleochroic direction—Strong lines in the red at 678 nm and
680.5 nm; weaker ones at 645 nm, 649 nm, 655 nm, and 665 nm; a
broad absorption between about 555 nm and 640 nm; and a cutoff in
the violet at about 470 nm
Orange pleochroic direction—No strong absorptions In the green pleochroic direction, alexandrite
shows strong lines in the red at 678 nm and
Fluorescence Inert to moderate red under LW and SW 680.5 nm; weaker ones at 645 nm, 649 nm,
SG 3.73 (+/-0.02) between about 555 nm and 640 nm; and a
cutoff in the violet at about 470 nm.
Comments Key tests are appearance of color change, RI, pleochroism, and spectrum.
Magnification separates natural from synthetic alexandrite.
John Koivula/GIA
Natural alexandrite can
contain negative crystals (above),
angular fluorite crystals (top
right), and angular apatite crystals
(bottom right).
John Koivula/GIA Both by Tino Hammid/GIA
Natural alexandrites show a color

change from purplish red in incandes-
cent light (top) to bluish green in
fluorescent light (bottom).
97
SYNTHETIC ALEXANDRITE
Variety Synthetic alexandrite
Species Synthetic chrysoberyl
General observation Bluish green in daylight or fluorescent light, brownish red to purple-
John Koivula/GIA
Hexagonal platinum platelet in flux-

RI 1.746 to 1.755 (+0.004/-0.006)
grown synthetic alexandrite.
SR/DR/AGG DR
Optic character Biaxial positive
Pleochroism Strong green, orange, and purple-red trichroism
Magnification Flux—Veil-like inclusions, tubes or parallel planes of flux, hexagonal

or triangular metallic platelets, uniform straight or angular growth
Large brown flux inclusion in synthetic lines
alexandrite. Pulled—Needle-like inclusions, curved striae, minute gas bubbles
Floating zone—Gas bubbles, swirled appearance
Fluorescence Typically moderate to strong red under LW and SW
SG 3.73 (+/-0.02)
Comments Magnification is the key test for separating synthetic from natural
alexandrite. Strong red fluorescence indicates synthetic.
Parallel growth features in flux-grown

synthetic alexandrite.
Shane McClure/GIA
Curved growth in pulled synthetic

alexandrite.
98
RHODONITE5
SINGLE-CRYSTAL RHODONITE PYROPE GARNET
Species Rhodonite Pyrope
Prism
Group Not required Garnet
General observation Red, orangy red, pink. Vitreous Medium to dark reddish
to subvitreous polish luster, orange, red through slightly
conchoidal fracture with vitreous purplish red to pale pink,
Diffraction
fracture luster. Can show perfect colorless (rare). Vitreous
cleavage in two directions. Mohs polish luster, conchoidal frac-
5.5 to 6.5. ture with greasy to vitreous
fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Faceted mainly for collectors Faceted gems or cabochons Rhodonite shows a broad band centered on
548 nm with narrow bands at 408 nm, 412 nm,
RI 1.733 to 1.747 (+0.010/-0.013) 1.730 to a little over 1.750 455 nm, and 503 nm.
(Around 1.740 is normal,
although some rare light pink CHROME PYROPE
to colorless pyrope might drop
to 1.717)
Prism
Birefringence/doubling 0.010 to 0.014 None
SR/DR/AGG DR SR, often with ADR
Optic character Biaxial positive Not applicable
Diffraction
Pleochroism Weak to moderate, orange-red None
and brownish red
Magnification Not diagnostic Needle-like included crystals

and irregular rounded
included crystals A pyrope garnet colored by chromium might
show a band at 505 nm plus broad absorption
Spectrum Might show a broad band cen- Chrome pyrope—Band at between 520 nm and 620 nm, and possibly fine
lines in the red at 685 nm and 687 nm. There’s a
tered on 548 nm and narrow 505 nm plus broad absorption
cutoff around 490 nm.
bands at 408 nm, 412 nm, 455 between 520 nm and 620 nm.
nm, and 503 nm Possibly fine lines in the red at
685 nm and 687 nm. Cutoff NON-CHROME PYROPE
around 490 nm.
Non-chrome pyrope—Only
the 505-nm band and a cutoff
Prism
around 490 nm
SG 3.50 (+0.26/-0.20) 3.78 (+0.09/-0.16)

Diffraction
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence, Key tests are RI and spectrum,
and spectrum. and possibly color and SR
nature. Some stones might
show a pyrope spectrum along
with an RI that’s slightly
above 1.750. If this occurs, Pyrope garnets that aren’t colored by
the spectrum positively identi- chromium show a cutoff around 490 nm and
just the 505-nm band.
fies the stone as pyrope.
99
FLUX-GROWN SYNTHETIC RED SPINEL

FLAME -FUSION SYNTHETIC FLUX-GROWN SYNTHETIC
SPINEL SPINEL
Species Synthetic spinel Synthetic spinel

Prism
General observation Pale pink most common, red very Usually a vivid, medium dark,
rare slightly purplish red
Typical cutting style Faceted Faceted

Diffraction
RI Red (very rare)—1.722 (+/-0.003) 1.719 (+/-0.003)

Pink—1.728 (+0.012/-0.008)
Flux-grown synthetic spinel might have fewer SR/DR/AGG SR with strong ADR (crosshatch SR
lines in the red of its spectrum than its natural effect common)
counterpart.
Magnification Might contain gas bubbles (might Orangy brown to black

be thread-like or, rarely, angular). flux inclusions, alone or in a
Red stones might show curved fingerprint pattern. Also look
striae or curved color banding. for metallic platelets.
Spectrum Same as natural Usually same as natural, but

some spectra might show
John Koivula/GIA fewer lines in the red area
Angular flux inclusions with trapped
gas bubbles in flux-grown synthetic Fluorescence Red stones are strong red under Strong purplish red to slightly
spinel. LW and weak to moderate red orangy red under LW and
under SW. Pink stones are inert to weaker slightly orangy red
both LW and SW. under SW
SG Red—3.59 (+/-0.01) 3.61 (+/-0.03)

Pink—3.64 (+0.02/-0.12)
Comments Key tests are RI, SR/ADR Magnification is the key test
polariscope reaction, and magnifi- for separating flux-grown
cation. Triplets that imitate synthetic spinel from natural
John Koivula/GIA
amethyst (soudé amethyst) are spinel.
Tiny flux particles in flux-grown made using colorless synthetic
synthetic spinel. spinel joined by a dark purple
cement layer. If you get a 1.728 RI
on a gem resembling amethyst,
always check for a separation
plane.
John Koivula/GIA
Flux inclusion forming a fingerprint-like

pattern in flux-grown synthetic spinel.
100
NATURAL RED SPINEL

SPINEL TAAFFEITE
Species Spinel Taaffeite
Prism
General observation Light pink through strongly Pink to red and purple (also
saturated reddish orange, orangy blue, violet, brown, and
red, pure red, and purplish red to colorless). Vitreous polish
purple. Vitreous to subadamantine luster, conchoidal fracture
Diffraction
with vitreous fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Faceted gems or cabochons Faceted
RI 1.718 (+0.017/-0.008) (red and 1.719 to 1.723 (+/-0.002)

blue spinel often in high range)
Spinel’s spectrum often shows closely spaced
Birefringence/doubling None 0.004 to 0.005 lines in the red, including strong ones at 684
nm and 686 nm. There are also lines at 632
SR/DR/AGG SR (rarely with ADR) DR nm, 642 nm, 650 nm, 656 nm, 665 nm, and
675 nm, as well as broad absorption of the
green area.
Optic character Not applicable Uniaxial negative
Magnification Minute octahedra or negative Natural inclusions

crystals, alone or in fingerprint
patterns; included crystals, iron
oxide staining
Spectrum Many red-to-pink stones show a Not diagnostic

strong chromium spectrum with a Michael Waitzman/GIA
closely spaced group of up to ten Fingerprint in natural spinel.
fluorescent lines in the red, with
the strongest ones at 684 nm and
686 nm. There are also lines at
632 nm, 642 nm, 650 nm, 656
nm, 665 nm, and 675 nm, plus a
broad absorption of the green
area of the spectrum.
Fluorescence Weak to strong red or orange Inert to weak green under

under LW, inert or weak red or LW and SW
orange-red under SW John Koivula/GIA
Fingerprint pattern in natural spinel,

SG 3.60 (+0.10/-0.03) 3.61 (+/-0.01) made up of minute octahedra.
Comments Key tests are RI, SR nature, Key tests are RI, birefrin-
magnification, and spectrum. gence, and optic character.
Very rare.
Octahedral mineral crystal in natural

spinel.
101
TANZANITE KUNZITE ANDALUSITE
Variety Tanzanite Kunzite Not required
Species Zoisite Spodumene Andalusite
General observation Light to medium-dark bluish Pink to violet-pink, often light in Yellowish green to brownish green and orangy
purple and violetish blue to violet. tone. Vitreous polish luster, brown. Due to strong pleochroism, both green
Zoisite also occurs in light-toned uneven to splintery fracture with and orangy pleochroic colors might be visible
pink or parti-colored colorless and vitreous fracture luster. Perfect through the crown. Depending on cutting
pink. Vitreous polish luster, con- cleavage in two directions at orientation, might appear brownish red. Vitreous
choidal to uneven fracture with nearly 90° angles to one another. polish luster, uneven to conchoidal fracture with
vitreous fracture luster. Perfect vitreous fracture luster. Distinct cleavage in one
cleavage in one direction. direction.
Typical cutting style Faceted Faceted, often with deep pavilion Faceted
to help improve depth of color
RI 1.691 to 1.700 (+/-0.005) 1.660 to 1.676 (+/-0.005) 1.634 to 1.643 (+/-0.005)
Birefringence/doubling 0.008 to 0.013 0.014 to 0.016 0.007 to 0.013 (tends to be higher when RI
values are low)
SR/DR/AGG DR DR DR
Optic character Biaxial positive Biaxial positive (common point Biaxial negative
is 0.006 from the high RI)
Pleochroism Strong. Usually strong blue, Moderate to strong pink to light Very strong, generally light yellowish green
purplish red, and greenish yellow. purple and colorless, except in and dark brownish red
Sometimes strong blue, violet, light stones
and colorless.
Magnification Often inclusion free Growth tubes and liquid Needles (probably rutile) and crystals (probably
inclusions apatite)
Spectrum Not diagnostic, but you might see Not diagnostic Not diagnostic, but might show clusters of
bands at 595 nm, 528 nm, and fine lines around 485 nm to 518 nm and around
455 nm 550 nm
Fluorescence Generally inert Strong yellowish pink to orange Inert to LW. Might fluoresce weak to moderate
under LW, weaker under SW green to yellowish green under SW.
SG 3.35 (+0.10/-0.25) 3.18 (+/-0.03) 3.17
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence, Key tests are RI, birefringence, Key tests are RI, birefringence, optic character,
optic character, and pleochroism. and fluorescence. and pleochroism.
Color usually a result of non-
detectable heat treatment.
Robert Weldon Robert Weldon/GIA
Tanzanite’s hues range from Andalusite has attractive

bluish purple to violetish blue. eye-visible pleochroism.
102
APATITE DANBURITE TOPAZ
Species Apatite Danburite Topaz
General observation Pink to purple. Vitreous Transparent to translucent Pale pink to strong red, purplish red and reddish purple;
polish luster, conchoidal to colorless to light pink. Vitreous also fine medium orange-red (imperial). Vitreous polish
uneven fracture with vitre- to greasy polish luster, uneven luster, conchoidal fracture with vitreous fracture luster.
ous fracture luster. Surface to subconchoidal fracture with Perfect basal cleavage, possibly with iridescent cleavage
might show abrasions due vitreous to greasy fracture planes. The color of some red to pink topaz results from
to low hardness (Mohs 5). luster. treatment with a surface coating.
Typical cutting style Faceted gems or cabochons Faceted Faceted

(for chatoyant gems)
RI 1.634 to 1.638 1.630 to 1.636 (+/-0.003) 1.619 to 1.627 (+/-0.010); red, pink, and purple stones
(+0.012/-0.006) typically 1.629 to 1.637
Birefringence/doubling 0.002 to 0.008 0.006 0.008 to 0.010
SR/DR/AGG DR DR DR
Optic character Uniaxial negative (distorted Biaxial positive or negative Biaxial positive (common point is 0.001 from the low
optic figure possible—might (common point almost RI)
appear biaxial) halfway between low and high
RI)
Pleochroism Weak to very weak, in None Weak to moderate, light red and orangy red to yellow
tones of bodycolor
Magnification Natural inclusions Natural inclusions Two- and three-phase inclusions, and inclusions
containing two non-miscible (unmixed) liquids. Surface
treatment results in spotty color. Chips on facet
junctions might reveal colorless material underneath.
Spectrum Not diagnostic Some stones might show a Not diagnostic, but some pink, red, and purple stones
doublet at 580 nm due to might show chromium lines in the red.
traces of rare-earth elements.
Fluorescence Not diagnostic Inert or strong light blue to Variable

blue-green under LW, inert or
weaker under SW
SG 3.18 (+/-0.05) 3.00 (+/-0.03) 3.53 (+/-0.04)
Comments Key tests are RI, birefrin- Key tests are RI, birefringence, Key tests are RI, birefringence, and optic character.
gence, and optic character. optic character, and possibly SG is helpful if you can’t obtain birefringence.
Apatite’s low numerical SG. Magnification is a key identifier of surface-treated
RI is generally higher than topaz.
the low numerical RI of
tourmaline.
Fine-quality
purplish red
topaz is rare.
Surface coating can

produce a variety of
colors from colorless
topaz. Magnification is
the best way to detect
the coating.
103
RED TO PINK TOURMALINE

TOURMALINE PARTI -COLORED TOURMALINE
Variety Not required Parti-colored

Prism
Species Tourmaline Tourmaline
General observation Light pink through strongly Strong color zoning in varying combi-
saturated orangy red, pure nations of green, blue, and red hues,
red, purplish red to purple. usually alternating with colorless zones.
Diffraction
Vitreous polish luster, Vitreous polish luster, conchoidal

conchoidal fracture with fracture with vitreous fracture luster.
vitreous fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Faceted gems, cabochons, Faceted gems, cabochons, polished
or carvings crystal slices, or carvings
Red to pink tourmaline’s spectrum shows an
increasing absorption through the blue to the RI 1.624 to 1.644 1.624 to 1.644 (+0.011/-0.009)
violet, fine lines at 450 nm and 458 nm, and (+0.011/-0.009)
broad absorption centered on 525 nm with a
fine line at 537 nm. Birefringence/doubling Usually 0.018 to 0.020 Usually 0.018 to 0.020
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Pleochroism Medium to strong, usually Usually medium to strong, but might

two tones of gem’s body- vary depending on which area of the
color stone you examine
Magnification Thread-like liquid and gas Color zoning, thread-like liquid and
inclusions (trichites), mirror- gas inclusions (trichites), mirror-like
Robert Weldon/GIA like gas-filled fractures, gas-filled fractures
color zoning, needles,
crystals, liquid inclusions,
and growth tubes
Spectrum Often not diagnostic, but Usually not diagnostic

some red stones might show
increasing absorption through
the blue to the violet, fine
lines at 450 nm and 458 nm,
and broad absorption cen-
tered on 525 nm with a fine
line at 537 nm.
Fluorescence Variable. Some pink stones Variable

might range from inert to
weak red under LW and
SW.
SG 3.06 (+0.20/-0.06) 3.06 (+0.20/-0.06)
Comments Key tests are almost always Key tests are appearance and almost
Both by Maha Tannous/GIA RI and birefringence. If always RI and birefringence. If bire-
Parti-colored tourmalines are zoned with two birefringence isn’t obtain- fringence isn’t obtainable, uniaxial
or more colors (top). The category includes able, uniaxial optic figure, optic figure, pleochroism, and SG
watermelon tourmalines (center) and liddicoatite pleochroism, and SG can can be helpful. Watermelon tourmaline
(bottom). be helpful. Red and strong has a red or pink core with green
pink tourmaline is called overgrowth. Bicolor stones display
rubellite in the trade. two distinct colors.
104
PEZZOTTAITE SINGLE-CRYSTAL RHODOCHROSITE
Species Pezzottaite Rhodochrosite
General observation Purplish pink. Vitreous polish luster, conchoidal fracture Pink or pinkish orange to deep red. Vitreous to
with vitreous to resinous fracture luster. Faceted stones are subvitreous polish luster. Easy cleavage in three
typically small, with eye-visible inclusions. Often shows directions, doubling evident with unaided eye. Might
chatoyancy, making it closely resemble cat’s-eye tourmaline. show poor polish due to low hardness (Mohs 4).
Typical cutting style Faceted gems or cabochons, depending on clarity Faceted mainly for collectors
RI 1.608 to 1.617 (+0.010) 1.597 to 1.817 (OTL) (+/-0.003)
Birefringence/doubling 0.008 to 0.009 0.220 (use birefringence blink method)
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Optic character Uniaxial negative (might show strain under polariscope) Uniaxial negative
Pleochroism Moderate pinkish orange and purplish pink to pinkish purple Moderate to strong. Some material shows red and
brownish red (South Africa), while some shows light
yellowish orange and orange-pink (Colorado).
Magnification Liquid inclusions; growth tubes, which might be numerous Liquid and two-phase inclusions are often plentiful.
enough to cause chatoyancy; fingerprints and numerous Expect strong doubling due to high birefringence.
fractures
Spectrum Band between 485 nm and 500 nm, might show weak lines at Very dark band around 410 nm, weaker bands at 450
465 nm and 477 nm, and a weak band between 550 nm and nm and 545 nm
580 nm
Fluorescence Inert Inert to dull red under LW, inert to SW
SG 3.04 to 3.14 (usually 3.10) 3.70 to 3.71
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence, optic character, and spectrum. Key tests are RI, birefringence, and spectrum.
Pezzottaite was originally considered to be a cesium-rich
variety of beryl, but was classified as a new mineral in late
2003. The original deposit is depleted and the gem has become
a high-priced rarity for collectors. Might be sold as “hot pink-
red beryl,” “red beryl,” “raspberyl,” or malagasite in the trade.
RHODOCHROSITE
Prism
Eric Welch/GIA
Diffraction
This 7.66-ct. pezzottaite

displays the gem’s characteris-
tic purplish pink color.
Rhodochrosite’s spectrum shows a very dark band around

410 nm in the violet area with weaker bands at 450 nm in
the blue area and 545 nm in the green area.
105
MORGANITE HYDROTHERMAL SYNTHETIC

BERYL
Variety Morganite Synthetic red, synthetic morganite

(if pink)
Species Beryl Synthetic beryl
General observation Pink to purplish pink, often Purple-red to orange-red or pink

James Shigley/GIA
light in tone. Vitreous polish
luster, conchoidal fracture
Chevron-type internal growth zoning in
hydrothermal synthetic red beryl. with vitreous to resinous
fracture luster.
HYDROTHERMAL SYNTHETIC REDDISH PURPLE
TO PURPLE BERYL Typical cutting style Faceted Faceted
RI 1.583 to 1.590 1.571 to 1.578 (+0.002/-0.003)

Prism
(+0.012/-0.011) (often slightly higher than natural

red beryl)

Diffraction
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Pleochroism Weak to distinct, in lighter Moderate to very strong purplish

and darker hues of bodycolor red and orange-red to orange-brown
Reddish purple to purple hydrothermal
synthetic beryl might display a band at 435 nm Magnification Liquid and two-phase inclu- Chevron growth zoning, tiny
in the blue-violet, a broad absorption between sions, hollow or liquid-filled liquid or two-phase inclusions
540 nm and 580 nm in the green, and sharp parallel tubes, fingerprints along partially healed fractures, tiny
lines at 650 nm, 660 nm, and 670 nm in the red. inclusions with a dendritic (branch-
like) appearance, and occasional
HYDROTHERMAL SYNTHETIC RED BERYL nailhead spicules
Spectrum Not diagnostic Reddish purple to purple—Might

Prism
display a band at 435 nm, broad

absorption between 540 nm and
580 nm, and sharp lines at 650 nm,
660 nm, and 670 nm
Red—Might display a weak band at
Diffraction
420 nm, broad absorption between

435 nm and 465 nm, and bands at
530 nm and 545 nm. Might also
show lines at 560 nm and 585 nm.
Fluorescence Inert to pink to violetish red Inert

under both LW and SW
Hydrothermal synthetic red beryl might
show a weak band at 420 nm, a broad SG 2.80 to 2.91 2.67 to 2.70
absorption between 435 nm and 465 nm
in the blue, and bands at 530 nm and 545 nm.
There might also be lines at 560 nm and
Comments Key tests are RI, birefrin- Magnification is the key test for
585 nm in the green-yellow area. gence, and optic character. separating synthetic from natural
Magnification is the key test red beryl.
for separating natural from
synthetic morganite.
106
RED BERYL LABRADORITE
Variety Red Sunstone (when aventurescence is

present)
Species Beryl Labradorite
Group Not required Feldspar
General observation Purplish red to red to Oregon material (rare) ranges from pale
orange-red, darker and more pinkish orange and pink to moderate Robert Kane/GIA
saturated than morganite. and strongly saturated reddish orange, Hexagonal growth zoning in natural red beryl.
Vitreous polish luster, con- red-orange, and deep red. Red and green
choidal fracture with bicolor gems exist, but are extremely NATURAL RED BERYL
vitreous to resinous fracture rare. Often displays aventurescence.
luster. Vitreous polish luster, uneven to splintery
fracture with vitreous to pearly fracture
Prism
luster. Two cleavage directions. Parting
also common.
Typical cutting style Faceted Faceted gems, cabochons, carvings
Diffraction
RI 1.566 to 1.572 1.559 to 1.568 (+/-0.005); Oregon
(+0.002/-0.003) material commonly 1.563 to 1.572
Birefringence/doubling 0.006 to 0.008 0.009
SR/DR/AGG DR DR Natural red beryl might show bands at 435 nm

and 455 nm in the blue, combined with broad
Optic character Uniaxial negative Biaxial positive (often shows twinning absorption between 500 nm and 590 nm in the
in the polariscope) green-yellow area of the spectrum.
Pleochroism Moderate to strong purplish Oregon material might show very

red to red to orange-red strong red and green pleochroism. If
properly oriented, a faceted gem might
appear uniformly red when viewed from
one side and green when examined
from the other.
Magnification Liquid-filled inclusions, Oregon material contains tiny orangy

fingerprints, two-phase and yellow copper platelets, often visible Robert Weldon/GIA
three-phase inclusions, hollow even in facet-grade material at 10X.
Aventurescence in sunstone
or liquid-filled parallel Aventurescence results when these are labradorite.
tubes, tiny grains or crystals numerous enough.
Spectrum Might show bands at Not diagnostic

435 nm and 455 nm and
broad absorption between
500 nm and 590 nm
SG 2.66 to 2.70 2.70 (+/-0.05); Oregon material typi-

cally 2.67 to 2.72
Comments Key tests are RI, birefrin- Key tests are RI, birefringence, optic
gence, and strength of color. character, and magnification.
Magnification is the key Labradorite from Oregon is commonly
test for separating natural called sunstone whether or not it
from synthetic beryl. displays aventurescence.
107
SCAPOLITE AMETHYST
Variety Not required Amethyst
Species Scapolite Quartz
General observation Violet, purple, rarely red. Vitreous Purple through violetish purple. Vitreous
polish luster, conchoidal fracture with polish luster, conchoidal fracture with
Eric Welch/GIA vitreous fracture luster. Two cleavage vitreous fracture luster.
Purple scapolite can look like directions.
amethyst, and the RIs of the
two stones might also overlap. Typical cutting style Faceted Faceted gems, cabochons, or beads.
If they do, check for optic
Translucent material might be carved.
sign. Scapolite is uniaxial
negative, while amethyst is
uniaxial positive. RI 1.550 to 1.564 (+0.015/-0.014). 1.544 to 1.553 (very constant)
Purple-to-violet stones commonly
1.536 to 1.541.
Birefringence/doubling 0.005 to 0.038, commonly 0.005 to 0.009

0.020 (increases as RI increases).
0.005.
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Optic character Uniaxial negative Uniaxial positive. Might show a bull’s-eye

or Airy’s spiral optic figure and Brazil-law
Many amethysts contain
twinning under crossed polarizing filters.
parallel liquid inclusions that
gemologists call “soap scum”
or “zebra stripes.” They result Pleochroism Moderate to strong blue and bluish Weak to moderate purple and reddish purple
from disturbances during purple in pink, purple, and violet
growth. stones
Magnification Natural inclusions Color zoning, liquid, two-phase, and three-

phase inclusions, negative crystals
Spectrum Not diagnostic, except in pink stones, Not diagnostic

which might show lines at 652 nm
and 663 nm
Fluorescence Inert to strong pink, yellow, or orange Generally inert
John Koivula/GIA SG 2.68 (+0.06/-0.08). Often 2.60 in 2.66 (+0.03/-0.02)

Some amethysts contain purple-to-violet stones
needles composed of hematite.
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence, and Key tests are RI, birefringence, optic charac-
optic character. When scapolite’s RI is ter, and optic figure. Magnification might
as high as beryl’s and labradorite’s, it separate natural from synthetic amethyst, but
has much higher birefringence than advanced testing might be required. Visual
either gem. Visual plotting might be plotting might be necessary to separate
necessary to separate scapolite from amethyst from scapolite. Presence of Brazil-
amethyst. law twinning separates amethyst from
scapolite with similar properties.
Shane McClure/GIA
When viewed under crossed

polarizing filters, an amethyst
might display twinning.
108
AMETRINE HYDROTHERMAL SYNTHETIC AMETHYST
Variety Ametrine Synthetic amethyst
Species Quartz Synthetic quartz
General observation Bicolored combination of amethyst Most properties same as natural

and citrine colors. Vitreous polish
luster, conchoidal fracture with
Typical cutting style Faceted (often rectangular step cut) Faceted Synthetic amethyst might
contain the two-phase
spicule inclusions that are
RI 1.544 to 1.553 (very constant) 1.544 to 1.553 characteristic of hydrothermal
growth.
Birefringence/doubling 0.009 0.009
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Optic character Uniaxial positive. Might show a Uniaxial positive

bull’s-eye or Airy’s spiral optic
figure and Brazil-law twinning
under crossed polarizing filters.
Pleochroism Very weak, with different tones of None

yellow or orange in yellow areas,
weak to moderate purple and reddish
purple in purple areas
Magnification Color zoning, twinning, liquid, two- Often inclusion-free, but might contain
phase and three-phase inclusions, characteristics of hydrothermal growth like
and negative crystals breadcrumb inclusions, two-phase (liquid and
gas) spicule inclusions perpendicular to a seed
plate, color banding parallel to a seed plate,
and flame-like twinning (rather than Brazil-law
twinning).
Spectrum Not diagnostic Not diagnostic
Fluorescence Generally inert Generally inert
SG 2.66 (+0.03/-0.02) 2.66 (+0.03/-0.02)
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, Many synthetic amethysts are virtually inclu-
birefringence, optic character, and sion-free and grown on twinned seed crystals,
optic figure. so they might show Brazil-law twinning like
natural amethyst. It might be impossible to
distinguish between these synthetics and
natural gems using conventional gem-testing
equipment. Advanced laboratory testing can
separate hydrothermal synthetic quartz from
natural stones.
109
SYNTHETIC AMETRINE HYDROTHERMAL SYNTHETIC PINK QUARTZ
Variety Synthetic ametrine Not required
Species Synthetic quartz Synthetic quartz
General observation Most properties same as natural Light to medium-light pink, often with distinct, eye-
visible bands that are darker than the background
RI 1.544 to 1.553 (very constant) 1.544 to 1.553
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Optic character Uniaxial positive. Might show a bull’s- Uniaxial positive

eye or Airy’s spiral optic figure and
Brazil-law twinning under crossed
polarizing filters.
Magnification Often inclusion-free, but might contain Often inclusion free, but might contain characteristics
characteristics of hydrothermal growth indicating hydrothermal growth: breadcrumb inclu-
like breadcrumb inclusions, two-phase sions, two-phase (liquid and gas) spicule inclusions
(liquid and gas) spicule inclusions perpendicular to a seed plate, color banding parallel to
perpendicular to a seed plate, color a seed plate, and flame-like twinning (rather than
banding parallel to a seed plate, and Brazil-law twinning).
flame-like twinning (rather than Brazil-
law twinning).
SG 2.66 (+0.03/-0.02) 2.66 (+0.03/-0.02)
Comments Some synthetic quartz is virtually Much greater degree of transparency than rose
inclusion-free and grown on twinned quartz, might need advanced laboratory testing.
seed crystals, so it might show Brazil- Transparent pink quartz is rare in nature.
law twinning like natural material. It
might be impossible to distinguish
between these synthetics and natural
gems using conventional gem-testing
equipment. Advanced laboratory testing
can separate hydrothermal synthetic
quartz from natural quartz.
Maha Tannous/GIA Taijin Lu/GIA Maha Tannous/GIA
The colorless seed plates are easy You might see needle-like two-phase Manufacturers produce hydrothermal
to see in these synthetic ametrine inclusions in a synthetic ametrine. synthetic quartz in many colors, includ-
crystals. ing pink.
110
QUENCH-CRACKLED DYED QUARTZ CALCITE OPAL
Species Quartz Calcite Opal
Required treatment call Quench-crackled, dyed None None
General observation Quench crackling (heating and then rapid Occurs in almost all colors. Transparent to semitranslucent yellow,
cooling) produces multiple fractures to Vitreous to greasy polish luster. red, orangy red, or orange. Red or
create iridescent effects or to allow dye Three cleavage directions. Strong orangy red stone sold as fire opal in
penetration. Most commonly green or red, eye-visible doubling. the trade. Might show play-of-color.
but any color is possible. Fractures make Vitreous to resinous polish luster,
stones more vulnerable to breakage. conchoidal to uneven fracture with
subvitreous to waxy fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Faceted Occasionally faceted for Faceted gems, cabochons, or freeforms
collectors.
RI 1.544 to 1.553 1.486 to 1.658 1.450 (+0.020/-0.080). Fire opal might

read as low as 1.370, but generally
gives a reading between 1.420 and
1.430.
Birefringence/doubling 0.009 0.172 (use birefringence blink None

method)
SR/DR/AGG DR, but might show an AGG reaction DR SR, commonly with ADR due to strain
due to multiple fractures
Optic character Uniaxial positive Uniaxial negative Not applicable
Magnification Network of cracks, often in a honeycomb Not diagnostic Might show patches of play-of-color
pattern. Dye visible in fractures. or mineral inclusions.
Fluorescence Generally inert Variable Inert to moderate greenish brown under

LW and SW. Might phosphoresce.
SG 2.66 (+0.03/-0.02) 2.70 (+/-0.05) 2.15 (+0.08/-0.09)
Comments Combination of typical quartz properties Key tests are RI, birefringence Key tests are RI, SR/ADR nature, and
and unnatural color, along with magnifi- blink, doubling, cleavage, SG, possibly magnification, which can
cation, identify this type of treated quartz. and possibly appearance. separate natural from synthetic with
play-of-color. Fire opal is sometimes
called Mexican opal. SG can help
separate opal from plastic imitation
opal.
Terri Weimer/GIA Eric Welch/ GIA
“Honeycomb” texture with dye concen- Natural fire opal comes in a range of red and orangy red hues.
trations in quench-crackled dyed
quartz.
111
FLUORITE (FLUORSPAR) SYNTHETIC OPAL
Species Fluorite Synthetic opal
General observation Transparent to translucent pink to purple (also Semitransparent to semitranslucent orangy red to red or light to dark
blue to violet, green, orange, yellow, brown, pink, with play-of-color. Material with vivid bodycolor might be
and colorless). Might be parti-colored. polymer impregnated. Conchoidal to uneven fracture with subvitreous
Vitreous to subvitreous luster, conchoidal to fracture luster.
step-like fracture with vitreous to subvitreous
fracture luster. Perfect octahedral cleavage in
four directions. Might have numerous pits
and scratches due to low hardness (Mohs 4).
Typical cutting style Faceted gems, cabochons, carvings, or beads Cabochons, carvings, beads
RI 1.434 (+/-0.001) 1.430 to 1.470
SR/DR/AGG SR SR with weak to strong ADR
Magnification Triangular (tetrahedral) negative crystals and Play-of-color in a mosaic pattern across the surface, with a cellular,
two-phase inclusions, liquid inclusions, “chicken wire,” “snakeskin,” or scale-like structure that’s visible with
strong color zoning magnification and overhead or backlighting. Might show columnar
structure when viewed from the side.
Spectrum Not diagnostic Polymer-impregnated synthetic opal might show a broad absorption in
the green or green-blue, sometimes accompanied by a band around
580 nm or 610 nm. Newer orange to orange-red untreated synthetics
might show general absorption to 500 nm followed by a band at 550 nm
and a line at 580 nm.
Fluorescence Very variable Red or pink polymer-impregnated synthetics show strong orange-pink
under LW, moderate orange-pink under SW. Newer untreated red to
orange synthetics show very weak red under both LW and SW, with a
slightly stronger reaction to SW. Phosphorescence is rare and weak if
present.
SG 3.18 1.97 to 2.20 (typically lower than natural opal). Polymer-impregnated

synthetic opal is usually considerably lower than natural opal, at 1.88 to
1.91. Newer untreated red to orange synthetic opal is closer to natural
opal, at 2.22 to 2.27.
Comments Key tests are RI, SG, and possibly cleavage. Magnification is the key to separating synthetic from natural opal.
Fluorescence and phosphorescence might also be helpful. Synthetic
opal is often polymer impregnated to make it more stable, and it has a
considerably lower SG than most natural opal.
Synthetic opal comes in

a variety of colors. It’s
often impregnated with a
polymer to add stability.
Eric Welch/GIA
112
GLASS PLASTIC
Species Glass Plastic
General observation Transparent to opaque, almost Transparent to opaque, almost any appear-
any appearance possible. ance possible. Look for mold marks,
Look for mold marks, orange- orange-peel effect, concave facets, rounded
peel effect, concave facets, facet junctions. Warmer to the touch than
rounded facet junctions. glass imitations and crystalline gemstones. Shane McClure/GIA
Warm to the touch compared Low heft (SG), dull to waxy polish luster,
Magnification reveals spherical gas
to crystalline gemstones. conchoidal fracture with waxy to vitreous bubbles and irregular pink and color-
Vitreous polish luster, con- fracture luster. Surface might show less banding in this glass bead.
choidal fracture with vitreous numerous scratches due to low hardness
fracture luster. (Mohs 1.5 to 3).
Typical cutting style All styles. Can be faceted or All styles. Can be molded to variety of
molded to a variety of shapes shapes and finishes.
and finishes.
RI Usually between 1.470 and 1.460 to 1.700

1.700, but can go to OTL
SR/DR/AGG SR, commonly with ADR SR, commonly with strong ADR (strain
colors common)
Magnification Gas bubbles, cavities on Gas bubbles, flow lines

surface where gas bubbles
were polished through, flow
marks (swirls)
Spectrum Variable, not diagnostic Not diagnostic
Fluorescence Variable, not diagnostic Variable, not diagnostic
SG Usually between 2.30 and 1.05 to 1.55

4.50
Comments Key tests are RI and magnifi- Key tests are RI and magnification. Low
cation. Low thermal heft (SG) and low thermal conductivity
conductivity (warm to the (warm to the touch) might also be helpful.
touch) might also be helpful.
113
Key Separations for Transparent Red, Pink, and Purple Gems

Key Separations Key Tests
Diamond from synthetic diamond Magnification (growth zoning, inclusions), fluorescence

(color and pattern), phosphorescence, spectrum,
advanced laboratory testing, possibly magnetism
Naturally colored diamond from irradiated- Color distribution, spectrum, advanced laboratory
color diamond testing
Diamond from pink or red CZ Magnification, read-through, SG, diamond tester,

possibly fluorescence
Zircon from diamond Doubling, spectrum, diamond tester, possibly

magnification
Zircon from almandite Doubling, spectrum, possibly magnification
Zircon from spessartite Doubling, spectrum
Ruby from synthetic ruby Magnification, possibly fluorescence
Untreated corundum from lattice diffusion Magnification with immersion

treated corundum
Natural and synthetic corundum from red RI, birefringence, DR vs SR nature, pleochroism,
garnet magnification, spectrum, fluorescence
Natural and synthetic corundum from red RI, birefringence, DR vs SR nature, pleochroism,
spinel magnification, spectrum
Pink and purple sapphire from synthetic Magnification, possibly fluorescence

sapphire of same color
Natural from synthetic color-change Magnification, spectrum

corundum
Almandite from pyrope RI, spectrum
Almandite from rhodolite RI, possibly color
Almandite from pyrope-almandite garnet RI
Almandite from pyrope-spessartite garnet RI, spectrum
Pyrope-almandite from pyrope-spessartite Color, possibly spectrum

garnet
Almandite from spessartite Color, spectrum
Rhodolite from pyrope Color, spectrum, possibly RI
Rhodolite from pyrope-spessartite garnet Color, spectrum
Pyrope from pyrope-spessartite garnet Color, spectrum, possibly RI
114
Alexandrite from synthetic alexandrite Magnification
Alexandrite from natural and synthetic color- RI, birefringence, optic character, magnification,
change sapphire spectrum
Alexandrite from garnet RI, birefringence, DR vs SR nature, pleochroism,

spectrum
Pyrope from synthetic spinel RI, magnification, spectrum, and fluorescence
Spinel from pyrope RI, magnification, spectrum, and fluorescence
Spinel from flux-grown synthetic spinel Magnification
Spinel from flame-fusion synthetic spinel Magnification, possibly RI and polariscope reaction
Taaffeite from spinel Birefringence, DR vs SR nature, possibly fluorescence
Kunzite from tourmaline, topaz, apatite, or RI, possibly birefringence and optic character
danburite
Tourmaline from topaz RI, birefringence, optic character, pleochroism,

magnification, cleavage, SG
Tourmaline from apatite RI, birefringence, possibly pleochroism
Danburite from topaz RI, birefringence, SG, possibly pleochroism and

fluorescence
Topaz from apatite RI, birefringence, optic character, SG
Danburite from tourmaline RI, birefringence, optic character, pleochroism
Beryl from hydrothermal synthetic beryl Magnification
Sunstone feldspar from natural and synthetic Optic character, possibly pleochroism and
red beryl magnification
Amethyst from purple scapolite RI, birefringence, optic sign, possibly spectrum and
fluorescence
Amethyst from synthetic amethyst Possibly magnification, advanced laboratory testing
Opal from glass and plastic imitations Magnification, SG
Natural from synthetic opal Magnification, possibly fluorescence and SG
Glass and plastic imitations from DR gems Magnification, SR vs DR nature, low thermal
conductivity, possibly SG (heft)
Fluorite from glass Magnification and possibly SG (glass with an RI in

fluorite’s range typically has an SG around 2.30)
115
TRANSLUCENT-TO-OPAQUE RED, PINK, AND PURPLE

GEMS
The most likely possibilities for translucent-to-opaque red, pink, and purple gems
are rhodochrosite, rhodonite, coral, chalcedony, and rose quartz, but don’t forget
to consider glass and plastic as possibilities. It’s also important to remember that
normally transparent materials like corundum and tourmaline are translucent-to-
opaque in their lower qualities. Translucent-to-opaque gems are often fashioned as
cabochons, beads, and carvings.
Translucent-to-opaque Red, Pink, and Purple Gems with RIs

between 1.70 and OTL
2.140 (OTL) CZ (synthetic cubic zirconia)

AGG (Page 119)
1.76 to 1.77 or 1.70 spot reading, Ruby-in-zoisite Unakite

depending on where you test (Page 120)
AGG
1.733 to 1.747 Rhodonite Unakite, hydrogrossular, thulite, rhodochrosite,

AGG (Page 121) rose quartz, coral
1.729 to 1.768 Unakite Ruby-in-zoisite, rhodonite, thulite

AGG (Page 121)
1.720 Pink hydrogrossular Rhodonite, thulite, jadeite, dyed jadeite,

AGG (Page 122) rhodochrosite
Translucent-to-opaque Red, Pink, and Purple Gems with RIs

between 1.60 and 1.70
1.691 to 1.700 Thulite zoisite Unakite, rhodonite, hydrogrossular, rhodochrosite

(1.70 spot reading) (Page 122)
AGG
1.666 to 1.680 Lavender jadeite Hydrogrossular, dyed jadeite, sugilite, dyed nephrite
AGG (Page 123)
1.666 to 1.680 Dyed jadeite Hydrogrossular, jadeite, sugilite, dyed nephrite

AGG (Page 123)
1.607 to 1.610 Sugilite Jadeite, dyed jadeite, dyed nephrite, charoite, chalcedony
AGG (Page 124)
1.606 to 1.632 Dyed nephrite Jadeite, dyed jadeite, sugilite

AGG (Page 124)
1.470 to 1.700 range Glass Any red, pink, or purple translucent-to-opaque gem
SR (Page 132) material
1.460 to 1.700 range Plastic Any red, pink, or purple translucent-to-opaque gem
116
SEPARATING TRANSLUCENT-TO-OPAQUE RED, PINK, AND PURPLE GEMS
Translucent-to-opaque Red, Pink, and Purple Gems with RIs between

1.50 and 1.60
1.597 to 1.817 Rhodochrosite Rhodonite, hydrogrossular, thulite, dyed calcite, coral

AGG (Page 125)
1.586 to 1.605 Dyed howlite Chalcedony, coral, dyed magnesite

AGG (Page 125)
1.550 to 1.559 Charoite Sugilite, dyed quartzite, chalcedony

AGG (Page 125)
1.55 spot reading Gilson imitation coral Coral, glass, plastic

AGG (Page 126)
1.544 to 1.553 Rose quartz Rhodonite, synthetic pink quartz

DR to AGG (Page 126)
1.544 to 1.553 Dyed quartzite Charoite

AGG (Page 126)
1.535 to 1.539 Chalcedony Sugilite, dyed howlite, charoite, glass, plastic

AGG (Page 127)
1.530 to 1.685 Pearl Cultured pearl, calcareous concretions, shell, glass and plastic
Usually too opaque to test (Page 128) imitations
1.530 to 1.685 Cultured pearl Pearl, calcareous concretions, shell, glass and plastic imitations
Usually too opaque to test (Page 128)
1.530 to 1.685 Calcareous concretions Pearl, cultured pearl, shell, coral

AGG (conch and melo “pearls”)
(Page 129)
1.530 to 1.685 Shell Coral, calcareous concretions, pearl, cultured pearl, glass, plastic
AGG (Page 129)
1.509 to 1.700 Dyed magnesite Dyed howlite

AGG (Page 129)
1.470 to 1.700 range Glass Any red, pink, or purple translucent-to-opaque gem material
SR (Page 132)
1.460 to 1.700 range Plastic Any red, pink, or purple translucent-to-opaque gem material
SR (Page 132)
117
Translucent-to-opaque Red, Pink, and Purple Gems with RIs below 1.50
1.486 to 1.658 Calcareous coral Dyed howlite, Gilson imitation coral, calcareous concretions,
AGG (Page 130) shell, opal, glass, plastic
1.486 to 1.658 Calcite When dyed, can resemble rhodonite, rhodochrosite, rose
AGG (including onyx marble) quartz, coral
(Page 130)
1.450 Opal Coral, synthetic opal, glass, plastic

SR (Page 131)
1.434 Fluorite (bluejohn) Glass

SR or AGG (Page 132)

SR (Page 131)
1.470 to 1.700 range Glass Any red, pink, or purple translucent-to-opaque gem material
SR (Page 132)
1.460 to 1.700 range Plastic Any red, pink, or purple translucent-to-opaque gem material
SR (Page 132)
118
CZ
Species CZ (synthetic cubic zirconia)
General observation Translucent, uniform pink in reflected light. Faintly banded or striped
appearance in strong transmitted light. Subadamantine polish luster,
conchoidal fracture with subadamantine fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Faceted gems, beads, cabochons, tablets
RI OTL Eric Welch/GIA
CZ is manufactured in a variety of colors,

Birefringence/doubling None including pink.
SR/DR/AGG AGG
Magnification Not diagnostic
Spectrum Fine lines at 440 nm, 449 nm, 541 nm, 543 nm, 546 nm, 644 nm,
646 nm, 650 nm, 653 nm, 655 nm, and 656 nm; wider bands at
486 nm, 515 nm, and 523 nm
Fluorescence Strong yellow-green under LW; weak to moderate, chalky, light

yellow-green under SW
SG 6.14 to 6.16
Comments Key tests are OTL RI reading and possibly spectrum and appearance.
CZ is a manmade material with no gem-quality natural counterpart.
119
RUBY -IN -ZOISITE
Species Ruby-in-zoisite
General observation Ornamental material consisting of purplish red ruby crystals, often
of hexagonal outline, in a green zoisite and black hornblende rock
matrix. Matrix displays uneven fracture with dull luster.
Typical cutting style Carvings, decorative objects
RI Depends on area tested. 1.76 to 1.77 spot reading on ruby crystals,

1.70 spot reading on green zoisite matrix
Birefringence/doubling Not detectable
SR/DR/AGG AGG

Eric Welch/GIA
Spectrum Ruby crystals should give a typical ruby spectrum using the reflected
Ruby-in-zoisite’s unique composition
light technique. Zoisite matrix might show a band at 455 nm.
invites fanciful carvings like this ruby
frog on a zoisite base.
Fluorescence Generally inert
SG Approximately 3.10 to 3.40, depending on the ratio of ruby inclusions

to matrix
Comments Key test is very distinctive appearance. Sometimes called “anyolite”

in the trade.
120
RHODONITE
RHODONITE UNAKITE
Species Rhodonite Unakite
Prism
General observation Opaque red, pink, brownish red to An opaque, granite-like rock
purplish red. Might contain veins with a characteristic mottled
or splotches of black, white, or appearance composed of green
metallic-looking manganese oxide. epidote, white to gray quartz,
Diffraction
Vitreous to subvitreous polish luster, and pink feldspar. Greasy to
conchoidal to uneven or granular vitreous polish luster, granular
fracture with dull to vitreous to uneven fracture with dull
fracture luster. Mohs 5.5 to 6.5. fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Cabochons, carvings, decorative Carvings, beads, cabochons,

objects tumbled specimens Rhodonite’s spectrum shows a broad absorption
centered on 548 nm and bands at 408 nm,
412 nm, 455 nm, and 503 nm.
RI 1.733 to 1.747 (1.73 to 1.75 spot 1.729 to 1.768 (spot readings
reading). Might show a 1.54 spot possible around 1.74 to 1.76
reading due to quartz impurities— or 1.52 to 1.54, depending on
test stone on a pinkish area. where you test)
SR/DR/AGG Usually AGG AGG
Magnification Not diagnostic Not diagnostic
Spectrum In reflected light, shows broad Not diagnostic

absorption centered on 548 nm and
bands at 408 nm, 412 nm, 455 nm, Eric Welch/GIA
and 503 nm Rhodonite lacks rhodochrosite’s characteristic
banding. It’s usually pink with black veins or
Fluorescence Inert Generally inert blotches.
SG 3.50 (+0.26/-0.20) 3.00 (+0.20/-0.15)
Comments Key tests are spot RI and possibly The key to this stone’s identity
spectrum. Appearance is also is its appearance.
distinctive.
Eric Welch/GIA
Unakite is a rock that’s often used for decora-

tive carvings.
121
HYDROGROSSULAR GARNET
HYDROGROSSULAR THULITE
Variety Not required Thulite

Prism
Species Hydrogrossular Zoisite
460
Group Garnet Not required
General observation Variations of pink or green, often Pink, often mottled or streaked
Diffraction
brownish pink. White or gray colors with gray or white, vitreous

also possible. Might show black polish luster, conchoidal to
inclusions. Vitreous polish luster, uneven fracture with vitreous
460
uneven, granular, or splintery to dull fracture luster.
fracture with greasy to vitreous
fracture luster.
Hydrogrossular’s spectrum usually shows a
cutoff at 460 nm. Typical cutting style Cabochons, carvings, decorative Cabochons, carvings, decora-
objects tive objects
RI 1.720 (+0.010/-0.050) (1.72 spot 1.691 to 1.700 (+/-0.005) (1.70

reading common, but might be spot reading common, but
lower) might be low to mid-1.50s due
to impurities)
Birefringence/doubling None Usually not detectable

Eric Welch/GIA
SR/DR/AGG AGG AGG
Magnification Might have black, peppery-looking Not diagnostic

inclusions
Spectrum Usually shows a cutoff at 460 nm Not diagnostic
Fluorescence Inert Generally inert
SG 3.47 (+0.08/-0.32) 3.35 (+0.10/-0.25) (usually

around 3.10)
Comments Key tests are spot RI and possibly Key tests are spot RI and
spectrum and SG. Appearance is possibly SG. Appearance is
also distinctive. also distinctive.
Maha Tannous/GIA
Poor-quality pink hydrogrossu-

lar garnet has low saturation,
so it appears grayish (top).
High-quality material has much
stronger color (above).
Terri Weimer/GIA
Thulite is typically a translu-

cent to opaque pink, and it’s
often mottled or streaked with
gray or white.
122
JADEITE
LAVENDER JADEITE DYED JADEITE
Species Jadeite Jadeite
Prism
General observation Semitransparent and translu- Semitransparent and translucent to
cent to opaque. Light to dark opaque light to dark purple-violet to 437.5
purple-violet to violetish violetish purple, often with uneven
purple, often with uneven coloration, mottling, or root-like
Diffraction
coloration, mottling, or root- markings. Vitreous to greasy polish
like markings. Vitreous to luster with a dimpled polished
greasy polish luster with a surface, granular to splintery fracture
dimpled polished surface, with dull or silky fracture luster. 437.5
granular to splintery fracture
with dull fracture luster.
Jadeite’s spectrum shows a key band at 437.5 nm
Typical cutting style Carvings, beads, cabochons Cabochons, carvings due to iron.
RI 1.666 to 1.680 (+/-0.008) 1.666 to 1.680 (+/-0.008)

(1.66 spot reading common) (1.66 spot reading)
Birefringence/doubling Usually not detectable Usually not detectable
SR/DR/AGG AGG AGG
Magnification Often unevenly colored, with Might reveal presence of dye

Robert Weldon/GIA
root-like mottling between grain boundaries
Natural lavender jadeite is often
Spectrum Generally a line at 437.5 nm Generally a line at 437.5 nm, but cut into cabochons.
might also show a broad fuzzy band
between 555 nm and 585 nm DYED LAVENDER JADEITE
Fluorescence Light purple stones are inert to Some dyed stones might show a
weak white or weak brownish moderate to strong orange under
Prism
red under LW, generally inert LW and a weaker reaction under
to SW SW
SG 3.34 (+0.06/-0.09) 3.34 (+0.06/-0.09)

Diffraction
Comments Key tests are spot RI, spectrum, Key tests are magnification, spectrum,
and SG. Appearance might and possibly LW fluorescence.
also be helpful. Might be heat- Might require advanced testing to
treated, polymer impregnated, detect presence of dye.
or dyed.
Dyed lavender jadeite shows the typical jadeite

band at 437.5 nm in the blue-violet. There’s
also a broad absorption between 555 nm and
585 nm in the yellow-green area due to the
presence of the dye.
Magnification might reveal dye concentrations

in dyed lavender jadeite.
123
SUGILITE
SUGILITE DYED NEPHRITE
Species Sugilite Nephrite

Prism
General observation Semitransparent to opaque, Translucent-to-opaque light to

intense red-purple to bluish dark pinkish lavender, possibly
purple, rarely pink. Might be with lighter or darker mottling.
mixed with other minerals. Vitreous to greasy polish luster,
Waxy to vitreous polish splintery to granular fracture
Diffraction
luster, granular fracture with with dull fracture luster.

dull fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Cabochons, carvings, decora- Carvings, beads, cabochons

tive objects
RI 1.607 to 1.610 1.606 to 1.632 (+0.009/-0.006)

Sugilite’s spectrum shows a broad absorption
between 500 nm and 600 nm plus bands at (+0.001/-0.002). Varies due (1.61 spot reading common)
411 nm, 419 nm, 437 nm, and 445 nm. to impurities. Might give a
1.54 spot reading due to
quartz impurities
SR/DR/AGG AGG AGG
Spectrum Broad absorption between Might show a dye spectrum with

500 nm and 600 nm, bands a broad, fuzzy band between
at 411 nm, 419 nm, 437 nm, 555 nm and 585 nm
and 445 nm
Tino Hammid/GIA Fluorescence Inert Inert

These cabochons show the typical sugilite
color range. SG 2.74 (+/-0.05) 2.95 (+0.15/-0.05)
Comments Key tests are RI, spectrum, Key tests are spot RI and SG.
and SG. Appearance might Dye spectrum indicates
also be helpful. treatment.
124
RHODOCHROSITE DYED HOWLITE CHAROITE
Species Rhodochrosite Howlite Charoite
Required treatment call None Dyed None
General observation Red, pink, light brownish red, Semitranslucent to opaque. Dyed pink Semitranslucent to opaque purple with
orangy red, orangy pink (might also to imitate coral or rhodonite. Undyed swirls and spots of black, gray, white,
be transparent, appear light brown material is white, often with dark gray and brownish orange. Fibrous appear-
in areas, or show agate-like banding or black vein-like matrix. Vitreous ance, vitreous to waxy polish luster,
called the bacon-strip effect). polish luster, granular fracture with splintery to granular fracture with dull
Vitreous to subvitreous polish dull fracture luster. Might be impreg- fracture luster.
luster, uneven to granular fracture nated with plastic to improve luster.
with dull to vitreous fracture luster.
Might show poor polish due to low
hardness (Mohs 3.5 to 4.5).
Typical cutting style Cabochons, carvings, decorative Cabochons, carvings Cabochons, carvings, decorative
objects objects
RI 1.597 to 1.817 (+/-0.003) 1.586 to 1.605 (+/-0.003) (1.59 spot 1.550 to 1.559 (+/-0.002). Usually
reading common) gives a 1.55 or 1.56 spot reading for
mineral charoite, while other compo-
nents might give different RIs
Birefringence/doubling 0.220 (use birefringence blink 0.019 (usually not detectable) Usually not detectable
method)
SR/DR/AGG AGG AGG AGG
Magnification Not diagnostic Might show dark matrix Not diagnostic
Spectrum Very dark band around 410 nm, Not diagnostic Not diagnostic
weaker bands centered around
450 nm and 545 nm
Fluorescence Inert to moderate pink under LW, Not diagnostic Inert to patchy weak red under LW
inert to weak pink under SW and SW
SG Often 3.70, but sometimes as low as 2.58 (-0.13) 2.68 (+0.10/-0.14)

3.60 (+0.10/-0.15)
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence, and Key tests are RI and fluorescence. Key tests are RI and possibly fluores-
possibly spectrum. Appearance is Appearance might also be helpful. cence. Appearance is very distinctive.
very distinctive. Actually a rock made up of the minerals
charoite, aegirine-augite, feldspar, and
tinaksite.
Eric Welch/GIA Terri Weimer/GIA
These tumbled pieces show Charoite’s fibrous, swirled appearance

rhodochrosite’s typical banded helps set it apart from sugilite.
appearance.
125
GILSON IMITATION CORAL ROSE QUARTZ DYED QUARTZITE
Variety Not required Rose Quartzite
Species Gilson imitation coral Quartz Quartz
Required treatment call None None Dyed
General observation Semitranslucent to opaque pink or red. Semitransparent to translucent pink, Various colors, often dyed. A coarse
Subvitreous polish luster, granular often cloudy and fractured. crystalline aggregate of tightly packed
fracture with dull fracture luster. Conchoidal to uneven fracture with quartz grains.
Typical cutting style Cabochons, carvings Cabochons, carvings (rarely trans- Carvings, beads
parent enough to facet)
RI 1.55 spot reading 1.544 to 1.553 1.544 to 1.553
Birefringence/doubling Weak, but sometimes detectable with 0.009 Usually not detectable
spot reading
SR/DR/AGG AGG DR to AGG (if highly fractured and AGG

semitranslucent)
Optic character Not applicable Uniaxial positive Not applicable
Magnification Lacks the structure of genuine coral. Liquid and two-phase inclusions Dye visible in fractures
Fine, granular texture visible under
high magnification.
Spectrum Not diagnostic Not diagnostic Not diagnostic. Might show a band in
the orange due to presence of dye.
Fluorescence Variable under LW, inert to SW Inert to weak purple under SW Generally inert
SG Usually about 2.44 2.66 (+0.03/-0.02) 2.66 (+0.03/-0.02)
Comments Key tests are spot RI and magnification. Key tests are RI, birefringence, SG, Key tests are appearance and magnifi-
and possibly fluorescence. cation to detect dye concentrations
between crystal grains. Record both
the required treatment call and the
variety on the variety line of your GIA
worksheet.
Robert Weldon/GIA Wendi Mayerson/GIA Wendi Mayerson/GIA
Fractures can cause cloudiness when rose Even without magnification, you can Magnification reveals dye concentra-
quartz rough is faceted. see the dye concentrations in this dyed tions in this dyed quartzite’s fractures.
quartzite bead.
126
CHALCEDONY
Variety Carnelian—Semitransparent to semitranslucent orangy red to brown-

ish red or brownish orange
Sard—Semitransparent to semitranslucent dark brownish red to
orangy brown to brown, generally darker and less saturated in color
than carnelian
Sardonyx—Onyx showing straight, parallel bands of sard or carnelian
colors alternating with either black or white bands, or both
Jasper—General variety term for opaque chalcedony of any color or
combination of colors except solid black or specially named material Both by Terri Weimer/GIA
Agate—Chalcedony with curved or angular bands or layers This chalcedony collection includes, from left to
right, sardonyx, carnelian, jasper, and sard.
Species Chalcedony
General observation Semitransparent to opaque orangy red to brownish red or brownish

orange and purple to violetish purple. Some varieties might show
bands or layers of lighter or darker coloration. Greasy to vitreous
polish luster, conchoidal fracture with dull to waxy fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Cabochons, tablets, signets, carvings, decorative objects
RI 1.535 to 1.539 (1.53 to 1.54 spot reading)
Birefringence/doubling Usually not detectable
SR/DR/AGG AGG
Agate is a chalcedony with a layered appear-
Spectrum Not diagnostic ance consisting of curved or angular bands.
SG 2.60 (+0.10/-0.05)
Comments Key tests are spot RI, SG, and possibly fracture and appearance.
Purple to violetish purple material sold as “purple chalcedony” might
be dyed. Check for dye concentrations in fractures.
127
PEARL CULTURED PEARL
Species Pearl Cultured pearl
General observation Might be almost any bodycolor, Colors same as natural (see descriptions below). Surface luster varies from
but usually white or light yellow, dull to nearly metallic, depending on nacre quality. Uneven fracture with dull
and bodycolor might be modified to pearly fracture luster.
by pink, green, or blue overtone.
Surface luster varies from dull to Akoya (bead nucleated)—Typical size range 2 mm to 11 mm. Mostly spherical,
nearly metallic, depending on but might be button, pear, oval, or baroque in shape. Color can range from
nacre quality. Uneven fracture neutral to near-neutral whites and creams with rosé or green overtones, but can
with dull to pearly fracture luster. sometimes be yellow, pink (sometimes dyed), or blue.
Tahitian (bead nucleated)—Typical size range 8 mm to 14 mm. Spherical,
oval, button, drop, or baroque in shape (sometimes circled). Color can range
from near-neutral silver, cream, or brown to black or gray, to blue, green,
yellowish green, or purple, with green, blue, or rosé overtone.
South Sea (bead nucleated)—Typical size range 10 mm to 15 mm. Spherical,
near-round, oval, button, drop, or semi-baroque (sometimes circled). Color can
range from near-neutral white, cream, or silver to yellow, yellowish orange, or
blue, with green, blue, or rosé overtone.
Freshwater (usually tissue nucleated)—Typical size range 2 mm to 13 mm.
Spherical, near-round, oval, button, drop, to heavily baroque (sometimes
circled). Color can range from neutral to near-neutral grays, whites, and creams
to yellows, pinks, and purples, with blue or green overtone and orient.
RI 1.530 to 1.685 1.530 to 1.685
Birefringence/doubling 0.155 (use birefringence blink 0.155 (use birefringence blink method)
method)
SR/DR/AGG Usually too opaque to test Usually too opaque to test
Magnification Not diagnostic Not usually diagnostic, unless you can examine a drill-hole and detect the
bead under the nacre
Spectrum Variable, not diagnostic Variable, not diagnostic
Fluorescence Variable. Inert to strong light blue, Variable. Inert to strong light blue, yellow, green, or pink under LW and SW.
yellow, green, or pink under LW
and SW.
SG Saltwater—2.61 to 2.85 2.72 to 2.78

Freshwater—2.66 to 2.78 (few
are over 2.74)
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence Key tests are RI, birefringence blink, SG, and magnification. Feels gritty when
blink, and SG. Feels gritty when rubbed against a tooth, while plastic and glass imitations feel smooth. Heft can
rubbed against a tooth, while separate cultured pearl from plastic imitations. X-radiography separates cultured
plastic and glass imitations feel from natural pearl. Cultured pearls might be dyed, irradiated, or polymer-
smooth. Heft can separate natural impregnated. Dye might be detectable as concentrations in nacre, especially
pearl from plastic imitations. X- at the drill-hole. Some irradiated colors are very intense and unnatural.
radiography separates natural from Impregnation might be visible with magnification. Drill-hole might interfere
cultured pearl. Drill-hole might with accurate SG reading.
interfere with accurate SG reading.
128
CALCAREOUS CONCRETIONS, INCL. SHELL DYED MAGNESITE

CONCH AND MELO “PEARLS”
Species Calcareous concretion Shell Magnesite
General observation Pink, orange, yellow, and brown. Dull to Virtually any color, but usually white, gray, Typically white, often dyed.
vitreous polish luster, uneven fracture brown, yellow, orange, or pink, with layered Might be dyed pink to
with dull fracture luster. Tridacna or patterned coloring. Might also show orient resemble coral or rhodonite.
“pearls” have a yellowish to whitish, (mother-of-pearl). Helmet shells, which are Can also be gray, yellow,
porcelain-like appearance. commonly used for cameos, show layering or brown. Vitreous polish
in two colors, commonly white and brown or luster, granular to uneven
white and orange. Shell cameos usually have fracture with dull fracture
concave backs due to the curved contours of luster. (Mohs 3.5 to 5)
the shells they’re cut from. Greasy or pearly
polish luster, uneven to splintery fracture
Typical cutting style Baroque, oval, off-round Cameos, carvings, beads, cabochons, inlays Carvings, beads
RI 1.530 to 1.685 1.530 to 1.685 1.509 to 1.700
Birefringence/doubling 0.155 (use birefringence blink method) 0.155 (use birefringence blink method) 0.191 (use birefringence
blink method)
Magnification Wavy, flame-like structure in conch and Helmet shell—Irregular fibrous structure Not diagnostic
melo “pearls” Conch shell—Flame-like structure
Spectrum Not diagnostic Not diagnostic Not diagnostic
Fluorescence Variable Variable Generally inert
SG 2.85 (+0.02/-0.04) (brown conch 2.86 (+0.03/-0.16) 3.0 to 3.2

“pearls” 2.18 to 2.77)
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence blink, Key tests are RI, birefringence blink, and Key tests are possibly RI
magnification (structure), and appear- magnification. Appearance might also be and birefringence blink.
ance. These are basically non-nacreous helpful. Appearance might also be
concretions from various mollusks, helpful. Birefringence blink
including conch and Melo melo snails separates dyed magnesite
and the giant clam (Tridacna). from dyed howlite.
Conch “pearls” have characteristic flame Helmet shell displays irregular fibrous structure
structure. under magnification.
129
CALCAREOUS CORAL CALCITE
Variety Not required Onyx marble (if banded)
Species Calcareous coral Calcite
General observation Semitranslucent to opaque light Semitranslucent to opaque. Occurs in almost

Eric Welch/GIA
pink to dark red. Waxy to vitreous all colors, often dyed. Vitreous to greasy
polish luster, splintery to uneven polish luster. Cleavage usually not visible in
Wavy, fibrous growth structure
in calcareous coral. fracture with dull fracture luster. aggregate.
Branch-like or tree-like in rough
form.
Typical cutting style Cabochons, carvings Beads, cabochons, carvings
RI 1.486 to 1.658 1.486 to 1.658
Birefringence/doubling 0.172 (use birefringence blink 0.172 (use birefringence blink method)
method)
SR/DR/AGG AGG AGG
Magnification Polyp cavities, wavy fibrous Not diagnostic

structure
Spectrum Not diagnostic Not diagnostic. Any visible lines are caused by
impurities or dye.
Fluorescence Light and dark orange, red, and Variable

pink—Inert to orange to pinkish
orange under LW and SW
Dark red—Inert to dull red to
purplish red
SG 2.65 (+/-0.05) 2.70 (+/-0.05)
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence Key tests are RI, birefringence blink, SG, and
blink, magnification, and possibly possibly appearance. Marble is a granular
fluorescence. Appearance might aggregate, onyx marble is a banded marble.
also be helpful. Satinspar is a fibrous aggregate that’s often
chatoyant (the name is also used for a similar
variety of gypsum).
130
OPAL SYNTHETIC OPAL
Species Opal Synthetic opal
General observation Orangy red to red, light to dark pink. Vitreous to Semitransparent to semitranslucent
resinous polish luster, conchoidal to uneven orangy red to red or light to dark pink,
fracture with subvitreous to waxy fracture luster. with play-of-color. Material with vivid
Might or might not show play-of-color. In some bodycolor might be polymer impregnated.
natural opals, dehydration causes a network of Conchoidal to uneven fracture with sub-
fine cracks called crazing. vitreous fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Cabochons, freeforms, beads Cabochons, carvings, beads
RI 1.450 (+0.020/-0.080) 1.430 to 1.470

Tino Hammid/GIA
SR/DR/AGG SR, commonly with ADR due to strain. AGG SR with weak to strong ADR These Mexican opal
possible for translucent material. cabochons show the
gem’s wide range of
Magnification Possible play-of-color patterns include very small Play-of-color in a mosaic pattern across colors.
patches or dots (pinfire); large areas that flash the surface, with a cellular, “chicken
predominately one color as the gem is moved wire,” “snakeskin,” or scale-like structure
(flash); or even, distinct patches with a “brush- that’s visible with magnification and
stroke” appearance (harlequin). There might also overhead or backlighting. Might show
be areas that lack play-of-color or that contain columnar structure when viewed from the
mineral inclusions or patches of rock matrix. side.
(Play-of-color in synthetic opal tends to be much
more regular.)
Spectrum Not diagnostic Polymer-impregnated synthetic opal

might show a broad absorption in
the green or green-blue, sometimes
accompanied by a band around 580 nm
Eric Welch/GIA
or 610 nm. Newer orange to orange-red
untreated synthetics might show general Synthetic opal comes
in a variety of colors.
absorption to 500 nm followed by a band
It’s often impregnated
at 550 nm and a line at 580 nm. with a polymer to add
stability.
Fluorescence Inert to strong green or yellowish green under LW Red or pink polymer-impregnated syn-
and SW. Might phosphoresce. thetics show strong orange-pink under
LW, moderate orange-pink under SW.
Newer untreated red to orange synthetics
show very weak red under both LW and
SW, with a slightly stronger reaction to
SW. Phosphorescence is rare and weak if
present.
SG 2.15 (+0.08/-0.90) 1.97 to 2.20 (typically lower than natural

opal). Polymer-impregnated synthetic
opal is usually considerably lower than
natural opal, at 1.88 to 1.91. Newer
untreated red to orange synthetic opal is
closer to natural opal, at 2.22 to 2.27.
Comments Key test is RI. Lack of surface structure and Magnification is the key to separating
absence of birefringence blink distinguish non- synthetic from natural opal. Fluorescence
phenomenal opal from shell or coral. SG can help and phosphorescence might also be
separate opal from plastic (SG 1.05 to 1.55). helpful. Synthetic opal is often polymer
Some natural opal is polymer impregnated to impregnated to make it more stable, and
make it more stable or improve its appearance. it has a considerably lower SG than most
Magnification separates natural opal from natural opal.
synthetic opal with play-of-color.
131
BLUEJOHN FLUORITE GLASS PLASTIC
Variety Bluejohn Not required Not required
Species Fluorite Glass Plastic
General observation Bluish violet to purple bands in a Transparent to opaque, almost any Transparent to opaque, almost any
reddish to colorless background. appearance possible. Look for mold appearance possible. Look for mold
Vitreous to subvitreous luster, marks, orange-peel effect, concave marks, orange-peel effect, concave
conchoidal to step-like fracture facets, rounded facet junctions. Warm facets, rounded facet junctions. Warmer
with vitreous to subvitreous fracture to the touch compared to crystalline to the touch than glass imitations and
luster. Massive. Might have gemstones. Vitreous polish luster, crystalline gemstones. Low heft (SG),
numerous pits and scratches due conchoidal fracture with vitreous dull to waxy polish luster, conchoidal
to low hardness (Mohs 4). fracture luster. fracture with waxy to vitreous fracture
luster. Surface might show numerous
scratches due to low hardness (Mohs
1.5 to 3).
Typical cutting style Cabochons, beads, or decorative All styles. Can be faceted or molded All styles. Can be molded to a variety
objects to a variety of shapes and finishes. of shapes and finishes.
RI 1.434 (+/-0.001) Usually between 1.470 and 1.700, but 1.460 to 1.700
can go to OTL
Birefringence/doubling None None None
SR/DR/AGG SR or AGG SR, commonly with ADR SR, commonly with strong ADR
(strain colors common)
Magnification Not diagnostic Gas bubbles, cavities on surface where Gas bubbles, flow lines
gas bubbles were polished through,
flow marks (swirls)
Spectrum Not diagnostic Variable, not diagnostic Not diagnostic
Fluorescence Very variable, often strong Variable, not diagnostic Variable, not diagnostic
SG 3.18 Usually between 2.30 and 4.50 1.05 to 1.55
Comments Key tests are RI, lack of doubling, Key tests are RI and magnification. Key tests are RI and magnification.
and appearance. Low thermal conductivity (warm to Low heft (SG) and low thermal
the touch) might also be helpful. conductivity (warm to the touch)
might also be helpful.
Shane McClure/GIA
Magnification reveals spherical gas

bubbles and irregular pink and color-
less banding in this glass bead.
Robert Weldon/GIA
This carving shows off blue-

john fluorite’s attractive color
banding.
132
Key Separations for Translucent-to-opaque Red, Pink, and Purple Gems

Rhodonite from unakite Color, appearance, spectrum, SG
Rhodonite from rhodochrosite Appearance, RI, birefringence
Rhodonite from hydrogrossular Appearance, spectrum, possibly RI
Rhodonite from thulite RI, spectrum, possibly appearance
Jadeite from dyed jadeite Magnification, possibly spectrum and fluorescence
Jadeite from dyed nephrite RI, jadeite spectrum, SG
Rose quartz from rhodonite Appearance, SG, possibly RI
Rose quartz from synthetic quartz Magnification, possibly color and transparency, advanced
laboratory testing
Rose quartz from chalcedony Appearance/transparency, SG, possibly RI and polariscope

reaction (DR vs AGG)
Purple chalcedony from sugilite Color, fracture, RI, spectrum, SG
Purple chalcedony from charoite Appearance, fracture, RI, possibly SG
Purple chalcedony from rhodonite Color, appearance, fracture, SG, and possibly RI (quartz
impurities might give a 1.54 reading)
Sugilite from charoite Appearance, RI, spectrum
Sugilite from rhodochrosite Color, appearance, birefringence blink, spectrum, SG
Coral from shell Appearance/structure, RI
Coral from Gilson imitation coral Magnification/structure, SG
Coral and shell from glass or plastic Fracture, birefringence, magnification/structure
Thulite from unakite Appearance, RI, possibly SG
133
SEPARATING BLUE AND VIOLET GEMS
Transparent Blue and Violet Gems 135

RI Charts 136
Key Separations 163
Translucent-to-opaque Blue and

Violet Gems 164
RI Charts 164
Key Separations 180
Tino Hammid/GIA
The category of transparent blue and violet gems includes popular stones like the sapphires
at the top and bottom and the tanzanite on the right. The fluorite on the left is more rarely seen
as a gemstone.
SEPARATING BLUE AND VIOLET GEMS

Some of the most popular colored stones in the world fall into the blue-and-violet
color category. In this section of the lab manual, you’ll find blue and violet gems
sorted by transparency and RI.
TRANSPARENT BLUE AND VIOLET GEMS

Of all the transparent blue and violet gems on the market, the ones you’ll see
most frequently are natural and synthetic sapphire, flame-fusion synthetic spinel,
tanzanite, tourmaline, topaz, and the aquamarine variety of beryl. Among these,
treated blue topaz is one of the most plentiful.
Iolite, a gem that was once rare, is fairly plentiful today in calibrated sizes. Less
likely possibilities include zircon, benitoite, synthetic forsterite, kyanite, fluorite,
and natural or synthetic blue diamond. Along with these, glass and plastic imita-
tions are always possibilities.
135
Transparent Blue and Violet OTL Gems

2.417 Naturally colored diamond Irradiated diamond, synthetic diamond, CZ, GGG, zircon, YAG
SR (Page 139)
2.417 Irradiated-color diamond Naturally colored diamond, synthetic diamond, CZ, GGG, zircon, YAG
SR (Page 140)
2.417 Synthetic diamond Diamond, irradiated diamond, CZ, GGG, zircon, YAG
SR (Page 140)
2.150 CZ (synthetic cubic zirconia) Diamond, irradiated diamond, synthetic diamond, GGG, zircon, YAG
SR (Page 141)
1.970 GGG (gadolinium gallium garnet) Diamond, irradiated diamond, synthetic diamond, CZ, zircon, YAG
SR (Page 141)
1.925 to 1.984 Zircon Diamond, irradiated diamond, synthetic diamond, CZ, GGG, YAG
1.810 to 1.815 (Page 142)
DR
1.833 YAG (yttrium aluminum garnet) Diamond, irradiated diamond, synthetic diamond, CZ, GGG, zircon,
SR (Page 143) gahnite
1.800 Gahnite YAG

SR (Page 143)
Transparent Blue and Violet Gems with RIs between 1.70 and 1.80
1.762 to 1.770 Corundum: sapphire Synthetic sapphire, gahnospinel, benitoite, synthetic spinel, spinel,
DR (Page 144) kyanite
1.762 to 1.770 Corundum, lattice diffusion treated Sapphire, fancy sapphire

DR (Page 145)
1.762 to 1.770 Synthetic corundum: synthetic sapphire Sapphire, gahnospinel, benitoite, synthetic spinel, spinel, kyanite
DR (Pages 145 and 146)
1.760 Gahnospinel Sapphire, synthetic sapphire, synthetic spinel, spinel

SR (Page 148)
1.757 to 1.804 Benitoite Sapphire, synthetic sapphire

DR (Page 148)
1.728 Flame-fusion synthetic spinel Sapphire, synthetic sapphire, gahnospinel, spinel, kyanite
SR (Page 149)
1.718 Spinel Sapphire, synthetic sapphire, gahnospinel, synthetic spinel, kyanite

SR (Page 150)
1.714 Flux-grown synthetic spinel Sapphire, synthetic sapphire, spinel, kyanite, gahnospinel
SR (Page 150)
1.716 to 1.731 Kyanite Sapphire, synthetic sapphire, synthetic spinel, spinel

DR (Page 152)
136
SEPARATING TRANSPARENT BLUE AND VIOLET GEMS
1.691 to 1.700 Zoisite: tanzanite Synthetic forsterite

DR (Page 152)
1.660 to 1.676 Kunzite spodumene Apatite, tourmaline, topaz

DR (Page 153)
1.652 to 1.671 Euclase Jeremejevite, apatite, tourmaline

DR (Page 153)
1.640 to 1.651 Jeremejevite Euclase, apatite

DR (Page 153)
1.635 to 1.670 Synthetic forsterite Tanzanite, tourmaline

DR (Page 154)
1.634 to 1.638 Apatite Kunzite spodumene, euclase, jeremejevite, tourmaline, topaz,

DR (Page 154) lazulite
1.624 to 1.644 Tourmaline (including parti-colored) Kunzite spodumene, euclase, synthetic forsterite, apatite, topaz,
DR (Page 155) lazulite
1.619 to 1.627 Topaz Kunzite spodumene, apatite, tourmaline

DR (Page 156)
1.612 to 1.643 Lazulite Apatite, tourmaline

DR (Page 156)
1.470 to 1.700 range Glass Any blue or violet transparent gem material
SR (Page 162)
1.460 to 1.700 range Plastic Any blue or violet transparent gem material
SR (Page 162)
137
1.577 to 1.583 Beryl, aquamarine Synthetic aquamarine, Maxixe or Maxixe-type beryl, synthetic quartz
DR (Page 156)
1.577 to 1.583 Synthetic beryl, synthetic aquamarine Aquamarine, Maxixe or Maxixe-type beryl, synthetic quartz
DR (Page 157)
1.577 to 1.583 Maxixe beryl or Maxixe-type beryl Aquamarine, synthetic beryl, synthetic quartz
DR (Page 157)
1.550 to 1.564 Scapolite Iolite, amethyst, synthetic amethyst

DR (Page 157)
1.544 to 1.553 Aqua aura quartz Similarly treated topaz

DR (Page 158)
1.544 to 1.553 Synthetic blue quartz Aquamarine, synthetic aquamarine, Maxixe or Maxixe-type beryl,
DR (Page 158) iolite, glass
1.544 to 1.553 Quartz, amethyst Scapolite, iolite, synthetic amethyst

DR (Page 159)
1.544 to 1.553 Synthetic quartz, synthetic amethyst Scapolite, iolite, amethyst

DR (Page 159)
1.542 to 1.551 Iolite Scapolite, amethyst, synthetic amethyst

DR (Page 160)
SR (Page 162)
SR (Page 162)
Transparent Blue and Violet Gems with RIs below 1.50

1.486 to 1.658 Calcite Fluorite, glass

DR (Page 160)
1.434 Fluorite Calcite, glass

SR (Page 161)
1.430 to 1.470 range Synthetic opal (visually distinctive—rarely confused with anything within this
SR (Page 161) color range)
SR (Page 162)
SR (Page 162)
138
DIAMOND
Species Diamond
General observation Pale to deep blue, pale to deep green-blue, rarely blue to violet.
Vivid blue diamonds exist, but are extremely rare. Under 10X, look
for naturals, waxy to granular or faceted girdle surface, bearding,
sharp facet junctions. Adamantine polish luster, step-like fracture. Naturally colored blue diamonds range from
Perfect cleavage in four directions. Polish lines never oriented the deep to pale blue.
same way on adjacent facets. Positive reaction to diamond tester.
Type IIb diamonds are electrically conductive.
Typical cutting style Faceted, often in radiant cuts to help intensify bodycolor. Girdle
often faceted or polished.
RI OTL
Stephen Hofer/GIA
SR/DR/AGG SR (weak to strong ADR, sometimes with parallel or cross-hatched Naturally colored blue diamonds might have
patterns) color zoning. At 10X magnification, this
diamond shows alternating blue and colorless
Pleochroism None bands.
Magnification Color distribution is often even, but can be uneven with alternating TYPE IA OR IIA BLUE DIAMOND
blue and colorless zones. Other characteristics vary according to
diamond type.
Type IIb—Usually free of mineral inclusions, but opaque black
Prism
inclusions are sometimes present. Whitish, transparent, or reflective
graining, fractures, and cleavages are sometimes present.
Type Ia or IIa—Color zoning might be located near surface radia- 595
tion stains. Mineral inclusions, pinpoints, clouds, and colored or
whitish graining might also be present.
Diffraction
Spectrum Varies according to diamond type. (Cooling diamond with liquid

nitrogen helps make its spectrum more visible.)
Type IIb—No sharp bands, with absorption increasing toward the 595
red end of the spectrum
Type Ia or IIa—Sometimes weak to strong bands at 415.5 nm, 478
nm, 496 nm, and 504 nm, and a 595-nm line due to natural radiation
The spectrum of a naturally colored or irradiated
Fluorescence Varies according to diamond type. Type Ia or IIa blue diamond sometimes shows
bands at 415.5 nm, 478 nm, 496 nm, and
Type IIb—Generally inert to LW. Rarely weak red to orange-red,
504 nm. It might also show a 595-nm line due
occasionally blue to greenish blue under SW. Phosphorescence is to natural radiation or laboratory irradiation.
blue to green, occasionally red to orangy red.
Type Ia or IIa—Sometimes weak to strong blue, greenish blue,
green, yellow, or orange. No phosphorescence.
SG 3.52 (+/-0.10)
Comments Key tests are polish luster, OTL RI, SR nature, magnification,
positive reaction to diamond tester, and possibly spectrum.
Treatments such as irradiation and surface coating can be applied to
off-color diamonds to make them appear fancy-colored. Treatments
like fracture filling and laser drilling might be used to improve the
appearance and apparent clarity of fancy-colored diamonds. Fancy-
colored diamonds often require advanced testing at a gemological
laboratory to determine origin of color.
139
IRRADIATED DIAMOND SYNTHETIC DIAMOND
Species Diamond Synthetic diamond
General observation Pale to deep blue, pale to deep green-blue. Blue or grayish blue, with moderate to strong
Might show facet-related color zoning. saturation and medium to dark tone. Synthetic blue
Type IIb diamonds are electrically conductive and
John Koivula/GIA
might be attracted to a magnet due to inclusions of
metallic (nickel-iron) flux.
Diamonds with irradi-
ated blue color might
show zoning around Dispersion 0.044 (moderate fire—might be masked 0.044 (moderate fire—might be masked by body-
the culet. by bodycolor) color)
RI OTL OTL
SR/DR/AGG SR (might show ADR) SR (might show weak ADR, sometimes in a

cross-shaped pattern)
John Koivula/GIA
Magnification In treated Type Ia or IIa diamonds, color Possible uneven color zoning, with blue and near-
Synthetic diamonds distribution is often even, but can be colorless zones forming cross-shaped or square
typically show a
uneven with alternating blue and colorless patterns related to internal growth sectors. Graining
cross-shaped fluores-
cent pattern under UV zones. Color sometimes concentrated at marks the boundaries of the color zoning, and
radiation. the culet. Mineral inclusions might also might form a similar pattern. Elongated or rounded
be present. opaque inclusions of metallic flux often occur as
Spectrum Treated Type Ia or IIa diamonds some- No sharp lines or bands, with absorption increas-
times show weak to strong bands at ing toward the red end of the spectrum
415.5 nm, 478 nm, 496 nm, and 504 nm,
and a 595-nm line due to laboratory
irradiation (see page 139). (Cooling
James Shigley/GIA diamond with liquid nitrogen helps make
Chatham synthetic its spectrum more visible.)
blue diamonds often
have distinctive blue Fluorescence Treated Type Ia or IIa diamonds some- Often unevenly distributed and related to internal
and colorless zoning
times show weak to strong blue, greenish growth structures, with some sectors showing no
patterns.
blue, green, yellow, or orange fluores- reaction. Often displays a cross-shaped, square, or
cence, and no phosphorescence hourglass-shaped pattern. Usually inert to weak
orange under LW; weak to moderate green, yellow,
or orange under SW. Phosphorescence might be
long-lasting, moderate to strong blue or yellow.
SG 3.52 (+/-0.10) 3.52 (+/-0.10)
Comments Key tests for separation of irradiated Key tests are magnification and fluorescence,
from naturally colored blue to blue-gray which can help with detection of cross-shaped,
Shane McClure/GIA
diamonds are magnification and fluores- square, or hourglass-shaped internal growth
Sometimes, the only cence. Irradiated diamonds often require patterns. If in doubt, submit diamond to a
inclusions present in
advanced testing at a gemological labora- gemological laboratory for advanced testing.
a Chatham synthetic
diamond are clouds tory to determine origin of color.
of pinpoints.
Bill Videto/GIA John Koivula/GIA Vincent Cracco/GIA
Synthetic diamonds often display uneven, hourglass-shaped internal growth zoning (left) and
metallic flux inclusions (center and right).
140
CZ GGG
Species CZ (synthetic cubic zirconia) GGG (gadolinium gallium garnet)
General observation Light-toned grayish blue to Light to dark blue. Vitreous to subadaman-
strong, dark blue. tine polish luster, conchoidal fracture with
Subadamantine polish luster, vitreous to subadamantine fracture luster.
conchoidal fracture with Well-proportioned round brilliants might
subadamantine fracture show moderate see-through. Heft reveals
luster. Heft reveals that loose that loose stones are much heavier than Eric Welch/GIA
stones are much heavier diamonds of similar size and proportions Blue CZ comes in a light-toned grayish
than diamonds of similar (a 6-mm round brilliant GGG weighs about blue to dark blue color range. It’s often
size. Negative reaction to twice as much as an equivalent diameter used to imitate fancy blue diamond,
diamond tester. diamond). Negative reaction to diamond but its facet junctions are slightly
tester. rounded rather than sharp, and it lacks
natural inclusions. A diamond tester
readily identifies it as “not diamond.”
Dispersion 0.060 (strong fire—might be 0.045 (moderate fire—might be masked by

masked by bodycolor) bodycolor)
RI OTL OTL
SR/DR/AGG SR SR
Magnification Generally inclusion free, Might show gas bubbles

but might contain unmelted
zirconium oxide and gas
bubbles.
Spectrum Variable, not diagnostic Variable, not diagnostic
SG 5.60 to 6.00 7.05 (+0.04/-0.01)
Comments Key tests are negative Key tests are negative reaction to diamond
reaction to diamond tester, tester, OTL RI reading, fluorescence, and
OTL RI reading, lack of SG. GGG is a manmade material with no
doubling, and SG. natural counterpart.
Conchoidal fracture distin-
guishes CZ from diamond.
CZ is a manmade material
with no gem-quality natural
counterpart.
141
ZIRCON
ZIRCON
Species Zircon
Prism
General observation Very strongly blue through green-blue (usually has green color
component). Facet edges might show chipping. Vitreous to sub-
653.5 adamantine polish luster, conchoidal fracture with vitreous to
subadamantine fracture luster. Negative reaction to diamond tester.
Diffraction

653.5
RI OTL
Birefringence/doubling 0.059 (strong doubling)

HEAT-TREATED ZIRCON
SR/DR/AGG DR
Optic character Uniaxial positive

Prism
Pleochroism Strong blue and brownish yellow to colorless dichroism

653.5
Magnification Natural inclusions. Moderate to strong doubling might be eye-visible
in larger stones. Always check for doubling in three directions.
Diffraction
Spectrum Usually a key line at 653.5 nm. Might also have up to 40 fine lines
through rest of spectrum.
653.5
Fluorescence Inert to moderate light blue under LW
Zircon’s spectrum (top) usually shows a key line SG 3.90 to 4.73

at 653.5 nm. There might also be up to 40 fine
lines distributed throughout the rest of the spec- Comments Key tests are OTL RI reading, strong doubling, and spectrum.
trum. Heat-treated zircons might show fewer
lines, but their spectra always include the
653.5-nm line (bottom).
Robert Weldon/GIA
Zircon’s blue hue usually has

a green color component. It’s
DR, so you can usually
observe doubling of its back
facets with the unaided eye or
under magnification.
142
GAHNITE
YAG GAHNITE
Species YAG (yttrium aluminum garnet) Gahnite
Prism
General observation Medium to dark blue. Vitreous Transparent to translucent. Very
to subadamantine polish luster, dark blue or green to black.
conchoidal to uneven fracture Vitreous polish luster, conchoidal 459 480
with vitreous to subadamantine fracture with vitreous fracture
fracture luster. Negative reaction luster.
Diffraction
to diamond tester.

459 480
Dispersion 0.028 (weak fire—might be Fire not visible

masked by bodycolor)
Gahnite’s spectrum shows bands in the blue
RI OTL 1.800 (+0.005/-0.010) around 459 nm and 480 nm and a moderately
strong band around 555 nm. Absorption
Birefringence/doubling None None increases from about 600 nm toward the red
area of the spectrum.
SR/DR/AGG SR SR
Magnification Might show gas bubbles Not diagnostic
Spectrum Not diagnostic Similar to gahnospinel and dark

blue spinel, with a strong, broad
band in the blue centered on
459 nm and a strong but much
narrower band, also in the blue,
at 480 nm. There’s also a moder-
ately strong band centered on
555 nm, at the center of fainter
broad absorption between 530 nm
and 575 nm. Absorption increases
in intensity from about 600 nm
toward the red.
SG 4.50 to 4.60 4.55 (+0.08/-0.15)
Comments Key tests are negative reaction to Key tests are dark color, lack of
diamond tester, OTL RI reading, doubling, SG, and possibly OTL
lack of doubling, and SG. YAG RI and spectrum. Gahnite marks
is a manmade material with no one end of an isomorphous series
natural counterpart. with spinel (page 150). Gem with
intermediate properties is called
gahnospinel (page 148). Rare.
143
SAPPHIRE
SAPPHIRE
Variety Sapphire (designate violet by color)

Prism
Species Corundum
450 471 General observation Light to dark violet, bluish violet, pure blue to strongly greenish
460
blue. Vitreous to subadamantine polish luster, conchoidal fracture
Diffraction
Typical cutting style Faceted gems or cabochons. Translucent or opaque material might be
carved.
450 471
460
RI 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005)

Natural blue sapphire typically shows strong
bands in the violet-blue at 450 nm, 460 nm,
and 471 nm. SR/DR/AGG DR
Pleochroism Moderate to strong violetish blue and greenish blue dichroism
Magnification Untreated natural corundum—Unaltered mineral inclusions (high-

or low-relief crystals) that might show angular faces; intact, fine,
needle-like rutile inclusions intersecting at 60° angles in the same
intact two-phase inclusions, straight, angular, possibly hexagonal
growth banding, straight and hexagonal color banding, and twinning
lines (see photos, page 147)
Eric Welch/GIA Heat-treated natural corundum—Altered, burned mineral inclusions
A sapphire treated by lattice diffusion with
titanium displays color concentrations broken silk (partially reabsorbed rutile needles), ruptured two-phase
along its facet edges. inclusions and negative crystals; sintered surface areas, especially
with tension halos (disk-like fractures with lace-like outer healing
rims, caused by expansion of inclusions) are also indicative of heat
treatment, however these features might also occur in some untreated
corundum of magmatic origin. (see photos, page 147)
Spectrum Natural blue and violet sapphires might show a distinctive iron
absorption spectrum with strong bands in the violet-blue of the
spectrum at 450 nm, 460 nm, and 471 nm. The 450-nm band is usually
the strongest. Some heat-treated material might show only the 450-nm
band, and some heated stones might show no bands at all.
Shane McClure/GIA
This sapphire treated by lattice diffusion Fluorescence Generally inert. Might fluoresce red to orange under LW. Weak
with beryllium displays a near-colorless chalky blue or yellowish green under SW might indicate heat
zone at its surface. treatment.
SG 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05)
Comments Key tests for separating natural corundum from other similarly
colored natural gems are RI, birefringence, pleochroism,
magnification and spectrum. Magnification is the key test for
separating natural from synthetic corundum.
Joel Beeson/GIA
Sapphire’s blue hue comes in a wide tone

range, from very light to very dark.
144
LATTICE DIFFUSION TREATED CORUNDUM FLAME -FUSION SYNTHETIC SAPPHIRE
Variety Not required Synthetic sapphire (designate violet by color)
Required treatment call Lattice diffusion None
General observation Light to dark violet, bluish violet, pure blue to strongly Light violet-blue through blue to strongly greenish
greenish blue. Might have an unnatural, “watery” appearance. blue. Might show poor polish, with polishing marks
on most facets due to rapid polishing. Might show
obvious face-up color zoning with blue and colorless
areas as a result of uneven color distribution within
the boule.
Typical cutting style Faceted gems or cabochons Faceted gems or cabochons, often symmetrical and
cut to precise calibrated sizes. Often cut in brilliant
style, including scissors cut.
RI 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005). Can be OTL if diffused 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005)

with cobalt.
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Pleochroism Moderate to strong violetish blue and greenish blue Same as natural, but might be visible directly
dichroism through table facet
Magnification Lattice diffusion with heavy elements like titanium produces Curved color banding and strings of gas bubbles that
color concentrations along facet junctions and girdle edge and might resemble needles. Twinning planes possible,
localized or blotchy color that bleeds into pits and surface- but very rare or difficult to observe. When present,
reaching fractures. These indications are best seen through a they’re usually formed by rapid cooling of the boule.
gem’s pavilion under immersion and diffused light. Facet These are known as Plato lines. They’re best seen
junctions and girdle outline stand out in high relief. (see with magnification, polarized light, and immersion.
photos, page 147) The stone also has to be viewed parallel to its optic
Lattice diffusion with beryllium in an oxygen-rich atmosphere axis. The twinning then appears as sets of lines that
removes or lightens blue color in overly dark sapphires. This intersect at 60° or 120° angles. Sometimes quench-
might produce yellow color in the stone’s interior. Subsequent crackled and heated in the presence of a chemical—
heat treatment removes the yellow color and might increase usually borax—to create natural-looking fingerprints.
the saturation of the stone’s remaining blue color, making it This process might make the curved color banding
more marketable. Magnification and immersion might reveal less visible. (see photos, page 147)
a colorless zone around the outside of an otherwise blue
stone. This surface-related zone overlies the gem’s natural
blue color zoning. (see photos, page 147)
Note: Undamaged inclusions provide direct evidence of a

lack of treatment.
Spectrum Might show no characteristic spectrum Not diagnostic
Fluorescence Patchy fluorescence to SW, in locations where treated-color Inert to LW, commonly weak to moderate chalky
layer is removed by repolishing blue to blue-green to yellowish green under SW
SG 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05) 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05)
Comments Key test is magnification with immersion. Fluorescence The key test for separating the flame-fusion synthetic
might also be helpful. Might require advanced testing. from natural corundum is magnification. Immersion
might help with detection of faint curved growth
structures.
145
FLUX -GROWN SYNTHETIC SAPPHIRE HYDROTHERMAL SYNTHETIC SAPPHIRE
Variety Synthetic sapphire (designate violet by color) Synthetic sapphire (designate violet by color)
General observation Violet through greenish blue Violet through bluish violet to blue and blue-green
RI 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005) 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005)
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Pleochroism Same as natural Moderate to strong. Blue stones can show reddish violet and
blue-green, bluish violet stones might be violetish red and
bluish violet, violet stones might be violetish red and violet.
Hydrothermal synthetics owe their color to nickel and
chromium rather than titanium and iron, so their pleochroic
colors might be noticeably different from those of natural gems.
Magnification Flux inclusions are generally white and high relief, Strong growth zoning possible. To avoid confusing
but might appear near-colorless, whitish, brownish, or subparallel growth structures with those seen in natural gems,
yellow to orange. Flux might also appear as two-phase, examine stones in several orientations and look for mosaic-
wispy veils that look like natural fingerprints, or as type, chevron, or zigzag growth zoning. Sometimes two- or
coarse globules that might appear drippy, tubular, three-phase inclusions in fingerprint patterns; small whitish
rod-like, or icicle-like, or as droplets or dashed lines or inclusions; possibly tiny, flake-like copper crystals that show
clouds of minute particles. Flux corundum can have a metallic luster in fiber-optic lighting. (see photos, page 147)
uniform, parallel growth planes. Sharp-edged triangular
or hexagonal platelets or stubby needle-like metallic
inclusions (usually platinum) strongly indicate
synthetic. Platinum platelets appear bright and metallic
in reflected light, but black when backlit. (see photos,
page 147)
Spectrum Might show a faint line around 450 nm Lacks the 450-nm, 460-nm, and 471-nm lines characteristic
of natural blue to greenish blue sapphires. Stones that contain
chromium might show a similar spectrum to ruby, with
chromium lines at 469 nm, 475 nm, and around 690 nm, plus
a broad absorption at 510 nm to 620 nm.
Fluorescence Inert to LW, commonly weak to moderate chalky blue Depends strongly on the stone’s chromium content. Many
to blue-green to yellowish green under SW greenish blue to violet hydrothermal synthetic sapphires
contain chromium, so they fluoresce red under both LW and
SW (weaker under SW). Greenish blue to blue hydrothermal
synthetic sapphires that contain only nickel are inert to both
LW and SW.
SG 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05) 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05)
Comments The key test for separating natural from flux-grown Key tests for separating natural from hydrothermal synthetic
synthetic corundum is magnification. corundum are magnification and possibly pleochroism and
spectrum.
146
Mike Havstad/GIA John Koivula/GIA Dietmar Schwarz John Koivula/GIA
Untreated natural sapphire: Negative Untreated natural sapphire: Mineral Untreated natural sapphire: Apatite Untreated natural sapphire:
crystal and intersecting needles. crystals. and calcite inclusions. Intersecting rutile needles.
Mike Havstad/GIA John Koivula/GIA Kenneth Scarratt
Untreated natural sapphire: Fingerprint Untreated natural sapphire: Hexagonal Heat-treated natural sapphire: Discoid Heat-treated natural sapphire:
and negative crystals. zoning and negative crystals. fracture. Glass-filled cavity with gas
bubble.
John Koivula/GIA John Koivula/GIA
Heat-treated natural sapphire: Sintered Heat-treated natural sapphire: Internal Heat-treated natural sapphire: Broken, Titanium lattice diffusion treated
area near girdle. color diffusion around rutile inclusions. or “dotted,” silk. natural sapphire: Bleeding
color around fractures.
John Koivula John Koivula/GIA
Flame-fusion synthetic sapphire: Curved Flame-fusion synthetic sapphire: Curved Treated synthetic sapphire: Borax Flux-grown synthetic sapphire:
color banding and gas bubbles. color banding. induced fingerprint-like inclusion. Wispy flux inclusions.
John Koivula/GIA John Koivula/GIA John Koivula/GIA
Flux-grown synthetic sapphire: Flux-grown synthetic sapphire: Needles Flux-grown synthetic sapphire: Large Hydrothermal synthetic sapphire:
Platinum inclusions. and platinum platelets. flux inclusions. Chevron-type growth zoning.
147
GAHNOSPINEL
GAHNOSPINEL BENITOITE
Species Gahnospinel Benitoite

Prism
General observation Transparent to translucent, blue Blue or violetish blue, often

or green, usually dark in tone. zoned with light blue, colorless
459 480 Vitreous polish luster, conchoidal or white (very rarely pink, color-
fracture with vitreous fracture less, or bicolor, with zones of
luster. brownish pink and blue).
Diffraction
Conchoidal to uneven fracture

459 480 Typical cutting style Faceted Faceted
Dispersion Fire not visible 0.044 (moderate fire)

Gahnospinel’s spectrum shows strong bands in
the blue at 459 nm and 480 nm, and also RI 1.760 (+/-0.020) 1.757 to 1.804
around 555 nm. Absorption increases from
about 600 nm toward the red area. Birefringence/doubling None 0.047 (use birefringence blink
technique—blinks to OTL)
SR/DR/AGG SR DR
Optic character Not applicable Uniaxial positive
Pleochroism None Strong, usually blue and

colorless
Magnification Not diagnostic Natural inclusions such as

fingerprints, mineral inclusions,
two-phase inclusions, and
fractures
Spectrum Similar to gahnite and dark blue Not diagnostic

spinel, with a strong, broad band
in the blue centered on 459 nm
and a strong but much narrower
band, also in the blue, at 480 nm.
There’s also a moderately strong
band centered on 555 nm. It’s at
the center of fainter broad
absorption between 530 nm and
575 nm. General absorption
increases in intensity from about
600 nm toward the red area of
the spectrum.
Fluorescence Inert Might fluoresce strong chalky

blue to SW. Generally stronger
than blue sapphire’s fluorescence.
SG 4.01 (+/-0.40) 3.68 (+0.01/-0.07)
Comments Key tests are dark color, RI, Key tests are RI, birefringence,
lack of doubling, spectrum, and optic character, pleochroism, and
SG. Gahnospinel belongs to an possibly fluorescence. Rare.
isomorphous series between
gahnite (page 143) and spinel
(page 150). Its properties fall
between the two. Rare.
148
DARK BLUE FLAME-FUSION SYNTHETIC SPINEL

FLAME -FUSION SYNTHETIC SPINEL
Species Synthetic spinel
Prism
General observation Light-toned blue resembling aquamarine; greenish blue resembling
tourmaline; and vivid, dark, slightly greenish blue resembling
sapphire. Richly colored stones often show red flashes in transmitted 540 635
580
light due to cobalt content. Vitreous to subadamantine polish luster,
conchoidal fracture with vitreous fracture luster.
Diffraction
540 635
RI 1.728 (+0.012/-0.008) 580
In its spectrum, dark blue flame-fusion synthetic
SR/DR/AGG SR with strong ADR, crosshatch effect common (see photo, page spinel shows bands at 540 nm, 580 nm, and
151) 635 nm, together with a weak absorption at
460 nm that increases through the violet.
Pleochroism None
LIGHT BLUE FLAME-FUSION SYNTHETIC SPINEL
Magnification Might contain gas bubbles (might be thread-like or, rarely, angular)
(see photo, page 151)
Prism
Spectrum Strong bands at 540 nm, 580 nm, and 635 nm dominate the green to
orange area of the spectrum. Strongest in stones with saturated blue
color. Unlike natural spinel of the same color, there are no lines or 540 635
580
bands in the blue of the spectrum. Blue-green synthetics often show
a mixture of manganese and cobalt absorption features.
Diffraction
Fluorescence Depends on stone’s depth of color.
Light blue—Weak to moderate orange under LW, chalky blue under
540 580 635
SW
Medium blue—Strong red under LW, strong bluish white under SW
Strong blue—Strong red under LW, strong mottled blue under SW
Color filter Strong red The cobalt-related bands in the spectrum of

lighter blue synthetic spinel appear in about the
same positions as those for darker blues, but
SG 3.64 (+0.02/-0.12) they’re much less intense.
Comments Key tests are RI, SR/ADR polariscope reaction, magnification,

spectrum, fluorescence, and color filter reaction. There’s an opaque
blue “sintered” spinel that resembles lapis lazuli. It’s easily distin-
guished by its much higher RI. BLUE-GREEN FLAME-FUSION SYNTHETIC SPINEL
Prism
423 448.5
Diffraction
423 448.5
Light blue flame-fusion synthetic spinel is orange under LW (left) and Flame-fusion synthetic blue-green spinel often
chalky blue under SW (right). shows a mixture of manganese and cobalt absorp-
tion features in its spectrum. Look for bands in the
violet at 423 nm and 448.5 nm and faint, broader
bands centered on 540 nm, 575 nm, and 610 nm
in the green to orange area of the spectrum.
149
SPINEL FLUX -GROWN SYNTHETIC SPINEL
Species Spinel Synthetic spinel
General observation Bluish violet through greenish blue, often of low saturation. Many Usually a saturated, medium dark to dark,
natural spinels have a lavender color, and there are some rare vibrant very slightly violetish blue. Might show
blue stones. Vitreous to subadamantine polish luster, conchoidal red flashes when rocked under a light
fracture with vitreous fracture luster. source.
RI 1.718 (+0.017/-0.008) (often in the high range for blue and red colors) 1.714 (+/-0.003)
SR/DR/AGG SR (rarely with ADR) SR (weak to moderate ADR possible)
Magnification Minute octahedra or negative crystals, alone or in fingerprint patterns; Orangy brown to black flux inclusions,
included crystals, iron oxide staining (see photos, page 151) alone or in a fingerprint pattern. Also look
for metallic platelets. (see photos, page
151)
Spectrum Naturally colored dark blue spinel spectrum shows a strong, broad band Strong bands between 535 nm and
in the blue, centered on 459 nm, and a strong but much narrower band, 550 nm, 560 nm and 590 nm, and 615 nm
also in the blue, at 480 nm. Bands centered on 553 nm, 593 nm, and and 635 nm, plus a weak absorption at
632 nm can be near the positions of bands seen in synthetic blue spinel, 430 nm that increases through the violet
but their appearance is more diffuse and their widths are more variable.
Fluorescence Can vary. Many natural spinels owe their color to iron, but some rare Weak to moderate slightly chalky red to
examples contain cobalt, which affects their fluorescence. reddish purple, strongest under LW
Iron type—Inert
Cobalt type—Weak to moderate red under LW, inert to SW
Color filter Iron type—Inert Red to orangy red

Cobalt type—Weak orange-red
SG 3.60 (+0.10/-0.03) 3.61 (+/-0.03)
Comments Key tests are RI, SR nature, magnification, and spectrum. Key tests are magnification, spectrum,
and possibly RI.
NATURAL BLUE SPINEL COLORED BY IRON NATURAL BLUE SPINEL COLORED BY COBALT
Prism
Prism
459 480 459 480

Diffraction
Diffraction
459 480 459 480
Natural blue spinel colored by iron shows bands in the blue Although some natural spinels show cobalt-related absorp-
at 459 nm and 480 nm. Bands at 553 nm, 593 nm, and tion bands in the green to orange area of the spectrum,
632 nm are not as sharp. two iron bands at 459 nm and 480 nm readily separate
them from synthetic stones.
150
Natural spinel: Included mineral crystals. Natural spinel: Fingerprint inclusion. Natural spinel: Negative crystals filled with
carbonate minerals.
John Koivula/GIA Eric Welch/GIA

Natural spinel: Mineral inclusions. Flame-fusion synthetic spinel: Large, dumbbell- Flame-fusion synthetic spinel: Crosshatch strain
shaped gas bubbles. pattern in the polariscope.
Flux-grown synthetic spinel: Flux inclusions with Flux-grown synthetic spinel: Metallic platelet.
trapped gas bubbles.
FLUX-GROWN SYNTHETIC BLUE SPINEL

Prism
Diffraction
Flux-grown synthetic blue spinel’s spectrum has bands

between 535 nm and 550 nm, 560 nm and 590 nm, and
615 nm and 635 nm, and weak absorption at 430 nm
that increases through the violet. The lack of iron-related
absorptions in the blue of the spectrum separates flux-grown
synthetic spinel from natural stones.
151
KYANITE
KYANITE TANZANITE
Variety Not required Tanzanite

Prism
Species Kyanite Zoisite
General observation Transparent to translucent light Light to medium-dark bluish

to dark blue to green, often zoned purple and violetish blue to
with bands of blue, green, and violet. Vitreous polish luster,
Diffraction
colorless. Vitreous polish luster, conchoidal to uneven fracture

uneven fracture with vitreous to with vitreous fracture luster.
pearly fracture luster. Perfect Perfect cleavage in one direction.
cleavage in one direction and
distinct cleavage in another.

Kyanite often shows iron-related bands at 435
nm and 445 nm in the violet. Stones that
contain chromium might show faint, fine lines at RI 1.716 to 1.731 (+/-0.004) 1.691 to 1.700 (+/-0.005)
652 nm, 671 nm, and 689 nm in the red.
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Optic character Most kyanite is biaxial positive Biaxial positive

(not negative as often stated)
Pleochroism Moderate. Usually colorless, dark Strong. Usually strong blue,

Tino Hammid/GIA blue, and violet-blue purplish red, and greenish yellow.
Gem-quality kyanite often has Sometimes strong blue, violet,
parallel, alternating, light- and and colorless.
dark-color bands.
Magnification Natural inclusions Often inclusion free
Tanzanite Spectrum Often shows iron-related bands at Not diagnostic, but you might
435 nm and 445 nm in the violet. see bands at 455 nm, 528 nm,
Stones that contain chromium and 595 nm
might show faint, fine lines at
652 nm, 671 nm, and 689 nm in
the red.
Fluorescence Weak red under LW Generally inert

Tanzanite’s typical pleochroic colors are strong
blue, purplish red, and greenish yellow. SG 3.68 (+0.01/-0.12) 3.35 (+0.10/-0.25)
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence, Key tests are RI, birefringence,
and optic character. Banded optic character, and pleochroism.
appearance might also be helpful. Color usually a result of non-
detectable heat treatment.
152
KUNZITE EUCLASE JEREMEJEVITE
Variety Kunzite Not required Not required
Species Spodumene Euclase Jeremejevite
General observation Pink to violet-pink, often light in Blue to greenish blue, usually light in Usually blue to greenish blue (can also
tone. Vitreous polish luster, tone. Might be color zoned. Vitreous be pale yellow). Often color zoned or
uneven to splintery fracture with polish luster, conchoidal fracture with banded, with wide and narrow bluish bands
vitreous fracture luster. Perfect vitreous fracture luster. Perfect cleavage against a near-colorless background. Might
cleavage in two directions at in one direction with pearly luster on even be parti-colored. Usually light in tone,
nearly 90° angles to one another. cleavage surfaces. with vitreous polish luster.
Typical cutting style Faceted, often with deep pavil- Faceted Faceted, usually step cut
ion to help improve depth of
color
RI 1.660 to 1.676 (+/-0.005) 1.652 to 1.671 (+0.006/-0.002) 1.640 to 1.651 (+0.002/-0.001)
Birefringence/doubling 0.014 to 0.016 0.019 to 0.020 0.009
SR/DR/AGG DR DR DR
Optic character Biaxial positive (common point Biaxial positive Seems to be related to crystal growth.
is 0.006 from the high RI) Most fashioned stones are uniaxial nega-
tive. Most crystals have uniaxial negative
cores and biaxial rims, but some have
biaxial cores and uniaxial rims.
Pleochroism Moderate to strong pink to light Blue gems show weak bluish gray and Distinct blue and near-colorless (yellow
purple and colorless, except in light blue stones show weak light yellow and near-
light stones colorless)
Magnification Growth tubes and liquid inclu- Natural inclusions (red or blue plate- Natural inclusions, healing feathers,
sions like inclusions are common) occasional step-like growth zoning that
resembles lightning
Spectrum Not diagnostic Vague bands at 455 nm and 468 nm, Not diagnostic
occasional chrome lines around
690 nm
Fluorescence Strong yellowish pink to orange Inert to weak Inert

under LW, weaker under SW
SG 3.18 (+/-0.03) 3.08 (+0.04/-0.08) 3.27 to 3.31
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence, Key tests are RI, birefringence, optic Key tests are RI, birefringence, and
and fluorescence. character, and pleochroism. possibly optic character. Very rare.
EUCLASE
Euclase sometimes Jeremejevite
shows vague bands at is a rare gem
455 nm and 468 nm that’s prized
in its spectrum. by collectors.
Occasionally, there It might show
Prism
might be chrome lines alternating

around 690 nm. bands of light
and dark
blue.
Terri Weimer/GIA
Diffraction
153
PULLED SYNTHETIC FORSTERITE

PULLED SYNTHETIC APATITE
FORSTERITE
Species Synthetic forsterite Apatite

Prism
General observation Violet to bluish violet, with Pale light blue and violet to intense
strong pleochroism. Vitreous violet-blue to blue. Vitreous polish
polish luster, conchoidal luster, conchoidal to uneven fracture
fracture with vitreous to with vitreous fracture luster. Surface
Diffraction
subvitreous fracture luster. might show abrasions due to low

hardness (Mohs 5).
Typical cutting style Faceted Faceted gems, cabochons for

cat’s-eyes
RI 1.635 to 1.670 1.634 to 1.638 (+0.012/-0.006)

Synthetic forsterite’s spectrum shows a band
between 460 nm and 470 nm, diffuse lines at
510 nm and 520 nm, and a band between Birefringence/doubling 0.034 to 0.035 0.002 to 0.008
570 nm and 580 nm.
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Optic character Biaxial positive Uniaxial negative (distorted optic

figure possible—might appear
biaxial)
Pleochroism Strong blue and purplish pink Strong. Blue and yellow to color-
less.
Eric Welch/GIA
Magnification Indistinct white inclusions Natural inclusions
Synthetic forsterite’s that resemble dust particles,
eye-visible pleochroism makes
it a highly effective tanzanite
pinpoint inclusions that might
imitation. be gas bubbles, tiny needles,
and stringers
Spectrum Band between 460 nm and Might show a distinctive spectrum

470 nm, diffuse lines at that’s best seen in the yellow
510 nm and 520 nm, and a pleochroic direction. It consists of
band between 570 nm and a weak, broad band at 464 nm, a
580 nm strong, broad band at 490 nm; a
weak band at 507 nm and a strong,
narrow band at 511 nm; bands at
525 nm and 622 nm and a moder-
ately strong band at 631 nm.
Tino Hammid/GIA Fluorescence Moderately chalky, very weak Blue—Blue to light blue under LW
Apatite comes in a orangy yellow under LW and and SW
slightly greenish blue hue weak greenish yellow under Violet—Greenish yellow under LW,
that imitates tourmaline’s SW light purple under SW
Paraíba color.
SG 3.23 (+0.01) 3.18 (+/-0.05)
and possibly pleochroism. A pleochroism, and possibly spectrum.
synthetic material produced as Paraíba-tourmaline-like hues
a tanzanite imitation, but with marketed as “neon” apatite.
a chemical composition similar Apatite’s low numerical RI is
to peridot. Distinguished from generally higher than the low
tanzanite by lower RI and numerical RI of tourmaline.
much greater birefringence.
154
TOURMALINE
TOURMALINE PARTI -COLORED
TOURMALINE
Variety Not required Parti-colored
Prism
Species Tourmaline Tourmaline
General observation Dark-toned inky blue and Strong color zoning, in varying
strongly greenish blue to combinations of green, blue, and
Diffraction
intense, highly saturated, pure red hues, usually alternating with
blue, bluish violet, and violet. colorless. Vitreous polish luster,
Vitreous polish luster, conchoidal conchoidal fracture with vitreous
fracture with vitreous fracture fracture luster.
luster.
Typical cutting style Faceted gems, cabochons, or Faceted gems, cabochons,

The spectrum of a green-to-blue tourmaline
carvings polished slices, or carvings often shows a faint band at 462 nm, a strong
band at 497 nm, and a weaker one at 560 nm.
RI 1.624 to 1.644 (+0.011/-0.009) 1.624 to 1.644 (+0.011/-0.009)
Birefringence/doubling Usually 0.018 to 0.020; dark Usually 0.018 to 0.020

stones might range up to 0.040
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Pleochroism Medium to strong, usually two Usually medium to strong, but

tones of gem’s bodycolor might vary depending on which
area of the stone you examine Robert Weldon/JCK Magazine
Intense, saturated color is a

Magnification Thread-like liquid and gas Color zoning, thread-like liquid
defining characteristic of
inclusions (trichites), mirror-like and gas inclusions (trichites), Paraíba tourmaline.
gas-filled fractures, and color mirror-like gas-filled fractures
zoning
Spectrum Often not diagnostic. Might Usually not diagnostic

show bands at 462 nm, 497 nm,
and 560 nm. Paraíba tourmaline
might show a combination of
copper and manganese lines in
the blue and violet of the
spectrum.
Fluorescence Variable Variable Robert Weldon/GIA
Indicolite tourmaline comes in

SG 3.06 (+0.20/-0.06) 3.06 (+0.20/-0.06) a range of greenish blue and
blue hues.
Comments Key tests are almost always RI Key tests are appearance and
and birefringence. If birefrin- almost always RI and birefrin-
gence isn’t obtainable, uniaxial gence. If birefringence isn’t
optic figure and SG can be obtainable, uniaxial optic figure,
helpful. Paraíba tourmaline has pleochroism, and SG can be
intense, saturated color. Other helpful. Bicolor stones display
blue tourmalines might be sold two distinct colors.
as indicolite in the trade.
Robert Weldon/GIA
Bicolor tourmaline displays two distinct color

zones. It’s often cut in a shape that follows the
rough’s zoning.
155
TOPAZ LAZULITE AQUAMARINE
Variety Not required Not required Aquamarine
Species Topaz Lazulite Beryl
General observation Light-toned blue and slightly greenish Medium to dark greenish Greenish blue to blue-green, generally
blue to dark-toned strongly greenish blue to violetish blue. Vitreous light in tone. Vitreous polish luster,
blue. Vitreous polish luster, conchoidal polish luster, uneven fracture conchoidal fracture with vitreous to
fracture with vitreous fracture luster. with vitreous fracture luster. resinous fracture luster.
Perfect basal cleavage, possibly with
iridescent cleavage planes. Most blue
topaz results from a combination of
irradiation and heat treatment. Some dark
topaz is treated with a surface coating.
Typical cutting style Faceted or cabochon Faceted or cabochon Faceted gems or cabochons. Included
material with good color might be carved.
RI 1.619 to 1.627 (+/-0.010); blue stones 1.612 to 1.643 (+/-0.005) 1.577 to 1.583 (+/-0.017). Aquamarine is
typically 1.609 to 1.617 typically toward the lower end of this
range, at 1.569 to 1.575.
Birefringence/doubling 0.008 to 0.010 0.031 0.005 to 0.009
SR/DR/AGG DR DR DR
Optic character Biaxial positive (common point is Biaxial negative Uniaxial negative
0.001 from the low RI)
Pleochroism Generally weak blue and colorless. Strong. Dark violetish blue Weak to moderate blue and greenish blue
Might be stronger in larger stones. and colorless to light blue. or different tones of blue (lighter color in
optic axis direction)
Magnification Two- and three-phase inclusions, liquid Not diagnostic Liquid-filled inclusions, fingerprints, two-
inclusions in planes. Surface treatment phase and three-phase inclusions, hollow
results in spotty color, with blue color or liquid-filled parallel tubes
concentrations in fractures. Chips on
facet junctions might reveal colorless
material underneath.
Spectrum Not diagnostic. Surface-treated topaz Not diagnostic Generally not diagnostic. In strongly
might show bands at 545 nm, 585 nm, saturated stones, you might see indistinct
and 640 nm due to cobalt. lines at 456 nm and 537 nm plus a strong
line at 527 nm.
Fluorescence Variable. Surface-treated topaz is inert. Inert Inert
Color filter Not diagnostic. Some surface-treated Not diagnostic Green (vs flame-fusion synthetic spinel
topaz might show pink to red. imitations of aquamarine, which are red
under the filter)
SG 3.53 (+/-0.04) 3.09 (+0.08/-0.01) 2.72 (+0.18/-0.05). Aquamarine typically

falls toward the lower end of this range,
down to around 2.67.
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence, and Key tests are RI, birefrin- Key tests are RI, birefringence, optic
optic character. SG is helpful if you gence, optic character, and character, and possibly magnification.
can’t obtain birefringence. possibly pleochroism. Color usually a result of non-detectable
Magnification and unnatural color are heat treatment.
key identifiers of surface-treated topaz.
156
HYDROTHERMAL MAXIXE BERYL SCAPOLITE

SYNTHETIC AQUAMARINE
Variety Synthetic aquamarine Not required Not required
Species Synthetic beryl Beryl Scapolite
General observation Greenish blue to blue-green, Medium to dark blue. Vitreous polish luster, Purple to violet-blue. Vitreous
generally light in tone. Vitreous conchoidal fracture with vitreous to resinous polish luster, conchoidal fracture
polish luster, conchoidal fracture fracture luster. Color fades when exposed to with vitreous fracture luster. Two
with vitreous to resinous fracture light. cleavage directions.
luster.
RI 1.577 to 1.583 (+/-0.017) 1.577 to 1.583 (+/-0.017) 1.550 to 1.564 (+0.015/-0.014).

1.536 to 1.541
Birefringence/doubling 0.005 to 0.009 0.005 to 0.009 0.005 to 0.038, commonly

0.005 to 0.020 (increases as RI
increases). Purple-to-violet stones
commonly 0.005.
SR/DR/AGG DR DR DR
Optic character Uniaxial negative Uniaxial negative Uniaxial negative
Pleochroism Weak to moderate blue and Weak to moderate blue and light blue (darker Moderate to strong blue and
greenish blue, or different tones color in optic axis direction) bluish purple in pink, purple, and
of blue (lighter color in optic axis violet stones
direction)
Magnification Undulating growth, chevron Liquid-filled inclusions, fingerprints, two-phase Natural inclusions
growth zoning. Liquid and two- and three-phase inclusions, hollow or liquid-
phase inclusions might also be filled parallel tubes
present.
Spectrum Not diagnostic Bands centered around 560 nm, 587 nm, Not diagnostic, except in pink
624 nm, and 688 nm stones, which might show lines
at 652 nm and 663 nm
Fluorescence Inert Inert Inert to strong pink, yellow, or

orange
Color filter Green Not diagnostic Not diagnostic
SG 2.72 (+0.18/-0.05) 2.72 (+0.18/-0.05) 2.68 (+0.06/-0.08). Often 2.60 in

purple-to-violet stones
Comments The key test for separating Key tests are RI, birefringence, optic character, Key tests are RI, birefringence,
synthetic from natural aqua- pleochroism, and spectrum. Initial darker color optic character, and sometimes
marine is magnification. might also help separate Maxixe beryl from fluorescence. When scapolite’s
aquamarine. “Maxixe-type” beryl is laboratory- RI is as high as beryl’s and
irradiated beryl. Like the natural material, it labradorite’s, it has much higher
fades with exposure to UV radiation. In birefringence than either gem.
Maxixe-type beryl, the darker pleochroic color Visual plotting might be necessary
appears perpendicular to the optic axis. to separate scapolite from
amethyst.
157
SYNTHETIC BLUE QUARTZ

AQUA AURA QUARTZ HYDROTHERMAL
SYNTHETIC BLUE QUARTZ

Prism
Required treatment call Aqua aura None
General observation Thin metal coating (typically Light to medium blue to green-
gold) gives colorless quartz a blue. Vitreous polish luster,
Diffraction
faint blue to greenish blue col- conchoidal fracture with vitreous

oration and superficial fracture luster.
iridescence.
Typical cutting style Faceted gems or treated crystals Faceted
RI 1.544 to 1.553 (coating doesn’t 1.544 to 1.553

Synthetic blue quartz shows a typical cobalt
spectrum, with bands at 640 nm to 650 nm affect gemological properties)
and weaker bands at 550 nm and 490 nm to
500 nm. Birefringence/doubling 0.009 0.009
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Optic character Uniaxial positive. Might show a Uniaxial positive. Might show a
bull’s-eye or Airy’s spiral optic bull’s-eye or Airy’s spiral optic
figure and Brazil-law twinning figure.
Pleochroism Not diagnostic Not diagnostic
Magnification Unnatural coloration on facet Often inclusion free, but might

surfaces, often with scratches contain characteristics of
and damage to the coating hydrothermal growth like bread-
crumb inclusions, two-phase
(liquid and gas) spicule inclusions
perpendicular to a seed plate,
color banding parallel to a seed
plate
Spectrum Not diagnostic Bands at 640 nm to 650 nm,

Robert Weldon, Maha Tannous/GIA
weaker bands at 550 nm and
A thin metallic coating created at 490 nm to 500 nm (due to
the visible iridescence on the
surface of these aqua aura quartz
cobalt)
crystals.
Color filter Not diagnostic Often appears pinkish
SG 2.66 2.66
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence, Readily identified by its

optic character, and magnifica- unnatural blue color, distinctive
tion. Appearance can also be quartz RI, and cobalt spectrum.
helpful. The treatment is also
used extensively on colorless
Eric Welch/GIA topaz, but its RI should easily
Hydrothermal synthetic blue quartz comes in separate it from quartz.
colors that are unnatural for quartz.
158
AMETHYST HYDROTHERMAL SYNTHETIC

AMETHYST
Variety Amethyst Synthetic amethyst
General observation Purple through violetish purple. Most properties same as natural Eric Welch/GIA
Vitreous polish luster, con-
One of amethyst’s attractive hues is a
choidal fracture with vitreous light grayish purple.
fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Faceted gems, cabochons, or Faceted

beads. Translucent material
might be carved.
RI 1.544 to 1.553 (very constant) 1.544 to 1.553
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Many amethysts contain parallel liquid
Optic character Uniaxial positive. Might show a Uniaxial positive inclusions that gemologists call “soap
bull’s-eye or Airy’s spiral optic scum” or “zebra stripes.” They result
figure and Brazil-law twinning from disturbances during growth.
Pleochroism Weak to moderate purple and None

reddish purple
Magnification Color zoning, liquid, two-phase, Often inclusion-free, but might contain
and three-phase inclusions, neg- characteristics of hydrothermal growth
ative crystals like breadcrumb inclusions, two-phase
(liquid and gas) spicule inclusions
perpendicular to a seed plate, color John Koivula/GIA
banding parallel to a seed plate, and Some amethysts contain needles com-
flame-like twinning (rather than Brazil- posed of hematite.
law twinning).
SG 2.66 (+0.03/-0.02) 2.66 (+0.03/-0.02)
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence, Many synthetic amethysts are virtually
optic character, and optic figure. inclusion-free and grown on twinned
Visual plotting might be neces- seed crystals, so they might show Brazil- Shane McClure/GIA
sary to separate amethyst from law twinning like natural amethyst. It An amethyst might display twinning
scapolite. Presence of Brazil- might be impossible to distinguish when viewed under crossed polarizing
law twinning separates amethyst between these synthetics and natural filters.
from scapolite with similar gems using conventional gem-testing
properties. equipment. Advanced laboratory testing
can separate hydrothermal synthetic
Prism
quartz from natural stones.

Difraction
Synthetic amethyst might contain two-

phase spicule inclusions.
159
IOLITE
IOLITE CALCITE
Species Iolite Calcite

Prism
General observation Violet through slightly violetish Occurs in almost all colors.
blue, with strong eye-visible Vitreous to greasy polish luster.
pleochroism. Small stones gener- Three cleavage directions. Strong
ally look grayish. Vitreous polish eye-visible doubling.
luster, uneven to conchoidal frac-
Diffraction
ture with vitreous fracture luster.

Distinct cleavage in one direction.
Typical cutting style Faceted gems or cabochons Occasionally faceted for

collectors
The strongest bands in iolite’s spectrum are at
426 nm and 645 nm. They’re best observed in RI 1.542 to 1.551 (+0.045/-0.011) 1.486 to 1.658
the spectra of larger gems.
Birefringence/doubling 0.008 to 0.012 0.172 (use birefringence blink
method)
Iolite
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Optic character Biaxial negative Uniaxial negative
Pleochroism Strongly trichroic None

Amethyst Violet stones—Light violet, dark
violet, and yellow-brown
Blue stones—Colorless to yellow,
blue-gray, and dark violet
Magnification Natural inclusions, not diagnostic Not diagnostic

Iolite’s characteristically strong trichroism
readily separates it from amethyst, which Spectrum Weak bands at 426 nm and 645 Not diagnostic
is dichroic. nm (generally not diagnostic in
small gems)
Fluorescence Inert Variable
SG 2.61 (+/-0.05) 2.70 (+/-0.05)
Comments Key tests are visible pleochroism, Key tests are cleavage, eye-visible
RI, birefringence, and optic doubling, RI, birefringence blink,
character. SG, and possibly appearance.
Eric Welch/GIA
Iolite can be grayish blue and it usually has

visible pleochroism.
160
FLUORITE (FLUORSPAR) SYNTHETIC OPAL
General observation Transparent to translucent blue to Semitransparent to semitranslucent blue to

violet (also pink to purple, green, grayish blue with play-of-color. Material with
orange, yellow, brown, and color- vivid bodycolor is probably polymer impregnated.
less). Might be parti-colored. Conchoidal to uneven fracture with subvitreous
Vitreous to subvitreous luster, fracture luster. Eric Welch/GIA
conchoidal to step-like fracture
Fluorite’s hue can be blue to
with vitreous to subvitreous frac- violet. Its low hardness can
ture luster. Perfect octahedral lead to facet and surface abra-
cleavage in four directions. Might sions.
have numerous pits and scratches
due to low hardness (Mohs 4).
Typical cutting style Faceted gems, cabochons, carv- Cabochons, carvings, beads
ings, or beads
RI 1.434 (+/-0.001) 1.430 to 1.470
SR/DR/AGG SR SR with weak to strong ADR
Magnification Triangular (tetrahedral) negative Play-of-color in a mosaic pattern across the surface,
crystals and two-phase inclusions, with a cellular, “chicken wire,” “snakeskin,” or
liquid inclusions, strong color scale-like structure that’s visible with magnifica-
zoning tion and overhead or backlighting. Might show
columnar structure when viewed from the side.
Spectrum Not diagnostic Blue polymer-impregnated synthetic opal might

show bands at 540 nm, 580 nm, and 630 nm.
Grayish blue polymer-impregnated material might
show a 470 nm cutoff plus a 515-nm band and a
550-nm to 650-nm band.
Fluorescence Variable, not diagnostic Blue polymer-impregnated synthetic opal is inert

to very weak blue under both LW and SW.
Grayish blue polymer-impregnated material is
inert to both LW and SW. Phosphorescence is
rare and weak if present.
SG 3.18 1.97 to 2.20 (typically lower than natural opal).

Polymer-impregnated synthetic opal is usually
considerably lower than natural opal, at 1.88 to
1.91. Newer untreated gray-blue synthetic opal is
closer to natural opal, at 2.22 to 2.27.
Comments Key tests are RI, SG, and possibly Magnification is the key to separating synthetic
cleavage. from natural opal. Fluorescence and phosphores-
cence might also be helpful. Synthetic opal is
often polymer impregnated to make it more stable,
and it has a considerably lower SG than most
natural opal.
161
BLUE GLASS
GLASS PLASTIC

Prism
General observation Transparent to opaque, Transparent to opaque, almost any

almost any appearance appearance possible. Look for mold
535 590 635 possible. Look for mold marks, orange-peel effect, concave
marks, orange-peel effect, facets, rounded facet junctions.
concave facets, rounded Warmer to the touch than glass imita-
Diffraction
facet junctions. Warm to tions and crystalline gemstones. Low

the touch compared to heft (SG), dull to waxy polish luster,
crystalline gemstones. conchoidal fracture with waxy to
535 590 635 Vitreous polish luster, vitreous fracture luster. Surface might
conchoidal fracture with show numerous scratches due to low
vitreous fracture luster. hardness (Mohs 1.5 to 3).
Blue glass colored by cobalt shows bands at
535 nm, 590 nm, and 635 nm. The central Typical cutting style All styles. Can be faceted All styles. Can be molded to a variety
band at 590 nm is thinner than the two outer or molded to a variety of of shapes and finishes.
ones. This is the reverse of synthetic blue shapes and finishes.
spinel colored by cobalt.
SR/DR/AGG SR, commonly with ADR SR, commonly with strong ADR

were polished through,
flow marks (swirls)
Spectrum Bands at 535 nm, 590 nm, Not diagnostic

and 635 nm, due to cobalt.
The central band (590 nm)
is thinner than the two
outer ones (535 nm and
635 nm).

4.50
Comments Key tests are RI, possible Key tests are RI and magnification.
SR/ADR polariscope reac- Low heft (SG) and low thermal
tion, and magnification. conductivity (warm to the touch)
Low thermal conductivity might also be helpful.
(warm to the touch) might
also be helpful.
162
Key Separations for Transparent Blue and Violet Gems

Diamond from synthetic diamond Magnification (growth zoning, inclusions), spectrum, fluorescence
(color and pattern), phosphorescence, advanced laboratory testing,
possibly magnetism
Naturally colored diamond from Color zoning, possibly fluorescence. Often requires advanced
irradiated diamond laboratory testing.
Diamond from CZ, YAG, and GGG Diamond tester, magnification, SG, possibly fluorescence
Diamond from zircon Diamond tester, SR vs DR nature, magnification, spectrum, SG,

possibly fluorescence
Sapphire from benitoite Birefringence, pleochroism, possibly optic character and SG
Sapphire from synthetic sapphire Magnification, possibly pleochroism and spectrum (to separate
hydrothermal from other synthetics and natural)
Sapphire from lattice diffusion treated Magnification with immersion and diffused light
sapphire
Spinel from flux-grown synthetic Magnification, spectrum

spinel
Spinel from flame-fusion synthetic RI, polariscope reaction, magnification, spectrum, fluorescence,
spinel color filter reaction
Spinel from kyanite RI, birefringence, SR vs DR nature, pleochroism, spectrum
Tanzanite from pulled synthetic RI, birefringence, pleochroism

forsterite
Tourmaline from topaz Birefringence, optic character, SG, possibly cleavage
Tourmaline from apatite RI, birefringence, pleochroism
Aquamarine from hydrothermal Magnification

synthetic aquamarine
Aquamarine from synthetic quartz RI, spectrum, color filter
Aquamarine from synthetic spinel RI, spectrum, color filter
Iolite from scapolite Color, optic character, pleochroism, possibly fluorescence
Iolite from amethyst Color, RI, birefringence, optic character, pleochroism
Amethyst from scapolite RI, birefringence, optic sign, possibly fluorescence
Fluorite from glass Magnification, possibly SG (glass with an RI in fluorite’s range

typically has an SG around 2.30)
163
TRANSLUCENT-TO-OPAQUE BLUE AND VIOLET GEMS

For many, lapis lazuli and turquoise are the most important blue and violet
translucent-to-opaque gems. Both are widely imitated, and there’s a synthetic
version of turquoise. This popular color category also includes several other
natural gems, as well as glass and plastic imitations. And remember that normally
transparent materials like corundum and tourmaline can be translucent to opaque
in their lower qualities. You’ll usually find translucent-to-opaque gems cut as
cabochons, beads, or carvings.
Translucent-to-opaque Blue and Violet Gems with RIs between 1.70 and OTL
1.730 to 1.836 (azurite) Azurmalachite Lapis lazuli, azurite, Eilat stone

AGG (Page 167)
1.655 to 1.909 (malachite)
AGG
This gem is a rock, so readings can
differ depending on where you test.
1.730 to 1.836 Azurite Azurmalachite when very little malachite is present, lapis lazuli
AGG (Page 167)
Translucent-to-opaque Blue and Violet Gems with RIs between 1.60 and 1.70
1.670—Sometimes around 1.500 due Lapis lazuli Azurmalachite, azurite, lazulite, dyed howlite, dyed blue jasper, imitation
to calcite or diopside inclusions (Page 175) lapis lazuli, dyed magnesite, dyed calcite
This gem is a rock, so readings can
differ depending on where you test.
1.666 to 1.680 Jadeite Turquoise, synthetic turquoise

1.66 spot RI (Page 168)
AGG
1.612 to 1.643 Lazulite Lapis lazuli

DR (Page 168)
1.610 to 1.650 Turquoise Jadeite, synthetic turquoise, pectolite, dyed howlite, amazonite, dyed
1.61 spot RI (Page 169) magnesite
AGG
1.610 to 1.650 Synthetic turquoise Jadeite, turquoise, pectolite, dyed howlite, amazonite, dyed magnesite
AGG
1.470 to 1.700 range Glass Any blue or violet translucent-to-opaque gem material
SR (Page 179)
1.460 to 1.700 range Plastic Any blue or violet translucent-to-opaque gem material
SR (Page 179)
164
SEPARATING TRANSLUCENT-TO-OPAQUE BLUE AND VIOLET GEMS
Translucent-to-opaque Blue and Violet Gems with RIs between 1.50 and 1.60
1.599 to 1.628 Pectolite Turquoise, synthetic turquoise, dyed howlite, dyed magnesite
AGG
1.586 to 1.605 Dyed howlite Lapis lazuli, turquoise, synthetic turquoise, pectolite, imitation lapis
AGG (Page 171) lazuli, dyed magnesite
1.544 to 1.553 Quartz Dyed jasper chalcedony, chrysocolla-in-chalcedony

1.54 or 1.55 spot RI (Page 172)
AGG
1.535 to 1.539 Dyed chalcedony Chrysocolla-in-chalcedony

1.53 or 1.54 spot RI (Page 172)
AGG
1.535 to 1.539 Dyed jasper chalcedony Lapis lazuli, imitation lapis lazuli, quartz, sodalite
1.53 or 1.54 spot RI (Page 173)
AGG
1.535 to 1.539 Chrysocolla-in-chalcedony Quartz, dyed chalcedony, amazonite

1.53 or 1.54 spot RI (Page 173)
AGG
1.530 to 1.550 Imitation lapis lazuli (Gilson) Lapis lazuli, dyed howlite, dyed jasper chalcedony, dyed magnesite,
Too opaque to test (Page 174) sodalite
1.522 to 1.530 Amazonite microcline feldspar Turquoise, synthetic turquoise, chrysocolla-in-chalcedony

AGG (Page 174)
1.509 to 1.700 Dyed magnesite Lapis lazuli, turquoise, synthetic turquoise, pectolite, dyed howlite,
AGG (Page 175) imitation lapis lazuli
1.500—Can be around 1.670 Lapis lazuli Dyed howlite, dyed jasper chalcedony, imitation lapis lazuli, dyed
due to calcite or diopside (Page 175) magnesite, dyed calcite, sodalite
inclusions
This gem is a rock, so
readings can differ depending
on where you test.
1.50, 1.61, or 1.66 to OTL, Eilat stone Azurmalachite

AGG
SR (Page 179)
SR (Page 179)
165
Translucent-to-opaque Blue and Violet Gems with RIs below 1.50

1.486 to 1.658 Calcite Lapis lazuli (when dyed), fluorite

AGG (Page 176)
1.483 Sodalite Dyed jasper, imitation lapis lazuli, lapis lazuli

SR (Page 177)
1.450 Opal Synthetic opal, glass, plastic

SR (Page 177)
1.434 Fluorite (bluejohn) Calcite

SR or AGG (Page 178)
1.430 to 1.470 range Synthetic opal Opal, glass, plastic

SR (Page 178)
SR (Page 179)
SR (Page 179)
166
AZURMALACHITE AZURITE
Species Azurmalachite Azurite
General observation Opaque rock composed of the Semitransparent to opaque, rarely

minerals azurite and malachite, transparent. Generally an opaque
patterned in bands of blue and dark blue to violetish blue, evenly
green. Might show circular colored, with matrix or inclusions.
color banding and botryoidal Commonly found with malachite
growth. and might contain malachite
patches or bands. If sufficient
malachite is present, the stone
is called azurmalachite. Often
shows botryoidal structure. Waxy
to vitreous polish luster.
Typical cutting style Cabochons, carvings, beads Cabochons, carvings, beads
RI Depending on where you test, 1.730 to 1.836 (+/-0.010)

you might get readings typical
of either mineral that makes Robert Weldon/GIA
up this rock. Azurmalachite shows a pattern of blue
Azurite—1.730 to 1.836 and green hues, circular color banding,
(+/-0.010) and botryoidal growth.
Malachite—1.655 to 1.909
Birefringence/doubling Depends on where you test 0.106 (use birefringence blink

(use birefringence blink tech- technique)
nique—both blink to OTL)
Azurite—0.106
Malachite—0.254
SR/DR/AGG AGG Usually AGG (rare transparent

material is DR and biaxial
positive)
Pleochroism None Not visible in aggregates,

moderate to strong in different
Azurite’s botryoidal growth has a typical bumpy
tones of blue in single-crystal look, like a bunch of grapes.
material
SG 3.80 (+0.09/-0.50) to 3.95 3.80 (+0.09/-0.50)

(+0.15/-0.70) (midway between
azurite and malachite)
Comments Key tests are distinctive appear- Key tests are RI and birefringence
ance, RI, and birefringence blink. Appearance might also be
blink. Stabilized azurite- helpful. Terri Weimer/GIA
malachite is widely available Stabilized azurite-malachite is made from
in the trade. It’s made from compressed and bonded nodules of azurite
chalky nodules of azurite and and malachite.
malachite that are compressed
together and bonded with a
polymer. The process is similar
to the one used to produce
stabilized turquoise.
167
JADEITE
JADEITE LAZULITE
Species Jadeite Lazulite

Prism
General observation Semitransparent to opaque. Semitransparent to opaque.

Greenish blue to blue, often with Medium to dark greenish blue to
437.5 uneven coloration, mottling, or violetish blue, often mottled with
root-like markings. Vitreous to white. Vitreous polish luster,
greasy polish luster with a uneven to granular fracture with
Diffraction
dimpled polished surface, granu- vitreous to dull fracture luster.

lar to splintery fracture with dull
fracture luster.
437.5
Typical cutting style Carvings, beads, cabochons Carvings, beads, cabochons
RI 1.666 to 1.680 (+/-0.008) 1.612 to 1.643 (+/-0.005)

Jadeite shows a key band at 437.5 nm due
to iron. (1.66 spot reading common)
Birefringence/doubling Usually not detectable 0.031
SR/DR/AGG AGG DR (massive material is AGG)
Optic character Usually not detectable Biaxial negative
Pleochroism None Not present in massive material
Magnification Often unevenly colored, with Not diagnostic

root-like mottling
Spectrum Generally a band at 437.5 nm Not diagnostic
Fluorescence Generally inert Inert
Maha Tannous/GIA SG 3.34 (+0.06/-0.09) 3.09 (+0.08/-0.01)

A type of jade from Guatemala has a bluish
green to greenish blue color. It’s sometimes Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, Key tests are RI, birefringence,
sold as New Blue jade. spectrum, and SG. Might be heat- optic character.
treated, polymer impregnated, or
dyed. Omphacite is a mottled
grayish-greenish blue rock that’s
composed mostly of jadeite and
diopside. It occurs as veins in
jadeite boulders and it’s some-
times sold as blue jadeite. It
can’t be separated from jadeite
with standard gem-testing
equipment and requires advanced
testing.
168
TURQUOISE
TURQUOISE
Species Turquoise
Prism
General observation Semitranslucent to opaque. Light to medium blue, greenish blue to
green. Often mottled, and might show dark patches or veins of
matrix, often recessed below the polished surface. Conchoidal or 420 432 460
granular fracture, depending on gem’s porosity, with waxy or dull
fracture luster.
Diffraction
Typical cutting style Cabochons, carvings, beads
RI 1.610 to 1.650 (usually a 1.61 spot reading) 420 460

432

When you view a turquoise spectrum under
SR/DR/AGG AGG reflected light, it might show weak to medium
bands at 420 nm and 432 nm. There’s some-
Pleochroism None times also a weak band at 460 nm.
Magnification If present, matrix is often recessed below polished surface.
Spectrum Occasionally shows weak to medium bands at 420 nm and 432 nm

(the 432-nm band is stronger). Might also show a weak band at
460 nm.
Fluorescence Inert to weak greenish yellow under LW, inert to SW
SG 2.74 (+0.14/-0.36)
Comments Key tests are appearance, spot RI, spectrum, and possibly
Terri Weimer/GIA
fluorescence.
Veins of matrix are common in natural turquoise.
Because it’s softer than the surrounding
material, the matrix is often recessed below
the polished surface.
169
IMPREGNATED TURQUOISE SYNTHETIC TURQUOISE
Species Turquoise Synthetic turquoise
General observation Wax-impregnated turquoise is Semitranslucent to opaque

generally a slightly yellowish light to medium blue. When
green, while plastic-impregnated present, the spiderweb matrix
turquoise is usually slightly greenish is always even with the
blue. polished surface.
Shane McClure/GIA
A hot point held close to wax- or plastic- Typical cutting style Cabochons, carvings, beads Cabochons, carvings, beads
impregnated turquoise produces a sweating
effect. RI 1.60 or 1.61 spot reading (with 1.610 to 1.650 (usually a 1.61
heavy treatment, can be as low as spot reading)
1.56)
SR/DR/AGG AGG AGG
Magnification Same as untreated turquoise. A Microspheres in a light-

sugary, “speckled” appearance is colored background (“cream
possible with wax-impregnated of wheat”). Under 30X to
turquoise, but this can resemble 60X magnification, blue
the “cream-of-wheat” effect in thread-like inclusions and
synthetic turquoise, so it’s only an artificial-looking black matrix
indication. that’s even with the polished
surface.
Terri Weimer/GIA
Spectrum Occasionally shows weak to Lacks the 432-nm band
medium bands at 420 nm and 432 sometimes seen in natural
Unlike natural turquoise,
Gilson synthetic turquoise may nm (the 432-nm band is the turquoise
have matrix lines that are even stronger of the two). Might also
with its surface. Its character- show a weak band at 460 nm.
istic texture consists of tiny
blue microspheres in a lighter- Fluorescence Inert to weak greenish yellow under Same as natural
colored background. LW, inert to SW
SG Usually 2.50 to 2.60. Much of the 2.74 (+0.14/-0.36)

turquoise used for plastic or wax
treatment is originally powdery
material with a low SG. If SG test-
ing indicates an SG below 2.60, and
the piece is of fine color, some
form of impregnation technique is
almost certain. Some plastic-
Terri Weimer/GIA impregnated turquoise is so heavily
Plastic impregnation of treated that the SG can be as low as
turquoise results in a slightly 2.00 or occasionally even 1.80.
greenish blue color, added
durability, and higher luster. Comments Key tests are RI, magnification, and Key tests for separating
The product is called stabi-
SG. A “sweating” reaction to a hot synthetic from natural
lized turquoise.
point might reveal wax or plastic turquoise are magnification,
treatment. Some plastic-impregnated spectrum, and possibly
material might give a faint acrid appearance.
odor with the hot point. Some
modern turquoise treatments can be
detected only with advanced testing
in a gemological laboratory.
170
PECTOLITE DYED HOWLITE
Species Pectolite Howlite
Required treatment call None Dyed
General observation Semitransparent to opaque slightly Semitranslucent to opaque.

grayish to yellowish white, green, Commonly dyed bright blue
blue or sometimes very light pink. to imitate turquoise or lapis
Might occasionally display lazuli. Undyed material is
chatoyancy. Vitreous to silky polish white, often with dark gray or
luster. Uneven to splintery fracture black matrix. Vitreous polish
with vitreous to silky luster on luster, granular fracture with
Robert Weldon/GIA
fracture surfaces. Perfect cleavage dull fracture luster. Might be
in two directions is usually obscured impregnated with plastic to In its aggregate form, pectolite can resemble
by aggregate structure. “Larimar” improve luster. turquoise.
is a trade name for semitransparent
to opaque blue material mottled
with white, which might also show
markings of iron oxide. It can
resemble turquoise.
Typical cutting style Cabochons, beads Cabochons, beads
RI 1.599 to 1.628 (+0.017/-0.004) 1.586 to 1.605 (+/-0.003)

(spot reading around 1.60 common) (1.59 spot RI common)
Birefringence/doubling 0.029 to 0.038 (usually not 0.019 (usually not detectable)

detectable)
SR/DR/AGG Can be DR, but usually AGG AGG

Eric Welch/GIA
With or without matrix, dyed howlite

can resemble turquoise, but it has
lower RI. It also responds differently to
Magnification In blue material, look for tiny Might show dark matrix UV radiation and the color filter.
spheres that grade from a blue
center to a white outer edge
Fluorescence Inert to moderate greenish yellow Inert to moderate orange

to orange under both LW and SW, under LW, brownish yellow
but often stronger under SW. Might under SW
phosphoresce.
Color filter Not diagnostic Red or pink
SG 2.81 (+0.09/-0.07) 2.58 (-0.13)
Comments Key tests are appearance, spot RI, Key tests are RI, fluorescence,
and SG. Magnification and fluores- and color filter. Appearance
cence might also be helpful. might also be helpful.
171
QUARTZ DYED CHALCEDONY
Species Quartz Chalcedony
General observation Transparent to opaque. Brownish Translucent and generally evenly

dark blue to violet, colored by colored. Slightly violetish blue
Eric Welch/GIA dumortierite or lazulite inclusions. to blue. Might show curved or
Dumortierite-in-quartz gets its color Vitreous polish luster, conchoidal irregular banding in various
from dumortierite inclusions. to uneven or granular fracture colors. Conchoidal fracture with
with vitreous fracture luster. dull to waxy fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Carvings, beads, cabochons, Cabochons, carvings, beads

tablets, signets
RI 1.544 to 1.553 (1.54 or 1.55 spot 1.535 to 1.539 (1.53 or 1.54

reading) spot reading)
Shane McClure/GIA SR/DR/AGG AGG if not too opaque to test AGG

Lazulite inclusions can cause blue
color in quartz. Pleochroism None. Inclusions might show None
strong violet to blue pleochroism.
DYED BLUE CHALCEDONY
Magnification Strongly pleochroic inclusions Not diagnostic
Spectrum Not diagnostic Bands around 540 nm, 585 nm,

Prism
and 645 nm, general absorption

of red, and cutoff at 450 nm with
general absorption of violet

Diffraction
Color filter Not diagnostic Reddish or pinkish
SG 2.64 to 2.71 2.60 (+0.10/-0.05)
Comments Key tests are RI and magnifica- Key tests are color, spot RI,
Dyed blue chalcedony’s spectrum shows bands tion. Appearance and fracture spectrum, and color filter
around 540 nm, 585 nm, and 645 nm due to
might also be helpful. reaction.
cobalt.
Eric Welch/GIA
Dyed blue chalcedony is

usually evenly colored, but it
appears reddish or pinkish
through the color filter.
172
DYED JASPER CHALCEDONY CHRYSOCOLLA-IN-CHALCEDONY
Variety Jasper Chrysocolla-in-chalcedony
Species Chalcedony Chalcedony
Required treatment call Dyed None
General observation Opaque dark blue to violetish blue. Translucent to semitranslucent. Blue
Conchoidal fracture with dull or waxy to green-blue. Might be unevenly
fracture luster. Lacks the pyrite and colored or resemble fine turquoise.
calcite often seen in natural lapis. Conchoidal fracture with dull to waxy
fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Cabochons, beads Cabochons, carvings, beads
RI 1.535 to 1.539 (1.53 or 1.54 spot 1.535 to 1.539 (1.53 or 1.54 spot
reading) reading)
Birefringence/doubling Weak if present Usually not detectable
SR/DR/AGG AGG AGG
Color filter Pinkish Not diagnostic
SG 2.50 to 2.60 2.50 to 2.60 (might be lower)
Comments Key tests are spot RI, spectrum, and Key tests are color, RI, SG, and possibly
color filter reaction. Usually has higher appearance.
spot RI and polish luster than lapis and
imitation lapis.
Terri Weimer/GIA Eric Welch/GIA
Dyed blue jasper chalcedony has an These cabochons of chrysocolla-in-

attractive dark blue to violetish blue chalcedony show the gem’s color range.
color. It can resemble lapis lazuli, but it
lacks pyrite and calcite inclusions.
173
GILSON IMITATION LAPIS AMAZONITE
Variety Not required Amazonite
Species Gilson imitation lapis Microcline
Eric Welch/GIA General observation Opaque. Intense violet to medium-dark Light green to greenish blue, with mot-
The inclusions in Gilson blue. Waxy to vitreous polish luster, tled green and white grid-like patterns
imitation lapis lazuli are granular to uneven fracture with dull caused by two intersecting cleavage
typically much more regularly fracture luster. directions. Uneven to splintery fracture.
distributed than the inclusions
in natural lapis. Typical cutting style Cabochons, tablets, beads Cabochons, beads
RI Vague reading of 1.530 to 1.550 1.522 to 1.530 (+/-0.004) (1.53 spot

reading common)
Birefringence/doubling None 0.008 (usually not detectable)
SR/DR/AGG Too opaque to test AGG
Optic character Not detectable Biaxial negative
Magnification Even coloration with very little pyrite, Mottled coloring with grid-like patterns
Gilson imitation lapis shows which tends to be distributed in small
dark blue patches in reflected grains. Lacks darker blue ring around
light and no blue rings around pyrite inclusions. Surface shows many
pyrite crystals.
small, angular, dark violet particles in
reflected light.
Fluorescence Inert Inert to weak yellowish green under LW,

inert to SW
SG 2.33 to 2.53. Almost always lower than 2.56

natural lapis lazuli. Gilson imitation
Eric Welch/GIA
lapis is very porous, so its SG changes
after soaking in liquid.
Amazonite’s color and distinc-
tive grid-like pattern readily
identify it. Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, magnifi- Key tests are appearance, RI, and
cation, and SG. fluorescence.
174
MAGNESITE LAPIS LAZULI
Species Magnesite Lapis lazuli
General observation Typically white, often Semitranslucent to opaque. Medium to dark slightly
dyed. Can also be gray, greenish blue to violetish blue. Might be mottled in
yellow, or brown. Often various intensities of blue and contain white patches
shows gray veining like of calcite and scattered irregular specks or veins of
howlite. Vitreous polish brassy-colored pyrite. Waxy to vitreous polish luster, Eric Welch/GIA
luster, granular to uneven granular to uneven fracture with dull fracture luster.
Magnesite can be dyed to a
fracture with dull fracture variety of blue and turquoise
luster. Mohs hardness 3.5 colors.
to 5.
Typical cutting style Cabochons, carvings, Cabochons, carvings, beads, tablets, decorative objects
beads
RI 1.509 to 1.700 Vague readings around 1.500 and sometimes 1.670

(due to calcite)
Birefringence/doubling 0.191 (use birefringence None Maha Tannous/GIA

blink method) This 19.41-ct. dyed magnesite
cabochon makes a convincing
SR/DR/AGG AGG AGG if not too opaque to test imitation of lapis lazuli.
Magnification Not diagnostic Pyrite and calcite inclusions, with pyrite grains
typically larger and more visible than in imitation
lapis. Pyrite grains are usually unevenly distributed
and have irregular outlines, commonly with darker
blue rings around them.
Fluorescence Generally inert Weak to moderate green or yellowish green under SW. Terri Weimer/GIA
Calcite inclusions might fluoresce pink under LW.
The appearance of natural
lapis lazuli can vary with its
Color filter Not diagnostic Dull, reddish brown mineral content.
SG 3.00 to 3.20 2.75 (+/-0.25); impregnated material tends to be

toward the lower end of the range
Comments Key tests are possibly RI Key tests are distinctive appearance, RI, magnification,
and birefringence blink. and possibly fluorescence. Might be dyed, waxed, or
Appearance might also be impregnated.
helpful. Birefringence
blink separates dyed mag- Terri Weimer/GIA
nesite from dyed howlite. The inclusions in natural lapis

lazuli are usually much more
irregular and randomly distrib-
uted than the inclusions in
lapis imitations. It also has
characteristic dark rings
around pyrite inclusions, a
feature that imitations lack.
175
EILAT STONE CALCITE
Species Eilat stone Calcite
General observation Semitranslucent to opaque blue-to-green Semitranslucent to opaque. Occurs in

ornamental rock with a variegated, mottled almost all colors, often dyed.
Terri Weimer/GIA appearance. Usually composed of a mix- Vitreous to greasy polish luster.
Because it’s composed of a ture of chrysocolla and malachite, but Cleavage usually not visible in
combination of minerals, Eilat might contain varying amounts of other aggregate.
stone has a characteristic copper minerals, including turquoise and
mottled appearance. the copper phosphate mineral pseudomala-
chite. Similar-looking material composed
of feldspar and amphibole is colored blue
by copper mineral impurities.
Typical cutting style Cabochons, carvings, beads Beads, cabochons, carvings, and
decorative objects
RI Depends on where you test. Possible spot 1.486 to 1.658

readings of 1.50 (chrysocolla) or 1.61
Eric Welch/GIA (turquoise). Blinking from around 1.66 to
This rough bluish gray calcite OTL (malachite) also possible.
shows its three cleavage
directions. Cleavage usually Birefringence/doubling Depends on where you test. Malachite 0.172 (use blink method)
isn’t visible in the gem’s portions might give birefringence blink of
aggregate form.
approximately 0.250.
SR/DR/AGG AGG AGG
Spectrum Not diagnostic Not diagnostic. Any visible lines are

caused by impurities or dye.
SG Typically 2.80 to 3.20 (varies according to 2.70 (+/-0.05)

which copper minerals are present)
Comments Key characteristic is variegated, mottled Key tests are RI, birefringence blink,
appearance. Material is named for reputed SG, and possibly appearance. Marble
source (King Solomon’s copper mines) is a granular aggregate, onyx marble
near Red Sea port of Eilat, Israel. Might be is a banded marble. Satinspar is a
misrepresented as azurmalachite in the fibrous aggregate that’s often chatoy-
trade. Similar material comes from Peru. ant (the name is also used for a
Requires advanced testing to determine similar variety of gypsum).
exact composition.
176
SODALITE OPAL
Species Sodalite Opal
General observation Semitransparent to opaque, Violet-blue to bluish green, with or without

usually more transparent than play-of-color. Vitreous to resinous polish luster,
lapis lazuli. Dark blue to violetish conchoidal to uneven fracture with subvitreous
blue, with veining that’s often to waxy fracture luster. In some natural opals, Terri Weimer/GIA
white, but might also be yellow dehydration causes a network of fine cracks Sodalite often resembles lapis
or red; rarely gray, greenish, called crazing. lazuli, but rarely contains pyrite
yellowish, white, or pink. Vitreous inclusions.
to greasy polish luster, uneven
to subconchoidal fracture with
vitreous to greasy fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Cabochons, carvings, beads Cabochons, freeforms, beads
RI 1.483 (+/-0.004) (Good polish 1.450 (+0.020/-0.080)

usually results in good RI
reading)
Maha Tannous/GIA
Fine blue opal can be trans-
lucent, without play-of-color.
SR/DR/AGG SR SR, commonly with ADR due to strain
Magnification Often veined with white inclu- Possible play-of-color patterns include very
sions (similar in appearance to small patches or dots (pinfire); large areas that
lower-quality lapis lazuli) flash predominately one color as the gem is
moved (flash); or even, distinct patches with a
“brush-stroke” appearance (harlequin). There
might also be areas that lack play-of-color or
that contain mineral inclusions or patches of
rock matrix. (Play-of-color in synthetic opal
tends to be much more regular.)
Spectrum Usually not diagnostic Not diagnostic
Fluorescence Might fluoresce patchy orange Inert to white to moderate light blue, green, or
or red under LW and SW yellow under LW and SW. Might phosphoresce.
SG 2.25 2.15 (+0.08/-0.90)
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, Key test is RI. SG can help separate opal from
SG, and possibly fluorescence. plastic (SG 1.05 to 1.55). Some natural opal is
polymer-impregnated to make it more stable or
improve its appearance. Magnification separates
natural opal from synthetic opal with play-of-
color.
177
BLUEJOHN FLUORITE SYNTHETIC OPAL
Variety Bluejohn Not required
General observation Bluish violet to purple bands Semitransparent to semitranslucent blue to

in a reddish to colorless back- grayish blue with play-of-color. Material with
ground. Vitreous to subvitreous vivid bodycolor is probably polymer impregnated.
luster, conchoidal to step-like Conchoidal to uneven fracture with subvitreous
fracture with vitreous to fracture luster.
subvitreous fracture luster.
Massive. Might have numerous
pits and scratches due to low
hardness (Mohs 4).
Robert Weldon/GIA
This carving shows bluejohn Typical cutting style Cabochons, beads, or decora- Cabochons, carvings, beads
fluorite’s attractive color
tive objects
banding.
RI 1.434 (+/-0.001) 1.430 to 1.470
SR/DR/AGG SR or AGG depending on SR with weak to strong ADR

transparency
Magnification Not diagnostic Play-of-color in a mosaic pattern across the

surface, with a cellular, “chicken wire,” “snake-
skin,” or scale-like structure that’s visible with
magnification and overhead or backlighting.
Might show columnar structure when viewed
from the side.
Spectrum Not diagnostic Blue polymer-impregnated synthetic opal might

Grayish blue polymer-impregnated material
might show a 470-nm cutoff plus a 515-nm band
Terri Weimer/GIA
and a 550-nm to 650-nm band.
Synthetic opal’s play-of-color
has a mosaic pattern. It’s often Fluorescence Very variable, often strong Blue polymer-impregnated synthetic opal is inert
impregnated with a polymer to
to very weak blue under both LW and SW.
make it more stable.
Grayish blue polymer-impregnated material is
inert to both LW and SW. Phosphorescence is
SG 3.18 1.97 to 2.20 (typically lower than natural opal).

Polymer-impregnated synthetic opal is usually
1.91. Newer untreated gray-blue synthetic opal
is closer to natural opal, at 2.22 to 2.27.
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, Magnification is the key to separating synthetic
and SG. from natural opal. Fluorescence and phosphores-
cence might also be helpful. Synthetic opal is
often polymer impregnated to make it more
stable, and it has a considerably lower SG than
most natural opal.
178
BLUE GLASS
GLASS PLASTIC
Prism
General observation Transparent to opaque, almost Transparent to opaque, almost any
any appearance possible. Look appearance possible. Look for
for mold marks, orange-peel mold marks, orange-peel effect, 535 590 635
effect, concave facets, rounded concave facets, rounded facet
facet junctions. Warm to the junctions. Warmer to the touch
Diffraction
touch compared to crystalline than glass imitations and crys-
gemstones. Vitreous polish talline gemstones. Low heft (SG),
luster, conchoidal fracture with dull to waxy polish luster, con-
vitreous fracture luster. choidal fracture with waxy to 535 590 635
vitreous fracture luster. Surface
might show numerous scratches
due to low hardness (Mohs 1.5
to 3). Blue glass colored by cobalt shows bands at
535 nm, 590 nm, and 635 nm. The central
band at 590 nm is thinner than the two outer
Typical cutting style All styles. Can be faceted or All styles. Can be molded to a ones. This is the reverse of synthetic blue
molded to a variety of shapes variety of shapes and finishes. spinel colored by cobalt.
and finishes.

SR/DR/AGG SR with ADR SR, commonly with strong ADR

Magnification Gas bubbles, cavities on surface Gas bubbles, flow lines

where gas bubbles were polished
through, flow marks (swirls)
Terri Weimer/GIA
Spectrum Bands due to cobalt at 535 nm, Not diagnostic Glass is an effective turquoise imitation,
590 nm, and 635 nm. The central but RI and magnification can usually
band (590 nm) is thinner than separate the two materials. Also, glass
the two outer ones (535 nm and has low thermal conductivity, so it feels
635 nm). warmer to the touch than turquoise.
SG Usually between 2.30 and 4.50 1.05 to 1.55
Comments Key tests are RI and magnifica- Key tests are RI and magnifica-
tion. Low thermal conductivity tion. Low heft (SG) and low
(warm to the touch) might also thermal conductivity (warm to
be helpful. the touch) might also be helpful.
179
Key Separations for Translucent-to-opaque Blue and Violet Gems

Lapis lazuli from azurite RI, magnification, SG, possibly appearance
Lapis lazuli from dyed blue jasper Appearance, fracture, possibly RI and SG
Lapis lazuli from imitation lapis lazuli Color, appearance, RI, magnification, SG
Lapis lazuli from sodalite Appearance, RI, magnification, SG, possibly transparency
Turquoise from impregnated turquoise Possibly magnification and SG
Turquoise from synthetic turquoise Magnification, spectrum
Turquoise from amazonite Appearance, cleavage, RI
Turquoise from dyed howlite Color, appearance, color filter reaction
Impregnated turquoise from dyed Color, color filter reaction

howlite
Impregnated turquoise from plastic Magnification, SG, possibly RI

imitation turquoise
Sodalite from dyed blue jasper Fracture, RI, SG, possibly transparency
Amazonite from chrysocolla-in- Appearance, fracture, cleavage, RI

chalcedony
Chalcedony from amazonite Appearance, fracture, cleavage, RI
Quartz from chalcedony Appearance, fracture
180
SEPARATING GREEN GEMS
Transparent Green Gems 181

RI Charts 182
Key Separations 218
Translucent-to-opaque Green Gems 220

RI Charts 221
Key Separations 238
Eric Welch/GIA
Transparent green gems include emerald, tourmaline, peridot, corundum, diopside, and zircon, with glass and plastic as
possible imitations.
SEPARATING GREEN GEMS

This section of the Gem Identification Lab Manual describes the identifying
characteristics of green gems in both transparent and translucent-to-opaque
categories. The color category includes everything from sparkling emeralds to
exotic jade.
TRANSPARENT GREEN GEMS

The transparent green stones you’re most likely to encounter in the marketplace
are natural and synthetic emerald, green grossularite (tsavorite) garnet, peridot,
and tourmaline. Some possibilities that are a little less likely include diopside,
demantoid (andradite) garnet, chrysoberyl, and sphene.
There are also important synthetics like synthetic green spinel, which is widely
used in birthstone jewelry to imitate peridot and tourmaline. You might also have
to identify gem imitations like synthetic spinel triplets and other assembled stones,
green CZ, glass, and plastic.
181
Transparent Green OTL Gems

2.417 Diamond (natural and irradiated color) HPHT-treated diamond, synthetic diamond, green CZ, sphene,
SR (Page 186) zircon, demantoid, green YAG
2.417 HPHT-treated diamond Diamond

SR (Page 187)
2.417 Synthetic diamond Diamond, green CZ, sphene, zircon, demantoid, green YAG
SR (Page 188)
2.150 CZ (synthetic cubic zirconia) Diamond, synthetic diamond, sphene, zircon, demantoid, green
SR (Page 189) YAG
1.925 to 1.984 (high type) Zircon Diamond, synthetic diamond, green CZ, sphene, demantoid, green
1.810 to 1.815 (low type) (Page 189) YAG
DR or amorphous/SR
1.900 to 2.034 Sphene Diamond, synthetic diamond, green CZ, zircon, demantoid, green
DR (Page 190) YAG
1.888 Demantoid garnet Diamond, synthetic diamond, green CZ, sphene, zircon, green YAG,
SR (Page 190) grossularite-andradite
1.833 YAG (yttrium aluminum garnet) Diamond, synthetic diamond, green CZ, sphene, zircon,
SR (Page 191) demantoid
1.798 to 1.864 Uvarovite garnet (visually distinctive—rarely confused with anything)

(usually OTL, but crystals (Page 191)
often too tiny to test)
SR
182
SEPARATING TRANSPARENT GREEN GEMS
Transparent Green Gems with RIs between 1.70 and 1.80

1.762 to 1.770 Corundum, green sapphire Synthetic green sapphire, grossularite-andradite, chrysoberyl, synthetic
DR (Page 192) chrysoberyl
1.762 to 1.770 Synthetic corundum, synthetic green Green sapphire, chrysoberyl, synthetic chrysoberyl
DR sapphire
(Page 193)
1.762 to 1.770 Corundum; color-change sapphire Natural and synthetic alexandrite chrysoberyl
DR (Page 194)
1.752 to 1.769 range Grossularite-andradite garnet Demantoid, green sapphire, chrysoberyl, synthetic chrysoberyl,
SR (Page 195) tsavorite, synthetic spinel
1.746 to 1.755 Natural and synthetic alexandrite Natural and synthetic color-change corundum
DR chrysoberyl
(Pages 196 and 197)
1.746 to 1.755 Chrysoberyl Corundum, synthetic corundum, grossularite-andradite, synthetic

DR (Page 198) chrysoberyl, grossularite, synthetic spinel
1.746 to 1.755 Synthetic chrysoberyl Corundum, synthetic corundum, grossularite-andradite, chrysoberyl,

DR (Page 198) grossularite, synthetic spinel
1.740 Grossularite garnet, including tsavorite Tsavorite: grossularite-andradite, synthetic spinel (triplet), zoisite,
SR (Page 199) chrome diopside
Lighter green grossularite: chrysoberyl, synthetic chrysoberyl,
synthetic spinel
1.729 to 1.768 Epidote Idocrase

DR (Page 199)
1.728 Synthetic spinel Grossularite-andradite, chrysoberyl, synthetic chrysoberyl,

SR (Page 200) tsavorite, grossularite, idocrase
1.713 to 1.718 Transparent idocrase Epidote, synthetic spinel

DR (Page 200)
183

1.691 to 1.700 Zoisite Tsavorite, diopside, kornerupine, apatite, tourmaline, green beryl
DR (Page 201)
1.675 to 1.701 Diopside Tsavorite, zoisite, kornerupine, enstatite, spodumene, peridot, euclase,
DR (Page 201) apatite, tourmaline, treated green topaz
1.667 to 1.680 Kornerupine Zoisite, diopside, enstatite, spodumene, tourmaline

DR (Page 202)
1.663 to 1.673 Enstatite Diopside, kornerupine, peridot, tourmaline

DR (Page 202)
1.660 to 1.676 Spodumene Diopside, kornerupine, euclase, apatite, tourmaline

DR (Page 203)
1.654 to 1.690 Peridot Diopside, enstatite, apatite, tourmaline

DR (Page 203)
1.652 to 1.671 Euclase Diopside, spodumene, apatite, tourmaline

DR (Page 204)
1.634 to 1.643 Andalusite Apatite, tourmaline

DR (Page 204)
1.634 to 1.638 Apatite Zoisite, diopside, spodumene, peridot, euclase, andalusite, tourmaline,
DR (Page 205) treated green topaz, brazilianite
1.624 to 1.644 Tourmaline (including parti-colored) Zoisite, diopside, kornerupine, enstatite, spodumene, peridot, euclase,
DR (Pages 205 and 206) andalusite, apatite, treated green topaz, brazilianite
1.609 to 1.617 Treated green topaz Diopside, apatite, tourmaline, brazilianite

DR (Page 207)
1.602 to 1.621 Brazilianite Apatite, tourmaline, treated green topaz

DR (Page 207)
1.470 to 1.700 range Glass Any green transparent gem material

SR (Page 217)
1.460 to 1.700 range Plastic Any green transparent gem material

SR (Page 217)
184

1.577 to 1.583 Green beryl Emerald, labradorite feldspar, scapolite, quartz

DR (Page 207)
1.577 to 1.583 Emerald Green beryl, synthetic emerald, quench-crackled dyed quartz
DR (Pages 208 and 209)
1.571 to 1.577 Hydrothermal synthetic emerald Emerald

DR (Page 210)
1.562 to 1.566 Flux-grown synthetic emerald Emerald

DR (Page 211)
1.559 to 1.568 Labradorite feldspar Green beryl, scapolite, quartz

DR (Page 213)
1.550 to 1.564 Scapolite Green beryl, labradorite feldspar, quartz

DR (Page 213)
1.544 to 1.553 Quartz (including praseolite) Green beryl, labradorite feldspar, scapolite
DR (Page 214)
1.544 to 1.553 Quench-crackled dyed quartz Emerald

DR (Page 214)

SR (Page 217)

SR (Page 217)
Transparent Green Gems with RIs below 1.50

1.490 Moldavite Glass

SR (Page 214)
1.486 to 1.658 Calcite Fluorite

DR (Page 215)
1.434 Fluorite Emerald, calcite

SR (Page 215)
1.430 to 1.470 Synthetic opal (visually distinctive—rarely confused with anything within this
SR (Page 216) color range)

SR (Page 217)

SR (Page 217)
185
GREEN DIAMOND
NATURALLY COLORED AND IRRADIATED-COLOR DIAMOND
Species Diamond
Prism
General observation Light yellowish green to dark bluish green, often with low saturation.
Under 10X, look for naturals, waxy to granular or faceted girdle
415.5 surface, bearding, sharp facet junctions. Adamantine polish luster,
step-like fracture. Perfect cleavage in four directions. Polish lines
never oriented the same way on adjacent facets. Positive reaction to
Diffraction
diamond tester.

415.5
Green diamonds colored by natural radiation and
by irradiation in the laboratory show similar spec-
RI OTL
tra. There’s usually some combination of lines at
415.5 nm, 496 nm, 503 nm, and 535 nm. Birefringence/doubling None
SR/DR/AGG SR (might show ADR and strain colors)
Pleochroism None
Magnification Angular mineral inclusions. Color might be confined to the surface in

green patches (natural radiation stains), so the cutter might leave large
naturals, especially near the girdle, to preserve color. Signs of
irradiation treatment are color zoning, especially near the culet in
an “umbrella” pattern, and color concentrations that follow facet
Nicholas DelRe/GIA junctions.
This naturally colored diamond
contains a green cloud. In Spectrum Usually some combination of lines at 415.5 nm, 496 nm, 503 nm,
diamonds colored by man- and 535 nm. Gemologists once believed the presence of a 595-nm
made irradiation, the color
line was diagnostic of treatment. It’s now known that the spectra of
almost always follows the
gem’s facet outline. irradiated and naturally colored green diamonds overlap, so you can’t
use this line as proof of treatment. (Cooling diamond with liquid
Fluorescence Some treated stones show very weak to strong yellowish green under
LW and very weak to weak green under SW.
SG 3.52 (+/-0.10)
Comments Key tests are polish luster, OTL RI, SR nature, magnification, posi-
tive reaction to diamond tester, and possibly spectrum. Determining
John Koivula/GIA
whether a green diamond’s color is the result of natural radiation,
This irradiated green diamond laboratory irradiation, or high pressure high temperature (HPHT)
shows a distinct color zone
treatment is a challenge, and the origin of color in many green
at its culet. This means the
diamond was treated in a diamonds can’t be determined. If in doubt, submit a green diamond
cyclotron. to a reputable laboratory for advanced testing. Some stones treated
by early irradiation methods might be radioactive.
Eric Welch/GIA
This green diamond’s color

is the result of irradiation
treatment.
186
HPHT-TREATED YELLOW-GREEN DIAMOND

HPHT-TREATED DIAMOND
Species Diamond
Prism
General observation Strongly saturated greenish yellow to yellowish green
Diffraction
RI OTL
SR/DR/AGG SR The spectrum of an HPHT-treated yellow-green

diamond might show a strong band at 480 nm
Magnification Etched or pitted naturals or feathers, tension fractures—often to 500 nm, a strong line at 503 nm, and a line
containing graphite—around crystalline inclusions. Graphite might at 415 nm.
also extend into fractures where no crystalline inclusions are present.
Some surface areas might show etching and pitting if not completely
repolished.
Spectrum Might show a strong line at 503 nm, a dark band between
480 nm and 500 nm, a line at 415 nm, and sometimes emission lines
at 505 nm and 515 nm. (Cooling diamond with liquid nitrogen helps
make its spectrum more visible.)
Fluorescence Chalky greenish yellow to yellowish green fluorescence

under LW and SW
SG 3.52 (+/-0.10)
Comments Colors produced by HPHT treatment of brown nitrogen-containing Elizabeth Schrader/GIA

Type Ia diamonds. Combination of spectrum, magnification, and This fancy-colored
fluorescence might indicate HPHT treatment in these colors. diamond’s intense
Determining whether a green diamond’s color is the result of natural green-yellow color is
radiation, laboratory irradiation, or high pressure high temperature the result of HPHT
(HPHT) treatment is a challenge, and the origin of color in many treatment.
green diamonds can’t be determined. If in doubt, submit a green
diamond to a reputable laboratory for advanced testing.
187
SYNTHETIC DIAMOND
General observation Yellowish green to green or bluish green with weak to moderate or
strong saturation in light to dark tones. The alternating pattern of
blue and yellow zones causes the face-up green color in untreated
material. Laboratory irradiation produces green color in treated
stones. Gems might be attracted to a magnet due to inclusions of
metallic (nickel-iron) flux.
Shane McClure/GIA
The unnatural pattern of the Typical cutting style Faceted

color zoning in this synthetic
diamond is a result of its Dispersion 0.044 (moderate fire—might be masked by bodycolor)
internal structure.
RI OTL
SR/DR/AGG SR (might show weak ADR, sometimes in a cross-shaped pattern)
Magnification Untreated material shows uneven coloration due to alternating blue and
yellow zones, which might form a cross-shaped, square, or hourglass-
shaped pattern. Graining might mark the boundaries of the color zoning.
Coloration in treated stones might be evenly or unevenly distributed.
Elongated or rounded opaque inclusions of metallic flux often occur as
Spectrum Not diagnostic
Fluorescence Often unevenly distributed. Relates to internal growth structures,

with some sectors showing no reaction. Often displays a cross-
shaped, square, or hourglass-shaped pattern.
Untreated synthetics—Usually inert, or show weak orange under
LW and weak to moderate yellow, yellow-green, or orange under
SW. Reaction to SW is typically more intense than reaction to LW.
Treated synthetics—Very weak to weak red-orange or orange-red
under LW and weak to moderate green-yellow, yellow-green, green,
or inert to SW. Rarely phosphoresce.
SG 3.52 (+/-0.10)
Comments Key tests are magnification and fluorescence, which can help
with detection of cross-shaped, square, or hourglass-shaped
internal growth patterns. If in doubt, submit diamond to a reputable
laboratory for advanced testing.
188
CZ ZIRCON
Species CZ (synthetic cubic zirconia) Zircon
General observation Yellowish green “peridot” color through Blue-green to slightly yellowish green through yellow-green. Facet
bluish green “emerald” color, light to dark in edges might show chipping. Vitreous to subadamantine polish luster,
tone. Subadamantine polish luster, con- conchoidal fracture with vitreous to subadamantine fracture luster.
choidal fracture with subadamantine fracture (Low-type green stones have lower luster and polish.) Negative reaction
luster. Heft reveals that loose stones are to diamond tester.
much heavier than diamonds of similar size.
Negative reaction to diamond tester.
Dispersion 0.060 (strong fire—might be masked by 0.038 (moderate fire—might be masked by bodycolor)
bodycolor)
RI OTL OTL
Birefringence/doubling None Can range from almost none up to 0.059 (strong). Not present or weak
in low-type zircon.
SR/DR/AGG SR DR (some low-type zircon is practically SR and amorphous)
Optic character Not applicable Uniaxial positive (might not be detectable in low-type zircon)
Pleochroism None Very weak green and yellow-green dichroism
Magnification Generally inclusion free, but might contain Natural inclusions, moderate to strong doubling that might be eye-visible
unmelted zirconium oxide particles and gas in larger stones. Always check for doubling in three directions. Low type
bubbles. usually shows very strong zoning that gives the stone a milky appearance
at some illumination angles; skeletal, angular inclusions are also common.
Spectrum Variable, not diagnostic Key line at 653.5 nm. Some green stones might show as many as 40 lines in
their spectra. Lines might be fuzzy and ill-defined in low-type green gems.
Fluorescence Variable, not diagnostic Generally inert
SG 5.60 to 6.00 3.90 to 4.73 (gradual increase from low to high types)
Comments Key tests are negative reaction to diamond Many green stones are low-property types. Key tests are less conclusive
tester, OTL RI reading, lack of doubling, with these stones because doubling and absorption spectra might be less
and SG. Conchoidal fracture distinguishes apparent. Key tests for high-type zircons are OTL RI reading, strong
CZ from diamond. CZ is a manmade material doubling, and spectrum. Low-type stones might show an OTL RI reading,
with no gem-quality natural counterpart. little or no doubling, a faint spectrum, and strong parallel zoning.
ZIRCON
Prism
653.5
Diffraction
653.5
Eric Welch/GIA
Zircon’s color range includes The 653.5-nm line in this spectrum positively identifies the gem
a yellowish green hue. as zircon.
189
SPHENE
SPHENE DEMANTOID
Variety Not required Demantoid

Prism
Species Sphene Andradite
General observation Yellow-green to intense green Green through yellow-green,

Diffraction
and greenish yellow, strong with strong fire. Vitreous to sub-

fire and eye-visible doubling. adamantine polish luster, conchoidal
Subadamantine to adamantine to uneven fracture with vitreous
polish luster, conchoidal to fracture luster. Surface might show
splintery fracture with abrasions due to relatively low
Sphene’s spectrum sometimes features a adamantine to resinous fracture hardness (Mohs 6.5 to 7). Might
doublet at 580 nm. luster. Two cleavage directions. rarely show a cat’s-eye.
Surface might show chips and
abrasions due to low hardness
(Mohs 5 to 5.5).
Typical cutting style Faceted Faceted gems, cabochons for

cat’s-eye gems
Dispersion 0.051 (strong fire—might be 0.057 (strong fire—might be

masked by bodycolor) masked by bodycolor)
Tom Cushman
Sphene’s visible fire is one of RI OTL OTL

its key identifiers. Others are
doubling, strong pleochroism, Birefringence/doubling 0.100 to 0.135 (strong eye- None
and spectrum. visible doubling)
DEMANTOID GARNET

Prism
Pleochroism Moderate to strong in various None

tones of bodycolor
443 620 693
632
Magnification Natural inclusions Yellowish brown, curving, radiating,
needle-like “horsetail” inclusions.
Diffraction
(Not seen in any other green stone,

but might not be present in every
demantoid)
443 620 693
632
Spectrum Sometimes a doublet at A dark band at 443 nm in yellowish
Yellowish green demantoid garnet’s spectrum 580 nm green stones or a cutoff below 443
shows a dark band at 443 nm. Rich green nm with fine lines at 620 nm, 632
stones show a cutoff below 443 nm and fine nm, 693 nm, and 700 nm in rich
lines at 620 nm, 632 nm, 693 nm, and 700 nm. green stones
Color filter Not diagnostic Pinkish to inert
SG 3.52 (+/-0.02) 3.84 (+/-0.03)
Comments Key tests are OTL RI reading, Key tests are OTL RI reading, lack
very strong doubling (almost of doubling, magnification, and
twice that of zircon), and pos- spectrum.
sibly spectrum.
Demantoid andradite garnet often displays

“horsetail” inclusions.
190
YAG UVAROVITE
Species YAG (yttrium aluminum garnet) Uvarovite
General observation Medium to dark bluish green through Light to dark green through yellow-green
yellowish green. Vitreous to sub- to brownish green. Occurs as irregular
adamantine polish luster, conchoidal aggregates of small, closely packed crystals on
to uneven fracture with vitreous to a rock matrix. Crystals are usually too small
Eric Welch/GIA
subadamantine fracture luster. Green to facet and can range in size from micro-
stones might show red flashes with scopic to no more than 4 mm in diameter. This green YAG is a product
of the pulling process.
transmitted light. Negative reaction to Best-quality specimens have uniform surface
diamond tester. coverage of crystals with no exposed matrix.
Typical cutting style Faceted Small slabs of tiny, unpolished crystals with
rock matrix backing
Dispersion 0.028 (weak fire—might be masked Fire usually not visible

by bodycolor)
RI OTL Usually OTL (might range from 1.798 to

1.864, but crystals are too tiny to test)
John Koivula/GIA
This flux-grown green YAG
contains many flux inclusions.
SR/DR/AGG SR SR
Magnification Pulled material might show gas Not diagnostic

bubbles, while flux-grown material
might show flux inclusions
Fluorescence May show strong red under LW, weak Not diagnostic
red under SW
SG 4.50 to 4.60 3.71 to 3.81
Comments Key tests are negative reaction to dia- Key test is appearance, called drusy, which
mond tester, OTL RI reading, lack of means it consists of small, tightly packed
doubling, and SG. YAG is a manmade crystals. Small slabs of uvarovite are often
material with no natural counterpart. used in designer jewelry.
Robert Weldon
Uvarovite garnet usually

consists of small, closely
packed crystals. It’s ideal for
cutting into slabs and setting
into unique jewelry pieces.
191
NATURAL GREEN SAPPHIRE

CORUNDUM
Variety Sapphire (designate by color)

Prism
Species Corundum
450 471 General observation Strongly bluish green to yellowish green, usually dark in tone with
460
distinct color zoning. Vitreous to subadamantine polish luster,
Diffraction
Typical cutting style Faceted gems or cabochons. Translucent or opaque material might
be carved.
450 471
460
RI 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005)
The spectrum of natural green sapphire usually shows Birefringence/doubling 0.008 to 0.010
strong bands at 450 nm, 460 nm, and 471 nm. The
450-nm band is the strongest. SR/DR/AGG DR
Pleochroism Moderate to strong yellowish green, green, or bluish green and

bluish green to blue
Magnification Untreated natural corundum—Unaltered mineral inclusions (high-

or low-relief crystals) that might show angular faces; intact, fine,
needle-like rutile inclusions intersecting at 60º angles in the same
intact two-phase inclusions, straight and hexagonal growth banding;
straight, angular, possibly hexagonal color banding; and twinning lines.
Natural green sapphires often contain Heat-treated natural corundum—Altered, burned mineral inclusions
fingerprint inclusions. with rounded, often whitish, “snowball” or “cotton” appearance;
treatment, but these features might also occur in some untreated
corundum of magmatic origin.
Spectrum Green stones usually show a distinctive iron absorption spectrum with
three strong lines in the violet-blue at 450 nm, 460 nm, and 471 nm.
The 450-nm band is usually the strongest. In some stones, it might be
so strong that it overwhelms the other bands. Heat-treated stones might
Anthony de Goutière not show any absorption bands.
Heat treatment of natural sapphire often causes
an existing inclusion to expand into the Fluorescence Inert
surrounding gem, resulting in a discoid fracture.
SG 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05)
Comments Key tests for separating natural corundum from other similarly
colored natural gems are RI, birefringence, pleochroism, magnifica-
tion, and spectrum. Magnification is the key test for separating
natural from synthetic corundum. Green color can result from lattice
diffusion with beryllium.
Maha Tannous/GIA
It’s not unusual to see distinct color zoning in

some sapphires.
192
FLAME-FUSION SYNTHETIC HYDROTHERMAL SYNTHETIC Natural Hydrothermal

SAPPHIRE SAPPHIRE sapphire synthetic
Variety Synthetic sapphire (designate by color) Synthetic sapphire (designate by color) sapphire
General observation Dark-toned bluish green to lighter- Blue-green to yellowish green

toned yellowish green. Might show
poor polish, with polishing marks on
most facets due to rapid polishing.
Peter Johnston/GIA
Typical cutting style Faceted gems or cabochons, often Faceted The typical pleochroic colors
of natural green corundum
symmetrical and to precise calibrated
(left) are different from
sizes. Often brilliant style, including those of some hydrothermal
scissors cut. synthetic corundum (right).
Some synthetics show
unusual reddish orange and
RI 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005) 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005) yellowish green pleochroic
colors.
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Pleochroism Strong green and yellow-green Might duplicate natural. Some show moder-
ate to strong reddish orange to yellowish
orange and bluish green to yellowish green.
These stones are colored by a combination
of nickel and iron, so their pleochroic colors
might differ from natural stones.
Eric Welch/GIA
Magnification Curved color banding and strings of gas Strong growth zoning possible. To avoid
Magnification is the key test
bubbles that might resemble needles. confusing subparallel growth structures
for separating the natural
Twinning planes possible, but very rare with those seen in natural gems, examine green sapphire at left from the
or difficult to observe. When present, stones in several orientations and look for synthetic green sapphire at
they’re usually formed by rapid cooling mosaic-type, chevron, or zigzag growth right.
of the boule. These are known as Plato zoning. Sometimes two- or three-phase
lines. They’re best seen with magnifica- inclusions in fingerprint patterns; small
tion, polarized light, and immersion. whitish inclusions; possibly tiny, flake-like
The stone also has to be viewed parallel copper crystals that show a metallic luster
to its optic axis. The twinning then in fiber-optic lighting.
appears as sets of lines that intersect at
60º or 120° angles.
Spectrum Might show lines at 530 nm and Not diagnostic

687 nm
Fluorescence Weak orange under LW, dull brownish Generally inert, but some stones that contain
red under SW chromium might fluoresce purplish red
under both LW and SW.
SG 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05) 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05)
Comments The key test for separating flame- The key test for separating natural from
fusion synthetic corundum from hydrothermal synthetic corundum is
natural is magnification. Immersion magnification. Pleochroism might also
might help with detection of faint be helpful.
curved growth structures.
193
COLOR-CHANGE CORUNDUM
COLOR-CHANGE SAPPHIRE
Variety Color-change sapphire

Prism
Species Corundum
General observation Commonly pink-brown through brownish pink and purple, very
rarely reddish brown in incandescent light, changing to yellowish
brown, grayish violet, grayish blue, or very rarely green in daylight
Diffraction
and fluorescent light. Vitreous to subadamantine polish luster,

Typical cutting style Faceted gems, cabochons
Natural color-change corundum often shows RI 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005)

chromium lines in the red with iron-related lines
at about 450 nm, 460 nm, and 470 nm. Birefringence/doubling 0.008 to 0.010
SR/DR/AGG DR
Magnification Fingerprint and two-phase inclusions; dark red-brown crystals (possibly

rutile), needles, and other natural mineral crystal inclusions. Might
also show strong color zoning in yellow, green-blue, blue, purple-
pink, and brownish pink when viewed under incandescent light.
Spectrum Typically combines features of ruby and pink sapphire (chromium

lines in the red) with iron-related lines at about 450 nm, 460 nm, and
470 nm. Might show a vanadium line at a position similar to the one
Both by Tino Hammid/GIA
These sapphires show rare color change from Fluorescence Inert

pale browns and soft pinks in incandescent
light (left) to shades of greenish blue Color filter Commonly red
in daylight (right).
SG 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05)
Comments Key tests are detection of color change, RI, birefringence, and
magnification.
194
GREEN GROSSULARITE-ANDRADITE GARNET

GROSSULARITE -ANDRADITE GARNET
Species Grossularite-andradite
Prism
Group Garnet
General observation Slightly greenish yellow to yellowish green and intense green,
typically of medium tone. Vitreous to subadamantine polish luster,
conchoidal to uneven fracture with greasy to vitreous fracture luster.
Diffraction
RI Yellowish green stones—1.752 to 1.769

Green stones—1.762 to 1.764
The spectrum of green grossularite-andradite
Birefringence/doubling None garnet usually shows a 440-nm cutoff followed
by a strong band at 445 nm and usually a line
SR/DR/AGG SR, often with moderate to strong ADR at 600 nm.
Optic character Not applicable
Magnification Fingerprints (partially healed fractures), parallel growth planes, and

small mineral crystals. Many fine faceted gems are almost inclusion-
free.
Spectrum Very similar to yellow andradite’s spectrum, with a band or cutoff at

440 nm. Intense green stones might show faint lines around 600 nm,
possibly due to chromium. Yellowish green stones might show a
weak band at 415 nm, a 440-nm band, and faint lines at 465 nm and
495 nm.
Fluorescence Inert
SG Yellowish green stones—3.64 to 3.68

Green stones—3.65 to 3.67
Comments Key tests are RI, SR nature, and possibly spectrum. Sold as “Mali”
or “grandite” garnet in the trade.
Tino Hammid/GIA
Grossularite-andradite garnets come in green,

yellow-green, and brown hues.
195

ALEXANDRITE
Variety Alexandrite
Prism
Species Chrysoberyl
General observation Color change from yellowish, brownish, grayish, or bluish green in
daylight or fluorescent light to orangy or brownish red to purplish
Diffraction
RI 1.746 to 1.755 (+0.004/-0.006)

In the purple-red pleochroic direction, alexan-
drite’s spectrum has strong lines in the red at Birefringence/doubling 0.008 to 0.010
678 nm and 680.5 nm; weaker ones at 645 nm
and 655 nm; a broad absorption between SR/DR/AGG DR
540 nm and 605 nm; weak lines in the blue at
468 nm, 473 nm, and 476.5 nm; and a cutoff
in the violet.
ALEXANDRITE (GREEN DIRECTION)
Magnification Might show fingerprints, angular included crystals, negative crystals,

liquid inclusions, needle-like inclusions, or twinning
Prism

Diffraction

Orange pleochroic direction—No strong absorptions
In the green pleochroic direction, alexandrite
shows strong lines in the red at 678 nm and Fluorescence Inert to moderate red under LW and SW
680.5 nm; weaker ones at 645 nm, 649 nm,
655 nm, and 665 nm; a broad absorption SG 3.73 (+/-0.02)
between about 555 nm and 640 nm; and a
cutoff in the violet at about 470 nm. Comments Key tests are appearance of color change, RI, pleochroism, and
spectrum. Magnification separates natural from synthetic alexandrite.
Both by Tino Hammid/GIA John Koivula/GIA John Koivula/GIA
Natural alexandrites show a color change from Natural alexandrite might Negative crystals are among The angular apatite crystals in
bluish green in fluorescent light (left) to purplish contain angular fluorite crys- the clarity characteristics this alexandrite identify it as
red in incandescent light (right). tals that can help you separate found in natural alexandrite. natural.
it from synthetic material.
196
General observation Bluish green in daylight or fluorescent light, brownish red to purple-
conchoidal fracture with greasy to vitreous fracture luster. John Koivula/GIA
Flux-grown synthetic alexandrite often

RI 1.746 to 1.755 (+0.004/-0.006) contains hexagonal platinum platelets.
SR/DR/AGG DR
Magnification Flux—Veil-like inclusions, tubes or parallel planes of flux, hexagonal

or triangular metallic platelets, uniform straight or angular growth lines Flux-grown synthetic alexandrite
Pulled—Needle-like inclusions, curved striae, minute gas bubbles typically contains parallel growth
features.
Floating zone—Gas bubbles, swirled appearance
Fluorescence Typically moderate to strong red under LW and SW
SG 3.73 (+/-0.02)
The large brown flux inclusion proves
that this alexandrite is a flux-grown
synthetic.
Shane McClure/GIA
Pulled synthetic alexandrite often

displays curved growth features.
197
CHRYSOBERYL SYNTHETIC CHRYSOBERYL
Species Chrysoberyl Synthetic chrysoberyl
General observation Non-phenomenal yellow through strongly yellowish green, Non-phenomenal intense bluish green due to vanadium.
intense bluish green due to vanadium or chromium or both, Vitreous to subadamantine polish luster, conchoidal
to greenish brown. Vitreous to subadamantine polish luster, fracture with greasy to vitreous fracture luster.
RI 1.746 to 1.755 (+0.004/-0.006) 1.746 to 1.755 (+0.004/-0.006);

typical range might be 1.742 to 1.752
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Optic character Biaxial positive Biaxial positive
Pleochroism Weak to moderate, usually different tones of the bodycolor Weak to moderate, usually different tones of the
bodycolor
Magnification Might show fingerprints, angular included crystals, liquid Might contain needle-like inclusions, curved striae, gas
inclusions, needle-like inclusions, and twinning. bubbles
Spectrum Natural yellowish green to greenish brown stones colored by Not diagnostic
iron show a strong band at 444 nm. Intense bluish “mint”
green stones might also show additional bands and lines,
with a band between 590 nm and 665 nm and an emission
line at 670 nm.
Fluorescence Yellowish and yellowish green stones are generally inert to Generally inert to both LW and SW, but a few stones
yellowish green under SW. Other colors are generally inert. might show faint red under LW
Bluish green “mint” chrysoberyl might be strong red under
LW due to high chromium content.
SG 3.73 (+/-0.02) 3.73 (+/-0.02) (might be a little higher than natural

at 3.76)
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence, pleochroism, and spectrum. Magnification is the key test for separating natural
from synthetic chrysoberyl. Synthetic chrysoberyl is
produced by both pulling and modified floating zone
methods.
CHRYSOBERYL
Prism
444
Diffraction
444
Eric Welch/GIA
Chrysoberyl’s spectrum reveals a diagnostic band at 444 nm. Non-phenomenal chrysoberyl can occur in an attractive
mint green hue. The larger stone weighs 11.74 cts.
198
GROSSULARITE GARNET EPIDOTE
Variety Tsavorite (medium to dark green to Not required

yellowish green)
Species Grossularite Epidote

Mike Havstad/GIA
General observation Near-colorless to light to dark green. Transparent to translucent light to very This tsavorite garnet contains mineral
Vitreous polish luster, conchoidal to dark green to black. Vitreous to greasy crystal inclusions.
uneven fracture with greasy to polish luster, uneven to conchoidal
vitreous fracture luster. fracture with vitreous to greasy fracture
luster. Perfect cleavage in one direction.
Typical cutting style Faceted gems or cabochons Faceted
RI 1.740 (+0.020/-0.010) 1.729 to 1.768 (+0.012/-0.035)
Birefringence/doubling None 0.019 to 0.045
SR/DR/AGG SR DR This tsavorite garnet contains liquid

inclusions.
Optic character Not applicable Biaxial negative (might show a pseudo-
uniaxial interference figure)
Pleochroism None Strong green, brown, and yellow

trichroism
Magnification Partially healed fractures, finger- Natural inclusions

prints, and small graphite platelets
Spectrum Not diagnostic Very strong band at 455 nm and some-

times a weak line at 475 nm Magnification might reveal fingerprint
inclusions in tsavorite garnet.
Fluorescence Near-colorless to light green stones Generally inert
are inert to weak orange under LW,
weak yellow-orange under SW.
SG 3.61 (+0.12/-0.04) 3.40 (+0.10/-0.15)
Comments Key tests are RI, SR nature, Key tests are RI, birefringence, optic
and possibly magnification and character, spectrum, and possibly
fluorescence. pleochroism.
EPIDOTE
Prism
Peter Johnston/GIA
Epidote is one of the few gems that

Diffraction
might give you an optic figure that

appears uniaxial but is actually biaxial.
This occurs when the angle between
a biaxial gem’s optic axes is so small
that the brushes appear to intersect.
Epidote’s spectrum usually shows a very strong band at

455 nm. It’s sometimes followed by a weak line at 475 nm.
199
FLAME-FUSION SYNTHETIC GREEN SPINEL

FLAME -FUSION SYNTHETIC IDOCRASE
SPINEL
Species Synthetic spinel Idocrase

Prism
General observation Usually either a dark-toned grayish Yellowish green, green to

green resembling tourmaline or brownish green. Vitreous to
423 448.5
a light-toned yellowish green greasy polish luster, con-
resembling peridot. Vitreous to choidal to uneven or granular
Diffraction
subadamantine polish luster, fracture with vitreous to dull

fracture luster.
423 448.5
Typical cutting style Faceted, often symmetrical and to Faceted gems or cabochons
precise calibrated sizes. Often cut in
Absorption bands are generally faint in flame-
fusion synthetic green spinel’s spectrum. You
brilliant style, including scissors cut.
might see bands at 423 nm in the violet and
448.5 nm in the blue. RI 1.728 (+0.012/-0.008) 1.713 to 1.718
(+0.003/-0.013)
SR/DR/AGG SR with strong ADR (crosshatch DR (might appear SR on

effect common) due to strain. refractometer)
Optic character Not applicable Uniaxial in single-crystal

material (might be uniaxial
positive or negative—strain
colors common on polariscope
Eric Welch/GIA
with crossed polarizing filters)
Under crossed polarizing filters,
synthetic green spinel typically shows
snake-like bands and strain. Pleochroism None None to weak
IDOCRASE
Magnification Might contain gas bubbles (might Not diagnostic

be thread-like or, rarely, angular)
Prism
Spectrum Generally faint absorption bands at Line at 464 nm, weak line at
423 nm in the violet and 448.5 nm 528.5 nm
464
in the blue.
Diffraction
Fluorescence Light green stones—Strong yellow- Inert

ish green under LW, moderate
yellowish green under SW
Yellowish green stones—Strong
464
yellowish green under LW and SW
Dark green stones—Strong purplish
In its spectrum, green idocrase shows a key red under LW, strong greenish white
line at 464 nm. under SW
SG 3.64 (+0.02/-0.12) 3.40 (+0.10/-0.15)
Comments Key tests are RI, SR/ADR polar- Key tests are RI, birefringence,
iscope reaction, and magnification. optic character (test carefully),
Triplets that imitate peridot (soudé and spectrum. Sometimes
peridot) are made using colorless called vesuvianite in the trade.
synthetic spinel joined by a dark
yellowish green cement layer. If
you get a 1.728 RI on a gem
Maha Tannous/GIA
resembling peridot, always check
for a separation plane.
Idocrase occurs in brownish and yellowish
green and has vitreous to greasy polish luster.
200
DIOPSIDE
ZOISITE DIOPSIDE
Species Zoisite Diopside
Prism
General observation Light to dark bluish green to Bluish green to yellowish green.
yellowish green. Vitreous Chrome diopside is intense green.
polish luster, conchoidal to Vitreous polish luster, conchoidal to 505
uneven fracture with vitreous uneven fracture with vitreous to

fracture luster. Perfect cleavage resinous fracture luster. Perfect
Diffraction
in one direction. cleavage in two directions at nearly
90° angles to one another.
505
RI 1.691 to 1.700 (+/-0.005) 1.675 to 1.701 (+0.029/-0.010) Diopside’s spectrum shows bands at 456 nm,
493 nm, and 505 nm. The 505-nm band is
Birefringence/doubling 0.008 to 0.013 0.024 to 0.030 diagnostic for the gem.
SR/DR/AGG DR DR CHROME DIOPSIDE
Optic character Biaxial positive Biaxial positive
Prism
Pleochroism Strong greenish yellow to Weak to strong light and dark green
greenish brown, yellowish
green, and bluish green to 505
508
brownish green
Diffraction
Magnification Two- and three-phase inclu- Not diagnostic
sions, fingerprints, needles,
growth tubes, and solid
505
mineral inclusions
508
Spectrum Broad absorption of the violet Ordinary green—Diagnostic band Chrome diopside’s spectrum shows lines at
and most of the blue portion at 505 nm, with bands also at 505 nm, 508 nm, 635 nm, 655 nm, and 670 nm,
of the spectrum and weak to 456 nm and 493 nm and a cutoff in the blue area of the spectrum
distinct bands at 660 nm and Chrome-type—Lines at 505 nm, around 450 nm.
680 nm 508 nm, 635 nm, 655 nm, and
670 nm, and a cutoff in the blue
area around 450 nm
Fluorescence Generally inert Green under LW, inert to SW
SG 3.35 (+0.10/-0.25) 3.29 (+0.11/-0.07)
optic character, and pleochro- optic character, and spectrum.
ism. There is a chatoyant green Diopside’s low-RI reading is
zoisite that resembles cat’s-eye always higher than the low-RI
Eric Welch/GIA
tourmaline, but it’s extremely reading in peridot. Some yellowish
rare. green material is marketed as Diopside can be a bluish
“Tashmarine.” to yellowish green.
201
KORNERUPINE
KORNERUPINE ENSTATITE
Species Kornerupine Enstatite

Prism
General observation Transparent to translucent Transparent to opaque. Brownish

yellowish to brownish green, green and yellowish green, dark
blue-green, yellow, brown, reddish brown to greenish brown,
and colorless (rare). and colorless (rare). Translucent-
Translucent varieties might to-opaque gems might show
Diffraction
show chatoyancy or asterism. chatoyancy or a six-rayed star (rare).

Vitreous polish luster, Vitreous polish luster, uneven
conchoidal fracture with fracture with vitreous to pearly
vitreous fracture luster. Perfect fracture luster. Distinct cleavage in
cleavage in two directions. two directions.
Typical cutting style Faceted, cabochons for Faceted gems or cabochons

Kornerupine’s spectrum shows bands at
446 nm and 503 nm along with faint lines at phenomenal varieties
430 nm, 463 nm, and 540 nm. It’s
best observed in the gem’s green pleochroic RI 1.667 to 1.680 (+/-0.003) 1.663 to 1.673 (+/-0.010)
direction.
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Optic character Biaxial negative. Usually Biaxial positive

shows a pseudo-uniaxial
interference figure.
Pleochroism Generally strong green, yellow, Weak to strong, depending on body-

Peter Johnston/GIA
and red-brown (for typical color. Green and yellowish green or
Kornerupine usually shows a brownish green stones) brown and yellow.
pseudo-uniaxial optic figure.
Magnification Natural inclusions Natural inclusions
Spectrum Bands at 446 nm and 503 nm, Lines at 505 nm and 550 nm. Might
faint lines at 430 nm, 463 nm, show gradual cutoff below 470 nm.
and 540 nm (best observed in
the green pleochroic direction)
Fluorescence Inert to strong yellow under Inert

Eric Welch/GIA
LW and SW
Kornerupine typically has a dark-toned
brownish green appearance. SG 3.30 (+0.05/-0.03) 3.25 (+0.15/-0.02)
ENSTATITE Comments Keys tests are RI, birefrin- Key tests are RI, birefringence,
gence, optic character, optic character, and spectrum.
pleochroism, and possibly
spectrum and fluorescence.
Prism
505 550
Diffraction
505 550
Enstatite’s spectrum shows a variety of

bands and lines. The most diagnostic ones are
at 505 nm and 550 nm.
202
HIDDENITE SPODUMENE
SPODUMENE PERIDOT
Species Spodumene Peridot
Prism
General observation Yellow-green to medium green. Yellowish green to greenish yellow
Rare hiddenite is very slightly to brownish green. Moderate
bluish green through yellowish doubling due to birefringence.
green. Vitreous polish luster, Vitreous polish luster, conchoidal
uneven to splintery fracture with fracture with vitreous to sub-
Diffraction
vitreous fracture luster. Perfect vitreous fracture luster.
cleavage in two directions at
nearly 90º angles to one another.
Typical cutting style Faceted Faceted gems or cabochons
RI 1.660 to 1.676 (+/-0.005) (hidden- 1.654 to 1.690 (+/-0.020)

Hiddenite’s spectrum shows lines in the blue at
ite usually 1.662 to 1.676) 433 nm and 438 nm. There’s also a broad
absorption in the orange centered on 620 nm,
Birefringence/doubling 0.014 to 0.016 0.035 to 0.038 (usually 0.036) followed by lines at 646 nm, 669 nm, 686 nm,
and 690 nm.
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Optic character Biaxial positive (common point Biaxial positive or negative PERIDOT
is 0.006 from the high RI) (common point is usually almost

halfway between the extremes)
Prism
Pleochroism Moderate bluish green and Weak yellow-green and green,
yellowish green noticeable only in dark stones
453 497
Magnification Growth tubes and liquid inclusions Disk-like liquid and gas inclusions 477
(“lily pads”), tiny dark octahedral
Diffraction
chromite inclusions
Spectrum In yellow-green stones, look for Strong, narrow bands at 453 nm,
lines near 433 nm and 438 nm in 477 nm, and 497 nm 453 497
the blue area. Hiddenite shows a 477
chromium spectrum, with lines at

646 nm, 669 nm, 686 nm, and Peridot has a distinctive spectrum, with strong
690 nm plus a broad absorption bands in the blue at 453 nm, 477 nm, and
near 620 nm. 497 nm.
SG 3.18 (+/-0.03) 3.34 (+0.04/-0.07)
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence, Keys tests are RI, birefringence,
and spectrum. optic character, spectrum, and
possibly magnification. Peridot’s
low-RI reading is always lower
than the low-RI reading in
diopside.
Alan Jobbins
Magnification revealed a char- This peridot contains several The liquid and gas inclusion
acteristic chromite inclusion in dark, high-relief chromite in this peridot is called a
this peridot. crystals. “lily pad.”
203
EUCLASE
EUCLASE ANDALUSITE
Species Euclase Andalusite

Prism
General observation Yellowish to bluish green, blue to Yellowish green to brownish

greenish blue, usually light in green and orangy brown. Due to
tone. Might be color zoned. strong pleochroism, both green
Vitreous polish luster, conchoidal and orangy pleochroic colors
fracture with vitreous fracture might be visible through the
Diffraction
luster. Perfect cleavage in one crown. Vitreous polish luster,

direction with pearly luster on uneven to conchoidal fracture
cleavage surfaces. with vitreous fracture luster.

Euclase sometimes shows vague bands at
RI 1.652 to 1.671 (+0.006/-0.002) 1.634 to 1.643 (+/-0.005)
455 nm and 468 nm in its spectrum. There
might occasionally be chrome lines around
690 nm. Birefringence/doubling 0.019 to 0.020 0.007 to 0.013 (tends to be higher
when RI values are low)
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Optic character Biaxial positive Biaxial negative
Pleochroism Grayish green and green Very strong, generally light

yellowish green and dark
brownish red
Magnification Natural inclusions (red or blue Needles (probably rutile) and

plate-like inclusions are crystals (probably apatite)
Robert Weldon/GIA common)
Andalusite has attractive eye-
visible pleochroism. Spectrum Two vague bands at 455 nm and Not diagnostic, but might show
468 nm, occasional chrome lines clusters of fine lines around
around 690 nm 485 nm to 518 nm and around
550 nm
Fluorescence Inert to weak Inert to LW. Might fluoresce

weak to moderate green to
yellowish green under SW.
SG 3.08 (+0.04/-0.08) 3.17
optic character, and pleochroism. optic character, and pleochroism.
204
APATITE
APATITE TOURMALINE
Species Apatite Tourmaline
Prism
General observation Yellowish green, brownish Light to dark green-blue to strongly
green, and green. Vitreous greenish blue to yellowish green
polish luster, conchoidal to (chrome tourmaline is intense
uneven fracture with vitreous green). Vitreous polish luster,
fracture luster. Surface might conchoidal fracture with vitreous
Diffraction
show abrasions due to low fracture luster.
hardness (Mohs 5).
Typical cutting style Faceted Faceted gems, cabochons, or

carvings
RI 1.634 to 1.638 (+0.012/-0.006) 1.624 to 1.644 (+0.011/-0.009)

Green apatite’s spectrum shows a group of
lines at 580 nm.
Birefringence/doubling 0.002 to 0.008 Usually 0.018 to 0.020; dark stones
might range up to 0.040
TOURMALINE
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Optic character Uniaxial negative (distorted Uniaxial negative
Prism
optic figure possible—might
appear biaxial)
Pleochroism Weak to very weak Medium to strong, usually two tones

of gem’s bodycolor
Diffraction
Magnification Natural inclusions Thread-like liquid and gas inclusions
(trichites), mirror-like gas-filled
fractures, color zoning
Spectrum Group of lines at 580 nm Usually not diagnostic, but some The spectra of green to blue tourmalines
stones might show faint bands at sometimes show faint bands at 462 nm,
462 nm, strong bands at 497 nm, strong bands at 497 nm, and weaker bands
and weaker bands at 560 nm. at 560 nm.
Fluorescence Variable. Generally not diag- Variable

nostic, but might be greenish
yellow and stronger under LW.
SG 3.18 (+/-0.05) 3.06 (+0.20/-0.06)
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence, Key tests are almost always RI and
and optic character. Apatite’s birefringence. If birefringence isn’t
low numerical RI is generally obtainable, uniaxial optic figure and
higher than the low numerical SG can be helpful.
RI of tourmaline.
Robert Weldon/GIA
Green tourmaline’s color range includes green-

blue, yellowish green, and green hues.
205
PARTI-COLORED TOURMALINE
Variety Parti-colored
Species Tourmaline
General observation Strong color zoning, in varying combinations of green, blue, and
red hues, usually alternating with colorless. Vitreous polish luster,
Typical cutting style Faceted gems, cabochons, polished slices, or carvings
RI 1.624 to 1.644 (+0.011/-0.009)
Terri Weimer/GIA
Birefringence/doubling Usually 0.018 to 0.020
Parti-colored tourmalines include some gems
with green and red “watermelon” color zoning. SR/DR/AGG DR
Pleochroism Usually medium to strong, but might vary depending on which area
of the stone you examine
Magnification Color zoning, thread-like liquid and gas inclusions (trichites), mirror-
like gas-filled fractures
Spectrum Usually not diagnostic

Maha Tannous/GIA
Fluorescence Variable
A slice through a tourmaline
crystal from Madagascar
SG 3.06 (+0.20/-0.06)
reveals areas where changes
in coloring agents occurred
during growth. It also shows a Comments Key tests are appearance and almost always RI and birefringence. If
change in shape, from its trian- birefringence isn’t obtainable, uniaxial optic figure, pleochroism, and
gular cross-section to its final SG can be helpful. Bicolor stones display two distinct colors.
six-sided outline.
Robert Weldon/GIA
Each of these bicolor tourmalines shows two distinct and attractive

color zones.
206
TREATED GREEN TOPAZ BRAZILIANITE BERYL
Species Topaz Brazilianite Beryl
General observation Vitreous polish luster, conchoidal fracture with vitreous Transparent to translucent. Usually light-toned, weakly
fracture luster. Basal cleavage, possibly with iridescent Yellowish green to greenish to moderately saturated,
cleavage planes. There are two types of treated green yellow, colorless (rare). slightly yellowish green.
topaz on the market: Vitreous polish luster, con- Vitreous polish luster,
Surface-treated topaz—Bluish green to greenish blue choidal fracture with vitreous conchoidal fracture with
Irradiated green topaz—Light to medium yellowish fracture luster. Perfect cleavage vitreous to resinous fracture
green or brownish green to a saturated green to blue-green. in one direction. luster.
Fades rapidly to a typical blue topaz color with exposure to
sunlight in under a day. Might be measurably radioactive.
RI 1.609 to 1.617 typical for surface-treated topaz 1.602 to 1.621 (+/-0.003) 1.577 to 1.583 (+/-0.017)
1.619 to 1.627 (+/-0.010) full topaz range
Birefringence/doubling 0.008 to 0.010 0.019 to 0.021 0.005 to 0.009
SR/DR/AGG DR DR DR
Optic character Biaxial positive (common point is 0.001 from the low RI) Biaxial positive Uniaxial negative
Pleochroism Surface-treated topaz—Weak, green to bluish green Weak, in tones of bodycolor Weak to moderate bluish
Irradiated green topaz—Not diagnostic green and green or two
tones of green
Magnification Surface-treated topaz—Spotty appearance of bluish Natural inclusions Liquid, two-phase, or

green color, chips on facet junctions might reveal color- tubular inclusions
less material underneath. Tiny blue color concentrations
in fractures.
Irradiated green topaz—Not diagnostic. Typical topaz
clarity characteristics such as two- and three-phase
inclusions and liquid inclusions in planes.
Spectrum Surface-treated topaz—Three bands at 545 nm, 585 nm, Not diagnostic Not diagnostic
and 640 nm due to cobalt
Irradiated green topaz—Not diagnostic
Fluorescence Surface-treated topaz—Inert to both LW and SWUV Inert Generally inert

Irradiated green topaz—Inert to weak yellow or green
under LW, generally weaker under SWUV
Color filter Surface-treated topaz—Pink to red Not diagnostic Not diagnostic

Irradiated green topaz—Not diagnostic
SG 3.53 (+/-0.04) 2.97 (+/-0.03) 2.72 (+0.18/-0.05)
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence, optic character, and Key tests are RI, birefringence, Key tests are RI, birefrin-
magnification. and optic character. gence, and optic character.
Brazilianite’s low numerical Green beryl is generally
RI is always lower than lighter in tone and lower in
tourmaline’s low numerical RI. saturation than emerald.
Under magnification, The green hue of green

some types of treated beryl is generally lighter in
green topaz might show tone and lower in saturation
damage to the treated than emerald’s green.
layer.
Shane McClure/GIA Tino Hammid/GIA
207
EMERALD
EMERALD TRAPICHE EMERALD
Variety Emerald Trapiche emerald

Prism
Species Beryl Beryl
General observation Medium-light to dark green, slightly Trapiche emeralds are

646 683
662 yellowish green and bluish green. emerald crystals that show a
Highly included stones might be distinctive six-spoked pattern
Diffraction
translucent. Vitreous polish luster, when viewed down the length

conchoidal fracture with vitreous to of the crystal. The spokes are
resinous fracture luster. Might show carbon-containing inclusions,
646 683
chatoyancy. and might be either dark or
662 light in color. They often radi-
ate from a central hexagonal
core. Crystals are rarely more
Emerald’s spectrum features a broad
than 1 inch (25 mm) long.
absorption between 580 nm and 630 nm, lines
at 646 nm and 662 nm, and distinct lines at
680.5 nm and 683 nm. Typical cutting style Faceted gems or cabochons Cabochons or rough crystal
specimens
RI 1.577 to 1.583 (+/-0.017) (slightly 1.56 or 1.57 spot reading

higher than most flux-grown
synthetics)
Birefringence/doubling 0.005 to 0.009 (higher than most 0.006 to 0.007 (often not
flux-grown synthetics) detectable)
SR/DR/AGG DR DR/AGG, depending on

transparency
Optic character Uniaxial negative Not applicable
Pleochroism Moderate to strong green and bluish Weaker than normal emerald
green
Joel Beeson/GIA
Emerald’s tone range is from Magnification Liquid-filled inclusions, fingerprints, Not diagnostic. Transparent
medium-light to dark. Its green two-phase and three-phase inclusions, portion might contain natural
hues might be slightly angular growth zoning, tube-like and emerald inclusions.
yellowish or bluish.
needle-like inclusions; mineral inclu-
sions including pyrite crystals, calcite
inclusions along fractures, and biotite
flakes (see photos, page 212)
Spectrum A broad absorption between 580 nm Typical emerald spectrum

and 630 nm, lines at 646 nm and
662 nm, and distinct lines at 680.5 nm
and 683 nm, then almost complete
absorption of the violet
Fluorescence Generally inert, but very fine colors Generally inert

might fluoresce orangy red to red
under both LW and SW (usually
stronger under LW)
Robert Weldon/GIA
A well-executed cabochon cut SG 2.72 (+0.18/-0.05) 2.68 to 2.71 (might be lower

shows off this trapiche than normal for emerald due
emerald’s characteristic to the inclusions in the
spoke-like pattern.
spokes)
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence, optic Key tests are appearance and
character, pleochroism, spectrum, spot RI.
and possibly magnification.
208
FRACTURE-FILLED EMERALD
Variety Emerald
Species Beryl
Required treatment call Fracture-filled
General observation Surface-reaching fractures filled with various types of materials to All by John Koivula/GIA
reduce their visibility and improve the apparent clarity of emeralds. This fracture-filled emerald shows an
Fillers include oil, plastic, and resin. Treaters can improve the orange to pinkish purple flash effect.
apparent color of low-quality emeralds by adding colored dye to
the filler.
Magnification Look for surface-reaching breaks in reflected light. They might show
very slight outlining. Switch to darkfield lighting and look for the
flash effect. Filler might also “sweat out” from surface fractures, or
move within filled fractures, when the stone is exposed to a temperature
increase (hot point). Oils might have a slightly yellowish or brownish
color. Be careful not to confuse this color with oxide staining in
fractures. Decomposed oils might leave whitish or yellowish branch-
like patterns. You might also see trapped bubbles in the filling material,
flow structure, or whitish, textured, cloudy areas. (see photos, page This fracture-filled emerald shows a blue
212) flash effect.
Fluorescence Some oils might fluoresce chalky yellowish green to greenish yellow
under LW. Effect is weaker to inert under SW. Plastic and polymer
fillers are generally inert to UV, but some might respond a weak,
chalky white to white-blue under LW.
Comments Key tests are magnification and possibly fluorescence. Immersion

might also help by making filling materials more visible, but some
immersion liquids might act as solvents to remove near-surface
plastic or polymer filling material.
The flash effect in this fracture-filled
emerald is yellow-orange to blue.
You’ll sometimes see dried, discolored

filling material in a fracture-filled emerald.
209
HYDROTHERMAL SYNTHETIC EMERALD “OVERGROWTH” AND “SANDWICH”

HYDROTHERMAL SYNTHETIC EMERALD
Variety Synthetic emerald Synthetic emerald
Species Synthetic beryl Synthetic beryl
General observation Medium to medium-dark green to very slightly bluish green Overgrowth type usually consists of a colorless faceted
beryl with a hydrothermally grown synthetic emerald
overgrowth layer. Sandwich type consists of multiple
layers of hydrothermal synthetic emerald grown on a
central seed plate.
RI 1.571 to 1.577 (+0.007/-0.002), depending on manufacturer Overgrowth—1.566 to 1.570

Russian product—1.572 to 1.578 and 1.579 to 1.584 Sandwich—1.575 to 1.581
Chinese product—1.570 to 1.572 and 1.576 to 1.578
Biron product—1.569 to 1.573 (+/-0.001) (Some higher, at
1.570 to 1.578)
Birefringence/doubling Russian product—0.006 to 0.007 Overgrowth—0.006

Chinese product—0.006 Sandwich—0.004
Biron product—0.004 to 0.005 (some up to 0.008)
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Magnification Fingerprints, veils, “nailhead” or spicule inclusions, large or Overgrowth—Oriented strain cracks on surface, typical
small two-phase inclusions, phenakite or chrysoberyl crystals, beryl inclusions in natural core. Poor polish (the over-
gold rods and platelets, white particles randomly scattered or growth is seldom polished to avoid wearing away the
forming “comet tails” or stringers, seed plates in Biron mate- thin green layer). Often a dust-like foggy area in the
rial; numerous tiny red-brown and white particles, opaque contact zone between the core and the synthetic over-
black hexagonal plates and phenakite crystals in Russian growth. (see photo, page 212)
product; seed plates, nailhead spicules, and chevron-type Sandwich—Same inclusions as hydrothermal synthetic
growth zoning in Chinese and Russian products. (see photos, emerald. You might also detect a seed plate with
page 212) spicules pointing in the direction of growth.
Spectrum Same as natural Same as natural, but might be fainter, depending on

how thin the outer layer is.
Fluorescence Russian product—Inert Overgrowth—Synthetic layer might fluoresce weak to

Chinese product—Moderate red under LW and SW moderate red, strongest under LW. Effect is often
Biron product—Inert strongest in girdle area.
Sandwich—Moderate to strong red under LW and SW
SG Russian product—2.63 to 2.73 Overgrowth—2.68 to 2.70

Chinese product—2.67 to 2.71 Sandwich—2.68
Biron product—2.68 to 2.71
Comments Magnification is the key test for separating synthetic from Magnification is the key test for identifying these
natural emeralds. synthetic emerald types. Immersion might help you
detect the overgrowth or the sandwich-type structure of
thin green and colorless areas. Be careful not to mistake
either type for an assembled stone. These are also
known as Lechleitner synthetics.
210
FLUX-GROWN SYNTHETIC EMERALD
Variety Synthetic emerald
Species Synthetic beryl
General observation Medium to medium-dark green to bluish green
RI 1.562 to 1.566 (+/-0.003), depending on manufacturer

Chatham—1.561 to 1.564
Gilson Type I—1.564 to 1.569
Gilson Type II—1.562 to 1.567
Gilson Type III (very rare)—1.571 to 1.579
Russian product—1.559 to 1.563
SR/DR/AGG DR
Pleochroism Moderate to strong green and bluish green
Magnification Platinum crystals, often in the form of triangular or hexagonal

platelets; colorless, low-relief phenakite or chrysoberyl crystals;
flux inclusions (wispy veils, fingerprint-like, or coarse), usually
white and high relief, but might also be transparent and two-phase
in nature; uniform parallel growth planes (“Venetian blind” effect)
(see photos, page 212)
Spectrum Same as natural, but chromium-rich stones might show an

additional line at 477.5 nm. Some natural stones show this too,
but it’s rare.
Fluorescence Chatham—Weak to moderate red under LW and SW, stronger under

LW
Gilson Type I and II—Generally weak to moderate red under LW
and SW, stronger under LW. Some stones might fluoresce weak to
moderate yellowish green, yellow, or orange under LW and SW.
Gilson Type III—Inert to both LW and SW
Russian product—Weak to moderate orangy red under LW, inert to
SW
SG Gilson Type I and II, Russian product—2.66

Gilson Type III—2.68 to 2.69
emeralds.
211
Natural emerald: Three-phase Natural emerald: Three-phase inclusion. Natural emerald: Calcite inclusions. Natural emerald: tube-shaped inclu-
inclusion. sions.
John Koivula/GIA John Koivula/GIA Alan Jobbins
Natural emerald: Included Natural emerald: Bamboo-like mineral Natural Sandawana emerald: Growth Flux-grown synthetic emerald: Venetian
pyrite crystals. inclusions. tubes. blind effect.
Flux-grown synthetic emerald: Flux-grown synthetic emerald: Flux-grown synthetic emerald: Coarse Hydrothermal synthetic emerald:
Wispy flux inclusions. Interconnected flux channels. flux inclusions. Layered nailhead spicules parallel to
the seed plate.
Robert Kane/GIA John Koivula/GIA John Koivula/GIA
Hydrothermal synthetic emer- Hydrothermal synthetic emerald: Liquid Hydrothermal synthetic emerald: Hydrothermal synthetic emerald: Gold
ald: Nailhead spicule. and two-phase inclusions and finger- Synthetic phenakite crystals. inclusions.
print-like pattern.
John Koivula/GIA John Koivula/GIA John Koivula/GIA
Hydrothermal synthetic emer- Hydrothermal synthetic emerald: “Overgrowth” synthetic emerald: Over- Lechleitner synthetic emerald: Rough.
ald: Wavy growth planes. Chevron growth pattern. growth layer over natural white beryl.
212
LABRADORITE SCAPOLITE
Variety Sunstone (when aventurescence is present) Not required
Species Labradorite Scapolite
Group Feldspar Not required
General observation Green to yellowish green, usually light in Yellow to green (rare). Vitreous polish
tone. Oregon material (rare) can range from luster, conchoidal fracture with vitreous Tino Hammid/GIA
near-colorless to moderate or strongly fracture luster. Two cleavage directions.
Oregon sunstone is rare,
saturated green. Green and red bicolor gems
especially in green hues
exist, but are extremely rare. Often displays like this one.
aventurescence. Vitreous polish luster, uneven
to splintery fracture with vitreous to pearly
fracture luster. Two cleavage directions.
Parting also common.
Typical cutting style Faceted gems, cabochons, carvings Faceted
RI 1.559 to 1.568 (+/-0.005); Oregon material 1.550 to 1.564 (+0.015/-0.014)

commonly 1.563 to 1.572
Birefringence/doubling 0.009 0.005 to 0.038, commonly 0.005 to

0.020 (increases as RI increases)
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Optic character Biaxial positive (often shows twinning in the Uniaxial negative
polariscope)
Pleochroism Yellowish green stones might show colorless Weak to moderate, in tones of
and light yellowish green dichroism. Oregon bodycolor
material might show very strong red and
green pleochroism. If properly oriented, a
faceted gem might appear uniformly red
when viewed from one side and green when
examined from the other.
Magnification Repeated twinning, black needle-like inclu- Natural inclusions

sions, and metallic-looking platelets, typically
hematite. Oregon material contains tiny
orangy yellow copper platelets, often visible
even in facet-grade material at 10X. If these
are numerous enough, aventurescence occurs.
Fluorescence Inert to weak under LW; Oregon material Inert to strong pink, orange, or
typically inert yellow
SG 2.70 (+/-0.05); Oregon material typically 2.68 (+0.06/-0.08)

2.67 to 2.72
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence, optic Key tests are RI, birefringence, and
character, and magnification. Labradorite optic character. When scapolite’s RI is
from Oregon is commonly called sunstone as high as beryl’s and labradorite’s, it
whether or not it displays aventurescence. has much higher birefringence than
either gem.
213
PRASEOLITE QUARTZ QUENCH -CRACKLED DYED QUARTZ MOLDAVITE
Species Quartz Quartz Moldavite
Required treatment call None Quench-crackled, dyed None
General observation Green to yellowish green, typically Quench crackling (heating and then rapid Transparent to translucent.
with light tone and low saturation. cooling) produces multiple fractures to Medium to dark yellowish to
Vitreous polish luster, conchoidal create iridescent effects or to allow dye grayish green, generally low in
fracture with vitreous fracture penetration. Most commonly green or red, saturation. Vitreous polish luster,
luster. but any color is possible. Fractures make conchoidal fracture with vitreous
stones more vulnerable to breakage. fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Faceted Faceted Cabochons, beads, faceted gems
RI 1.544 to 1.553 (very constant) 1.544 to 1.553 1.490 (+0.020/-0.010)
Birefringence/doubling 0.009 0.009 None
SR/DR/AGG DR DR, but might show an AGG reaction due to SR, commonly with ADR
multiple fractures
Optic character Uniaxial positive. Might show a Uniaxial positive Not applicable
bull’s-eye or Airy’s spiral optic
figure and Brazil-law twinning
Pleochroism Weak None None
Magnification Natural inclusions might be pres- Network of cracks, often in a honeycomb Round and elongated gas bubbles,
ent, but are not diagnostic. pattern. Dye visible in fractures. flow lines, roiled effect
Spectrum Not diagnostic Might reveal the presence of chromium- Not diagnostic
based dyes
Fluorescence Generally inert Generally inert Generally inert
SG 2.66 (+0.03/-0.02) 2.66 (+0.03/-0.02) 2.36 (+/-0.04)
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence, Combination of typical quartz properties and Key tests are RI, SR nature,
optic character, optic figure, and unnatural color, along with magnification, magnification, and SG. Color
SG. Rarely found naturally, praseo- identify this type of treated quartz. might also be helpful. Moldavite
lite is usually produced through is a type of natural glass.
heat treatment of amethyst and
sometimes described as “greened”
amethyst.
Terri Weimer/GIA Eric Welch/GIA John Koivula/GIA
Dye concentrations form a characteristic honey- Moldavite is a type of natural Natural moldavite glass commonly contains
comb pattern in quench-crackled and dyed glass. Transparent specimens round, high-relief gas bubbles.
green quartz. are often faceted.
214
CALCITE FLUORITE (FLUORSPAR)

Species Calcite Fluorite
General observation Occurs in almost all colors. Transparent to translucent green

Vitreous to greasy polish (also pink to purple, blue to violet,
luster. Three cleavage direc- orange, yellow, brown, and colorless).
tions. Strong eye-visible Might be parti-colored. Vitreous to
doubling. subvitreous luster, conchoidal to
step-like fracture with vitreous to
subvitreous fracture luster. Perfect Maha Tannous/GIA
octahedral cleavage in four directions.
Fluorite can occur in lovely green hues.
Might have numerous pits and
It has low hardness, though, so careful
scratches due to low hardness handling is important.
(Mohs 4).
Typical cutting style Occasionally faceted for Faceted gems, cabochons, carvings,
collectors. or beads
RI 1.486 to 1.658 1.434 (+/-0.001)
Birefringence/doubling 0.172 (use birefringence None

blink method)
SR/DR/AGG DR SR
Magnification Not diagnostic Triangular (tetrahedral) negative

crystals and two-phase inclusions,
liquid inclusions, strong color
zoning
Fluorescence Variable Variable, not diagnostic
SG 2.70 (+/-0.05) 3.18
Comments Key tests are cleavage, Key tests are RI, SG, and possibly
RI, birefringence blink, cleavage.
doubling, SG, and possibly
appearance.
215
SYNTHETIC OPAL
Species Synthetic opal
General observation Semitransparent to semitranslucent green to bluish green with play-

of-color. Material with vivid bodycolor might be polymer impregnated.
Conchoidal to uneven fracture with subvitreous fracture luster.
RI 1.430 to 1.470
SR/DR/AGG SR with weak to strong ADR
Magnification Play-of-color in a mosaic pattern across the surface, with a cellular,

“chicken wire,” “snakeskin,” or scale-like structure that’s visible with
magnification and overhead or backlighting. Might show columnar
Spectrum Some gems show bands at 550 nm and 580 nm
Fluorescence Not diagnostic
SG 1.97 to 2.20 (typically lower than natural opal). Polymer-impregnated

synthetic opal is usually considerably lower than natural opal, at 1.88
to 1.91.
Comments Magnification is the key to separating synthetic from natural opal.

opal is often polymer impregnated to make it more stable, and it has
a considerably lower SG than most natural opal.
216
GLASS PLASTIC
General observation Transparent to opaque, Transparent to opaque, almost any

almost any appearance appearance possible. Look for mold marks,
possible. Look for mold orange-peel effect, concave facets, rounded
marks, orange-peel effect, facet junctions. Warmer to the touch than
concave facets, rounded glass imitations and crystalline gemstones.
facet junctions. Warm to the Low heft (SG), dull to waxy polish luster,
Eric Welch/GIA
touch compared to crystalline conchoidal fracture with waxy to vitreous
gemstones. Vitreous polish fracture luster. Surface might show This plastic imitation shows typical
luster, conchoidal fracture numerous scratches due to low hardness orange-peel surface texture and rounded
facet edges.
with vitreous fracture luster. (Mohs 1.5 to 3).
Typical cutting style All styles. Can be faceted or All styles. Can be molded to a variety of
molded to a variety of shapes and finishes.
shapes and finishes.

colors common)

marks (swirls)

4.50
Comments Key tests are RI and magni- Key tests are RI and magnification. Low
fication. Low thermal heft (SG) and low thermal conductivity
conductivity (warm to the (warm to the touch) might also be helpful.
touch) might also be helpful.
217
Key Separations for Transparent Green Gems

Diamond from synthetic diamond Magnification, fluorescence (often requires advanced

laboratory testing)
Naturally colored diamond from irradiated Color zoning, possibly fluorescence. Often requires
diamond advanced laboratory testing.
Diamond from green CZ and green YAG Diamond tester, magnification, fluorescence, SG
Diamond from green zircon and sphene Diamond tester, SR vs DR nature, magnification,
spectrum, SG, possibly fluorescence
Demantoid from diamond Diamond tester, magnification, spectrum, fluorescence,

SG
Demantoid from zircon Magnification, spectrum, possibly doubling and

pleochroism
Demantoid from green YAG Magnification, spectrum, possibly SG
Demantoid from green CZ Magnification, spectrum, SG
Green CZ from green YAG Fluorescence, SG, possibly see-through and fire
Zircon and sphene from green YAG Magnification and possibly doubling, pleochroism, and
spectrum
Zircon from sphene Optic character, pleochroism, spectrum, SG
Sapphire from synthetic sapphire Magnification and possibly fluorescence. Use

pleochroism for hydrothermal synthetic sapphire
Sapphire from natural and synthetic RI, birefringence, optic character, spectrum
chrysoberyl
Grossularite from light green chrysoberyl Birefringence, optic character, spectrum, possibly
magnification
Grossularite from light green flame-fusion Magnification, fluorescence

synthetic spinel
Spinel from transparent idocrase Birefringence, optic character, spectrum (idocrase), SG
Diopside from green zoisite Color, birefringence, pleochroism
Diopside from spodumene RI, birefringence, spectrum
Diopside from enstatite RI, birefringence, spectrum
218
Peridot from diopside RI (nature of low reading), birefringence, optic sign,

spectrum
Peridot from green zoisite Color, birefringence, pleochroism, spectrum
Peridot from spodumene Color, RI, birefringence, spectrum
Kornerupine from spodumene RI, birefringence, optic character, spectrum
Kornerupine from diopside RI, birefringence, optic character, spectrum
Spodumene from euclase RI, birefringence, spectrum (spodumene)
Peridot from tourmaline RI, optic character, birefringence, spectrum
Treated green topaz from tourmaline, diopside, RI, birefringence, magnification

and emerald
Tourmaline from apatite RI, birefringence, pleochroism
Tourmaline from diopside RI, birefringence, optic character
Tourmaline from andalusite RI, birefringence, optic character, type of pleochroism

(dichroism or trichroism)
Emerald from green beryl Color and possibly spectrum
Emerald from flux-grown synthetic emerald Magnification and possibly RI, birefringence,
fluorescence, and SG
Emerald from hydrothermal synthetic emerald Magnification and possibly RI, birefringence,
fluorescence, and SG
Emerald from oil or polymer-filled emerald Magnification and possibly fluorescence
“Sandwich” hydrothermal synthetic emerald Magnification

from beryl triplet
Emerald from quench-crackled, dyed green RI, magnification

quartz
Emerald from glass RI, optic character, magnification, spectrum

219
Mason-Kay
Some of the world’s most beautiful jewelry is made from jadeite. It’s one of the most popular
translucent-to-opaque green gems.
TRANSLUCENT-TO-OPAQUE GREEN GEMS

The most likely choices among translucent-to-opaque green gems are jadeite, dyed
jadeite, nephrite, dyed chalcedony, and glass. These gems are generally cut as
cabochons, carvings, beads, or tablets.
The gems in this category are often challenging to identify because many of them
are similar in appearance. When finished, they often have poor polish, so it might
be difficult to get spot-RI readings. Size might help you get closer to an identifica-
tion. A large ornamental carving probably won’t be made of an expensive material
like jadeite. Instead, it might be a less expensive material like serpentine or talc,
which is also called soapstone.
Fortunately, some translucent-to-opaque green gems are very distinctive. These
include malachite, unakite, maw-sit-sit, aventurine quartz, and amazonite feldspar.
You’ll learn to recognize them with just a little practice. Make sure you confirm
any sight identification with the necessary tests.
220
SEPARATING TRANSLUCENT-TO-OPAQUE GREEN GEMS
Translucent-to-opaque Green Gems with Potential OTL RIs

1.730 to 1.836 (azurite) Azurmalachite Malachite

AGG (Page 224)
1.655 to 1.909 (malachite)
AGG
This gem is a rock, so read-
ings can differ depending on
where you test.
1.655 to 1.909 Malachite Azurmalachite, dyed calcite

AGG (Page 224)
Translucent-to-opaque Green Gems with RIs between 1.70 and 1.80

1.729 to 1.768 Unakite (visually distinctive—rarely confused with anything within this
AGG (Page 224) color range)
1.530 to 1.740 Maw-sit-sit Ruby-in-zoisite, jadeite, nephrite

AGG (Page 225)
1.720 Hydrogrossular garnet Idocrase, saussurite, jadeite, dyed green jadeite

AGG (Page 225)
1.713 to 1.718 Idocrase Hydrogrossular, saussurite, jadeite, dyed green jadeite

AGG (Page 226)
1.70 spot or 1.76 to 1.77 spot, Ruby-in-zoisite Maw-sit-sit

AGG
1.70 or 1.56 spot reading, Saussurite Hydrogrossular, idocrase, jadeite, serpentine

depending where you test (Page 227)
AGG

AGG (Page 224)
1.470 to 1.700 range Glass Any green translucent-to-opaque gem material

SR (Page 237)
1.460 to 1.700 range Plastic Any green translucent-to-opaque gem material

SR (Page 237)
221

1.666 to 1.680 Jadeite Maw-sit-sit, hydrogrossular, idocrase, saussurite, dyed green

AGG (Page 227) jadeite, prehnite, turquoise, nephrite, dyed calcite
1.666 to 1.680 Dyed green jadeite Hydrogrossular, idocrase, jadeite, turquoise, nephrite, dyed calcite
AGG (Page 228)

AGG (Page 224)
1.616 to 1.649 (1.63 spot Prehnite Jadeite, nephrite

reading common) (Page 229)
AGG
1.610 to 1.650 Natural and synthetic turquoise Jadeite, dyed green jadeite, variscite
AGG (Pages 229 and 230)
1.606 to 1.632 Nephrite Maw-sit-sit, jadeite, dyed green jadeite, prehnite, variscite,
AGG (Page 230) serpentine, talc
1.530 to 1.740 Maw-sit-sit Jadeite, nephrite

AGG (Page 225)

SR (Page 237)

SR (Page 237)

1.560 to 1.590 (spot reading Variscite Turquoise, nephrite, serpentine, chalcedony

usually about 1.57) (Page 230)
AGG
1.560 to 1.570 Serpentine Saussurite, nephrite, variscite, talc, chrysoprase, chalcedony, maw-sit-sit
AGG (Page 231)
1.56 or 1.70 spot reading, Saussurite Hydrogrossular, idocrase, jadeite, serpentine

AGG
1.544 to 1.553 Aventurine quartz Dyed quartzite, chrysoprase, amazonite

AGG (Page 232)
1.544 to 1.553 Dyed quartzite Aventurine

AGG (Page 232)
1.540 to 1.590 (1.54 spot RI) Talc (soapstone) Nephrite, serpentine, chalcedony
AGG (Page 232)
1.535 to 1.539 Dyed green chalcedony Chrysoprase, chrome chalcedony

AGG (Page 233)
222

1.535 to 1.539 Chrysocolla-in-chalcedony Chrysoprase, amazonite
AGG (Page 233)
1.535 to 1.539 Chrysoprase Serpentine, aventurine, dyed green chalcedony, chrysocolla-in-

AGG (Page 233) chalcedony, chrome chalcedony
1.535 to 1.539 Chrome chalcedony Dyed green chalcedony, chrysoprase, opal

AGG (Page 234)
1.535 to 1.539 Chalcedony Variscite, serpentine, talc

AGG (Page 234)
1.530 to 1.740 Maw-sit-sit Serpentine

AGG (Page 225)
1.522 to 1.530 Microcline feldspar, amazonite Aventurine, chrysocolla-in-chalcedony

AGG (Page 235)

SR (Page 237)

SR (Page 237)
Translucent-to-opaque Green Gems with RIs below 1.50

1.486 to 1.658 Calcite (including onyx marble) Can resemble malachite or jadeite when dyed
AGG (Page 235)
1.450 Opal Chrome chalcedony, synthetic opal

SR (Page 236)

SR (Page 236)

SR (Page 237)

SR (Page 237)
223
AZURMALACHITE MALACHITE UNAKITE
Species Azurmalachite Malachite Unakite
General observation Opaque rock composed of the minerals Generally opaque. Vivid bluish A granite-like rock with a characteristic
azurite and malachite, patterned in bands green to green, usually banded in mottled appearance composed of green
of blue and green. Might show circular two or more tones of green. epidote, white to gray quartz, and pink
color banding and botryoidal growth. Might have a sheen. feldspar. Greasy to vitreous polish
luster, granular to uneven fracture
Typical cutting style Cabochons, carvings, beads Carvings, beads, cabochons, Carvings, beads, cabochons, tumbled
tablets, inlays specimens
RI Depending on where you test, you might 1.655 to OTL (1.909) 1.729 to 1.768 (spot readings possible
get readings typical of either mineral that around 1.74 to 1.76 or 1.52 to 1.54,
makes up this rock. depending on where you test)
Azurite—1.730 to 1.836 (+/-0.010)
Malachite—1.655 to 1.909
Birefringence/doubling Depends on where you test (use birefrin- 0.254 (use birefringence blink None
gence blink technique—both blink to technique)
OTL)
Azurite—0.106
Malachite—0.254
Magnification Not diagnostic Not diagnostic Not diagnostic
Fluorescence Inert Inert Generally inert
SG 3.80 (+0.09/-0.50) to 3.95 (+0.15/-0.70) 3.95 (+0.15/-0.70) 3.00 (+0.20/-0.15)

(Midway between azurite and malachite)
Comments Key tests are distinctive appearance, Key tests are RI and birefrin- The key to this stone’s identity is its
RI, and birefringence blink. Stabilized gence blink. Appearance is also appearance.
azurite-malachite is widely available in distinctive, with curved or angu-
the trade. It’s made from chalky nodules lar banding. Might have radial
of azurite and malachite that are com- fibrous structure and sheen, and
pressed together and bonded with a might be botryoidal.
polymer. The process is similar to the one
used to produce stabilized turquoise.
Robert Weldon/GIA Terri Weimer/GIA Eric Welch/GIA Eric Welch/GIA
Azurmalachite shows a pattern of Stabilized azurite-malachite is made This malachite cabochon Unakite is often used for carvings like this
blue and green hues, circular color from compressed and bonded displays a distinctive banded elephant.
banding, and botryoidal growth. nodules of azurite and malachite. appearance.
224
MAW-SIT-SIT HYDROGROSSULAR
Species Maw-sit-sit Hydrogrossular
General observation An opaque saturated green Green to bluish green. Might show
rock with characteristic dark black inclusions. Vitreous polish
green to black veining or luster, uneven, granular, or splintery
mottling. Waxy to vitreous fracture with greasy to vitreous
polish luster, granular fracture fracture luster.
with dull fracture luster. Eric Welch/GIA
This maw-sit-sit tablet shows

Typical cutting style Carvings, beads, cabochons, Cabochons, carvings, decorative the gem’s distinctive mottled
tablets objects appearance.
RI Spot readings around 1.53 to 1.720 (+0.010/-0.050) (1.72 spot

1.74 (Multiple readings result reading common, but might be
from combination of different lower)
minerals)
Prism
SR/DR/AGG AGG AGG 460
Magnification Veining and mottling, black Might have black, peppery-looking
Diffraction
spots (concentrations of the inclusions
mineral kosmochlor)
460
Spectrum Not diagnostic Darker green material often shows a
cutoff below 460 nm.
Fluorescence Inert Inert cutoff at 460 nm.
Color filter Not diagnostic Possibly pinkish
SG 2.77 (+0.38/-0.31) 3.47 (+0.08/-0.32)
Comments Key tests are appearance and Key tests are spot RI and possibly
magnification. spectrum and SG. Appearance is
also distinctive. Because hydro-
grossular is often mixed with
idocrase, it might be impossible to
separate the two species.
Eric Welch/GIA
Green hydrogrossular garnet

is often cabochon-cut.
225
IDOCRASE
IDOCRASE RUBY -IN -ZOISITE
Species Idocrase Ruby-in-zoisite

Prism
General observation Transparent to opaque yellow- Ornamental material consisting of

ish green, green, brownish purplish red ruby crystals, often of
464
green. Vitreous to greasy polish hexagonal outline, in a green zoisite
luster, conchoidal to uneven or and black hornblende rock matrix.
granular fracture with vitreous Matrix displays uneven fracture
Diffraction
to dull fracture luster. with dull luster.
Typical cutting style Carvings, beads, cabochons, Carvings, decorative objects

464
tablets
RI 1.713 to 1.718 (+0.003/-0.013) Depends on area tested. 1.70 spot

Idocrase’s spectrum features a key line
at 464 nm.
(1.70 or 1.71 spot reading reading on green zoisite matrix, 1.76
common) to 1.77 spot reading on ruby crystals.
Birefringence/doubling Usually not detectable Not detectable
SR/DR/AGG AGG AGG
Pleochroism None to weak None
Spectrum Line at 464 nm, weak line at Zoisite matrix might show a band
528.5 nm at 455 nm. Ruby crystals should
give a typical ruby spectrum using
Maha Tannous/GIA
the reflected light technique.
Idocrase occurs in brownish and yellowish
green and has vitreous to greasy polish luster.
SG 3.40 (+0.10/-0.15) Approximately 3.10 to 3.40,
depending on the ratio of ruby
inclusions to matrix
Comments Key tests are RI, spectrum, SG, Key test is very distinctive appear-
and possibly appearance. ance. Sometimes called “anyolite”
Sometimes called vesuvianite in the trade.
in the trade. Jadeite-like
idocrase is often mixed with
hydrogrossular, so it might be
impossible to separate the two
species.
Eric Welch/GIA
Ruby-in-zoisite’s unique composition

invites fanciful carvings like this ruby
frog on a zoisite base.
226
NON-CHROME JADEITE
SAUSSURITE JADEITE
Species Saussurite Jadeite
Prism
General observation Grayish to yellowish green Semitransparent to opaque. Light to
rock composed of white dark green, often with uneven
feldspar and zoisite. Often has coloration, mottling, or root-like 437.5
mottled appearance. Vitreous markings. Vitreous to greasy polish
to greasy polish luster, granular luster with a dimpled polished sur-
Diffraction
to uneven fracture with dull face, granular to splintery fracture
fracture luster. with dull fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Ornamental carvings, Carvings, beads, cabochons 437.5

cabochons
RI Spot readings around 1.56 and 1.666 to 1.680 (+/-0.008) (1.66 spot Non-chrome jadeite shows a key line at
1.70, depending on area tested reading common) 437.5 nm due to iron.
JADEITE
Birefringence/doubling None Usually not detectable
SR/DR/AGG AGG AGG
Prism
Magnification Not diagnostic Often unevenly colored, with root-
like mottling 437.5 630 691
655
Spectrum Weak 460-nm band Generally a line at 437.5 nm. Jadeite
Diffraction
colored by chromium might also
show lines at 630 nm, 655 nm, and
691 nm.
437.5 630 691
Fluorescence Inert to moderate red under Light green stones inert to weak 655
SW white under LW, generally inert to

SW
In addition to the 437.5-nm line, a green jadeite
colored by chromium might also show lines in
SG 3.30 (+0.10/-0.50) 3.34 (+0.06/-0.09) the red at 630 nm, 655 nm, and 691 nm.
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, Key tests are appearance, RI,
spectrum, and fluorescence. spectrum, and SG. Type A jadeite
is enhanced solely with a surface
coating of wax.
Alan Jobbins
Green jadeite comes in a wide range of colors

and transparencies. Many stones have a mottled
appearance.
Eric Welch/GIA
This grayish green cabochon

was cut from saussurite.
227
DYED GREEN JADEITE

DYED JADEITE
Species Jadeite
Prism
Required treatment call Dyed
General observation Semitransparent and translucent to opaque. Light to dark green, often
with uneven coloration, mottling, or root-like markings. Vitreous to
greasy polish luster with a dimpled surface, granular to splintery
Diffraction
fracture with dull fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Carvings, beads, cabochons
RI 1.666 to 1.680 (+/-0.008) (1.66 spot reading)

Dyed green jadeite’s spectrum often shows a
broad, fuzzy band in the red-orange area. It might Birefringence/doubling Usually not detectable
also show jadeite’s characteristic 437.5-nm line.
SR/DR/AGG AGG
Magnification Often unevenly colored, but dye concentrations might be visible

under magnification
Spectrum Dyed green stones might have a single broad band in the red-orange
area. Naturally colored green jadeite has three lines in the same area.
SG 3.34 (+0.06/-0.09)
Shane McClure/GIA Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, spectrum, SG, and possibly magnification.
The dye concentrations in dyed and Might require advanced testing to detect presence of dye.
polymer-filled jadeite might resemble the
streaks in naturally colored jadeite.
BLEACHED AND IMPREGNATED JADEITE
Species Jadeite
Type B jadeite—Natural jadeite bleached in acid to remove undesir-

able staining, then impregnated with wax or polymers
Type C jadeite—Natural jadeite dyed and often bleached and impreg-

nated with wax or polymers
Comments Dye can be detected with a microscope and a spectroscope, but these
Shane McClure/GIA
devices won’t reveal the presence of polymer. In Type C jadeite, the
Acid-bleached jadeite shows characteristic dye concentrates in the jadeite’s surface cracks. In most cases, the dye
etched boundaries between the gem’s is added to the polymer filler, but it can also be applied separately.
individual crystal grains.
Detection of polymer treatment often requires infrared spectroscopy,
usually in a gemological laboratory.
228
PREHNITE TURQUOISE
Species Prehnite Turquoise
General observation Semitransparent to translucent. Semitranslucent to opaque. Light

Light green to yellowish to medium blue, greenish blue to
(“celery”) green, rarely white. green. Often mottled, and might
Generally lighter in color and show dark patches or veins of
more transparent than nephrite. matrix, often recessed below the
Vitreous to greasy luster, polished surface. Conchoidal or
uneven to conchoidal fracture. granular fracture, depending on Maha Tannous/GIA
Might show one cleavage gem’s porosity, with waxy or dull Prehnite can occur in attractive yellowish green
direction. fracture luster. hues.
Typical cutting style Carvings, beads, cabochons Cabochons, carvings, beads TURQUOISE
RI 1.616 to 1.649 (low RI often 1.610 to 1.650 (usually a 1.61

1.630, spot reading commonly spot reading)
Prism
1.63)
Birefringence/doubling 0.020 to 0.033 (base of cabo- Usually not detectable 420 460
432
chon might give a reading with
birefringence blink technique)
Diffraction
SR/DR/AGG DR (usually gives AGG polar- AGG
iscope reaction)
420 460
432
Magnification Not diagnostic If present, matrix is often recessed
below polished surface
When you read a turquoise spectrum under
Spectrum Might show a weak line at Occasionally shows weak to reflected light, it might show weak to medium
438 nm medium bands at 420 nm and bands at 420 nm and 432 nm. There’s some-
times also a weak band at 460 nm.
432 nm (the 432-nm band is
stronger). Might also show a weak
band at 460 nm.
Fluorescence Generally inert Inert to weak greenish yellow

under LW, inert to SW
SG 2.90 (+0.05/-0.10) 2.74 (+0.14/-0.36)

Eric Welch/GIA
Comments Key tests are RI and birefrin- Key tests are spot RI, spectrum,
gence. Spectrum might also be and possibly fluorescence. Natural greenish turquoise typically
helpful. Rough often shows Turquoise might be polymer shows recessed areas of matrix.
botryoidal structure. impregnated and dyed to an intense
lime green color.
Eric Welch/GIA
Lime green turquoise results from a

combination of polymer impregnation
and dyeing.
229
SYNTHETIC TURQUOISE NEPHRITE VARISCITE
Species Synthetic turquoise Nephrite Variscite
General observation Semitranslucent to opaque, greenish blue Light to dark grayish green, Light to medium yellowish green to
to bluish green. When present, the spider- possibly with lighter or darker bluish green, often mottled or veined
web matrix is always even with the mottling. Vitreous to greasy polish with yellow to brown matrix. Waxy to
polished surface. luster, splintery to granular vitreous polish luster, granular to
fracture with dull fracture luster. uneven fracture with dull fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Cabochons, carvings, beads Carvings, beads, cabochons Cabochons, carvings
RI 1.610 to 1.650 (usually a 1.61 spot 1.606 to 1.632 (+0.009/-0.006) 1.560 to 1.590 (+0.003/-0.006) (spot
reading) (1.61 spot reading common) reading usually about 1.57)
Birefringence/doubling Usually not detectable Usually not detectable Usually not detectable
Magnification Microspheres in a light-colored background Not diagnostic Not diagnostic

(“cream-of-wheat”). Under 30X to 60X
magnification, blue thread-like inclusions
and artificial-looking black matrix that’s
even with the polished surface.
Spectrum Lacks the 432-nm band sometimes seen Rarely shows absorption lines. Strong band at 688 nm, weaker one at
in natural turquoise In exceptional-quality stones, you 650 nm
might see a vague line at 500 nm
or vague lines at the red end of
the spectrum.
Fluorescence Same as natural Inert Inert to weak green under LW and SW
Color filter Not diagnostic Not diagnostic Appears pinkish
SG 2.74 (+0.14/-0.36) 2.95 (+0.15/-0.05) 2.50 (+/-0.10)
Comments Key tests for separating synthetic from Key tests are appearance, RI, and Key tests are appearance, RI,
natural turquoise are magnification, SG. Bright green nephrite from spectrum, color filter, and SG.
spectrum, and possibly appearance. Canada is often sold as “polar
jade.”
Eric Welch/GIA Eric Welch/GIA Eric Welch/GIA
Synthetic turquoise is often Nephrite is an attractive green Polar jade is a bright green nephrite Variscite is often fashioned into a
cut as a bead or cabochon. gem that’s often cabochon- that comes from Canada. cabochon. It generally has a mottled or
cut. veined appearance.
230
SERPENTINE
SERPENTINE
Species Serpentine
Prism
General observation Semitransparent to opaque, usually yellowish green, green, or greenish
yellow. Waxy to greasy polish luster, granular to uneven fracture with
dull to waxy fracture luster. Might show scratches and pits due to low
hardness (Mohs 2.5 to 6). Bowenite variety is harder, takes a better
polish, and is an effective jade substitute.
Diffraction
RI 1.560 to 1.570 (+0.004/-0.070) (might be hard to obtain due to poor

polish)
Bright green serpentine’s spectrum might show
Birefringence/doubling Usually not detectable a cutoff at approximately 480 nm, a band at
500 nm, and lines in the red between 640 nm
SR/DR/AGG AGG and 660 nm.
Magnification Translucent material might show tiny black inclusions (chromite or

magnetite octahedra), white veining, or moss-like inclusions.
Spectrum Bright green stones might show a gradual cutoff at about 480 nm, a
band at 500 nm, and lines in the red at around 640 nm and 660 nm.
Translucent dark green stones might show a cutoff at about 480 nm,
a line at 500 nm, and increasing absorption in the red beyond 660 nm.
Dyed stones show a broad band between 630 nm and 675 nm and a
cutoff at 520 nm.
Fluorescence Not diagnostic

Robert Weldon/GIA
SG 2.57 (+0.23/-0.13) Serpentine comes in a wide range of colors,

including green.
Comments Key tests are RI, magnification, spectrum, and possibly appearance
and surface condition.
Serpentine might contain black

octahedral chromite crystals and white
veining.
231
AVENTURINE QUARTZ DYED QUARTZITE TALC
Variety Aventurine Quartzite Not required
Species Quartz Quartz Talc
Required treatment call None Dyed None
General observation Green (from inclusions) with Various colors, often dyed. A Light to dark green, white, gray, or brown,
aventurescence. Vitreous polish coarse crystalline aggregate of often veined or mottled. Waxy to greasy polish
luster, granular to conchoidal tightly packed quartz grains. luster, uneven fracture with dull to waxy
fracture with vitreous fracture luster. fracture luster. Might show surface damage
due to very low hardness (Mohs 1). Can often
be scratched with a fingernail.
Typical cutting style Carvings, beads, cabochons Carvings, beads Ornamental carvings, decorative objects
RI 1.544 to 1.553 1.544 to 1.553 1.540 to 1.590 (+0.010/-0.002) (spot reading

usually 1.54)
Birefringence/doubling Might not be detectable in AGG Usually not detectable 0.050 (usually difficult to detect)
material
Magnification Tiny, randomly distributed, green Dye visible in fractures. Not diagnostic
disk-like chrome mica (fuchsite)
flakes or platelets
Spectrum Bands at approximately 649 nm Not diagnostic. Might show a Not diagnostic
and 682 nm, probably due to mica band in the orange due to
inclusions presence of dye.
Fluorescence Inert to weak grayish green or red- Generally inert Inert to weak pink under LW
dish under LW and SW
SG 2.66 (+0.03/-0.02) 2.66 (+0.03/-0.02) 2.75 (+0.05/-0.55)
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, and Key tests are appearance and Key tests are poor surface quality, RI, and SG.
magnification. magnification to detect dye Also known in the trade as steatite or, more
concentrations between crystal commonly, “soapstone.”
grains. Record both the
required treatment call and the
variety on the variety line of
your GIA worksheet.
Eric Welch/GIA William Videto/GIA
This aventurine quartz cabo- Magnification reveals bright green mica The areas of dye concentration are
chon shows a typical speckled inclusions in this aventurine quartz. obvious in these dyed quartzite beads.
appearance.
232
DYED CHALCEDONY CHRYSOCOLLA -IN -CHALCEDONY CHRYSOPRASE
Variety Not required Chrysocolla-in-chalcedony Chrysoprase
Species Chalcedony Chalcedony Chalcedony
Required treatment call Dyed None None
General observation Translucent and generally evenly Translucent to semitranslucent. Blue to Semitransparent to translucent, light
colored. Slightly bluish green. green-blue. Might be unevenly colored to medium-dark yellowish green
Might show curved or irregular or resemble fine turquoise. Conchoidal (natural color). Greasy to vitreous
banding in various colors. fracture with dull to waxy fracture luster. polish luster, conchoidal fracture
Conchoidal fracture with dull to with dull to waxy fracture luster.
waxy fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Cabochons, carvings, beads Cabochons, carvings, beads Carvings, beads, cabochons
RI 1.535 to 1.539 (1.53 or 1.54 spot 1.535 to 1.539 (1.53 to 1.54 spot reading) 1.535 to 1.539 (1.53 to 1.54 spot
reading) reading)
Birefringence/doubling Usually not detectable Usually not detectable Usually not detectable
Magnification Lacks visible dye concentrations Not diagnostic Not diagnostic
Spectrum Vague lines at 645 nm and 670 nm Not diagnostic Not diagnostic, but might show a
660-nm to 700-nm cutoff
Fluorescence Generally inert Generally inert Generally inert
Color filter Light grayish to reddish or pinkish Not diagnostic Not diagnostic
SG 2.60 (+0.10/-0.05) 2.50 to 2.60 (might be lower) 2.60 (+0.10/-0.05)
Comments Key tests are fracture, RI, spectrum, Keys tests are RI, SG, and possibly Key tests are fracture, RI, and SG.
and SG. Might be difficult to sepa- appearance.
rate from chrome chalcedony. A
color filter can help separate dyed
green chalcedony from chrysoprase.
DYED GREEN CHALCEDONY

Prism
645 670
Diffraction
Eric Welch/GIA
The two stones at left are chrysoprase. The center

stone has the typical yellowish green appearance of
645 670
most better-quality chrysoprase. The bluish green stone
is a dyed green chalcedony.
Dyed green chalcedony’s spectrum has vague lines at 645 nm

and 670 nm.
233
CHROME CHALCEDONY
CHROME CHALCEDONY CHALCEDONY
Variety Not required Bloodstone—Semitranslucent to

opaque dark green with red or
Prism
brownish red spots

Plasma—Semitranslucent to opaque
645 684 dark green with white or yellowish
spots
Prase—Translucent to semitrans-
Diffraction
lucent, with darker and generally

less saturated color than chrysoprase
Jasper—General variety term for
645 684 opaque chalcedony of any color or
combination of colors except solid
Chrome chalcedony’s spectrum shows bands black or specially named material
around 684 nm and 645 nm and an ill-defined Agate—Chalcedony with curved or
broad absorption centered on 600 nm. angular bands or layers
Moss agate—Transparent to semi-
translucent, with green, brown, or
black inclusions that resemble moss
Species Chalcedony Chalcedony
General observation Translucent to semitranslucent Semitranslucent to opaque. Some

green to slightly bluish green. varieties might show bands or layers
Greasy to vitreous polish luster, of lighter or darker coloration.
conchoidal fracture with dull to Greasy to vitreous polish luster,
waxy fracture luster. conchoidal fracture with dull to
waxy fracture luster.
Bloodstone’s name Prase generally dis-
comes from its char- plays a less saturated
acteristic appearance, color than chrysoprase. Typical cutting style Carvings, beads, cabochons Cabochons, carvings, beads, tablets,
with red spots on signets, decorative objects
green bodycolor.
RI 1.535 to 1.539 (1.53 to 1.54 1.535 to 1.539 (1.53 to 1.54 spot
spot reading) reading)
SR/DR/AGG AGG AGG
Magnification Might contain black octahedral Not diagnostic

chromite crystals
Both by Eric Welch/GIA Spectrum Bands around 684 nm and 645 Not diagnostic
This green jasper Moss agate has dark nm and an ill-defined broad
cabochon displays inclusions that resem- absorption centered on 600 nm
characteristic mottling ble moss.
and banding. Fluorescence Inert Generally inert
Color filter Light grayish to pinkish or red- Not diagnostic

dish
SG 2.60 (+0.10/-0.05) 2.60 (+0.10/-0.05)
Comments Key tests are fracture, RI, SG, Key tests are spot RI, SG, and
and possibly spectrum. Might possibly appearance and fracture.
be difficult to separate from
dyed green chalcedony.
234
AMAZONITE CALCITE
Variety Amazonite Onyx marble (if banded)
Species Microcline Calcite
General observation Light green to greenish blue Semitranslucent to opaque. Occurs

with a grid-like appearance in almost all colors. Vitreous to
caused by two intersecting greasy polish luster. Cleavage
cleavage directions. Mottled usually not visible in aggregate.
Eric Welch/GIA
green and white patterns.
Uneven to splintery fracture. Amazonite’s color and distinc-
tive grid-like patterning readily
Typical cutting style Cabochons, beads, tumbled Beads, cabochons, carvings identify it.
specimens
RI 1.522 to 1.530 (+/-0.004) 1.486 to 1.658

(1.53 spot reading common)
Birefringence/doubling 0.008 (usually not detectable) 0.172 (use birefringence blink

method)
SR/DR/AGG AGG AGG
Magnification Mottled coloring, grid-like Not diagnostic

patterns
Spectrum Not diagnostic Not diagnostic. Any visible lines

are caused by impurities or dye.
Fluorescence Inert to weak yellowish green Variable

under LW, inert to SW
SG 2.56 2.70 (+/-0.05)
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, Key tests are RI, birefringence
magnification, SG, and possibly blink, SG, and possibly appearance.
fluorescence. Marble is a granular aggregate,
onyx marble is a banded marble.
Satinspar is a fibrous aggregate
that’s often chatoyant (the name is
also used for a similar variety of
gypsum).
235
OPAL SYNTHETIC OPAL
General observation Light to dark green, with or Semitransparent to semitranslucent

without play-of-color. Vitreous green to bluish green with play-of-
to resinous polish luster, con- color. Material with vivid bodycolor
choidal to uneven fracture with might be polymer impregnated.
subvitreous to waxy fracture Conchoidal to uneven fracture with
luster. In some natural opals, subvitreous fracture luster.
dehydration causes a network
Non-phenomenal green opal can resemble of fine cracks called crazing.
many other translucent-to-opaque gems. It’s
readily separated by its low RI and SG values. Typical cutting style Cabochons, freeforms, beads Cabochons, carvings, beads
RI 1.450 (+0.020/-0.080) 1.430 to 1.470
SR/DR/AGG SR, commonly with ADR due SR with weak to strong ADR
to strain
Magnification Possible play-of-color patterns Play-of-color in a mosaic pattern

include very small patches or across the surface, with a cellular,
dots (pinfire); large areas that “chicken wire,” “snakeskin,” or
flash predominately one color scale-like structure that’s visible
as the gem is moved (flash); or with magnification and overhead
Maha Tannous/GIA
even, distinct patches with a or backlighting. Might show
A recently developed synthetic opal “brush-stroke” appearance columnar structure when viewed
manufacturing process involves plastic
(harlequin). There might also be from the side.
impregnation.
areas that lack play-of-color or
that contain mineral inclusions
or patches of rock matrix.
(Play-of-color in synthetic opal
Spectrum Cutoffs at 470 nm and 660 nm Some gems show bands at 550 nm
and 580 nm
Fluorescence Inert to strong green or yellow- Not diagnostic

ish green under LW and SW.
Might phosphoresce.
SG 2.15 (+0.08/-0.90) 1.97 to 2.20 (typically lower than

natural opal). Polymer-impregnated
synthetic opal is usually consider-
ably lower than natural opal, at 1.88
to 1.91.
Comments Key tests are RI and SG. Magnification is the key to

SG can help separate opal separating synthetic from natural
from plastic (SG 1.05 to 1.55). opal. Fluorescence and phosphores-
Some natural opal is polymer- cence might also be helpful.
impregnated to make it more Synthetic opal is often polymer
stable or improve its appear- impregnated to make it more stable,
ance. Magnification separates and it has a considerably lower SG
natural opal from synthetic than most natural opal.
opal with play-of-color.
236
GLASS PLASTIC

any appearance possible. Look appearance possible. Look for mold
for mold marks, orange-peel marks, orange-peel effect, concave
effect, concave facets, rounded facets, rounded facet junctions.
facet junctions. Warm to the Warmer to the touch than glass
touch compared to crystalline imitations and crystalline gemstones.
gemstones. Vitreous polish Low heft (SG), dull to waxy polish
luster, conchoidal fracture with luster, conchoidal fracture with
Terri Weimer/GIA
vitreous fracture luster. waxy to vitreous fracture luster.
Surface might show numerous The gas bubbles are easy to see in these
plastic imitation jewels.
scratches due to low hardness
(Mohs 1.5 to 3).
Typical cutting style All styles. Can be faceted or All styles. Can be molded to a
molded to a variety of shapes variety of shapes and finishes.
and finishes.

SR/DR/AGG SR, commonly with ADR SR, commonly with strong ADR Both by Maha Tannous/GIA
(strain colors common) This pipe bowl looks like jade, but it’s
actually meta-jade, an imitation com-
Magnification Gas bubbles, cavities on Gas bubbles, flow lines posed of partially devitrified glass.
marks (swirls)
Comments Key tests are RI and magnifica- Key tests are RI and magnification. Under magnification, meta-jade
tion. Low thermal conductivity Low heft (SG) and low thermal displays gas bubbles and fibrous
(warm to the touch) might also conductivity (warm to the touch) inclusions.
be helpful. Meta-jade is a might also be helpful.
partially devitrified glass that’s
sold as a jade imitation. Its
partially crystallized structure
gives it a fern-like texture.
237
Key Separations for Translucent-to-opaque Green Gems

Jadeite from nephrite RI, spectrum, SG
Jadeite from dyed green jadeite Spectrum, possibly magnification
Jadeite from green hydrogrossular RI, spectrum
Jadeite from idocrase RI, spectrum
Jadeite from maw-sit-sit RI, spectrum, SG
Idocrase from green hydrogrossular RI, spectrum, SG, and possibly appearance
Nephrite from serpentine Polish, RI, SG
Nephrite from turquoise Color, appearance, SG, possibly fracture
Nephrite from maw-sit-sit RI, spectrum, SG
Turquoise from synthetic turquoise Appearance, magnification
Turquoise from variscite RI, SG, possibly spectrum
Turquoise from idocrase and hydrogrossular RI, spectrum, SG
Aventurine from dyed green quartz Magnification, spectrum
Aventurine from amazonite microcline Appearance, magnification, spectrum, possibly RI and

feldspar fluorescence
Dyed quartz from dyed chalcedony Appearance, fracture, magnification, spectrum
Chalcedony from serpentine Fracture, appearance of polished surface (hardness),

possibly RI
Chalcedony from amazonite microcline Structure, fracture, cleavage, RI

feldspar
Dyed green chalcedony from chrome Spectrum, possibly magnification

chalcedony
Dyed green chalcedony from dyed green Appearance, magnification, possibly fracture and RI
quartz
Chrysoprase from dyed green chalcedony Color, spectrum, color filter, SG
Chrysoprase from chrome chalcedony Color, spectrum, color filter, possibly magnification
Chrysoprase from glass RI, magnification, SG, and possibly fracture and fracture
luster
238
SEPARATING ORANGE, YELLOW, AND BROWN GEMS
Transparent Orange, Yellow, and

Brown Gems 239
RI Charts 240
Key Separations 276
Translucent-to-opaque Orange, Yellow,

and Brown Gems 278
RI Charts 278
Key Separations 296
Tino Hammid/GIA
These beautiful fancy-colored sapphires are among the identification choices for transparent
orange, yellow, and brown gems.
SEPARATING ORANGE, YELLOW, AND

BROWN GEMS
This section of the Gem Identification Laboratory Manual provides the information
you need to identify orange, yellow, and brown gems and separate them from each
other as well as from synthetics and imitations. As with other sections, the gems
are separated by transparency and RI.
TRANSPARENT ORANGE, YELLOW, AND BROWN GEMS

In this color and transparency category, the most plentiful gems on the market are
citrine, natural and synthetic sapphire, topaz, tourmaline, and transparent opal.
Less likely choices include yellow andradite garnet, grossularite-andradite
(“Mali”) garnet, chrysoberyl, andalusite, beryl, and transparent varieties of
labradorite and orthoclase feldspar.
Some other gems in these colors are less plentiful, but still seen in the market.
These include spessartite garnet, sphene, reddish brown and yellow zircon, and
yellow and brown fancy-colored diamonds.
239
Transparent Orange, Yellow, and Brown OTL Gems

2.417 Diamond Irradiated diamond, HPHT-treated diamond, synthetic diamond,

SR (Page 243) CZ, GGG, zircon, sphene, andradite, YAG, spessartite
2.417 Irradiated diamond Diamond, HPHT-treated diamond, synthetic diamond

SR (Page 244)
2.417 HPHT-treated diamond Diamond, irradiated diamond, synthetic diamond

SR (Page 245)
2.417 Synthetic diamond Diamond, irradiated diamond, HPHT-treated diamond, CZ,

SR (Pages 246 and 248) GGG, zircon, sphene, andradite, YAG, spessartite
2.150 CZ (synthetic cubic zirconia) Diamond, synthetic diamond, GGG, zircon, sphene, andradite,
SR (Page 250) YAG, spessartite
1.970 GGG (gadolinium gallium garnet) Diamond, synthetic diamond, CZ, YAG
SR (Page 250)
1.925 to 1.984 Zircon Diamond, synthetic diamond, CZ, sphene, andradite, YAG,
1.810 to 1.815 (Page 251) spessartite
DR
1.900 to 2.034 Sphene Diamond, synthetic diamond, CZ, zircon, andradite

DR (Page 252)
1.888 Yellow andradite garnet Diamond, synthetic diamond, CZ, zircon, sphene, YAG
SR (Page 252)
1.833 YAG (yttrium aluminum garnet) Diamond, synthetic diamond, CZ, GGG, zircon, andradite
SR (Page 253)
1.810 Spessartite garnet Diamond, synthetic diamond, CZ, zircon, grossularite-andradite,

SR (Page 253) pyrope-spessartite
Transparent Orange, Yellow, and Brown Gems with RIs between 1.70 and 1.80
1.773 to 1.779 range Grossularite-andradite garnet (“Mali”) Spessartite, sapphire, synthetic sapphire, pyrope-spessartite,
SR (Page 254) chrysoberyl, grossularite
1.762 to 1.770 Corundum, yellow sapphire Grossularite-andradite, synthetic sapphire, pyrope-spessartite,

DR (Page 255) chrysoberyl, grossularite
1.762 to OTL Corundum, lattice diffusion treated Fancy sapphire

DR (Page 256)
1.762 to 1.770 Synthetic corundum, synthetic yellow sapphire Grossularite-andradite, sapphire, pyrope-spessartite,
DR (Pages 257 and 258) chrysoberyl, grossularite
1.750 to 1.780 range Pyrope-spessartite garnet (including “malaya”) Spessartite, grossularite-andradite, sapphire, synthetic sapphire,
SR (Page 260) chrysoberyl, grossularite
240
SEPARATING TRANSPARENT ORANGE, YELLOW, AND BROWN GEMS

1.746 to 1.755 Chrysoberyl Grossularite-andradite, sapphire, synthetic sapphire, pyrope-spessartite,
DR (Page 261) grossularite, epidote
1.740 Grossularite garnet Grossularite-andradite, sapphire, synthetic sapphire, pyrope-spessartite,

SR (Page 261) chrysoberyl
1.729 to 1.768 Epidote Chrysoberyl, idocrase

DR (Page 262)
1.713 to 1.718 Idocrase Epidote

DR (Page 262)
1.678 to 1.688 Axinite Kornerupine, enstatite

DR (Page 263)
1.668 to 1.707 Sinhalite Kornerupine, enstatite, tourmaline

DR (Page 263)
1.667 to 1.680 Kornerupine Axinite, sinhalite, enstatite, spodumene, tourmaline

DR (Page 264)
1.663 to 1.673 Enstatite Axinite, sinhalite, kornerupine, spodumene, tourmaline

DR (Page 264)
1.660 to 1.676 Spodumene Kornerupine, enstatite, apatite, danburite, topaz, tourmaline

DR (Page 265)
1.634 to 1.643 Andalusite Apatite, tourmaline

DR (Page 265)
1.634 to 1.638 Apatite Spodumene, andalusite, danburite, topaz, tourmaline, brazilianite

DR (Page 266)
1.630 to 1.636 Danburite Spodumene, apatite, topaz, tourmaline

DR (Page 266)
1.629 to 1.637 Topaz Spodumene, apatite, tourmaline, danburite, brazilianite

DR (Page 267)
1.624 to 1.644 Tourmaline Sinhalite, kornerupine, enstatite, spodumene, andalusite, apatite,

DR (Page 267) danburite, topaz, brazilianite
1.602 to 1.621 Brazilianite Apatite, topaz, tourmaline, beryl

DR (Page 267)
1.470 to 1.700 range Glass Any orange, yellow, or brown transparent gem material
SR (Page 275)
1.460 to 1.700 range Plastic Any orange, yellow, or brown transparent gem material
SR (Page 275)
241
1.577 to 1.583 Yellow beryl, heliodor Synthetic beryl, brazilianite, labradorite, scapolite, quartz, synthetic quartz
DR (Page 268)
1.577 to 1.583 Synthetic beryl Beryl

DR (Page 268)
1.559 to 1.568 Labradorite feldspar Beryl, scapolite, quartz, synthetic quartz

DR (Page 268)
1.550 to 1.564 Scapolite Beryl, labradorite, quartz, synthetic quartz, orthoclase

DR (Page 269)
1.544 to 1.553 Quartz Beryl, labradorite, scapolite, synthetic quartz, orthoclase

DR (Page 269)
1.544 to 1.553 Quartz, ametrine Synthetic ametrine

DR (Page 269)
1.544 to 1.553 Synthetic quartz, synthetic citrine Beryl, labradorite, scapolite, quartz, orthoclase
DR (Page 270)
1.544 to 1.553 Synthetic quartz, synthetic ametrine Ametrine

DR (Page 270)
1.540 Amber Copal resin, glass, plastic

SR (Page 271)
1.540 Copal resin Amber

SR (Page 271)
1.518 to 1.526 Orthoclase feldspar Scapolite, quartz, synthetic quartz

DR (Page 272)
SR (Page 275)
SR (Page 275)
Transparent Orange, Yellow, and Brown Gems with RIs below 1.50
1.486 to 1.658 Calcite Opal, fluorite

DR (Page 272)
1.450 Opal Calcite, fluorite, synthetic opal

SR (Page 273)
1.434 Fluorite Calcite, opal

SR (Page 273)

SR (Page 274)
SR (Page 275)
SR (Page 275)
242
NATURAL YELLOW TO NEAR-COLORLESS DIAMOND

DIAMOND
Species Diamond
Prism
General observation Yellows, brownish yellows, and browns, often with light tone and
low saturation. Vivid “canary” yellow, orange, and fancy brown gems
exist, but they’re rare. Color sometimes evenly distributed, but some 415.5
gems show uneven color with irregular, “blotchy” zones or darker
yellow zones at their center. Under 10X, look for naturals, waxy to
Diffraction
granular or faceted girdle surface, bearding, sharp facet junctions.
Adamantine polish luster, step-like fracture. Perfect cleavage in four
directions. Polish lines never oriented the same way on adjacent
facets. Positive reaction to diamond tester. 415.5
Typical cutting style Faceted, often in radiant cuts to help intensify bodycolor. Girdle often
faceted or polished. Naturally colored yellow to near-colorless diamonds
often show a band in the violet at 415.5 nm. There
might also be some combination of fainter bands at
Dispersion 0.044 (moderate fire—might be masked by bodycolor) 423 nm, 435 nm, 451 nm, 478 nm, 496 nm, and
503 nm. In general, the deeper the diamond’s
RI OTL color, the stronger the lines will be.
Birefringence/doubling None GRAYISH TO BROWNISH YELLOW DIAMOND
SR/DR/AGG SR (might show strain colors in a mosaic pattern under crossed filters
in the polariscope)
Prism
Pleochroism None
Magnification Angular mineral inclusions (see photos, page 249), fractures and
cleavages, surface and internal graining, sometimes yellow or brown,
parallel to octahedral crystal faces. Internal graining might form a
Diffraction
cross-hatch or “tatami” pattern.
Spectrum Some yellow “cape” diamonds might show a line in the violet at 415.5
nm, with weaker bands at 423 nm, 435 nm, 451 nm, 478 nm, 496 nm,
and 503 nm. In general, the deeper the color, the more distinct the bands.
(Cooling diamond with liquid nitrogen helps make its spectrum more Naturally colored grayish to brownish yellow
visible.) Irradiated yellow diamonds might show a distinctive band at diamonds might show bands at 415.5 nm, 423 nm,
595 nm in the yellow. 433 nm, 452 nm, 465 nm, and 478 nm. They might
also show weak 496-nm and 503-nm bands.
Fluorescence Some stones show no reaction or a very faint reaction to UV, but
many show a medium to strong reaction under LW, most commonly
blue. Reaction to SW varies from inert to faint blue.
SG 3.52 (+/-0.10)
Comments Key tests are polish luster, OTL RI, SR nature, magnification, positive
reaction to diamond tester, and possibly spectrum. Treatments such as
irradiation and surface coating can be applied to off-color diamonds to
make them appear fancy-colored. Treatments like fracture filling and
laser drilling might be used to improve the appearance and apparent Eric Welch/GIA
clarity of fancy-colored diamonds. Fancy-colored diamonds often Advanced laboratory testing deter-
require advanced testing at a gemological laboratory to determine mined that the color of this yellow cape
origin of color. diamond is natural.
243
IRRADIATED YELLOW DIAMOND

IRRADIATED DIAMOND
Species Diamond
Prism
General observation Typically light to dark brownish orange to yellow. Might show
treatment-related color zoning that follows the faceted shape of the cut
stone, but color is usually evenly distributed. Cyclotron-irradiated
gems often show an umbrella-shaped zone around the culet (see
photo, page 249).
Diffraction
Magnification Inclusions typical of natural diamonds, including angular mineral

inclusions, fractures, and cleavages
Spectrum Irradiated yellow diamonds might show a diagnostic band at 595 nm.
Unfortunately, it’s eliminated by controlled heating, making detection of
An irradiated yellow diamond spectrum might
show a diagnostic band at 595 nm. laboratory irradiation more difficult. Irradiated orangy to brownish yellow
Unfortunately, it’s eliminated by controlled and yellow Type Ia diamonds typically show bands at 496 nm, 503 nm,
heating, making positive detection of this and 595 nm in their spectra. There’s sometimes also a 415.5-nm cape
treatment more difficult. line. Irradiated Type Ib stones might show some additional sharp bands
at 575 nm, 615 nm, 625 nm, and 637 nm. (Cooling diamond with liquid
Fluorescence Irradiated Type Ia stones: Weak to strong yellow to green under LW,
weak to strong yellow to green under SW. LW reaction typically
stronger than SW.
Irradiated Type Ib stones: Weak to very strong orange, often with
wedge-shaped green zones under both LW and SW. LW reaction
might be stronger than or equal to SW reaction.
Comments Key tests are magnification and spectrum. Fluorescence might also be
helpful. Irradiated diamonds often require advanced testing at a gemo-
Robert Weldon/GIA logical laboratory to determine origin of color.
The yellow color of these natural diamonds is
the result of irradiation treatment.
IRRADIATED ORANGY TO BROWNISH YELLOW AND

Irradiated-color orangy to brownish
YELLOW DIAMOND yellow and yellow diamonds typically
show bands at 496 nm, 503 nm,
and 595 nm in their spectra. There’s
sometimes also a 415.5-nm cape
Prism
line. A combination of the 595-nm

and 415.5-nm bands is diagnostic
of treatment. Unfortunately, the
595-nm band can be eliminated by
controlled heating, making positive
detection of this treatment more
Diffraction
difficult.
244
HPHT-TREATED YELLOW-GREEN DIAMOND

HPHT -TREATED YELLOW DIAMONDS
Species Diamond
Prism
General observation HPHT treatment of brown nitrogen-containing Type Ia diamonds
produces strongly saturated greenish yellow, yellowish green, yellow,
or brownish yellow colors.
Magnification Etched or pitted naturals or feathers, tension fractures that often contain
Diffraction
graphite around crystalline inclusions. Some surface areas might show
etching and pitting if not completely repolished.
Spectrum Might show a strong line at 503 nm, a dark band between 480 nm
and 500 nm, a line at 415 nm, and sometimes emission lines at
505 nm and 515 nm. (Cooling diamond with liquid nitrogen helps
make its spectrum more visible.) The spectrum of an HPHT-treated yellow-green
diamond might show a dark band between
480 nm and 500 nm, a line at 503 nm, and
Fluorescence Chalky greenish yellow to yellowish green fluorescence under LW sometimes a line at 415.5 nm. There might also
and SW be emission lines at 505 nm and 515 nm.
Comments Combination of magnification, spectrum, and fluorescence might

indicate HPHT treatment in these colors. Determining whether a
diamond’s color is the result of natural radiation, laboratory irradia-
tion, or HPHT treatment is challenging for gemologists. The origin
of color in many diamonds can’t be determined. If in doubt, submit
diamond to a reputable laboratory for advanced testing.
Maha Tannous/GIA
HPHT treatment produced the yellow color in

these diamonds.
245
YELLOW TO BROWNISH YELLOW

SYNTHETIC DIAMOND SYNTHETIC DIAMOND

Prism
General observation Color is typically more saturated and darker than natural gems. Might
show vague zoning of lighter and darker yellow. Might be attracted to
a magnet due to inclusions of metallic flux. Virtually all are grown by
conventional high pressure high temperature (HPHT) techniques.
Color of untreated (as grown) synthetics can be modified by a combi-
Diffraction
nation of irradiation and heat treatment. Orange to pink and even red
colors are possible from yellow starting material.
RI OTL
The spectra of synthetic yellow to greenish to
orangy to brownish yellow and brown diamonds
usually don’t show any sharp absorption bands. Birefringence/doubling None
Cooling might reveal a 658-nm band.
SR/DR/AGG SR (might show weak ADR, sometimes in a cross-shaped pattern)
GREENISH TO ORANGY TO BROWNISH YELLOW
SYNTHETIC DIAMOND Magnification Uneven color zoning related to internal growth sectors might form a
cross-shaped or hourglass-shaped pattern. Graining might mark the
boundaries of the color zoning. Elongated or rounded opaque inclu-
Prism
sions of metallic flux often occur as pinpoints and small groups of

larger grains. (see photos, page 249)
Spectrum Untreated synthetics—Some might show only a vague absorption

increasing toward 400 nm. A faint band at 658 nm might be visible if
Diffraction
the diamond is cooled with liquid nitrogen. Others (when cooled to low
temperatures) show a series of sharp bands between 600 nm and
700 nm, which gemologists believe result from flux that contains nickel.
Treated synthetics—Some yellow, greenish yellow, and yellowish
green synthetics might show a series of sharp bands between 473 nm
and 553 nm in their spectra. Others might show sharp bands at 503 nm,
Some greenish, orangy, and brownish yellow
synthetic diamonds might show sharp bands 527 nm, 553 nm, 575 nm, 595 nm, 617 nm, 637 nm, and 658 nm
between 600 nm and 700 nm when cooled to when cooled to low temperatures.
low temperatures. Gemologists believe these
bands result from nickel flux. Fluorescence Often unevenly distributed in a cross-shaped, square, or hourglass-
shaped pattern.
TREATED YELLOW TO GREENISH YELLOW TO Untreated synthetics—Usually inert under LW, weak to moderate
YELLOWISH GREEN SYNTHETIC DIAMOND green-yellow, yellow-green, green, or inert to SW. SW response
typically stronger than LW. Occasional weak yellow or greenish
yellow phosphorescence.
Prism
Treated synthetics—Usually moderate to strong green, yellow-green,

green-yellow, yellow, or orange under both LW and SW. Occasional
weak to moderate yellow or yellow-green phosphorescence, often
persistent.
3.52 (+/-0.10)
Diffraction
SG
Comments Key tests are magnification and fluorescence, which can help with
detection of cross-shaped or hourglass-shaped internal growth patterns.
Spectrum might also be helpful. If in doubt, submit diamond to a
gemological laboratory for advanced testing.
If cooled to low temperatures, treated yellow,
greenish yellow, and yellowish green synthetic
diamonds might show a series of sharp bands
between 473 nm and 553 nm in their spectra.
246
John Koivula/GIA
Geometric color zoning is a key indicator that

this is a synthetic diamond. This almost never
occurs in a natural diamond.
Terri Weimer/GIA Terri Weimer/GIA
Gemesis synthetic diamonds are typically yellow, with Synthetic diamonds often have intense, vivid colors.
more saturated color than natural diamonds. They can These were produced by Gemesis.
be found in a wide range of cuts, including baguettes.
Elizabeth Schrader/GIA
Synthetic diamonds are often yellow in color, but can be

treated to orange, pink, and even red colors.
247
CVD SYNTHETIC DIAMOND
General observation Grown by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) rather than conventional
HPHT techniques. Faint to dark brown or brownish yellow. Fashioned
gems are typically shallow because they’re cut from tabular crystals.
Might be grown on a conventional synthetic diamond or natural
diamond seed, so fashioned gems might include portions of either one.
Elizabeth Schrader/GIA Dispersion 0.044 (moderate fire—might be masked by bodycolor)

A small number of synthetic diamonds are
grown using the CVD process. RI OTL
SR/DR/AGG SR
Magnification Often inclusion free. Lower-quality material might contain pinpoints

and brown graining along with small, black, irregularly shaped
inclusions that might be graphite (see photos, page 249).
Fluorescence Inert or weak orange to yellow-orange to LW, weak to moderate orange

to yellow-orange to SW. No phosphorescence.
SG 3.52 (+/-0.10)
Comments Very rare, produced only experimentally at time of writing. CVD

synthetic diamonds require laboratory testing.
248
Vincent Cracco/GIA
Natural, untreated diamond: Included Natural, untreated diamond: Included Natural, untreated diamond: Contorted
crystals. crystal. etch channel.
Kay Morrow John Koivula/GIA John Koivula/GIA
Treated natural diamond: Laser drill- Cyclotron-irradiated natural diamond: Sumitomo synthetic diamond:
hole. Umbrella-shaped color zone around Hourglass-shaped graining.
the culet.
Shane McClure/GIA James Shigley/GIA James Shigley/GIA
Gemesis synthetic diamond: Gemesis synthetic diamond: Gemesis synthetic diamond: Metallic
Concentrations of tiny pinpoint inclu- Characteristic colorless zone. flux inclusion.
sions.
James Shigley/GIA John Koivula/GIA John Koivula/GIA
Gemesis synthetic diamond: Metallic Sumitomo synthetic diamond: HPHT synthetic diamond from Russia:
flux inclusion. Cross-shaped pattern under polarized Uneven LW fluorescence with a cross
lighting. shape surrounding a central square or
octagon.
Wuyi Wang/GIA Wuyi Wang/GIA
CVD synthetic diamond: Small, opaque CVD synthetic diamond: Brown graining
inclusions, possibly graphite. parallel to the table facet.
249
CZ GGG
Species CZ (synthetic cubic zirconia) GGG (gadolinium gallium garnet)
General observation Pale to strong yellow, orangy yellow Usually colorless to light brown or
to orange, and reddish orange. yellow. Vitreous to subadamantine polish
Subadamantine polish luster, conchoidal luster, conchoidal fracture with vitreous
fracture with subadamantine fracture to subadamantine fracture luster. Well-
luster. Heft reveals that loose stones are proportioned round brilliants might show
much heavier than diamonds of similar moderate see-through. Heft reveals that
size. Negative reaction to diamond tester. loose stones are much heavier than
diamonds of similar size and proportions.
Negative reaction to diamond tester.
Dispersion 0.060 (strong fire—might be masked by 0.045 (moderate fire—might be masked

bodycolor) by bodycolor)
RI OTL OTL
SR/DR/AGG SR SR
Optic character Not applicable Not applicable
Magnification Generally inclusion free, but might have Might show gas bubbles
unmelted zirconium oxide particles and
gas bubbles.
SG 5.60 to 6.00 7.05 (+0.04/-0.01)
Comments Key tests are negative reaction to dia- Key tests are negative reaction to diamond
mond tester, OTL RI reading, lack of tester, OTL RI reading, lack of doubling,
doubling, and SG. Conchoidal fracture and SG. GGG is a manmade material
distinguishes CZ from diamond. CZ is a with no natural counterpart.
manmade material with no gem-quality
250
ZIRCON
ZIRCON
Species Zircon
Prism
General observation Orangy yellow through reddish orange, often dark, brownish hues.
Facet edges might show chipping. Eye-visible doubling in larger
stones. Vitreous to subadamantine polish luster, conchoidal fracture 653.5
with vitreous to subadamantine fracture luster. Negative reaction to
diamond tester.
Diffraction
Dispersion 0.038 (moderate fire—might be masked by bodycolor) 653.5
RI OTL
Zircon has a distinctive spectrum, with a key
Birefringence/doubling Up to 0.059 (strong). Not present or weak in low-type zircon. line at 653.5 nm.
SR/DR/AGG DR
Optic character Uniaxial positive
Pleochroism Brown stones show weak to moderate purplish brown and brownish
yellow dichroism
Magnification Natural inclusions. Always check for doubling in three directions.
Spectrum Key line at 653.5 nm, with several other lines possible
Fluorescence Inert to strong yellow to orange under SW Robert Weldon/GIA
Zircons come in a wide range of colors, including

SG 3.90 to 4.73 oranges, yellows, and browns.
Comments Key tests are OTL RI reading, strong doubling, and spectrum.
251
SPHENE
SPHENE ANDRADITE GARNET
Species Sphene Andradite

Prism
General observation Yellow-green to greenish yellow, Yellow to slightly greenish

580
through yellow-orange to reddish yellow or brown, with strong
orange and brown. Strong fire and fire. Vitreous to subadamantine
Diffraction
eye-visible doubling. polish luster. Conchoidal to

Subadamantine to adamantine uneven fracture with vitreous
polish luster, conchoidal to fracture luster. Surface might
580
splintery fracture with adamantine show abrasions due to relatively
to resinous fracture luster. Two low hardness (Mohs 6.5 to 7).
cleavage directions. Surface might
show chips and abrasions due to
Sphene’s spectrum sometimes features a low hardness (Mohs 5 to 5.5).
doublet at 580 nm.
Dispersion 0.051 (strong fire—might be 0.057 (strong fire—might be

RI OTL OTL
Birefringence/doubling 0.100 to 0.135 (strong eye-visible None

doubling)
Bart Curren/ICA Optic character Biaxial positive Not applicable

Sphene displays strong fire
and eye-visible doubling. Pleochroism Moderate to strong in yellow to None
brown stones. Light yellow,
brownish orange, and brownish
yellow trichroism.
ANDRADITE GARNET
Spectrum Sometimes a doublet at 580 nm Dark band at 440 nm

Prism

440
SG 3.52 (+/-0.02) 3.84 (+/-0.03)

Diffraction
Comments Key tests are OTL RI reading, very Key tests are OTL RI reading,
strong doubling (almost twice that lack of doubling, and spectrum.
of zircon), and possibly spectrum. Sometimes sold as “topazolite”
440
in the trade.
Yellow andradite garnet’s spectrum shows a

dark band at 440 nm.
252
SPESSARTITE GARNET
YAG SPESSARTITE GARNET
Species YAG (yttrium aluminum garnet) Spessartite
Prism
General observation Usually colorless, but might be Orange, brownish orange,
412 432
orange or yellow. Vitreous to yellowish orange, reddish 424
subadamantine polish luster, orange, red-orange (always
conchoidal to uneven fracture with has an orange component and
Diffraction
vitreous to subadamantine fracture never shows any purple).
luster. Well-proportioned round Vitreous to subadamantine
brilliants might show strong see- polish luster, conchoidal 412 432
through. Negative reaction to fracture with vitreous to sub- 424
diamond tester. adamantine fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Faceted Faceted Key features of spessartite’s spectrum are
bands in the violet at 412 nm, 424 nm, and
432 nm, along with bands at 505 nm, 527 nm,
Dispersion 0.028 (weak fire—might be 0.027 (weak fire—might be
and 575 nm in the green-yellow.
RI OTL 1.810 (+0.004/-0.020)
SR/DR/AGG SR SR
Magnification Might show gas bubbles Two-phase inclusions,

feather-like liquid inclusions;
needle-like inclusions also
possible
Spectrum Not diagnostic Manganese-related bands

at 412 nm, 424 nm, and
432 nm—which sometimes Maha Tannous/GIA
merge to form a cutoff at You’ll find spessartite garnets in a range of
around 430 nm—along with brownish and yellowish orange colors.
iron-related bands at 505 nm,
527 nm, and 575 nm
Fluorescence Inert to moderate orange under Inert

LW, inert to weak orange under
SW
SG 4.50 to 4.60 4.15 (+0.05/-0.03)
Comments Key tests are negative reaction to Key tests are OTL RI reading,
diamond tester, OTL RI reading, lack of doubling, spectrum,
lack of doubling, and SG. YAG is a and possibly color.
manmade material with no natural
counterpart.
253
YELLOW-GREEN GROSSULARITE-ANDRADITE
GARNET GROSSULARITE -ANDRADITE GARNET
Species Grossularite-andradite
Prism
Group Garnet
General observation Slightly greenish yellow to brown-orange and dark orangy brown.
440
Vitreous to subadamantine polish luster, conchoidal to uneven fracture
with greasy to vitreous fracture luster.
Diffraction
RI 1.773 to 1.779 (Orange to brown gems generally have higher RIs than
440
yellowish green or green stones)
Yellow-green grossularite-andradite garnet
shows a strong band at 440 nm and weaker
SR/DR/AGG SR, often with moderate to strong ADR
bands at 465 nm and 495 nm. There’s also a
weak band at 415 nm in the violet.
Magnification Fingerprints (partially healed fractures), parallel growth planes, and
small mineral crystals. Many fine faceted gems are almost inclusion-
free.
Spectrum Strong band at 440 nm and weaker bands at 465 nm and 495 nm. Also
a weak band at 415 nm.
Fluorescence Inert
SG 3.67 to 3.68
Comments Key tests are RI, SR nature, and spectrum. Sometimes sold as “Mali”
or “grandite” garnet in the trade.
Tino Hammid/GIA
Grossularite-andradite garnets come in

green, yellow-green, and brown hues.
254
NATURAL YELLOW SAPPHIRE

CORUNDUM
Variety Sapphire (designate by color)
Prism
Species Corundum
General observation Pale to dark yellow, brownish yellow, orangy yellow, and strong 450 471
orange to reddish or pinkish orange. Vitreous to subadamantine polish 460
luster, conchoidal fracture with vitreous fracture luster.
Diffraction
RI 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005) 450 471

460

The spectrum of natural yellow sapphire usually
SR/DR/AGG DR
shows strong bands at 450 nm, 460 nm, and
471 nm. The 450-nm band is the strongest.
Pleochroism Yellow—Weak yellow and light yellow NATURAL ORANGE SAPPHIRE
Orange—Strong yellow-brown or orange and colorless
Magnification Untreated natural corundum—Angular, unaltered mineral inclusions
Prism
(high- or low-relief crystals) that might show angular faces; intact, fine,
needle-like rutile inclusions intersecting at 60° angles in the same
plane; other fine needles at near right angles; fingerprint inclusions, 450 471
intact two-phase inclusions, straight and hexagonal growth banding; 460
straight, angular, possibly hexagonal color banding; and twinning lines
Diffraction
inclusions and negative crystals; sintered surface areas, especially 450 471
460
rims, caused by expansion of inclusions) are also indicative of heat Some orange sapphires show fine lines due to
treatment, but these features might also occur in some untreated chromium in the red area of the spectrum and
corundum of magmatic origin. (see photos, page 259) bands due to iron at 450 nm, 460 nm, and
471 nm.
Spectrum Iron-rich yellow sapphires—Might show three strong lines in the
violet-blue of the spectrum at 450 nm, 460 nm, and 471 nm. The
450-nm band is usually the strongest.
Orange and dark pinkish orange sapphires—Might show a ruby-type
spectrum, with fine lines in the red, a broad absorption between 500 nm
and 600 nm, fine lines in the blue at 468 nm and 476 nm, and a cutoff at
450 nm. Others might show fine lines in the red together with bands in
the blue at 450 nm, 460 nm, and 471 nm.
Pale orange sapphires—Might show a vague chrome line around
690 nm, vague, broad absorption between 500 nm and 600 nm, and a
450-nm cutoff.
Stones treated with heat or lattice diffusion might show no character-
istic spectra at all.
Fluorescence Yellow—Inert to moderate orange-red to orange-yellow under LW,

weak red to yellow-orange under SW
Orange—Generally inert, but might be strong orange-red under LW
Brown—Generally inert, but might be weak red under both LW and SW
SG 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05)
natural gems are RI, birefringence, pleochroism, magnification, and
spectrum. Magnification is the key test for separating natural from syn-
thetic corundum. Fine pinkish orange gems are sold as padparadscha.
255
LATTICE DIFFUSION TREATED CORUNDUM
Species Corundum
Required treatment call Lattice diffusion
General observation Might be very saturated pink-orange, orange, or yellow. Vitreous to

subadamantine polish luster, conchoidal fracture with vitreous fracture
luster.
RI 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005)
SR/DR/AGG DR
Pleochroism Same as natural
Magnification Lattice diffusion with heavy elements like chromium or titanium

produces color concentrations along facet junctions and girdle edge
and localized or blotchy color that bleeds into pits and surface-reaching
fractures. These indications are best seen through a gem’s pavilion
under immersion or diffused light. Facet junctions and girdle outline
stand out in high relief. (see photos, page 259)
Lattice diffusion with lighter elements like beryllium might penetrate
much more deeply, commonly between 10 percent and 20 percent of
the stone’s depth. In some treated orange sapphires, the treated layer
extends between 20 percent and 80 percent of the way into the center
of the stone, and might even penetrate the entire depth. (see photos,
page 259)
The depth of treatment makes lattice diffusion with beryllium harder

to detect than other techniques. Repolishing might not remove much
of the colored layer, so facet edges won’t stand out in high relief
when the stone is immersed. Some stones show uneven coloration or
alternating bands of pink and orange color in a hexagonal pattern.
Use immersion with methylene iodide (see page 58 for heavy liquid
safety precautions) or mineral oil and look for a core that’s a different
color than at the stone’s surface. You might find a different surface-
related color that follows the gem’s outline. Very high temperatures
are used in the process, so an overgrowth of synthetic material can
form during treatment and might be present on the finished stone.
Temperatures are believed to be higher than most corundum heat

treatment. Zircon crystals, which usually survive heat treatment, have
been melted in treated stones.
Note: Undamaged inclusions provide direct evidence of a lack of
treatment.
Spectrum Might show no characteristic spectrum
Fluorescence Inert to strong, orange to reddish orange under both LW and SW
SG 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05)
Comments Key test is magnification with immersion. Might require advanced

testing. A blue filter can help you detect faint color zoning in yellow-
to-orange lattice diffusion treated sapphire.
256
FLAME-FUSION SYNTHETIC SAPPHIRE

FLAME -FUSION SYNTHETIC SAPPHIRE
Variety Synthetic sapphire (designate by color)
Prism
General observation Pale to dark yellow, orangy yellow, strong orange to reddish orange
and brown. Might show poor polish, with polishing marks on most 460 690
facets due to rapid polishing.
Diffraction
Typical cutting style Faceted gems or cabochons, often symmetrical and to precise
calibrated sizes. Often cut in brilliant style, including scissors cut.
460 690
RI 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005)

Flame-fusion synthetic yellow corundum’s
spectrum has a line at 690 nm and a cutoff at
SR/DR/AGG DR 460 nm. The spectrum lacks the iron-related
bands at 450 nm, 460 nm, and 471 nm that
Optic character Uniaxial negative are common with natural corundum.
Pleochroism Same as natural, but might be visible directly through the table facet
Magnification Curved color banding might be visible when viewed with diffused
light, or preferably against a blue filter under magnification (see
photos, page 259). Strings of gas bubbles might resemble needles.
Twinning planes possible, but very rare or difficult to observe. When
present, they’re usually formed by rapid cooling of the boule. These
are known as Plato lines. They’re best seen with magnification,
polarized light, and immersion. The stone also has to be viewed
parallel to its optic axis. The twinning then appears as sets of lines
that intersect at 60° or 120° angles.
Spectrum Yellow—Lacks the set of iron bands at 450 nm, 460 nm, and 471 nm
that characterize some natural yellow corundum. Presence of a
690-nm line and no iron lines is a strong indication that stone is a
synthetic. A 460-nm cutoff by itself is another good indication of
synthetic origin.
Orange—If you see only thin lines in the red (including a fluorescent
line at 690 nm) and the stone is inclusion free, it’s probably synthetic.
Fluorescence Yellow—Very weak red under SW

Orange—Very weak orange to red under SW
Brown—Inert to weak red under LW and SW
SG 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05)
Comments The key test for separating flame-fusion synthetic corundum from
natural is magnification. Immersion might help with detection of faint
curved growth structures. Flame fusion and hydrothermal growth are
the most common methods for growing synthetic sapphire, but small
amounts of these colors might be produced by the crystal pulling and
floating zone methods.
257
FLUX -GROWN SYNTHETIC SAPPHIRE HYDROTHERMAL SYNTHETIC SAPPHIRE
Variety Synthetic sapphire (designate by color) Synthetic sapphire (designate by color)
General observation Orange to reddish and pinkish orange (synthetic Medium to light-toned yellow to yellowish orange,
padparadscha) and brownish orange, with moderate to vivid orange, and orange-pink to reddish orange with moderate
saturation. Might be very strongly zoned in alternating saturation. Unlike flux-grown synthetic corundum, color in
straight or angular bands of lighter and darker color. Often hydrothermal synthetic corundum tends to be very evenly
heavily included with eye-visible clarity characteristics. distributed.
RI 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005) 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005)
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Magnification Flux inclusions are generally white and high-relief, but Strong growth zoning possible. To avoid confusing
might appear near-colorless, whitish, brownish, or yellow subparallel growth structures with those seen in natural
to orange. Flux might also appear as two-phase, wispy gems, examine stones in several orientations and look
veils that look like natural fingerprints, or as coarse for mosaic-type, chevron, or zigzag growth zoning.
globules that might appear drippy, tubular, rod-like, or Sometimes two- or three-phase inclusions in fingerprint
icicle-like, or as droplets or dashed lines or clouds of patterns; small whitish inclusions; possibly tiny, flake-like
minute particles. Flux corundum can have uniform, copper crystals that show a metallic luster in fiber-optic
parallel growth planes. Triangular or hexagonal platelets lighting.
or stubby needle-like inclusions (usually platinum)
strongly indicate synthetic. Platinum platelets appear
bright and metallic in reflected light, but black when
backlit. (see photos, page 259)
Spectrum Not diagnostic Yellow to orange color is due to a nickel or nickel-

chromium combination, so spectrum lacks iron lines in
the blue.
Fluorescence Under LW, orange synthetic stones show strong to very Orange stones show moderate orange under LW and weak
strong yellowish orange or reddish orange, with zones orange under SW.
of chalky yellow. SW response is a very weak to weak
version of the LW response, or weak pinkish red.
SG 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05) 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05)
Comments The key test for separating synthetic from natural The key test for separating synthetic from natural
corundum is magnification. corundum is magnification.
258
Duncan Pay
Untreated natural corundum: Included Heat-treated natural yellow sapphire: Treated natural corundum: Heat-
apatite crystals. Melted inclusion with disk-shaped damaged sintered area near the girdle.
partially healed fracture.
Shane McClure/GIA John Koivula/GIA Shane McClure/GIA
Beryllium diffusion treated corundum: Beryllium diffusion treated corundum: Beryllium diffusion treated corundum:
Surface-related yellow color zoning Surface-related yellow color (left) and Melted inclusions with gas bubbles.
surrounding a colorless core. orange and yellow hexagonal color
zoning (right).
John Koivula/GIA Shane McClure/GIA Shane McClure/GIA
Lattice diffusion treated corundum: Beryllium diffusion treated corundum: Beryllium diffusion treated corundum:
Dark blue halos around rutile crystals. Areas of synthetic corundum over- Areas of synthetic corundum over-
growth in transmitted light. growth in cross-polarized light.
Robert Kane/GIA Eric Welch/GIA
Flame-fusion synthetic yellowish Flux-grown synthetic sapphire: Flux-grown synthetic sapphire: Eye-
orange sapphire: Curved color band- Platinum platelets and opaque flux visible platinum platelet and opaque
ing, revealed by a blue filter. inclusions. flux inclusions.
259
PYROPE-SPESSARTITE GARNET
PYROPE -SPESSARTITE GARNET
Species Pyrope-spessartite
Garnet
Prism
Group
General observation Usually light to dark slightly pinkish orange, reddish orange, or
410 430 505 575
527
orangy red to yellowish orange. Vitreous to subadamantine polish
420
Diffraction
RI 1.750 to 1.780
410 430 505 575
420 527
Malaya garnet’s spectrum shows strong bands SR/DR/AGG SR, often with ADR
at 410 nm, 420 nm, and 430 nm in the blue-
violet plus a combination of bands at 460 nm, Magnification Mineral inclusions (rutile, apatite, pyrite), often seen as intersecting
480 nm, 505 nm, 527 nm, and 575 nm in the
blue-green to yellow.
needles
Spectrum Strong bands at 410 nm, 420 nm, and 430 nm occasionally merge to
form a cutoff at 435 nm. Also often shows bands in the blue-to-green
and yellow areas of the spectrum at 460 nm, 480 nm, 505 nm, 527
nm, and 575 nm.
Fluorescence Inert
SG 3.78 to 3.85
Comments Key tests are color, RI, SR nature, and spectrum. Sometimes sold as
Robert Weldon/GIA “malaya” or “malaia” in the trade.
Malaya garnets range in color from pinkish to
reddish to yellowish orange.
260
CHRYSOBERYL GROSSULARITE GARNET
Variety Not required Hessonite (medium to dark orange)
Species Chrysoberyl Grossularite
General observation Yellow through strongly yellowish green to greenish Medium to dark orange to brownish orange (hessonite),
brown. Vitreous to subadamantine polish luster, con- yellow to yellow-green and colorless. Vitreous polish
choidal fracture with greasy to vitreous fracture luster. luster, conchoidal to uneven fracture with greasy to
RI 1.746 to 1.755 (+0.004/-0.006) 1.740 (+0.020/-0.010)
SR/DR/AGG DR SR
Pleochroism Weak to moderate, usually different tones of the body- None

color
Magnification No characteristic inclusions, but might show finger- Hessonite usually shows stubby, rounded included crystals
prints, angular included crystals, liquid inclusions, and a “heat wave” or “scotch-in-water” effect.
needle-like inclusions, and twinning.
Spectrum Strong band at 444 nm due to iron Generally not diagnostic, but might show bands at 407 nm
and 430 nm
Fluorescence Yellowish and yellowish green stones are generally inert Yellow stones are inert to weak orange under LW and SW
to yellowish green under SW. Other colors are generally
inert.
SG 3.73 (+/-0.02) 3.61 (+0.12/-0.04)
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence, optic character, and Key tests are RI, SR nature, and magnification (hessonite
spectrum. variety).
CHRYSOBERYL
Prism
444
Diffraction
Magnification reveals a characteristic heat

wave effect in hessonite garnet.
444
Chrysoberyl’s spectrum reveals a strong diagnostic band at

444 nm.
261
EPIDOTE
EPIDOTE IDOCRASE
Species Epidote Idocrase

Prism
General observation Transparent to translucent light to Yellow to yellowish brown.

very dark brown, yellow, or black. Greasy to vitreous polish
455
Vitreous to greasy polish luster, luster, conchoidal to uneven
uneven to conchoidal fracture with or granular fracture with dull
vitreous to greasy fracture luster. to vitreous fracture luster.
Diffraction
Perfect cleavage in one direction.
Typical cutting style Faceted Faceted gems or cabochons

455
RI 1.729 to 1.768 (+0.012/-0.035) 1.713 to 1.718 (+0.003/-0.013)

Epidote’s spectrum usually shows a very strong
band at 455 nm. It’s sometimes followed by a
weak line at 475 nm. SR/DR/AGG DR DR (might appear SR on
refractometer)
Optic character Biaxial negative (might show a Uniaxial in single-crystal

pseudo-uniaxial interference figure) material (might be uniaxial
positive or negative—strain
colors common in polariscope
with crossed polarizing filters)
Pleochroism Strong green, brown, and yellow None to weak

trichroism
Peter Johnston/GIA
Magnification Natural inclusions Not diagnostic
Epidote is one of the few gems that might give
you an optic figure that appears uniaxial but is Spectrum Very strong band at 455 nm and Line at 464 nm, weak line at
actually biaxial. This occurs when the angle sometimes a weak line at 475 nm 528.5 nm
between a biaxial gem’s optic axes is so small
that the brushes appear to intersect.
IDOCRASE SG 3.40 (+0.10/-0.15) 3.40 (+0.10/-0.15)
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence, Key tests are RI, birefrin-
optic character, spectrum, and gence, optic character (test
Prism
possibly pleochroism. carefully), and spectrum.

464
Diffraction
464
Yellow idocrase shows a key line at 464 nm in

its spectrum.
262
AXINITE
AXINITE SINHALITE
Species Axinite Sinhalite
Prism
General observation Transparent to translucent brown, Transparent to translucent
purplish brown “clove” or “root greenish to brownish yellow.
beer” color, brownish yellow, rarely Vitreous polish luster, con-
violet or blue. Greasy to vitreous choidal fracture with vitreous
polish luster, conchoidal to uneven fracture luster.
Diffraction
fracture luster with vitreous fracture
luster. Distinct cleavage in one
direction.
RI 1.678 to 1.688 (+/-0.005) 1.668 to 1.707 (+0.005/-0.003) Axinite’s spectrum might show bands at
415 nm, 444 nm, 466 nm, 492 nm, 512 nm,
and 532 nm.
SINHALITE
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Optic character Biaxial negative Biaxial, strongly negative
Prism
Pleochroism Strong violet to purple, light yellow, Moderate light brown, dark
and red-brown brown, and greenish brown 452 475
463 493
Diffraction
Spectrum Bands at 415 nm, 444 nm, 466 nm, Bands at 452 nm, 463 nm,
492 nm, 512 nm, and 532 nm 475 nm, 493 nm, and 526 nm
452 493
Fluorescence Generally inert. Yellow stones Inert 463 475
might fluoresce red under SW

Sinhalite’s spectrum is similar to peridot’s, but
SG 3.29 (+0.07/-0.03) 3.48 (+/-0.02) it has four bands in the blue rather than three.
The bands are at 452 nm, 463 nm, 475 nm,
Comments Key tests are color, RI, birefrin- Key tests are RI, birefrin- and 493 nm. There’s also a band in the green
gence, optic character, and possibly gence, optic character, and at 526 nm.
pleochroism and spectrum. spectrum. Sometimes referred
to as “brown peridot” in the
trade.
Terri Weimer/GIA
Axinite’s characteristic hue is a Sinhalite is typically brownish

clove brown or “root beer” color. in appearance.
263
KORNERUPINE
KORNERUPINE ENSTATITE

Prism
General observation Transparent to translucent yellowish Transparent to opaque. Dark

to brownish green, blue-green, reddish brown to greenish
yellow, brown, and colorless (rare). brown, brownish green and
Translucent varieties might show yellowish green, and colorless
chatoyancy or asterism. Vitreous (rare). Translucent-to-opaque
Diffraction
polish luster, conchoidal fracture gems might show chatoyancy

with vitreous fracture luster. Perfect or a six-rayed star (rare).
cleavage in two directions. Vitreous polish luster, uneven
fracture with vitreous to
pearly fracture luster. Distinct
cleavage in two directions.
Kornerupine’s spectrum shows bands at 446 nm
and 503 nm along with faint lines at 430 nm, Typical cutting style Faceted. Phenomenal varieties Faceted gems or cabochons
463 nm, and 540 nm. It’s best observed in the cabochon-cut.
gem’s green pleochroic direction.
RI 1.667 to 1.680 (+/-0.003) 1.663 to 1.673 (+/-0.010)
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Optic character Biaxial negative. Usually shows a Biaxial positive

pseudo-uniaxial interference figure.
Pleochroism Generally strong green, yellow, and Weak to strong, depending on

Peter Johnston/GIA
red-brown (for typical brownish bodycolor. Green and yellowish
Kornerupine usually shows a pseudo- green stones) green or brown and yellow.
uniaxial optic figure.
Spectrum Bands at 446 nm and 503 nm, faint Lines at 505 nm along with a
lines at 430 nm, 463 nm, and 540 nm band at 550 nm. Might show
gradual cutoff below 470 nm.
Fluorescence Inert to strong yellow under both Inert

LW and SW
SG 3.30 (+0.05/-0.03) 3.25 (+0.15/-0.02)
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence, optic Key tests are RI, birefrin-
character, pleochroism, and possibly gence, optic character, and
spectrum and fluorescence. spectrum.
ENSTATITE
Prism
Diffraction
Terri Weimer/GIA
Enstatite typically has a reddish

brown appearance.
Of the many bands and lines in enstatite’s spectrum, the most

diagnostic ones are at 505 nm and 550 nm.
264
YELLOW SPODUMENE
SPODUMENE ANDALUSITE
Species Spodumene Andalusite
Prism
General observation Normally light-toned yellow Yellowish green to brownish green
or greenish yellow. Vitreous and orangy brown. Due to strong
polish luster, uneven to splin- pleochroism, both green and orangy
tery fracture with vitreous pleochroic colors might be visible
fracture luster. Perfect cleavage through the crown. Vitreous polish
Diffraction
in two directions at nearly 90° luster, uneven to conchoidal fracture
angles to one another. with vitreous fracture luster.
RI 1.660 to 1.676 (+/-0.005) 1.634 to 1.643 (+/-0.005) Yellow spodumene’s spectrum shows lines at
433 nm and 438 nm.
Birefringence/doubling 0.014 to 0.016 0.007 to 0.013 (tends to be higher
when RI values are low)
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Optic character Biaxial positive (common Biaxial negative

point is 0.006 from the high
RI)
Pleochroism Weak Very strong, generally light yellow-

ish green and dark brownish red
Magnification Growth tubes and liquid Needles (probably rutile) and Eric Welch/GIA
inclusions crystals (probably apatite) Andalusite is one of the few gems with
eye-visible pleochroism.
Spectrum Look for lines near 433 nm Not diagnostic, but might show
and 438 nm in the blue area. clusters of fine lines around 485 nm
to 518 nm and around 550 nm.
Fluorescence Inert Inert to LW. Might fluoresce weak

to moderate green to yellowish
green under SW.
SG 3.18 (+/-0.03) 3.17
Comments Key tests are RI and birefrin- Key tests are RI, birefringence,
gence. optic character, and pleochroism.
265
YELLOW APATITE
APATITE DANBURITE
Species Apatite Danburite

Prism
General observation Yellow to orange and brown. Transparent to translucent.

Vitreous polish luster, con- Colorless to light yellow or brown,
520 580
choidal to uneven fracture with occasionally pink. Vitreous to
vitreous fracture luster. Surface greasy polish luster, uneven to
might show abrasions due to subconchoidal fracture with vitreous
Diffraction
low hardness (Mohs 5). to greasy fracture luster.

520 580
RI 1.634 to 1.638 (+0.012/-0.006) 1.630 to 1.636 (+/-0.003)
Birefringence/doubling 0.002 to 0.008 0.006

Yellow apatite shows a strong and distinctive
spectrum with two sets of fine lines. One set is
at 520 nm and the other is at 580 nm. SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Optic character Uniaxial negative (distorted Biaxial positive or negative

optic figure possible) (common point almost halfway
between low and high RI)
Pleochroism Weak to very weak None
Spectrum Sets of fine lines at 520 nm Some stones might show a doublet
and 580 nm at 580 nm
Fluorescence Variable. Generally not Inert or strong light blue to blue-

diagnostic. green under LW, inert or weaker
under SW
SG 3.18 (+/-0.05) 3.00 (+/-0.03)
optic character, and spectrum. optic character, and possibly SG.
Apatite’s low numerical RI is
generally higher than the low
numerical RI of tourmaline.
266
TOPAZ TOURMALINE BRAZILIANITE
Species Topaz Tourmaline Brazilianite
General observation Brown, yellowish brown, yellow Yellow to orange and brown. Might show eye- Transparent to translucent.
to pinkish yellow to pinkish visible pleochroism. Vitreous polish luster, Yellowish green to greenish
orange to orange. Vitreous polish conchoidal fracture with vitreous fracture luster. yellow and colorless (rare).
luster, conchoidal fracture with Vitreous polish luster, conchoidal
vitreous fracture luster. Perfect fracture with vitreous fracture
basal cleavage, possibly with luster. Perfect cleavage in one
iridescent cleavage planes. The direction.
color of some reddish orange
topaz results from treatment with
a surface coating.
Typical cutting style Faceted Faceted gems, cabochons, or carvings Faceted
RI 1.619 to 1.627 (+/-0.010); 1.624 to 1.644 (+0.011/-0.009) 1.602 to 1.621 (+/-0.003)

orange, yellow, and brown stones
typically 1.629 to 1.637
Birefringence/doubling 0.008 to 0.010 Usually 0.018 to 0.020, but dark stones might 0.019 to 0.021
range up to 0.040
SR/DR/AGG DR DR DR
Optic character Biaxial positive (common point is Uniaxial negative Biaxial positive
Pleochroism Generally weak Medium to strong, usually two tones of gem’s Weak, in tones of bodycolor
bodycolor
Magnification Two- and three-phase inclusions, Thread-like liquid and gas inclusions (trichites), Natural inclusions
liquid inclusions in planes. mirror-like gas-filled fractures, color zoning
Surface treatment results in spotty
color. Chips on facet junctions
might reveal colorless material
underneath.
Fluorescence Variable Generally inert Inert
SG 3.53 (+/-0.04) 3.06 (+0.20/-0.06) 2.97 (+/-0.03)
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence, Key tests are almost always RI and birefringence. Key tests are RI, birefringence,
and optic character. SG is helpful If birefringence isn’t obtainable, uniaxial optic and optic character. Brazilianite’s
if you can’t obtain birefringence. figure, pleochroism, and SG can be helpful. low numerical RI is always lower
Magnification is a key identifier Tourmaline’s low numerical RI is generally lower than tourmaline’s low numerical
of surface-treated topaz. than the low numerical RI of apatite and always RI.
higher than the low numerical RI of brazilianite.
Terri Weimer/GIA Robert Weldon/GIA
Topaz gems are typically long Brown tourmaline might dis-

and narrow, with pleochroic play eye-visible pleochroism.
colors appearing at the ends.
267
YELLOW BERYL HYDROTHERMAL LABRADORITE

SYNTHETIC BERYL
Variety Heliodor Synthetic Heliodor Sunstone (when aventurescence is present)
Species Beryl Synthetic beryl Labradorite
Group Not required Not required Feldspar
General observation Light toned, weakly to Greenish yellow to orangy Yellow, orange, brown, or red-brown, usually light in
moderately saturated, yellow. Vitreous polish luster, tone. Oregon material (rare) can range from pale yellow
slightly greenish yellow to conchoidal fracture with through orange, pinkish orange, and pink to deep red.
orangy yellow. Vitreous vitreous to resinous fracture Bicolor gems exist, but are extremely rare. Vitreous
polish luster, conchoidal luster. polish luster, uneven to splintery fracture with vitreous
fracture with vitreous to to pearly fracture luster. Two cleavage directions.
resinous fracture luster. Parting also common. The sunstone variety is typically
yellow to orange or brown and has a reddish or golden
sheen from highly reflective inclusions.
Typical cutting style Faceted Faceted Faceted gems, cabochons, carvings
RI 1.577 to 1.583 (+/-0.017); 1.577 to 1.583 (+/-0.017) 1.559 to 1.568 (+/-0.005); Oregon material commonly
heliodor typically falls 1.563 to 1.572
toward the lower end of this
range
Birefringence/doubling 0.005 to 0.009 0.005 to 0.009 0.009
SR/DR/AGG DR DR DR
Optic character Uniaxial negative Uniaxial negative Biaxial positive (often shows twinning in the polariscope)
Pleochroism Weak. Greenish yellow Weak to moderate, different Yellow stones might show colorless and light yellow
and yellow, or two tones tones of bodycolor dichroism
of yellow.
Magnification Liquid, two-phase, or tubu- Undulating growth, chevron Repeated twinning, black needle-like inclusions, and
lar inclusions. growth zoning. Liquid and metallic appearing platelets (possibly hematite). Oregon
two-phase inclusions might material contains tiny orangy yellow copper platelets,
also be present. often visible even in facet-grade material at 10X.
Fluorescence Generally inert Inert Generally inert, but might be weak, patchy white under
both LW and SW
SG 2.72 (+0.18/-0.05) 2.72 (+0.18/-0.05) 2.70 (+/-0.05); Oregon material typically 2.67 to 2.72
Comments Key tests are RI, birefrin- The key test for separating Key tests are RI, birefringence, optic character, and
gence, and optic character. synthetic from natural beryl is magnification. Labradorite from Oregon is commonly
Magnification is the key test magnification. called sunstone whether or not it displays aventures-
for separating natural from cence.
synthetic beryl.
Maha Tannous/GIA
The light-toned hue of this Flat, reflective inclusions cause the
yellow beryl is typical. aventurescence in this sunstone.
268
SCAPOLITE QUARTZ AMETRINE
Variety Not required Citrine–Predominantly yellow to Ametrine

orange
Smoky–Predominantly brown
Species Scapolite Quartz Quartz
General observation Yellow to colorless. Vitreous Pale yellow through strong yellow to Bicolored combination of amethyst and
polish luster, conchoidal yellowish orange, reddish orange and citrine colors. Vitreous polish luster,
fracture with vitreous fracture reddish brown. Dark-toned reddish conchoidal fracture with vitreous fracture
luster. Two cleavage directions. brown and brown colors of low luster.
saturation are smoky quartz. Vitreous
polish luster, conchoidal fracture
Typical cutting style Faceted Faceted gems or cabochons Faceted (often rectangular step cut)
RI 1.550 to 1.564 1.544 to 1.553 (very constant) 1.544 to 1.553 (very constant)
(+0.015/-0.014)
Birefringence/doubling 0.004 to 0.037, but 0.009 0.009

(increases as RI increases)
SR/DR/AGG DR DR DR
Optic character Uniaxial negative Uniaxial positive. Might show a Uniaxial positive. Might show a bull’s-eye
bull’s-eye or Airy’s spiral optic or Airy’s spiral optic figure and Brazil-law
figure and Brazil-law twinning twinning under crossed polarizing filters.
Pleochroism Weak to moderate in yellow Very weak, with different tones of Very weak, with different tones of yellow or
stones, with different tones of bodycolor orange in yellow areas, weak to moderate
yellow purple and reddish purple in purple areas
Magnification Not diagnostic Color zoning, twinning, liquid, two- Color zoning, twinning, liquid, two-phase
phase and three-phase inclusions, and three-phase inclusions, and negative
and negative crystals crystals
Fluorescence Inert to strong pink, orange, or Generally inert Generally inert

yellow
SG 2.68 (+0.06/-0.08) 2.66 (+0.03/-0.02) 2.66 (+0.03/-0.02)
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence, Key tests are RI, birefringence, optic Key tests are appearance, RI, birefringence,
optic character, and possibly character, and optic figure. Presence optic character, and optic figure.
fluorescence. of Brazil-law twinning separates
citrine from scapolite with similar
properties.
Tino Hammid/GIA Robert Weldon/GIA
Scapolite can be yellow to Purple amethyst and yellow citrine

colorless. RI, birefringence, components are visible in ametrine, a
and optic character are the bicolored quartz variety.
key tests to identify it.
269
SYNTHETIC CITRINE SYNTHETIC AMETRINE
Variety Synthetic citrine Synthetic ametrine
Species Synthetic quartz Synthetic quartz
General observation Most properties same as natural Most properties same as natural
Magnification Often inclusion-free, but might contain Often inclusion-free, but might contain
characteristics of hydrothermal growth characteristics of hydrothermal growth
like breadcrumb inclusions, two-phase like breadcrumb inclusions, two-phase
(liquid and gas) spicule inclusions (liquid and gas) spicule inclusions
Robert Weldon/GIA perpendicular to a seed plate, color perpendicular to a seed plate, color
Synthetic quartz can be banding parallel to a seed plate, and banding parallel to a seed plate, and
manufactured in a yellow flame-like twinning (rather than Brazil- flame-like twinning (rather than Brazil-
citrine color. law twinning). law twinning).
Comments Most synthetic quartz is virtually Most synthetic quartz is virtually inclusion-
inclusion-free. Some material might be free. Some material might be grown on
grown on twinned seed crystals, resulting twinned seed crystals, resulting in Brazil-
in Brazil-law twinning like natural law twinning like natural material. It
material. It might be impossible to might be impossible to distinguish between
distinguish between these synthetics and these synthetics and natural gems using
natural gems using conventional gem- conventional gem-testing equipment.
Taijin Lu/GIA testing equipment. Advanced laboratory Advanced laboratory testing can separate
You might see two-phase testing can separate hydrothermal hydrothermal synthetic quartz from natural
inclusions in a synthetic synthetic quartz from natural quartz. quartz.
ametrine.
270
AMBER COPAL RESIN
Species Amber Copal resin
General observation Transparent to opaque. Light yellow to Transparent to translucent. Yellow,

dark brown, orange, red, or white. orange, or brown. Resinous to
Occasionally greenish or bluish due to vitreous polish luster, conchoidal
strong fluorescence. Waxy to resinous to uneven fracture with resinous
polish luster, conchoidal fracture with fracture luster.
waxy to resinous fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Beads, cabochons, tumbled pieces Beads, cabochons, tumbled pieces
Alan Jobbins
RI 1.540 (+0.005/-0.001) 1.540 (-0.010) Treated amber often
contains disk-like “sun
Birefringence/doubling None None spangle” inclusions.
SR/DR/AGG SR, commonly with strong ADR (strain SR, commonly with strong ADR
colors common)
Magnification Gas bubbles, flow lines, insects and other Surface crazing common
organic and inorganic inclusions. Plastic
imitations with insect inclusions often
show a boundary layer or “zone of
encapsulation,” where an insect was
inserted, then had fresh plastic poured
over it. Treated material (heated with oil) Maha Tannous/GIA
shows disk-like fractures known in the This 306.72-ct. copal is an
trade as “sun spangles.” amorphous organic material
that’s actually immature amber.
Fluorescence Variable. Inert to strong yellowish green Inert to bluish white under LW, inert The two gem materials share
to orangy yellow, white, bluish white, or to strong bluish white under SW. many properties, but copal
blue under LW, weaker under SW. Whiter than amber’s reaction, espe- reacts strongly to acetone
cially under SW. while amber does not.
SG 1.08 (+0.02/-0.08) (air bubbles might 1.06 (+0.04/-0.03)

lower SG)
Comments Key test is SG. Amber generally floats in Use fluorescence and possibly SG to
saturated salt solution (SG 1.13), while separate copal resin from amber.
plastic (SG 1.30 +/-0.25) normally sinks. Another test—which is destructive—
uses acetone, which attacks copal
within two or three seconds. Amber
is either unaffected, or only slightly
affected, in the same period of time.
Copal is fossilized resin of more
recent origin than amber.
271
ORTHOCLASE CALCITE
Species Orthoclase Calcite
General observation Orange, yellow, and brown. Vitreous Occurs in almost all colors. Vitreous to
polish luster, uneven to splintery greasy polish luster. Three cleavage
fracture with vitreous to pearly fracture directions. Strong eye-visible doubling.
luster. Might show adularescence or
aventurescence.
Typical cutting style Faceted Occasionally faceted for collectors
Tino Hammid/GIA
RI 1.518 to 1.526 (+0.010) 1.486 to 1.658
Orthoclase feldspar can occur
in lovely yellow hues.
Birefringence/doubling 0.005 to 0.008 0.172 (use birefringence blink method)
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Magnification Twinning, oriented needles Not diagnostic
Pleochroism Usually none, but might be weak to None

moderate in yellow stones
Spectrum Yellow orthoclase shows broad bands at Not diagnostic. Any visible lines are
approximately 420 nm and 448 nm caused by impurities or dye.
Fluorescence Yellow stones are inert to weak reddish Variable

orange under LW and SW
SG 2.58 (+/-0.03) 2.70 (+/-0.05)
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence, optic Key tests are cleavage, RI, birefringence
character, and possibly spectrum and blink, doubling, SG, and possibly
fluorescence. appearance.
272
OPAL FLUORITE (FLUORSPAR)

Species Opal Fluorite
General observation Transparent to semitranslucent yellow, Transparent to translucent orange, yellow,

red, orangy red, or orange. Might show and brown (also pink to purple, blue to
play-of-color. Vitreous to resinous polish violet, green, and colorless). Might be
luster, conchoidal to uneven fracture with parti-colored. Vitreous to subvitreous
subvitreous to waxy fracture luster. luster, conchoidal to step-like fracture
with vitreous to subvitreous fracture
luster. Perfect octahedral cleavage in four
directions. Might have numerous pits and
scratches due to low hardness (Mohs 4).
Typical cutting style Faceted gems, cabochons, or freeforms Faceted gems, cabochons, carvings, or Eric Welch/GIA
beads
Natural fire opal comes in a
range of red and orangy red
RI 1.450 (+0.020/-0.080). Fire opal might 1.434 (+/-0.001) hues.
read as low as 1.37, but generally gives a
reading between 1.42 and 1.43.
SR/DR/AGG SR, commonly with ADR due to strain SR
Magnification Possible play-of-color patterns include Triangular (tetrahedral) negative crystals

very small patches or dots (pinfire); large and two-phase inclusions, liquid inclusions,
areas that flash predominately one color strong color zoning
as the gem is moved (flash); or even,
distinct patches with a “brush-stroke”
appearance (harlequin). There might also
Eric Welch/GIA
be areas that lack play-of-color or that
contain mineral inclusions or patches of Some yellow and orange
rock matrix. (Play-of-color in synthetic opals lack play-of-color.
opal tends to be much more regular.)
Fluorescence Inert to moderate greenish brown under Very variable

LW and SW. Might phosphoresce.
SG 2.15 (+0.08/-0.90) 3.18
Comments Key tests are RI, SR/ADR nature, and Key tests are RI, SG, and possibly
possibly magnification, which can cleavage.
separate natural from synthetic with
play-of-color. Red or orangy red stone
sold as fire opal in the trade and some-
times called Mexican opal. SG can help
separate opal from plastic (SG 1.05 to
1.55). Some natural opal is polymer-
impregnated to make it more stable or
improve its appearance.
273
SYNTHETIC OPAL
General observation Semitransparent to semitranslucent orange to orangy red, yellow, and

light to dark brown with play-of-color. Material with vivid bodycolor
might be polymer impregnated. Conchoidal to uneven fracture with

Shane McClure/GIA
You can see the columnar structure in this

RI 1.430 to 1.470
rough synthetic opal.
SR/DR/AGG SR with weak to moderate ADR

Spectrum Polymer-impregnated synthetic opal might show a broad absorption in

the green or green-blue, sometimes accompanied by a band around
580 nm or 610 nm. Newer orange to orange-red untreated synthetics
might show general absorption to 500 nm followed by a band at 550
nm and a line at 580 nm.
Fluorescence Polymer-impregnated synthetics range from weak pink to moderate

pink-orange or weak yellow under LW and weak to moderate pink-
orange or moderate to strong orangy yellow under SW. Newer
untreated orange synthetics might show very weak red under both LW
and SW, with a slightly stronger reaction to SW. Phosphorescence is

to 1.91. Newer untreated orange synthetic opal is closer to natural
opal, at 2.22 to 2.27.

274
GLASS PLASTIC

facet junctions. Warm to the Warmer to the touch than glass imi-
touch compared to crystalline tations and crystalline gemstones.
gemstones. Vitreous polish Low heft (SG), dull to waxy polish
luster, conchoidal fracture with luster, conchoidal fracture with
vitreous fracture luster. waxy to vitreous fracture luster.
Surface might show numerous
(Mohs 1.5 to 3).
and finishes.

Magnification Gas bubbles, cavities on sur- Gas bubbles, flow lines

face where gas bubbles were
polished through, flow marks
(swirls)
Comments Key tests are RI and magnifica- Key tests are RI and magnification.
tion. Low thermal conductivity Low heft (SG) and low thermal
(warm to the touch) might also conductivity (warm to the touch)
be helpful. might also be helpful.
275
Key Separations for Transparent Orange, Yellow, and Brown Gems

Diamond from synthetic diamond Magnification (growth zoning, inclusions), spectrum,

fluorescence (color and pattern), phosphorescence,
advanced laboratory testing, possibly magnetism
Diamond from treated diamond Magnification, spectrum, advanced laboratory testing
Diamond from yellow to brown CZ Diamond tester, magnification, see-through, fluores-

cence, SG
Diamond from zircon and sphene Diamond tester, doubling, pleochroism, spectrum, SG
Diamond from spessartite and andradite Diamond tester, spectrum, SG, possibly fluorescence
Sphene from zircon Strength and type of pleochroism (trichroism versus

dichroism), spectrum
Spessartite from andradite Color, spectrum
Sapphire from synthetic sapphire Magnification, spectrum, possibly fluorescence
Sapphire from lattice diffusion treated Usually advanced laboratory testing. Also magnification
sapphire with immersion.
Sapphire from chrysoberyl RI, birefringence, optic character, magnification,

spectrum
Chrysoberyl from grossularite RI, DR vs SR nature, spectrum
Axinite from kornerupine Color, pleochroism, spectrum, possibly optic figure
Axinite from enstatite RI, pleochroism, spectrum, possibly color
Kornerupine from enstatite Color, optic sign, pleochroism, spectrum, and possibly
optic figure
Kornerupine from spodumene RI, optic sign, possibly optic figure
Topaz from tourmaline RI, birefringence, optic character, SG, possibly

pleochroism
Topaz from danburite RI, birefringence, SG
276
Topaz from andalusite Color, RI, pleochroism, SG
Topaz from apatite RI, birefringence, optic character, SG, possibly

spectrum
Tourmaline from andalusite Birefringence, optic character, pleochroism
Tourmaline from apatite Birefringence, spectrum
Beryl from synthetic beryl Magnification
Beryl from quartz RI, birefringence, optic character, optic figure
Beryl from transparent yellow orthoclase RI, birefringence, optic character
Beryl from labradorite RI, optic character, possibly cleavage
Beryl from scapolite RI, birefringence, possibly fluorescence
Quartz from scapolite Optic sign, possibly RI, birefringence, and

fluorescence
Quartz from orthoclase and labradorite RI, optic character, optic figure
Quartz from synthetic quartz Possibly magnification, advanced testing might be

required
Orthoclase from labradorite RI, optic character, spectrum
Orthoclase and labradorite from opal RI, birefringence, optic character, possibly play-of-
color and spectrum

Opal from synthetic opal Magnification, possibly RI and SG
Opal from glass RI, magnification, possibly SG
277
TRANSLUCENT-TO-OPAQUE ORANGE, YELLOW, AND

BROWN GEMS
In the category of translucent-to-opaque yellow, orange and brown gems, you’ll
commonly see amber, chalcedony, tiger’s-eye quartz, and even aventurine feldspar.
Shell is common, too: Artisans in Italy and elsewhere produce hundreds of thousands
of shell cameos each year.
Some materials—like golden coral and tortoise shell—are rare because they come
from endangered species, while others, like chiastolite, are cut as curiosities for
collectors.
Translucent-to-opaque Orange, Yellow, and Brown OTL Gems

OTL Pyrite Metals: brass, gold

Too opaque to test (Page 281)
Translucent-to-opaque Orange, Yellow, and Brown Gems with RIs between

1.50 and 1.70
1.713 to 1.718 Idocrase Jadeite, chiastolite, nephrite, serpentine

AGG (Page 281)
1.666 to 1.680 Jadeite Idocrase, chiastolite, nephrite, serpentine, chalcedony, calcite

AGG (Page 282)
1.63 to 1.64 spot reading Chiastolite (andalusite) Idocrase, jadeite, nephrite, chalcedony
AGG (Page 282)
1.606 to 1.632 Nephrite Idocrase, jadeite, chiastolite, serpentine

AGG (Page 283)
1.560 to 1.570 Golden coral Amber, chalcedony, calcareous concretions, shell

AGG (Page 283)
1.560 to 1.570 Serpentine Idocrase, jadeite, nephrite, talc, chalcedony

AGG (Page 283)
1.560 Horn Tortoise shell, chalcedony

AGG (Page 284)
1.550 Tortoise shell Horn, plastic

SR (Page 284)
1.544 to 1.553 Tiger’s-eye quartz Chalcedony, glass

AGG (Page 284)
1.540 to 1.590 Talc (soapstone) Serpentine, chalcedony

AGG
1.540 Amber Golden coral, copal resin, chalcedony, plastic

SR (Page 285)
278
SEPARATING TRANSLUCENT-TO-OPAQUE ORANGE, YELLOW, AND BROWN GEMS

1.540 Copal resin Amber, plastic
SR (Page 286)
1.540 Bone Vegetable ivory, ivory

AGG (Page 286)
1.540 Vegetable ivory Bone, ivory

AGG (Page 286)
1.539 to 1.547 Oligoclase feldspar Chalcedony, goldstone glass

AGG (Page 287)
1.535 to 1.540 Ivory Bone, vegetable ivory, plastic

AGG (Page 287)
1.535 to 1.539 Chalcedony Jadeite, chiastolite, serpentine, golden coral, horn, tiger’s-eye
(1.53 or 1.54 spot reading) (Page 288) quartz, talc, amber, oligoclase, shell, orthoclase, calcite, opal
AGG
1.530 to 1.685 Pearl Cultured pearl, glass, plastic

1.530 to 1.685 Cultured pearl Pearl, glass and plastic imitations

1.530 to 1.685 Calcareous concretions (conch and Golden coral, shell

AGG melo “pearls”)
(Page 291)
1.530 to 1.685 Shell Golden coral, chalcedony, calcareous concretions

AGG (Page 291)
1.520 to 1.680 Ammonite Opal with play-of-color

AGG (Page 292)
1.518 to 1.526 Orthoclase feldspar Chalcedony

1.470 to 1.700 range Glass Any orange, yellow, or brown translucent-to-opaque gem material
SR (Page 295)
1.460 to 1.700 range Plastic Any orange, yellow, or brown translucent-to-opaque gem material
SR (Page 295)
279
Translucent-to-opaque Orange, Yellow, and Brown Gems with RIs below 1.50
1.490 Obsidian (natural glass) Calcite, glass

SR (Page 293)
1.486 to 1.658 Calcite (including onyx marble) Jadeite, chalcedony, obsidian, opal
AGG (Page 293)
1.450 Opal Chalcedony, ammonite, calcite, synthetic opal

SR (Page 294)

SR (Page 294)
1.470 to 1.700 range Glass Any orange, yellow, or brown translucent-to-opaque gem
1.460 to 1.700 range Plastic Any orange, yellow, or brown translucent-to-opaque gem
280
PYRITE IDOCRASE
Species Pyrite Idocrase
General observation Opaque, with metallic yellow Transparent to opaque. Yellowish

“brassy” appearance. Metallic brown to green, brownish green
polish luster, conchoidal to (never red or pink). Greasy to Eric Welch/GIA
uneven fracture with metallic vitreous polish luster, conchoidal to This faceted pyrite displays its
fracture luster. uneven or granular fracture with metallic luster.
dull to vitreous fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Faceted into small rose cuts Carvings, beads, cabochons, tablets
RI OTL 1.713 to 1.718 (+0.003/-0.013). 1.70

or 1.71 spot reading common, but
might be lower.
Birefringence/doubling Too opaque to test Usually not detectable Terri Weimer/GIA
Pyrite’s brassy metallic

SR/DR/AGG Too opaque to test AGG appearance and often cube-
like crystal form are distinctive.
Pleochroism None None to weak
IDOCRASE
Spectrum Not diagnostic Line at 464 nm, weak line at 528.5
nm
Prism
SG 5.00 (+/-0.10) 3.40 (+0.10/-0.15)
464
Comments Key tests are appearance Key tests are RI, magnification, SG,
(color, metallic luster) and SG. and possibly spectrum.
Often sold as marcasite in the Diffraction
trade.
464
Idocrase’s spectrum features a key line at

464 nm and a weak line at 528.5 nm.
281
JADEITE
JADEITE CHIASTOLITE
Variety Not required Chiastolite
Species Jadeite Andalusite

Prism
General observation Semitransparent to opaque. Dark cross-shaped pattern on a gray,

437.5 Yellow to reddish orange and reddish, or light brown background.
brown, often with uneven Vitreous polish luster, vitreous to
coloration. Vitreous to greasy uneven fracture with vitreous
Diffraction
polish luster with a dimpled fracture luster.

polished surface, granular to
splintery fracture with dull
437.5
fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Carvings, beads, cabochons Often fashioned as a cabochon or

The spectrum of non-chrome jadeite shows a
key line at 437.5 nm due to iron. tablet to show the cross pattern.
Also spherical.
RI 1.666 to 1.680 (+/-0.008) 1.63 or 1.64 spot reading

SR/DR/AGG AGG AGG
Magnification Often unevenly colored, with Not diagnostic

root-like mottling
Mason-Kay Spectrum Generally a line at 437.5 nm Not diagnostic

Jadeite occurs in rich earthtones as well as
green. Its key identifying features are its RI, Fluorescence Light yellow stones are inert to Inert
spectrum, and SG. weak green under LW.
Generally inert under SW.
SG 3.34 (+0.06/-0.09) 3.17 (+/-0.04); often lower due to

impurities
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, Key tests are appearance, RI, and
spectrum, and SG. Might be SG.
heat-treated, polymer impreg-
nated, or dyed.
Maha Tannous/GIA
This chiastolite sphere shows the

gem’s typical cross-shaped inclusion
pattern.
282
NEPHRITE GOLDEN CORAL SERPENTINE
Variety Not required Golden Not required
Species Nephrite Coral Serpentine
General observation Light to dark yellow to brown, Semitranslucent to opaque, with a distinctive Semitransparent to opaque. Usually
possibly with lighter or darker surface sheen. Color can be natural or result yellowish green, green, or greenish
mottling. Vitreous to greasy from bleaching of black or dark coral, yellow, brown or black. Waxy to greasy
polish luster, splintery to gran- resulting in dark brown to yellow material. polish luster, granular to uneven fracture
ular fracture with dull fracture Waxy to vitreous polish luster, conchoidal with dull to waxy fracture luster. Might
luster. to uneven fracture with dull fracture luster. show scratches and pits due to low
hardness (Mohs 2.5 to 6).
Typical cutting style Carvings, beads, cabochons Beads, cabochons Ornamental carvings, beads, cabochons
RI 1.606 to 1.632 (+0.009/-0.006) 1.560 to 1.570 (+/-0.010) 1.560 to 1.570 (+0.004/-0.070) (might
(1.61 spot reading common) be hard to obtain due to poor polish)
Birefringence/doubling Usually not detectable None Usually not detectable
Magnification Not diagnostic Concentric, circular, tree-ring growth Translucent material might show tiny
structure. White crescents in cross-sections black inclusions (chromite or magnetite
of the branches. octahedra), white veining, or moss-like
inclusions.
Spectrum Rarely shows absorption lines, Not diagnostic Not diagnostic

but there might be a vague line
at 500 nm.
Fluorescence Inert Inert Not diagnostic
SG 2.95 (+0.15/-0.05) 1.35 (+0.77/-0.05) 2.57 (+0.23/-0.13)
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, Key tests are appearance, RI, and Key tests are RI, magnification, and
and SG. magnification. possibly appearance and surface
condition.
Eric Welch/GIA John Koivula/GIA Robert Weldon/GIA
Tree-ring growth structure is typical of naturally Black coral can be bleached to give it a Serpentine comes in a wide range of colors,
colored golden coral. It’s often eye-visible. “golden coral” appearance. including greenish yellow.
283
HORN TORTOISE SHELL TIGER ’S-EYE QUARTZ
Variety Not required Not required Tiger’s-eye
Species Horn Tortoise shell Quartz
General observation Semitransparent to opaque. Semitransparent to semitranslucent. Semitranslucent to opaque. Brownish yellow
Yellow to brown to almost Mottled yellow and brown, occasionally to brown to reddish brown, typically with
black. Resinous to vitreous black and white. Resinous to waxy wavy chatoyancy. Vitreous polish luster,
polish luster, uneven to polish luster, uneven to splintery splintery fracture with vitreous to silky
splintery fracture with resinous fracture with dull fracture luster. fracture luster. Eye might be visible even on
to dull fracture luster. flat surfaces.
Typical cutting style Carvings, inlays, decorative Carved objects, inlays Carvings, beads, cabochons, tablets, signets,
objects tumbled gems
RI 1.560 1.550 (-0.010) 1.544 to 1.553 (1.54 or 1.55 spot reading)
Birefringence/doubling None None Usually not detectable
SR/DR/AGG AGG SR AGG
Magnification Undulating, fibrous structure Characteristic mottling made up of Wavy, fibrous structure is usually distinctive.
numerous spherical particles (not seen
in plastic imitations)
Fluorescence Variable Colorless and yellow portions show Inert

bluish white under LW and SW
SG 1.70 to 1.85 1.29 (+0.06/-0.03) 2.64 to 2.71
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, Key tests are appearance, RI, and Key tests are appearance (structure and
and magnification. magnification. chatoyancy) and RI. Might be heat-treated to
a reddish brown color or dyed to any color.
Eric Welch/GIA Terri Weimer/GIA
Horn is often used in carvings. It can have Tortoise shell is semitransparent to semitranslu- The rich color of tiger’s-eye quartz can be (left
yellow to brown or gray to black color and cent, with resinous to waxy polish luster. Its to right) natural, dyed, or heat treated.
resinous to vitreous polish luster. characteristic mottling is composed of numer-
ous spherical particles.
284
TALC AMBER
Species Talc Amber
General observation White, gray, brown, light to Transparent to opaque. Light yellow to dark brown,
dark green, often veined or orange, red, or white. Occasionally greenish or
mottled. Waxy to greasy polish bluish due to strong fluorescence. Waxy to resinous
luster, uneven fracture with polish luster, conchoidal fracture with waxy to
dull to waxy fracture luster. resinous fracture luster.
Might show surface damage
due to very low hardness
(Mohs 1). Can often be
scratched with a fingernail.
Typical cutting style Ornamental carvings, decora- Beads, cabochons, tumbled pieces
tive objects
RI 1.540 to 1.590 (+0.010/-0.002) 1.540 (+0.005/-0.001)

(spot reading usually 1.54)
Terri Weimer/GIA
Birefringence/doubling 0.050 (usually difficult to None
detect) Talc is soft, so it’s ideal for
decorative pieces like this
hornbill carving.
SR/DR/AGG AGG SR, commonly with strong ADR (strain colors
common)
Magnification Not diagnostic Gas bubbles, flow lines, insects and other organic
and inorganic inclusions. Plastic imitations with
insect inclusions often show a boundary layer or
“zone of encapsulation,” where an insect was
inserted, then had fresh plastic poured over it.
Treated material (heated with oil) shows disk-like
fractures known in the trade as “sun spangles.”
Fluorescence Inert to weak pink under LW Variable. Inert to strong yellowish green to orangy
yellow, white, bluish white, or blue under LW,
weaker under SW.
SG 2.75 (+0.05/-0.55) 1.08 (+0.02/-0.08) (air bubbles might lower SG)
Comments Key tests are poor quality of Key test is SG. Amber generally floats in
polished surface, RI, and SG. saturated salt solution (SG 1.13), while plastic
Also known in the trade as (SG 1.30 +/-0.25) normally sinks. A material called
steatite or, more commonly, ambroid or pressed amber results when small pieces
“soapstone.” of amber are consolidated under heat or pressure.
John Koivula/GIA Maha Tannous/GIA
The most sought-after amber speci- Under magnification, ambroid reveals

mens contain insect inclusions. its construction, which consists of
many small pieces pressed together.
Alan Jobbins
Treated amber often contains

disk-like “sun spangle”
inclusions.
285
COPAL RESIN BONE VEGETABLE IVORY
Species Copal resin Bone Vegetable ivory
General observation Transparent to translucent. Yellow, Opaque white to light yellow, but Opaque white to light yellow, but might
orange, or brown. Resinous to might be dyed almost any color. be dyed almost any color. Low hardness
vitreous polish luster, conchoidal to Low hardness (Mohs 2.5). (Mohs 2.5).
uneven fracture with resinous
fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Beads, cabochons, tumbled pieces Beads, cabochons, bangle bracelets, Beads, cabochons, bangle bracelets,
carvings carvings
RI 1.540 (-0.010) 1.540 1.540
SR/DR/AGG SR, commonly with strong ADR AGG AGG
Magnification Surface crazing common Remains of blood vessels appear Parallel, torpedo-shaped cells that appear
round or oval in cross-section and round in cross-section.
might also appear as dark spots on
the surface if they’ve been penetrated
by dirt.
Fluorescence Inert to bluish white under LW, Not diagnostic Not diagnostic
inert to strong bluish white under
SW. Whiter than amber’s reaction,
especially under SW.
SG 1.06 (+0.04/-0.03) 2.00 1.38 to 1.42
Comments Use fluorescence and possibly SG Key test to separate bone from ivory Key test is magnification. Vegetable ivory
to separate copal resin from amber. is magnification. is derived from the seeds of certain palm
Another test—which is destructive— trees, and might also be called tagua nut
uses acetone, which attacks copal or corozo nut.
within two or three seconds. Amber
is either unaffected, or only slightly
affected, in the same period of time.
Copal is fossilized resin of more
recent origin than amber.
This decorative piece

of bone was carved
to portray ocean
waves.
Maha Tannous/GIA Eric Welch/GIA
This 306.72-ct. copal is an amorphous organic Vegetable ivory is derived from the
material that’s actually immature amber. The seeds of certain palm trees. It’s often
two gem materials share many properties, but carved into animal shapes.
copal reacts strongly to acetone while amber
does not.
286
OLIGOCLASE IVORY
Species Oligoclase Ivory
General observation Semitransparent to opaque yellow to orange or Translucent to opaque white to light yellow. Greasy to dull
brown, with a reddish or golden sheen from highly polish luster, splintery fracture with dull fracture luster.
reflective inclusions. Called sunstone if inclusions
are large enough to create distinct, glittery reflections.
Vitreous polish luster, uneven to splintery fracture
with vitreous to pearly fracture luster. Two cleavage
directions. Parting also common.
Typical cutting style Cabochons, beads Carvings, cabochons, bangle bracelets
RI 1.539 to 1.547 (+0.004/-0.006) 1.535 to 1.540 (usually 1.540)
SR/DR/AGG AGG AGG
Optic character Biaxial negative Not applicable
Magnification Reddish to golden metallic platelets, probably Wavy structure lines and “engine turning” are characteristic of
hematite elephant and mammoth ivory. These features distinguish this
material from the tusks of other mammals, bone imitations,
white coral, and “vegetable ivory” substitutes.
Fluorescence Generally inert Weak to strong bluish white or violet-blue under both LW and
SW (stronger under LW)
SG 2.65 (+0.02/-0.03) 1.70 to 2.00
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, birefringence, optic Key tests are RI, magnification, and SG. Fluorescence might
character, and magnification. also be helpful. Vegetable ivory also has a lower SG of around
1.40. “Ivory” traditionally refers to elephant tusk, although the
tusks or teeth of other mammals, including walrus, narwhal and
sperm whale, warthog, and hippopotamus, are also used for
carvings or jewelry objects.
Terri Weimer/GIA Robert Weldon/GIA
Aventurescence is a key feature of This ivory napkin ring shows its distinctive
oligoclase sunstone feldspar. “engine turning” growth pattern.
287
CHALCEDONY
Variety Carnelian—Semitransparent to semitranslucent orangy red to brownish

red or brownish orange
Sard—Semitransparent to semitranslucent dark brownish red to
orangy brown to brown, generally darker and less saturated in color
than carnelian
colors alternating with either black or white bands, or both
combination of colors except solid black or specially named material
Agate—Chalcedony with curved or angular bands or layers
Moss agate—Transparent to semitranslucent, with green, brown, or
Orange, yellow, and brown chalcedony
black inclusions that resemble moss
varieties include (from left to right)
sardonyx, carnelian, jasper, and sard.
Species Chalcedony
General observation Semitransparent to opaque. Some varieties might show bands or

layers of lighter or darker coloration. Greasy to vitreous polish luster,
conchoidal fracture with dull to waxy fracture luster.
RI 1.535 to 1.539 (1.53 to 1.54 spot reading)
Agate is a chalcedony with a layered Birefringence/doubling Usually not detectable

appearance consisting of curved or
angular bands. SR/DR/AGG AGG
SG 2.60 (+0.10/-0.05)
Comments Key tests are spot RI, SG, and possibly appearance and fracture.
Robert Weldon/GIA Eric Welch/GIA Eric Welch/GIA
Jasper is an opaque Moss agate is a A close-up shows the dark inclusions

chalcedony that comes in a chalcedony variety in a moss agate.
wide variety of colors. that features dark
inclusions that
resemble moss.
288
PEARL
Species Pearl
General observation Might be almost any bodycolor, but usually white or light yellow,
and bodycolor might be modified by pink, green, or blue overtone.
Surface luster varies from dull to nearly metallic, depending on nacre
quality. Uneven fracture with dull to pearly fracture luster.
RI 1.530 to 1.685
Birefringence/doubling 0.155 (use birefringence blink method)
SR/DR/AGG Usually too opaque to test
Spectrum Variable, not diagnostic
Fluorescence Variable. Inert to strong light blue, yellow, green, or pink under LW
and SW.
SG Saltwater—2.61 to 2.85
Freshwater—2.66 to 2.78 (few are over 2.74)
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence blink, and SG. Feels gritty when
rubbed against a tooth, while plastic and glass imitations feel smooth.
Heft can separate natural pearl from plastic imitations. X-radiography
separates natural from cultured pearl. Drill-hole might interfere with
accurate SG reading.
289
CULTURED PEARL
Species Cultured pearl
General observation Colors same as natural (see descriptions below). Surface luster varies
from dull to nearly metallic, depending on nacre quality. Uneven
fracture with dull to pearly fracture luster.
Akoya (bead nucleated)—Typical size range 2 mm to 11 mm. Mostly

spherical, but might be button, pear, oval, or baroque in shape. Color
John Koivula/GIA can range from neutral to near-neutral whites and creams with rosé or
Red spots around the drill-hole of a cultured green overtones, but can sometimes be yellow, pink (sometimes
pearl indicate treatment with dye. dyed), or blue.
Tahitian (bead nucleated)—Typical size range 8 mm to 14 mm.
Spherical, oval, button, drop, or baroque in shape (sometimes circled).
Color can range from near-neutral silver, cream, or brown to black or
gray, to blue, green, yellowish green, or purple, with green, blue, or
rosé overtone.
South Sea (bead nucleated)—Typical size range 10 mm to 15 mm.
Spherical, near-round, oval, button, drop, or semi-baroque (sometimes
circled). Color can range from near-neutral white, cream, or silver to
yellow, yellowish orange, or blue with green, blue, or rosé overtone.
Freshwater (usually tissue nucleated)—Typical size range 2 mm to
13 mm. Spherical, near-round, oval, button, drop, to heavily baroque
(sometimes circled). Color can range from neutral to near-neutral
John Koivula/GIA
whites, grays, and creams to yellows, pinks, and purples, with blue
or green overtone and orient.
The red spots on the surface of this “golden”
cultured pearl indicate that its color is a result
of treatment. RI 1.530 to 1.685
Magnification Not usually diagnostic, unless you can examine a drill-hole and detect
the bead under the nacre.
South Sea cultured pearls come in a range of Fluorescence Variable. Inert to strong light blue, yellow, green, or pink under LW
creamy and yellowish colors. and SW. Naturally colored black pearls show weak to moderate red to
orangy red or brownish red under LW.
SG 2.72 to 2.78
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence blink, magnification, and SG. Feels
gritty when rubbed against a tooth, while plastic and glass imitations
feel smooth. Heft can separate cultured pearl from plastic imitations.
X-radiography separates cultured from natural pearl. Cultured pearls
might be dyed, irradiated, or polymer-impregnated. Dye might be
detectable as concentrations in nacre, especially at the drill-hole.
Some irradiated colors are very intense and unnatural. Impregnation
might be visible with magnification. Drill-hole might interfere with
290
CALCAREOUS CONCRETIONS , SHELL

INCL . CONCH AND MELO “PEARLS ”
Species Calcareous concretions Shell
General observation Pink, orange, yellow, and brown. Dull to Virtually any color, but usually white,
vitreous polish luster, uneven fracture with gray, brown, yellow, orange, or pink
dull fracture luster. Tridacna pearls have with layered or patterned coloring.
a yellowish to whitish, porcelain-like Might also show orient (mother-of-
appearance. pearl). Helmet shells, which are
commonly used for cameos, show Tino Hammid/GIA
layering in two colors, commonly These calcareous concretions
white and brown or white and orange. were produced by the melo
Shell cameos usually show concave melo sea snail.
backs due to the curved contours of the
shells they’re cut from. Greasy or
pearly polish luster, uneven to splintery
fracture with dull fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Baroque, oval, off-round Cameos, carvings, beads, cabochons,
inlays
RI 1.530 to 1.685 1.530 to 1.685
Birefringence/doubling 0.155 (use birefringence blink method) 0.155 (use birefringence blink method) Flame structure is a distinctive
feature of conch “pearls.”
SR/DR/AGG AGG AGG
Magnification Wavy, flame-like structure Helmet shell—Irregular fibrous

structure
Conch shell—Flame-like structure
Fluorescence Variable Variable
SG 2.85 (+0.02/-0.04) (brown conch “pearls” 2.86 (+0.03/-0.16)

2.18 to 2.77)
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, birefringence Key tests are RI, birefringence blink, Shell’s layers make it
blink, and magnification (structure). These and magnification. Appearance might ideal for carving into
attractive cameos.
are basically non-nacreous concretions from also be helpful.
various mollusks, including conch and melo
melo snails and the giant clam (Tridacna).
Straight, irregular fibrous

structure is a key identifier of
shell.
291
AMMONITE ORTHOCLASE
Variety Not required Moonstone (when adularescence is present)
Species Ammonite Orthoclase
General observation Opaque gray to brown. Jewelry- Semitransparent to opaque, typically colorless
quality material displays iridescent to white, but can be orange, yellow, or brown.
Maha Tannous/GIA colors. Well-preserved specimens Adularescent, sometimes with chatoyancy,
Ammonite has an opaque show a spiral structure. Vitreous asterism, or aventurescence. Vitreous polish
gray to brown bodycolor and polish luster, uneven to granular luster, uneven to splintery fracture with
iridescent coloring. It might be fracture with greasy to dull fracture vitreous to pearly fracture luster. Two cleavage
sold whole to collectors or luster. directions. Parting also common.
as pieces to be inlayed into
other materials for jewelry or Typical cutting style Cabochons, freeforms, tablets. Also Cabochons, beads
ornamental objects. used in doublets and triplets.
RI Usually 1.520 to 1.680 (varies with 1.518 to 1.526 (+0.010)

mineral content)
Birefringence/doubling Usually 0.155 (varies with mineral 0.005 to 0.008

content) (use birefringence blink
method)
SR/DR/AGG AGG DR or AGG depending on transparency
Optic character Not applicable Biaxial negative (might show repeated

twinning under crossed polarizing filters)
This orthoclase moonstone Magnification Distinctive, often iridescent, mosaic Centipede-like inclusions. Material with aven-
has the added feature of a patterns turescence or asterism might contain reflective
four-rayed star.
inclusions such as fine needles or elongated
hematite flakes.
Fluorescence Variable, not diagnostic Generally inert to blue under LW, orange
under SW. Might fluoresce weak pink to red
under LW and SW.
SG Usually about 2.70 (varies 2.58 (+/-0.03)

with mineral content)
Comments Key tests are appearance (including Key tests are appearance, phenomenon
iridescence) and possibly RI. (if present), and RI. Magnification and
Ammonite is the fossilized shell fluorescence might also be helpful.
of an extinct nautilus-like animal.
It’s often polymer-impregnated to
make it more stable or improve its
appearance. Might be sold as
“ammolite” in the trade.
292
OBSIDIAN CALCITE
Species Obsidian Calcite
General observation Transparent to opaque natural Semitranslucent to opaque. Occurs in

glass, sometimes with a sheen almost all colors, often dyed. Vitreous to
or iridescence. Commonly dark greasy polish luster. Cleavage usually not
brown. Vitreous polish luster, visible in aggregate.
conchoidal fracture with
Typical cutting style Beads, cabochons, carvings Beads, cabochons, carvings
RI 1.490 (+0.020/-0.010) 1.486 to 1.658 (high spot reading on

aggregates)
Birefringence/doubling None 0.172 (use birefringence blink method)
SR/DR/AGG SR, commonly with ADR AGG
Magnification Gas bubbles, stubby needle-like Not diagnostic

inclusions. Might be banded or
have a sheen caused by
numerous oriented inclusions.
Spectrum Not diagnostic Not diagnostic. Any visible lines are caused
by impurities or dye.
Fluorescence Generally inert Variable
SG 2.40 (+0.10/-0.07) 2.70 (+/-0.05)
Comments Key tests are RI, SG, and Key tests are RI, birefringence blink, SG, and
possibly magnification. possibly appearance. Marble is a granular
aggregate, onyx marble is a banded marble.
Satinspar is a fibrous aggregate that’s often
chatoyant (the name is also used for a similar
variety of gypsum).
293
OPAL SYNTHETIC OPAL
General observation Yellow to brown. Vitreous to resinous polish luster, con- Semitransparent to semitranslucent orange to orangy red,
choidal to uneven fracture with subvitreous to waxy fracture yellow, and light to dark brown with play-of-color. Material
luster. Might show play-of-color. In some natural opals, with vivid bodycolor might be polymer impregnated. Con-
dehydration causes a network of fine cracks called crazing. choidal to uneven fracture with subvitreous fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Cabochons, freeforms Cabochons, carvings, beads
RI 1.450 (+0.020/-0.080) 1.430 to 1.470
SR/DR/AGG SR, commonly with ADR due to strain SR with weak to moderate ADR
Magnification Possible play-of-color patterns include very small patches Play-of-color in a mosaic pattern across the surface, with a
or dots (pinfire); large areas that flash predominately one cellular, “chicken wire,” “snakeskin,” or scale-like structure
color as the gem is moved (flash); or even, distinct patches that’s visible with magnification and overhead or backlight-
with a “brush-stroke” appearance (harlequin). There might ing. Might show columnar structure when viewed from the
also be areas that lack play-of-color or that contain mineral side.
inclusions or patches of rock matrix. (Play-of-color in
synthetic opal tends to be much more regular.)
Spectrum Not diagnostic Polymer-impregnated synthetic opal might show a broad

absorption in the green or green-blue, sometimes accompa-
nied by a band around 580 nm or 610 nm. Newer orange to
orange-red untreated synthetics might show general absorp-
tion to 500 nm followed by a band at 550 nm and a line at
580 nm.
Fluorescence Inert to strong green or yellowish green under LW and Polymer-impregnated synthetics range from weak pink to
SW. Might phosphoresce. moderate pink-orange or weak yellow under LW and weak
to moderate pink-orange or moderate to strong orangy
yellow under SW. Newer untreated orange synthetics might
show very weak red under both LW and SW, with a slightly
stronger reaction to SW. Phosphorescence is rare and weak
if present.
SG 2.15 (+0.08/-0.90) 1.97 to 2.20 (typically lower than natural opal). Polymer-
impregnated synthetic opal is usually considerably lower
than natural opal, at 1.88 to 1.91. Newer untreated orange
synthetic opal is closer to natural opal, at 2.22 to 2.27.
Comments Key test is RI. Lack of surface structure and absence of bire- Magnification is the key to separating synthetic from
fringence blink distinguish non-phenomenal opal from shell natural opal. Fluorescence and phosphorescence might also
or coral. SG can help separate opal from plastic (SG 1.05 to be helpful. Synthetic opal is often polymer impregnated to
1.55). Some natural opal is polymer impregnated to make it make it more stable, and it has a considerably lower SG
more stable or improve its appearance. Magnification than most natural opal.
separates natural opal from synthetic opal with play-of-color.
Fire opal sometimes Synthetic opal can be

shows play-of-color made in a variety of
along with its unique colors. It’s usually
bodycolor. polymer impregnated
for stability.
294
GLASS PLASTIC

facet junctions. Warm to the Warmer to the touch than glass
touch compared to crystalline imitations and crystalline gem-
gemstones. Vitreous polish stones. Low heft (SG), dull to waxy
luster, conchoidal fracture with polish luster, conchoidal fracture
vitreous fracture luster. with waxy to vitreous fracture luster.
Surface might show numerous
Terri Weimer/GIA
(Mohs 1.5 to 3). The goldstone glass at left and the
goldstone plastic at right are popular
Typical cutting style All styles. Can be faceted or All styles. Can be molded to a sunstone imitations.
and finishes.

Magnification Gas bubbles, cavities on sur- Gas bubbles, flow lines. Copper foil
face where gas bubbles were inclusions produce aventurescence
polished through, flow marks in goldstone plastic.
(swirls). Triangular or hexago-
nal copper inclusions produce
aventurescence in goldstone
glass.
SG Usually between 2.30 and 4.50 1.05 to 1.55 (goldstone plastic can
be higher)
Comments Key tests are RI and magni- Key tests are RI and magnification.
fication. Low thermal Low heft (SG) and low thermal
conductivity (warm to the conductivity (warm to the touch)
touch) might also be helpful. might also be helpful.
295
Key Separations for Translucent-to-opaque Yellow, Orange, and Brown Gems

Jadeite from nephrite RI, jadeite spectrum, SG
Jadeite from soapstone (talc) Quality of surface polish, RI, jadeite spectrum
Nephrite from idocrase RI, idocrase spectrum, SG
Ivory from bone, vegetable ivory, and Magnification

plastic
Chalcedony from serpentine Fracture, hardness, spectrum, possibly RI
Chalcedony from shell RI, birefringence blink, magnification (structure), SG
Chalcedony from onyx marble Fracture, hardness, RI, birefringence blink
Golden coral from plastic Appearance, magnification, possibly RI
Shell from plastic Appearance, birefringence blink, magnification,

possibly RI
Horn from tortoise shell Appearance, magnification
Aventurine feldspar from goldstone glass Optic character, magnification, possibly RI
Tortoise shell from plastic Appearance, magnification
Amber from plastic Fluorescence, SG, possibly RI
Amber from glass Fluorescence, SG, possibly RI
Tiger’s-eye quartz from glass Appearance, magnification, possibly RI
Opal from synthetic opal Magnification, possibly RI and SG
296
SEPARATING COLORLESS AND WHITE GEMS
Colorless Gems 297

RI Charts 298
Key Separations 319
White Gems 320

RI Charts 320
Key Separations 335
Eric Welch/GIA
There are few visual clues to the identities of transparent colorless gems, so you often have to rely on your testing skills to
identify them. This group includes quartz, topaz, corundum, zircon, CZ, and synthetic spinel.
SEPARATING COLORLESS AND WHITE GEMS

Colorless and white gems, especially diamond, are a vital part of today’s gem
market. This section of the Gem Identification Lab Manual lists them and sorts
them by transparency and RI. Colorless gems are generally transparent and white
gems are generally translucent to opaque.
COLORLESS GEMS
Transparent colorless gems are divided into two identification categories: those
that are over the limits (OTL) of the refractometer and those that yield readable
RIs. There are three main OTL gems: diamond, synthetic cubic zirconia (CZ), and
synthetic moissanite. Older diamond simulants like synthetic rutile, GGG, and
YAG aren’t readily available in today’s market, but you might see them in older
pieces. Zircon, like diamond, is a natural colorless OTL gem.
The most common colorless materials with RIs that fall within the refractometer’s
range are natural and synthetic sapphire, synthetic spinel, topaz, rock crystal
quartz, and manmade glass. Rarer colorless gems like euclase, enstatite, calcite,
and fluorite are occasionally cut for collectors.
297
Colorless OTL Gems

RI and SR/DR/AGG Gem Ma terial Commonly confused with:
2.648 to 2.691 Synthetic moissanite Synthetic rutile, diamond, synthetic diamond, strontium titanate, CZ,
DR (Page 301) GGG, zircon, YAG
2.616 to 2.903 Synthetic rutile Synthetic moissanite, diamond, synthetic diamond, strontium titanate,
DR (Page 301) CZ, GGG, zircon, YAG
2.417 Diamond Synthetic moissanite, synthetic rutile, fracture-filled and laser-drilled

SR (Page 302) diamond, HPHT-treated diamond, synthetic diamond, strontium titanate,
CZ, GGG, zircon, YAG
2.417 Fracture-filled and laser-drilled diamond Untreated diamond

SR (Pages 303 and 304)
2.417 HPHT-treated diamond Diamond

SR (Page 304)
2.417 Synthetic diamond Synthetic moissanite, synthetic rutile, diamond, strontium titanate, CZ,
SR (Page 305) GGG, zircon, YAG
2.409 Strontium titanate Synthetic moissanite, synthetic rutile, diamond, synthetic diamond, CZ,
SR (Page 307) GGG, zircon, YAG
2.150 CZ (synthetic cubic zirconia) Synthetic moissanite, synthetic rutile, diamond, synthetic diamond,
SR (Page 307) strontium titanate, GGG, zircon, YAG
1.970 GGG (gadolinium gallium garnet) Synthetic moissanite, synthetic rutile, diamond, synthetic diamond,
SR (Page 307) strontium titanate, CZ, zircon, YAG
1.925 to 1.984 Zircon Synthetic moissanite, synthetic rutile, diamond, synthetic diamond,
1.810 to 1.815 (Page 308) strontium titanate, CZ, GGG, YAG
DR
1.833 YAG (yttrium aluminum garnet) Synthetic moissanite, synthetic rutile, diamond, synthetic diamond,
SR (Page 308) strontium titanate, CZ, GGG, zircon
Colorless Gems with RIs between 1.70 and 1.80

1.762 to 1.770 Sapphire Synthetic sapphire, grossularite, synthetic spinel

DR (Page 309)
1.762 to 1.770 Synthetic sapphire Sapphire, grossularite, synthetic spinel

DR (Page 309)
1.740 Grossularite garnet Sapphire, synthetic sapphire, synthetic spinel

SR (Page 310)
1.728 Synthetic spinel Sapphire, synthetic sapphire, grossularite

SR (Page 310)
298
SEPARATING COLORLESS GEMS

1.663 to 1.673 Enstatite Spodumene, euclase

DR (Page 310)
1.660 to 1.676 Spodumene Enstatite, euclase

DR (Page 311)
1.652 to 1.671 Euclase Enstatite, spodumene

DR (Page 311)
1.634 to 1.638 Apatite Danburite, tourmaline, topaz

DR (Page 311)
1.630 to 1.636 Danburite Apatite, tourmaline, topaz

DR (Page 311)
1.624 to 1.644 Tourmaline Apatite, danburite, topaz

DR (Page 312)
1.609 to 1.617 Topaz Apatite, danburite, tourmaline

DR (Page 312)
1.470 to 1.700 range Glass Any colorless gem material

SR (Page 318)
1.460 to 1.700 range Plastic Any colorless gem material

SR (Page 318)

1.577 to 1.583 Beryl, goshenite Labradorite, scapolite, quartz, synthetic quartz

DR (Page 313)
1.559 to 1.568 Labradorite feldspar Beryl, scapolite, quartz, synthetic quartz

DR (Page 313)
1.550 to 1.564 Scapolite Beryl, labradorite, quartz, synthetic quartz, oligoclase, orthoclase
DR (Page 313)
1.544 to 1.553 Quartz Beryl, labradorite, scapolite, synthetic quartz, oligoclase, orthoclase
DR (Page 314)
1.544 to 1.553 Synthetic quartz Beryl, labradorite, scapolite, quartz, oligoclase, orthoclase
DR (Page 315)
1.539 to 1.547 Oligoclase Scapolite, quartz, synthetic quartz, orthoclase

1.518 to 1.526 Orthoclase feldspar Scapolite, quartz, synthetic quartz, oligoclase

DR (Page 316)

SR (Page 318)

SR (Page 318)
299
Colorless Gems with RIs below 1.50

1.486 to 1.658 Calcite (Iceland spar) Opal, fluorite, glass

DR (Page 316)
1.450 Opal Calcite, synthetic opal, fluorite

SR (Page 317)

SR (Page 317)
1.434 Fluorite Calcite, opal

SR (Page 318)

SR (Page 318)

SR (Page 318)
300
SYNTHETIC MOISSANITE SYNTHETIC RUTILE
Species Synthetic moissanite Synthetic rutile
General observation Near-colorless to light yellow, green, or Almost always tinted slightly yellow or
gray, possibly with greenish tint. Shows slightly grayish blue. Extreme eye-visible
much more fire than a diamond of equiv- doubling, much more fire than a diamond
alent size and cut. Positive reaction to a of equivalent size and cut. Subadamantine
standard diamond tester. Always look for to submetallic polish luster, conchoidal
doubling, which is readily visible when to uneven fracture with subadamantine Shane Elen/GIA
you examine the stone through the crown fracture luster. Facet edges frequently dull
Synthetic moissanite shows
or pavilion facets (necessary because stone and abraded due to low hardness (Mohs 6
strong doubling through the
is often cut with optic axis perpendicular to 6.5). Well-proportioned round brilliants crown or pavilion facets.
to the table facet). show no see-through. Negative reaction to
diamond tester.
Dispersion 0.104 (extreme fire) 0.330 (extreme fire)
RI OTL OTL
Birefringence/doubling 0.043 (strong doubling) 0.287 (extreme eye-visible doubling, even

in small gems)
John Koivula/GIA
SR/DR/AGG DR DR Under magnification, you might

see channels in synthetic
moissanite.
Optic character Uniaxial positive Uniaxial positive
Magnification Whitish or reflective needles, channels, Generally inclusion free, but might
negative crystals contain gas bubbles
Spectrum Not diagnostic, but a cutoff below 425 nm Not diagnostic. Cutoff possible around
allows separation from diamonds that 430 nm.
show the “cape” line at 415.5 nm
Fluorescence Inert or orange Inert
SG 3.22 4.26 (+/-0.03)
Comments Key tests are extreme fire, OTL RI Key tests are high luster, extreme fire, Eric Welch/GIA
reading, and strong doubling. Presence OTL RI reading, and eye-visible doubling. A faceted synthetic rutile
of greenish bodycolor tint might also be Yellow-tinted bodycolor and poor polish shows extreme fire.
helpful. Synthetic moissanite is a man- are also helpful.
made material with no gem-quality
301
NEAR-COLORLESS DIAMOND
DIAMOND
Species Diamond
Prism
General observation Colorless to pale yellow, brown, green or gray. Under 10X, look for
naturals, waxy to granular (bruted) or faceted girdle surface, bearding,
415 sharp facet junctions. Adamantine polish luster, step-like fracture.
Perfect cleavage in four directions. Polish lines never oriented the
same way on adjacent facets. Positive reaction to diamond tester.
Diffraction
Typical cutting style Faceted. Girdle often faceted, polished, or bruted.
415
Dispersion 0.044 (moderate fire)
RI OTL
Some near-colorless diamonds show the
“cape” line in the violet at 415.5 nm, along with Birefringence/doubling None
weaker lines at 435 nm, 451 nm, 463 nm, and
478 nm. SR/DR/AGG SR
Magnification Angular mineral inclusions, fractures and cleavages, bearding,

naturals with trigons, parallel growth marks, surface and internal
graining in directions parallel to octahedral crystal faces (see photos,
page 306)
Spectrum Most near-colorless to light yellow stones show the “cape” line at
415.5 nm, along with weaker lines at 435 nm, 451 nm, 463 nm,
and 478 nm. (Cooling diamond with liquid nitrogen helps make its
spectrum more visible.)
Fluorescence Commonly inert or weak to strong blue, but might fluoresce any
Eric Welch/GIA
color under LW and SW. LW response is generally stronger than or
A well-polished diamond always has sharp equal to SW. Occasional phosphorescence of 30 seconds or less.
facet junctions.
SG 3.52 (+/-0.10)
Comments Key tests are polish luster, OTL RI, SR nature, magnification, positive
reaction to diamond tester, and possibly spectrum. Magnification
separates untreated natural diamond from laser-drilled diamond and
fracture-filled diamond. Magnification, fluorescence, and possibly
spectrum separate natural diamond from synthetic diamond, although
advanced testing might be required.
302
FRACTURE -FILLED DIAMOND
Species Diamond
Required treatment call Fracture-filled
General observation Same as natural. A small difference between the RI of the glass and
the RI of the diamond can produce color flashes when you view the
gem under magnification.
Dispersion 0.044 (moderate fire)
RI OTL
SR/DR/AGG SR
Magnification Flash effect, trapped gas bubbles, areas of incomplete filling

(especially at the surface), flow structure, cloudy filler, and a
crackled or web-like texture that develops in the filler as it cools
and shrinks. Occasionally, the filler has a slight hint of color. (see
photos, page 306)
To detect filled fractures, look for the flash effect. Start with reflected
light and look for a surface-reaching fracture. When you find one,
switch to darkfield and examine the fracture as it extends into the
stone’s interior. Then rock the stone under magnification. If a filling
is present, you’ll see the flash effect: one color when the background
is dark and another color when it’s light. Sometimes, you’ll see both
colors in the same position.
Flash effect best seen by looking parallel to the fracture plane. In

contrast, unfilled fractures often show several iridescent colors
simultaneously, usually perpendicular to the fracture plane.
Common flash-effect combinations are yellow to orange, pinkish

purple to yellowish green, and yellowish orange to electric blue.
Fiber-optic light can make subtle changes more visible. Don’t
confuse iridescence or natural staining in untreated breaks with the
flash effect. Filled fractures also lack the “feathery” appearance of
untreated fractures. Unfilled fractures might produce iridescent
colors perpendicular to the fracture plane. This isn’t the same as the
flash effect.
Also look for laser drill-holes that don’t end at a bleached inclusion
and examine them for evidence of fillers.
Comments Key test is magnification, especially with fiber-optic lighting.
303
LASER -DRILLED DIAMOND HPHT -TREATED DIAMOND
Species Diamond Diamond
Required treatment call Laser-drilled Not required for GIA coursework
General observation Same as natural. Treaters use lasers to reach Treatment using high pressure high
dark included crystals within a diamond. The temperature (HPHT) techniques can
laser drill-hole can reach the inclusion from sometimes produce colorless or
the surface or be completely internal (internal near-colorless diamonds.
laser drilling). Treaters often introduce acid
through a drill-hole or surface-reaching fracture
and bleach the inclusion or fill it with a glassy
material, making it less visible.
Dispersion 0.044 (moderate fire) 0.044 (moderate fire)
RI OTL OTL
SR/DR/AGG SR SR
Magnification Looks like a tiny round opening at the Etched or pitted naturals or feathers,
diamond’s surface. Under magnification, you tension fractures—often containing
might see a channel extending from a bleached graphite—around crystalline inclu-
white inclusion to the diamond’s surface. sions. Some surface areas might
show etching and pitting if not
Laser drill-holes are usually perpendicular to completely repolished. (see photos,
the facet where they enter the stone. Channels page 306)
might extend only a short way into the gem or
a longer distance, depending on the treated
inclusion’s relationship to the stone’s surface.
Treaters can obscure the location of a drill-

hole by following a cleavage plane, which
leaves a trace that resembles etching on the
cleavage surface. Checking in transmitted
light should reveal the drill-hole.
A new technique produces a step-like succes-

sion of cleavages from the gem’s surface to an
inclusion. Wormhole-like channels connect
the cleavages to the inclusion, but there’s no
surface drill-hole. The channels appear dark
in transmitted light, which is the best way to
detect them.
Occasionally, laser drill-holes appear curved

or bent. Their circular cross-sections distin-
guish them from natural etch channels in
diamonds. Etch channels have geometric
cross sections. (see photos, page 306)
Comments Key test is magnification. Determining if a diamond was

subjected to HPHT treatment is
challenging for gemologists. If
in doubt, submit diamond to a
reputable laboratory for advanced
testing.
304
SYNTHETIC DIAMOND CVD SYNTHETIC DIAMOND
Species Synthetic diamond Synthetic diamond
General observation Colorless to near-colorless. Might appear very light Grown by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) rather than
blue, gray, or green due to faint internal growth zoning conventional HPHT techniques. Near-colorless, faint to
caused by impurities. Might be attracted to a magnet dark brown or gray, or might even be light to dark blue due
due to inclusions of metallic flux. Virtually all synthetic to impurities. Brownish material can be treated to colorless.
diamonds are grown by conventional high pressure Fashioned gems are typically shallow because they’re cut
high temperature (HPHT) techniques. from tabular crystals. Might be grown on a conventional
synthetic diamond or natural diamond seed, so fashioned
gems might include portions of either one.
Dispersion 0.044 (moderate fire) 0.044 (moderate fire—might be masked by bodycolor)
RI OTL OTL
SR/DR/AGG SR (might show weak ADR, sometimes in a cross- SR

shaped pattern)
Magnification Elongated or rounded opaque inclusions of metallic Often inclusion free. Lower-quality material might contain
flux, often occurring as pinpoints and small groups of pinpoints and brown graining along with small, black,
larger grains. Impurities might cause occasional very irregularly shaped inclusions that might be graphite. If a
faint color zoning in a cross-shaped or hourglass- portion of the seed material is present, the fashioned gem
shaped pattern. (see photos, page 306) might contain flux inclusions typical of HPHT diamond.
Spectrum Not diagnostic, with vague absorption increasing Not diagnostic

toward 400 nm. (Cooling diamond with liquid nitrogen
helps make its spectrum more visible.)
Fluorescence Often unevenly distributed and related to internal Inert or weak orange to yellow-orange to LW,
growth structures, showing squares or octagons plus a weak to moderate orange to yellow-orange to SW.
cross-shaped pattern. Usually inert to LW. Weak to No phosphorescence.
moderate green, yellow, blue, or orange under SW.
SW reaction is typically stronger than LW. (Natural
diamonds generally react more strongly to LW or have
equal reactions to both LW and SW.) Commonly
phosphoresce weak to moderate blue, yellow, or green,
often for 60 seconds or longer.
SG 3.52 (+/-0.10) 3.52 (+/-0.10)
Comments Key tests for high-pressure synthetics are magnification Very rare, produced only experimentally at time of writing.
and fluorescence patterns. If in doubt, submit diamond CVD synthetic diamonds require laboratory testing.
to a gemological laboratory for advanced testing.
CVD-grown synthetic diamond

can be faint to dark brown or
gray. The rough crystals are
tabular, so cut gems are generally
shallow.
305
John Koivula/GIA Gary Roskin Mike Havstad/GIA John Koivula/GIA
Natural, untreated diamond: Natural, untreated diamond: Girdle with Natural, untreated diamond: Natural Natural, untreated diamond: Bearded
Dark inclusion with radiating naturals. with trigon. girdle.
circular cleavage.
Vincent Cracco/GIA John Koivula/GIA John Koivula/GIA John Koivula/GIA
Natural, untreated diamond: Natural, untreated diamond: Cloud of Natural, untreated diamond: Internal Fracture-filled diamond: Flattened gas
Well-formed mineral crystal pinpoints. graining. bubbles.
inclusion.
Shane McClure/GIA Shane McClure/GIA Shane McClure/GIA Shane McClure/GIA
Fracture-filled diamond: Purple Fracture-filled diamond: Yellow flash Fracture-filled diamond: Bluish green Fracture-filled diamond: Pink-to-purple
flash effect against a light effect against a dark background. to greenish yellow flash effect against flash effect against a dark background.
background. a light background.
John Koivula/GIA John Koivula/GIA Gary Roskin/JCK Magazine Vincent Cracco/GIA
Fracture-filled diamond: Laser-drilled diamond: Drill-hole Laser-drilled diamond: Short laser drill- Internal laser-drilled diamond: Step-like
Crackled texture. reaching dark inclusion. hole. cleavages leading to an inclusion.
Christopher Smith John Koivula/GIA Bill Videto/GIA John Koivula/GIA
HPHT-treated diamond: HPHT-treated diamond: Inclusion High-pressure synthetic diamond: High-pressure synthetic diamond:
Cleavage that looks glassy surrounded by graphite, with radiating Metal flux inclusion. Elongated metal flux inclusion.
inside and frosted or grainy stress fractures.
near the surface.
306
STRONTIUM TITANATE CZ GGG
Species Strontium titanate CZ (synthetic cubic zirconia) GGG (gadolinium gallium garnet)
General observation Shows much more fire than Subadamantine polish luster, Usually colorless to light brown or yellow. Vitreous
a diamond of equivalent conchoidal fracture with sub- to subadamantine polish luster, conchoidal fracture
size and cut. Vitreous polish adamantine fracture luster. Heft with vitreous to subadamantine fracture luster.
luster with conchoidal reveals that loose stones are much Well-proportioned round brilliants might show
fracture. Well-proportioned heavier than diamonds of similar moderate see-through. Heft reveals that loose stones
round brilliants show no size. Well-proportioned round are much heavier than diamonds of similar size
see-through. Shows poor brilliants might show only slight and proportions (A 6-mm round brilliant GGG
polish due to low hardness see-through. Negative reaction to weighs about twice as much as an equivalent-size
(Mohs 5 to 6). Negative diamond tester. diamond). Negative reaction to diamond tester.
reaction to diamond tester.
Dispersion 0.190 (extreme fire) 0.060 (strong fire) 0.045 (moderate fire)
RI OTL OTL OTL
SR/DR/AGG SR SR SR
Magnification Small gas bubbles, polishing Generally inclusion free, but might Might show gas bubbles. Well-proportioned round
marks on surface contain unmelted zirconium oxide brilliants might show an orange and blue pavilion
and gas bubbles. Well-proportioned flash over most facets.
round brilliants might show an orange
pavilion flash over most facets.
Fluorescence Generally inert Greenish yellow to yellow-orange Inert to moderate orange under LW, moderate to
under LW, yellow or greenish strong pinkish orange under SW
yellow under SW
SG 5.13 (+/-0.02) 5.60 to 6.00 7.05 (+0.04/-0.01)
Comments Key tests are poor surface Key tests are negative reaction to Key tests are negative reaction to diamond tester,
polish, extreme fire, OTL diamond tester, OTL RI reading, OTL RI reading, moderate fire, lack of doubling,
RI reading, and lack of strong fire, lack of doubling, SG, fluorescence, SG, and orange and blue pavilion
doubling. Loose stones fracture, and orange pavilion flash flash in round brilliant cuts. GGG is a manmade
have noticeably greater heft in round brilliants. CZ is a manmade material with no natural counterpart.
than diamonds of similar material with no gem-quality natural
size and proportions. counterpart.
Strontium titanate is a
manmade material with no
Eric Welch/GIA Anthony de Goutière Mike Havstad/GIA
Strontium titanate’s A round brilliant CZ often shows A round brilliant GGG shows an
extreme fire is visible even an orange flash when you view it orange and blue pavilion flash when
in an emerald-cut stone. from the pavilion and rock it back you view it from the pavilion and rock
and forth in darkfield lighting. it back and forth in darkfield lighting.
307
ZIRCON
ZIRCON YAG
Species Zircon YAG (yttrium aluminum garnet)

Prism
General observation Facet edges might show Vitreous to subadamantine polish

chipping. Doubling might be luster, conchoidal to uneven fracture
653.5 eye-visible in larger stones. with vitreous to subadamantine
Vitreous to subadamantine fracture luster. Negative reaction to
polish luster, conchoidal diamond tester.
Diffraction
fracture with vitreous to

subadamantine fracture luster.
Negative reaction to diamond
653.5 tester.

Zircon’s spectrum usually shows a key line at
653.5 nm. It might also have up to 40 fine lines Dispersion 0.038 (moderate fire) 0.028 (weak fire)
distributed throughout the rest of the spectrum.
RI OTL OTL
Birefringence/doubling 0.059 (strong doubling) None
SR/DR/AGG DR SR
Optic character Uniaxial positive None
Magnification Might be inclusion free or Might show gas bubbles. Well-

Mike Havstad/GIA contain natural crystal inclu- proportioned round brilliants might
A round brilliant YAG shows a sions. To look for doubling, show a blue to violet pavilion flash
mostly violet to blue pavilion examine the stone through the over most facets and strong see-
flash when you view it from the crown or pavilion facets through.
pavilion and rock it back and forth in because stone is often cut with
darkfield lighting. the optic axis perpendicular to
the table facet. Always check
for doubling in three directions.
Spectrum Key line at 653.5 nm Not diagnostic
Fluorescence Inert Inert to moderate orange under LW,

inert to weak orange under SW
SG 3.90 to 4.73 4.50 to 4.60
Comments Key tests are OTL RI reading, Key tests are negative reaction to
strong doubling, and spectrum. diamond tester, OTL RI reading,
lack of doubling, SG, and violet to
blue pavilion flash in round bril-
liants. Fluorescence might also be
helpful. YAG is a manmade material
with no natural counterpart.
308
COLORLESS SAPPHIRE FLAME-FUSION SYNTHETIC COLORLESS SAPPHIRE
Variety Colorless sapphire Synthetic colorless sapphire
General observation Vitreous to subadamantine polish luster, conchoidal Might show poor polish, with polishing marks on most facets
fracture with vitreous fracture luster. due to rapid polishing.
Typical cutting style Faceted Faceted, often symmetrical and cut to precise calibrated sizes.
Often cut in brilliant style, including scissors cut.
RI 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005) 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005)
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Magnification Untreated natural corundum—Unaltered mineral Single gas bubbles or strings of gas bubbles that might resemble
inclusions (high- or low-relief crystals) that might needles. Twinning planes possible, but very rare or difficult to
show angular faces; intact, fine, needle-like rutile observe. When present, they’re usually formed by rapid cooling
inclusions intersecting at 60° angles in the same plane; of the boule. These are known as Plato lines. They’re best seen
other fine needles at near right angles; fingerprint with magnification, polarized light, and immersion. The stone
inclusions, intact two-phase inclusions, straight and also has to be viewed parallel to its optic axis. The twinning then
hexagonal growth banding; straight, angular, possibly appears as sets of lines that intersect at 60° or 120° angles.
hexagonal color banding; and twinning planes
Heat-treated natural corundum—Altered, burned
mineral inclusions with rounded, often whitish,
“snowball” or “cotton” appearance; broken silk
(partially reabsorbed rutile needles), ruptured two-
phase inclusions and negative crystals; sintered surface
areas, especially around the girdle; fine needles at
near right angles. Discoid fractures with tension halos
(disk-like fractures with lace-like outer healing rims,
caused by expansion of inclusions) are also indicative
of heat treatment, but these features might also occur
in some untreated corundum of magmatic origin.
Fluorescence Inert to moderate red to orange under LW and SW Inert to weak bluish white
SG 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05) 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05)
Comments Key tests for separating natural corundum from The key test for separating synthetic from natural
other colorless natural gems are RI, birefringence, corundum is magnification. Fluorescence might also be helpful.
and magnification. Magnification is the key test for
separating natural from synthetic corundum.
Fluorescence might also be helpful.
Robert Weldon
Natural corundum is some-

times colorless.
309
GROSSULARITE GARNET FLAME -FUSION SYNTHETIC SPINEL ENSTATITE
Species Grossularite Synthetic spinel Enstatite
Group Garnet Not required Not required
General observation Vitreous polish luster, con- Vitreous to subadamantine polish luster, Very rarely transparent and colorless.
choidal to uneven fracture conchoidal fracture with vitreous fracture Vitreous polish luster, uneven fracture
with greasy to vitreous luster. with vitreous to pearly fracture luster.
fracture luster. Distinct cleavage in two directions.
RI 1.740 (+0.020/-0.010) 1.728 (+0.012/-0.008) 1.663 to 1.673 (+/-0.010)
Birefringence/doubling None None 0.008 to 0.011
SR/DR/AGG SR SR with strong ADR (crosshatch effect DR

common)
Optic character None None Biaxial positive
Magnification Might contain mineral inclu- Might contain gas bubbles (might be Natural inclusions
sions thread-like or, rarely, angular)
Fluorescence Generally inert Moderate to strong chalky blue or strong Inert

greenish blue under SW, sometimes weak
green under LW
SG 3.61 (+0.12/-0.04) 3.64 (+0.02/-0.12) 3.25 (+0.15/-0.02)
Comments Key tests are RI, SR nature, Key tests are RI, SR nature, polariscope Key tests are RI, birefringence, and
and SG. Magnification can reaction, magnification, and fluorescence. optic character.
often be helpful. There’s a translucent flame-fusion synthetic
spinel that imitates moonstone. It’s easily
separated by its much higher RI and SG.
Synthetic spinel might contain gas bubbles

in a variety of shapes and sizes.
310
SPODUMENE EUCLASE APATITE DANBURITE
Species Spodumene Euclase Apatite Danburite
General observation Vitreous polish luster, Near-colorless stones some- Vitreous polish luster, Transparent to translucent.
uneven to splintery times display blue-green color conchoidal to uneven frac- Vitreous to greasy polish
fracture with vitreous zones. Vitreous polish luster, ture with vitreous fracture luster, uneven to subcon-
fracture luster. Perfect conchoidal fracture with luster. Surface might show choidal fracture with
cleavage in two directions vitreous fracture luster. Perfect abrasions due to low vitreous to greasy fracture
at nearly 90° angles to cleavage in one direction, hardness (Mohs 5). luster.
one another. with pearly luster on cleavage
surfaces.
Typical cutting style Faceted Faceted Faceted Faceted
RI 1.660 to 1.676 (+/-0.005) 1.652 to 1.671 (+0.006/-0.002) 1.634 to 1.638 1.630 to 1.636 (+/-0.003)
(+0.012/-0.006)
Birefringence/doubling 0.014 to 0.016 0.019 to 0.020 0.002 to 0.006 0.006
SR/DR/AGG DR DR DR DR
Optic character Biaxial positive Biaxial positive Uniaxial negative (distorted Biaxial positive or negative
(common point is 0.006 optic figure possible) (common point almost
from the high RI) halfway between low and
high RI)
Magnification Growth tubes and liquid Natural inclusions (red or Natural inclusions Natural inclusions
inclusions. blue plate-like inclusions are
common)
Spectrum Not diagnostic Two vague bands at 468 nm Not diagnostic in colorless Some stones might show a
and 455 nm stones doublet at 580 nm.
Fluorescence Inert Inert to weak Variable, not diagnostic Inert or strong light blue to
blue-green under LW,
weaker reaction to SW
SG 3.18 (+/-0.03) 3.08 (+0.04/-0.08) 3.18 (+/-0.05) 3.00 (+/-0.03)
Comments Key tests are RI, birefrin- Key tests are RI, birefringence, Key tests are RI, birefrin- Key tests are RI, birefrin-
gence, and optic character. and optic character. gence, and optic character. gence, optic character, and
Magnification can some- possibly SG.
times be helpful.
Detection of birefringence
blink separates colorless
spodumene from calcite.
Robert Weldon Terri Weimer/GIA
Kunzite spodumene can be The vitreous polish luster is

nearly colorless with a hint of obvious on this faceted near-
pink. colorless euclase.
311
TOURMALINE TOPAZ
Species Tourmaline Topaz
General observation Very rarely transparent and Vitreous polish luster, conchoidal
colorless. Vitreous polish fracture with vitreous fracture
luster, conchoidal fracture luster. Basal cleavage, possibly
with vitreous fracture luster. with iridescent cleavage planes.
Eric Welch/GIA
RI, birefringence, and optic
character identify topaz and RI 1.624 to 1.644 1.619 to 1.627 (+/-0.010);
separate it from diamond and (+0.011/-0.009) colorless material typically 1.609
other colorless gems. to 1.617
Birefringence/doubling Usually 0.018 to 0.020 0.008 to 0.010
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Optic character Uniaxial negative Biaxial positive (common point is

Magnification Thread-like liquid and gas Two- and three-phase inclusions,

inclusions (trichites), mirror- liquid inclusions in planes
like gas-filled fractures
Natural topaz typically contains two-phase Spectrum Not diagnostic Not diagnostic
inclusions.
Fluorescence Generally inert Inert to weak yellow or green under
LW, generally weaker under SW
SG 3.06 (+0.20/-0.06) 3.53 (+/-0.04)
Comments Key tests are almost always Key tests are RI, birefringence, and
RI and birefringence. If bire- optic character. SG is helpful if you
fringence isn’t obtainable, can’t obtain birefringence.
uniaxial optic figure and SG
can be helpful.
312
GOSHENITE LABRADORITE SCAPOLITE
Variety Goshenite Moonstone (when adularescence is present) Not required
Species Beryl Labradorite Scapolite
Group Not required Feldspar Not required
General observation Vitreous polish luster, con- Vitreous polish luster, uneven to splintery Vitreous polish luster, conchoidal
choidal fracture with vitreous fracture with vitreous to pearly fracture luster. fracture with vitreous fracture luster.
to resinous fracture luster. Might show adularescence. Two cleavage Two cleavage directions.
directions. Might show abrasions due to
relatively low hardness (Mohs 6 to 6.5).
Typical cutting style Faceted Faceted gems, cabochons Faceted
RI 1.577 to 1.583 (+/-0.017); 1.559 to 1.568 (+/-0.005) 1.550 to 1.564 (+0.015/-0.014)

colorless material usually
toward lower end of range
Birefringence/doubling 0.005 to 0.009; colorless 0.009 0.005 to 0.038, commonly 0.005 to

material usually toward lower 0.020 (increases as RI increases)
end of range
SR/DR/AGG DR DR DR
Optic character Uniaxial negative Biaxial positive. Transparent material often Uniaxial negative
shows twinning in the polariscope.
Magnification Liquid, two-phase, or tubular Repeated twinning, black needle-like Not diagnostic
inclusions inclusions, metallic-looking platelets
Fluorescence Generally inert Inert to weak patchy white under LW and Inert to strong pink, orange, or yellow
SW
SG 2.72 (+0.18/-0.05); colorless 2.70 (+/-0.05) 2.68 (+0.06/-0.08)

material usually toward lower
end of range
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence, Key tests are RI, birefringence, optic Key tests are RI, birefringence, optic
and optic character. character, and magnification. Adularescent character, and sometimes fluorescence.
labradorite often sold as “rainbow moon- Scapolite’s RI is as high as beryl’s and
stone” in the trade. labradorite’s, but it has much higher
birefringence than either gem.
Robert Weldon Robert Weldon/GIA John Koivula/GIA John Koivula/GIA
Goshenite’s RI, This nearly transparent Feldspar displays a series of Labradorite often shows black
birefringence, and labradorite shows a blue very thin, parallel plates needle-like inclusions under
DR nature identify it sheen, and is sometimes caused by twinning within its magnification.
as beryl. called “rainbow moonstone.” structure.
313
QUARTZ
Variety Rock crystal—When transparent and colorless without phenomena

Sagenitic—When eye-visible, needle-like inclusions are present
Cat’s-eye—When chatoyancy is present
Species Quartz
Robert Weldon/GIA
General observation Vitreous polish luster, conchoidal fracture with vitreous fracture
If needles are numerous enough luster. The inclusions in sagenitic quartz are typically randomly
and well oriented, cat’s-eye oriented and might be rutile (often golden), tourmaline (usually
quartz results.
black), or actinolite. Quartz that contains a sufficient quantity of
oriented needle-like inclusions might display a cat’s-eye.
Typical cutting style Faceted gems or cabochons (especially cat’s-eye)
RI 1.544 to 1.553 (very constant)
Birefringence/doubling 0.009
Clayton Welch/GIA
SR/DR/AGG DR
This sagenitic quartz contains
eye-visible needles of black
tourmaline. Optic character Uniaxial positive. Might show a bull’s-eye or Airy’s spiral optic
figure and Brazil-law twinning under crossed polarizing filters.
Magnification Liquid, two-phase, and three-phase inclusions; negative crystals and

solid mineral crystals or needles. If the inclusions are numerous
enough, they might produce a cat’s-eye or aventurescent effect.
SG 2.66 (+0.03/-0.02)
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence, optic character, and optic figure.
Iris or rainbow quartz is rock crystal that contains many iridescent
fractures. It might be produced by quench-crackling. There are many
Eric Welch/GIA
trade names for transparent quartz with distinctive inclusions.
Rainbow or iris quartz has
visible iridescence due to
numerous fractures.
Terri Weimer/GIA Maha Tannous/GIA
The bull’s-eye uniaxial optic Inclusions can produce chatoyancy

figure is a characteristic of and color in otherwise colorless quartz.
quartz.
314
HYDROTHERMAL SYNTHETIC QUARTZ OLIGOCLASE
Species Synthetic quartz Oligoclase
General observation Vitreous polish luster, conchoidal fracture with Usually translucent to opaque,
vitreous fracture luster. rarely transparent. Vitreous polish Maha Tannous/GIA
luster, uneven to splintery fracture Oligoclase sometimes
with vitreous to pearly fracture contains iridescent orange
luster. Two cleavage directions, inclusions.
parting also common.
Typical cutting style Faceted Cabochons, beads
RI 1.544 to 1.553 1.539 to 1.547 (+0.004/-0.006)
Birefringence/doubling 0.009 0.007 to 0.010
SR/DR/AGG DR DR or AGG depending on

transparency
Optic character Uniaxial positive Biaxial negative
Magnification Often inclusion free, but might contain character- Parallel, closely spaced twinning
istics indicating hydrothermal growth, such as planes. Transparent material might
breadcrumb inclusions and two-phase (liquid and contain eye-visible iridescent
gas) spicule inclusions perpendicular to a seed orange platelets.
plate.
SG 2.66 (+0.03/-0.02) 2.65 (+0.02/-0.03)
Comments Synthetic quartz is virtually inclusion free and Key tests are appearance, RI,
might be difficult to distinguish from natural birefringence, and possibly optic
material. However, it’s unlikely for synthetic character.
colorless quartz to be grown on twinned seed
crystals, so the presence of Brazil-law twinning
indicates natural. Advanced laboratory testing
can often separate hydrothermal synthetic quartz
from natural quartz.
315
ORTHOCLASE CALCITE
Variety Moonstone (when adularescence is present) Iceland spar
Species Orthoclase Calcite
General observation Transparent to opaque, but rarely color- Vitreous to greasy polish luster. Three
less and transparent. Might be very pale cleavage directions. Strong, eye-visible
Terri Weimer/GIA yellow. Vitreous polish luster, uneven to doubling.
Moonstone displays a biaxial splintery fracture with vitreous to pearly
optic figure in the polariscope. fracture luster. Two possible cleavage
directions. Might show adularescence
(see page 424 for moonstone orthoclase
feldspar).
Typical cutting style Faceted Often sold as cleavage pieces, but trans-
parent material is occasionally faceted for
collectors.
RI 1.518 to 1.526 (+0.010) 1.486 to 1.658 (high spot reading on

Magnification commonly aggregates)
reveals centipede inclusions in
moonstone orthoclase Birefringence/doubling 0.005 to 0.008 0.172 (use birefringence blink method)
feldspar.
SR/DR/AGG DR DR
Magnification Centipede-like inclusions, twinning Not diagnostic

planes, possibly oriented needles
Fluorescence Inert to weak reddish orange under LW Variable

and SW
Mike Havstad/GIA
Calcite’s three cleavage direc- SG 2.58 (+/-0.03) 2.70 (+/-0.05)

tions cause it to break into
well-defined cleavage pieces. Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence, and Key tests are RI, birefringence blink,
optic character. Magnification can also doubling, cleavage, SG, and possibly
be helpful. appearance. Presence of birefringence
blink separates colorless calcite from
spodumene.
316
OPAL SYNTHETIC OPAL
General observation Transparent to semitransparent. Crystal Typically semitransparent to semitranslu-

opal has strong play-of-color against a cent and colorless with play-of-color.
colorless body. Water, or “jelly,” opal has Newer untreated (not polymer-impregnated)
little or no play-of-color. Vitreous to synthetic opal is much more transparent
resinous polish luster, conchoidal to than previously produced material and
Eric Welch/GIA
uneven fracture with subvitreous fracture closely resembles natural “jelly” opal.
luster. Conchoidal to uneven fracture with Contra luz is a slightly milky
subvitreous fracture luster. opal that shows play-of-color.
Typical cutting style Cabochons, carvings, freeforms; some- Cabochons, carvings, beads
times faceted
RI 1.450 (+0.020/-0.080) 1.430 to 1.470
SR/DR/AGG SR, commonly with ADR due to strain SR with weak to moderate ADR
Magnification Possible play-of-color patterns include Play-of-color in a mosaic pattern across

very small patches or dots (pinfire); large the surface, with a cellular, “chicken Maha Tannous/GIA
areas that flash predominately one color wire,” “snakeskin,” or scale-like structure
Kyocera produces synthetic
as the gem is moved (flash); or even, that’s visible with magnification and over-
opal in semitransparent vari-
distinct patches with a “brush-stroke” head or backlighting. Might show eties, including imitations of
appearance (harlequin). There might also columnar structure when viewed from the fire and jelly opals.
be areas that lack play-of-color or that side.
contain mineral inclusions or patches of
rock matrix. (Play-of-color in synthetic
Spectrum Not diagnostic Some show bands at 550 nm and 580 nm
Fluorescence Inert to white to moderate light blue, Typically moderate bluish white to yellow
green or yellow under LW and SW. Might under LW, weak to strong blue to bluish
also phosphoresce. white to yellow under SW. Newer untreated
(not polymer-impregnated) synthetic opal
is very weak to weak chalky blue under
both LW and SW, with a slightly stronger
reaction under SW. Phosphorescence is
SG 2.15 (+0.08/-0.09) 1.97 to 2.20 (typically lower than natural

opal). Polymer-impregnated synthetic is
usually considerably lower than natural, at
1.88 to 1.91. Newer untreated, colorless
synthetic “jelly” opal is closer to natural,
at 2.22 to 2.27.
Comments Key tests are RI, lack of doubling, and Magnification is the key to separating
possibly magnification. Some natural synthetic from natural opal. Fluorescence
opal is polymer impregnated to make it and phosphorescence might also be help-
more stable or improve its appearance. ful. Synthetic opal is often polymer
In the trade, slightly milky opal that impregnated to make it more stable, and it
shows play-of-color in transmitted and has a considerably lower SG than most
reflected light is called “contra luz.” natural opal.
Magnification is the key test for separating
natural from synthetic opal.
317
FLUORITE (FLUORSPAR) GLASS PLASTIC
Species Fluorite Glass Plastic
General observation Transparent to translucent. Transparent to opaque, almost any appearance Transparent to opaque, almost any
Might be parti-colored. possible. Look for mold marks, orange-peel appearance possible. Look for mold
Vitreous to subvitreous luster, effect, concave facets, and rounded facet marks, orange peel effect, concave
conchoidal to step-like junctions. Warm to the touch compared to facets, and rounded facet junctions.
fracture with vitreous to sub- crystalline gemstones. Vitreous polish luster, Warmer to the touch than glass imita-
vitreous fracture luster. Perfect conchoidal fracture with vitreous fracture tions and crystalline gemstones. Low
octahedral cleavage in four luster. heft (SG), dull to waxy polish luster,
directions. Might have conchoidal fracture with waxy to
numerous pits and scratches vitreous fracture luster. Surface might
due to low hardness (Mohs 4). show numerous scratches due to low
hardness (Mohs 1.5 to 3).
Typical cutting style Faceted gems, cabochons, All styles. Can be faceted or molded to a All styles. Can be molded to a variety
carvings, or beads variety of shapes and finishes. of shapes and finishes.
Dispersion No visible fire Up to 0.041 (high-lead glass might have No visible fire
moderate fire)
RI 1.434 (+/-0.001) Usually between 1.470 and 1.700, but can 1.460 to 1.700
go to OTL
SR/DR/AGG SR SR, commonly with ADR SR, commonly with strong ADR
Magnification Triangular (tetrahedral) nega- Gas bubbles, cavities on surface where gas Gas bubbles, flow lines
tive crystals and two-phase bubbles were polished through, flow marks
inclusions, liquid inclusions, (swirls)
strong color zoning
Fluorescence Variable, not diagnostic Variable, not diagnostic Variable, not diagnostic
SG 3.18 Usually between 2.30 and 4.50 1.05 to 1.55
Comments Key tests are RI, SG, and Key tests are RI and magnification. Low Key tests are RI and magnification.
possibly cleavage. thermal conductivity (warm to the touch) Low heft (SG) and low thermal con-
might also be helpful. ductivity (warm to the touch) might
also be helpful.
Colorless glass jewels serve

as diamond imitations in this
brooch.
Eric Welch/GIA
318
Key Separations for Colorless Gems

Diamond from synthetic moissanite Fire, doubling, magnification
Diamond from synthetic diamond Magnification, fluorescence, possibly phosphorescence; advanced testing
often necessary
Diamond from CZ, strontium titanate, GGG, and YAG Appearance, luster, sharpness of facet junctions, girdle surface if unpolished,
magnification, SG, possibly spectrum
Moissanite from CZ and other SR diamond simulants Doubling
CZ from strontium titanate Fire, fluorescence, SG, possibly pavilion flash
CZ from YAG Fire, fluorescence, SG, possibly pavilion flash
CZ from GGG Fire, fluorescence, SG, possibly pavilion flash
YAG from strontium titanate Fire, fluorescence, SG, possibly pavilion flash
YAG from GGG Fire, fluorescence, SG, possibly pavilion flash
GGG from strontium titanate Fire, fluorescence, SG, possibly pavilion flash
Strontium titanate from doublets of strontium titanate RI on crown, magnification

and synthetic spinel or synthetic corundum
Strontium titanate from synthetic rutile Doubling
Zircon from synthetic rutile Fire, magnification, spectrum, possibly rutile’s bodycolor
Zircon from synthetic moissanite Fire, spectrum, possibly magnification
Zircon and synthetic rutile from SR diamond simulants Doubling, magnification, zircon spectrum
Zircon from YAG Doubling, spectrum
Sapphire from synthetic sapphire Magnification, possibly fluorescence
Synthetic spinel from sapphire RI, SR vs DR nature, polariscope reaction, fluorescence
Synthetic spinel from grossularite RI, fluorescence, possibly magnification
Topaz from tourmaline Birefringence, optic character, SG
Topaz from spodumene RI, birefringence
Beryl from rock crystal quartz RI, optic character
Rock crystal quartz from orthoclase feldspar RI, birefringence, optic character, optic figure
Rock crystal quartz from calcite (Iceland spar) RI, birefringence blink, cleavage
Rock crystal quartz and orthoclase feldspar from glass Birefringence, optic character, optic figure, magnification, possibly RI
and plastic
Rock crystal from scapolite Birefringence, optic sign, fluorescence, possibly RI
Fluorite from glass Magnification and possibly SG (glass with an RI in fluorite’s range
typically has an SG of around 2.30)
319
WHITE GEMS
By far, the most popular and commonly seen
white gems in the marketplace are cultured
pearls and opals. Natural pearls, which are
much rarer, are also prized.
Besides pearl, you’ll see other organic
materials like mother-of-pearl and coral.
You might even find elephant ivory in older
jewelry that predates bans on hunting. Pearl
and ivory are widely imitated by various
glasses and plastics, so always consider
these as possibilities.
Another thing to consider is that many gem
materials that occur in colors can also be
white. These include jadeite, nephrite, chal-
cedony, and feldspar.
Cultured pearls are the most popular white gems.
White Gems
2.140 (OTL) CZ (synthetic cubic zirconia) Pearl, cultured pearl, mother-of-pearl

AGG (Page 322)
1.713 to 1.718 Idocrase Jadeite, nephrite

AGG (Page 322)
1.666 to 1.680 (1.66 spot reading) Jadeite Idocrase, nephrite, serpentine, talc
AGG (Page 322)
1.606 to 1.632 (1.61 spot reading) Nephrite Idocrase, jadeite, serpentine, talc
AGG (Page 323)
1.586 to 1.605 (1.59 spot reading) Howlite Serpentine, ivory, talc, alabaster, magnesite
AGG (Page 323)
1.560 to 1.570 Serpentine Jadeite, nephrite, howlite, talc, chalcedony, alabaster

AGG (Page 323)
1.560 Horn Chalcedony, plastic

AGG (Page 324)
1.559 to 1.568 (1.56 spot reading) Labradorite feldspar Oligoclase, orthoclase moonstone
1.540 to 1.590 (1.54 spot reading) Talc (soapstone) Jadeite, nephrite, howlite, serpentine, alabaster
AGG (Page 324)
320
SEPARATING WHITE GEMS

1.540 Bone Vegetable ivory, ivory, plastic
AGG (Page 325)
1.540 Vegetable ivory Bone, ivory, plastic

AGG (Page 325)
1.539 to 1.547 Oligoclase feldspar Labradorite, chalcedony, orthoclase

1.535 to 1.540 (1.54 spot reading) Ivory Howlite, bone, vegetable ivory, alabaster, coral, calcite, plastic
AGG (Page 326)
1.535 to 1.539 (1.53 or 1.54 spot reading) Chalcedony Serpentine, horn, oligoclase, shell, moonstone, coral, calcite
AGG (Page 327)
1.530 to 1.685 Pearl CZ, cultured pearl, shell, glass, plastic

1.530 to 1.685 Cultured pearl CZ, natural pearl, shell, glass, plastic
1.530 to 1.685 Shell (including mother-of-pearl) CZ, chalcedony, natural pearl, cultured pearl, coral, glass, plastic
AGG (Page 330)
1.520 to 1.529 (1.52 or 1.53 spot reading) Alabaster Howlite, serpentine, talc, ivory
AGG (Page 330)
1.518 to 1.526 (1.52 or 1.53 spot reading) Orthoclase feldspar (moonstone) Labradorite feldspar, oligoclase, chalcedony
1.509 to 1.700 Magnesite Howlite

AGG (Page 331)
1.486 to 1.658 Calcareous coral Ivory, chalcedony, shell

AGG (Page 331)
1.486 to 1.658 Calcite (including onyx marble) Ivory, chalcedony

AGG (Page 332)
1.450 Opal Synthetic opal

SR (Page 332)

SR (Page 333)
1.470 to 1.700 range Glass Any white gem material

SR (Page 334)
1.460 to 1.700 range Plastic Any white gem material

SR (Page 334)
321
CZ IDOCRASE JADEITE
Species CZ (synthetic cubic zirconia) Idocrase Jadeite
General observation Translucent, uniform milky or bluish Transparent to opaque white to Semitransparent to opaque. White,
white in reflected light. Faintly banded gray. Vitreous to greasy polish often uneven, with mottling or root-
or striped appearance in strong transmit- luster, conchoidal to uneven or like markings. Vitreous to greasy
ted light. Subadamantine polish luster, granular fracture with vitreous to polish luster with a dimpled polished
conchoidal fracture with subadamantine dull fracture luster. surface, granular to splintery fracture
fracture luster. Negative reaction to with dull fracture luster.
diamond tester.
Typical cutting style Faceted gems, beads, cabochons, tablets Carvings, beads, cabochons, Carvings, beads, cabochons, tablets
tablets
RI OTL 1.713 to 1.718 (+0.003/-0.013) 1.666 to 1.680 (+/-0.008) (1.66 spot

(1.70 or 1.71 spot reading reading common)
common)
Birefringence/doubling None Usually not detectable Usually not detectable
Magnification Not diagnostic Not diagnostic Unevenly colored, often with root-like
mottling
Spectrum Not diagnostic Line at 464 nm, weak line at Generally a line at 437.5 nm
528.5 nm
Fluorescence Inert to LW, very weak light pink under Inert Inert to weak yellow under LW,
SW generally inert to SW
Color filter Yellowish green Not diagnostic Not diagnostic
SG 6.11 to 6.12 3.40 (+0.10/-0.15) 3.34 (+0.06/-0.09)
Comments Key tests are OTL RI reading, SG, Key tests are RI, spectrum, SG, Key tests are appearance, RI, spectrum,
appearance in transmitted light, and and possibly appearance. and SG. “Ice jade” can be nearly color-
possibly fluorescence. Might be sold as less. Jadeite might be heat-treated,
“pearl” CZ in the trade. polymer impregnated, or dyed.
JADEITE
Prism
437.5
Diffraction
437.5
Shane McClure/GIA Terri Weimer/GIA
Small quantities of white or “pearl” CZ Ice jade is an attractive jadeite that can be The spectrum of non-chrome jadeite generally shows a key
are manufactured for use as imitations. nearly colorless. line at 437.5 nm due to iron.
322
NEPHRITE HOWLITE SERPENTINE
Species Nephrite Howlite Serpentine
General observation Translucent to opaque white, Semitranslucent to opaque white, Semitransparent to opaque, usually yellowish
possibly with lighter or darker often with dark gray or black matrix. green, green, or greenish yellow, white,
mottling. Vitreous to greasy Vitreous polish luster, granular brown, or black. Waxy to greasy polish
polish luster, splintery to granular fracture with dull fracture luster. luster, granular to uneven fracture with dull
fracture with dull fracture luster. to waxy fracture luster. Might show scratches
and pits due to low hardness (Mohs 2.5 to 6).
Typical cutting style Carvings, beads, cabochons Cabochons, beads Ornamental carvings, beads, cabochons
RI 1.606 to 1.632 (+0.009/-0.006) 1.586 to 1.605 (+/-0.003) (1.59 spot 1.560 to 1.570 (+0.004/-0.070) (might be
(1.61 spot reading common) reading) hard to obtain due to poor polish)
Birefringence/doubling Usually not detectable 0.019 (usually not detectable) Usually not detectable
Magnification Not diagnostic Might show spiderweb matrix Translucent material might show tiny black
octahedral inclusions, white veining, or
moss-like inclusions.
Spectrum Rarely shows absorption lines Not diagnostic Not diagnostic
Fluorescence Inert Inert to moderate orange under LW, Not diagnostic

brownish yellow under SW
SG 2.95 (+0.15/-0.05) 2.58 (-0.13) 2.57 (+0.23/-0.13)
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, and Key tests are appearance, RI, SW Key tests are RI, magnification, and possibly
SG. fluorescence, and SG. appearance and surface condition.
Eric Welch/GIA
Untreated howlite often has veins of

black matrix.
323
HORN LABRADORITE TALC
Variety Not required Moonstone (when adularescence is present) Not required
Species Horn Labradorite Talc
Group Not required Feldspar Not required
General observation Semitransparent to opaque, Adularescent, with strong blue or multicolor Semitranslucent to opaque white, gray,
white to gray to almost sheen against almost transparent, semitrans- brown, and light to dark green, often
black. Resinous to vitreous parent, or semitranslucent body. Vitreous polish veined or mottled. Waxy to greasy
polish luster, uneven to luster, uneven to splintery fracture with vitreous polish luster, uneven fracture with dull
splintery fracture with to pearly fracture luster. Two cleavage directions. to waxy fracture luster. Might show
resinous to dull fracture Parting also common. surface damage due to very low hard-
luster. ness (Mohs 1). Can often be scratched
with a fingernail.
Typical cutting style Carvings, inlays, decorative Cabochons Ornamental carvings

objects
RI 1.560 1.559 to 1.568 (1.56 spot reading common) 1.540 to 1.590 (+0.010/-0.002) (1.54
spot reading common)
Birefringence/doubling None 0.009 0.050 (usually difficult to detect)
SR/DR/AGG AGG DR or AGG depending on transparency AGG
Optic character Not applicable Biaxial positive Not applicable
Magnification Undulating, fibrous structure Polysynthetic twinning, tiny colorless inclusions Not diagnostic
Fluorescence Variable Moderate chalky blue under LW, weak pinkish Inert to weak pink under LW
orange under SW
SG 1.70 to 1.85 2.69 2.75 (+0.05/-0.55)
Comments Key tests are appearance, Key tests are appearance, fracture, RI, Key tests are appearance, poor surface
RI, and magnification. fluorescence, and possibly birefringence. quality, RI, and SG. Also known in the
Adularescent examples often sold as “rainbow trade as steatite or, more commonly,
moonstone” in the trade. “soapstone.”
Robert Weldon/GIA John Koivula/GIA Eric Welch/GIA
Rainbow moonstone labradorite has an The rainbow iridescence in some feldspar is Talc, or soapstone, is soft enough to be scratched with
attractive blue or multicolored adu- caused by light reflecting off tightly spaced a fingernail.
larescent sheen. twinning planes.
324
BONE VEGETABLE IVORY OLIGOCLASE
Species Bone Vegetable ivory Oligoclase
General observation Opaque white to light yellow, but Opaque white to light yellow, but Usually translucent to opaque, rarely trans-
might be dyed almost any color. might be dyed almost any color. parent. Vitreous polish luster, uneven to
Low hardness (Mohs 2.5). Low hardness (Mohs 2.5). splintery fracture with vitreous to pearly
fracture luster. Two cleavage directions,
parting also common.
Typical cutting style Beads, cabochons, bangle Beads, cabochons, bangle bracelets, Cabochons, beads
bracelets, carvings carvings
RI 1.540 1.540 1.539 to 1.547 (+0.004/-0.006)
Birefringence/doubling None None 0.007 to 0.010
SR/DR/AGG AGG AGG DR or AGG depending on transparency
Pleochroism None None Usually none
Optic character Not applicable Not applicable Biaxial negative
Magnification Remains of blood vessels appear Parallel, torpedo-shaped cells that Parallel, closely spaced twinning planes.
round or oval in cross-section and appear round in cross-section. Transparent material might contain eye-
might also appear as dark spots visible iridescent orange platelets.
on the surface if they’ve been
penetrated by dirt.
Fluorescence Not diagnostic Not diagnostic Generally inert
SG 2.00 1.38 to 1.42 2.65 (+0.02/-0.03)
Comments Key test to separate bone from Key test is magnification. Vegetable Key tests are appearance, RI, and possibly
ivory is magnification. ivory is derived from the seeds of birefringence and optic character.
certain palm trees, and might also be
called tagua nut or corozo nut.
Terri Weimer/GIA
Oligoclase is often cut into cabochons.
Eric Welch/GIA
This decorative piece of bone This decorative scene is carved from vegetable ivory, also called
was carved to portray ocean tagua nut.
waves.
325
IVORY
Species Ivory
General observation Translucent to opaque white to light yellow. Greasy to dull polish
luster, splintery fracture with dull fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Carvings, cabochons, bangle bracelets
RI 1.535 to 1.540 (usually 1.540)
SR/DR/AGG AGG
Eric Welch/GIA
Magnification Wavy structure lines and “engine-turning” are characteristic of
You can see the engine-turning surface
elephant and mammoth ivory. These features distinguish this
texture in this mammoth ivory carving.
material from the tusks of other mammals, bone imitations, white
coral, and vegetable ivory substitutes.
Fluorescence Weak to strong bluish white or violet-blue under both LW and SW

(stronger under LW)
SG 1.70 to 2.00
Comments Key tests are RI, magnification, and SG. Fluorescence might also
Eric Welch/GIA
be helpful. “Ivory” traditionally refers to elephant tusk (from both
This cross-section through a mammoth prehistoric mammoths and modern-day elephants), although the
ivory tusk shows its engine-turning
tusks or teeth of other mammals, including walrus, narwhal and
pattern.
sperm whale, wart-hog, and hippopotamus, are also used for carvings
or jewelry objects.
326
CHALCEDONY
Variety Moss agate—Transparent to semitranslucent, with green, brown, or

black inclusions that look like moss
Dendritic agate—Transparent to semitranslucent, with green, brown,
or black inclusions that look like tree branches
Agate—Chalcedony with curved or angular bands or layers
combination of colors except solid black or specially named material
Onyx—Composed of straight, parallel layers of different color or
transparency
colors alternating with either black or white bands, or both.
Species Chalcedony
General observation Semitransparent to opaque. Greasy to vitreous polish luster, con-

choidal fracture with dull to waxy fracture luster. Some varieties
(agate and onyx) show bands or layers of lighter or darker color or
differing levels of transparency. Others (moss and dendritic agate)
show distinctive inclusions.
Typical cutting style Cabochons, carvings, beads. Some moss and dendritic agate might
be transparent enough to facet. Tino Hammid/GIA
The banded structure of onyx chalcedony

RI 1.535 to 1.539 (1.53 to 1.54 spot reading) makes it ideal for cameos and intaglios.
SR/DR/AGG AGG
SG 2.60
Comments Key tests are RI and SG. Fracture and appearance might also be
helpful. Material sold in the trade as “milky” chalcedony is semi-
transparent to translucent, white or nearly colorless.
Robert Weldon/GIA Eric Welch/GIA Robert Weldon/GIA Maha Tannous/GIA
Some chalcedony resembles Moss agate has dark- Dendritic agate has contrasting Agate is often tumbled to show off its
moonstone, but lacks true colored inclusions branch-like patterns. curved or angular bands or layers.
adularescence. It also gives an that look like clusters
AGG polariscope reaction. of moss.
327
PEARL
Species Pearl
General observation Translucent to opaque. Might be almost any bodycolor, but usually
white or light yellow. Bodycolor might be modified by pink, green,
or blue overtone. Polish luster varies from dull to nearly metallic,
depending on nacre quality. Uneven fracture with pearly to dull
fracture luster.
RI 1.530 to 1.685
Robert Weldon SR/DR/AGG Usually too opaque to test

Natural freshwater pearls can
be white and highly lustrous. Magnification Not diagnostic
Only x-ray analysis can separate
them from cultured pearls. Spectrum Variable, not diagnostic
and SW
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, birefringence blink, and SG. Feels
feel smooth. Heft can separate natural pearl from plastic imitations.
X-radiography separates natural from cultured pearl. Drill-hole
might interfere with accurate SG reading.
328
CULTURED PEARL
fracture with pearly to dull fracture luster.
Akoya (bead nucleated)—Typical size range 2 mm to 11 mm.
Mostly spherical, but might be button, pear, oval, or baroque in
shape. Color can range from neutral to near-neutral whites and
creams with rosé or green overtones, but can sometimes be yellow,
pink (sometimes dyed), or blue.
Tahitian (bead nucleated)—Typical size range 8 mm to 14 mm.
Spherical, oval, button, drop, or baroque in shape (sometimes circled).
Color can range from near-neutral silver, cream, or brown to black or
rosé overtone.
South Sea (bead nucleated)—Typical size range 10 mm to 15 mm. You can see the bead nucleus
Spherical, near-round, oval, button, drop, or semi-baroque (some- and dark conchiolin layer
through the drill-hole in this
times circled). Color can range from near neutral white, cream, or cultured pearl.
silver to yellow, yellowish orange, or blue, with green, blue, or rosé
overtone.
13 mm. Spherical, near-round, oval, button, drop, or heavily baroque
whites, grays, and creams to yellows, pinks, and purples, with blue
RI 1.530 to 1.685
the bead under the nacre or the dark conchiolin layer between the
bead and the nacre. Occasionally, if the nacre layer is very thin, you
can detect the “blinking” of the layers in the bead nucleus as you roll
a strand of pearls across a flat surface. Dyes might be detectable at
drill-holes, or on silk strands close to drill-holes.
and SW
SG 2.72 to 2.78
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence blink, SG, and magnification. Feels
feel smooth. Heft can separate cultured pearl from plastic imitations.
X-radiography separates cultured from natural pearl. Cultured pearls
might be dyed, irradiated, or polymer impregnated. Dye might be
detectable as concentrations in nacre, especially at the drill-hole.
Some irradiated colors are very intense and unnatural. Impregnation
might be visible with magnification. Drill-hole might interfere with
329
SHELL ALABASTER
Variety Mother-of-pearl Not required
Species Shell Alabaster
General observation Translucent to opaque white, Translucent to opaque. Normally

pinkish white, or gray with white to gray, but impurities might
orient. Cameos usually show a make it yellowish, reddish, brownish,
concave back due to the curved or greenish. Sometimes veined,
nature of the shells they’re cut banded, or patterned like marble.
from. Greasy or pearly polish Waxy to vitreous polish luster,
Robert Weldon/GIA luster, uneven to splintery frac- granular fracture with dull fracture
Mother-of-pearl is commonly fashioned into ture with dull fracture luster. luster. Poor polish due to low
cameos. hardness (Mohs 2).
Typical cutting style Cameos, carvings, beads, Carvings, decorative objects

cabochons, inlays
RI 1.530 to 1.685 1.520 to 1.529 (+/-0.001) (1.52 or

1.53 spot reading)
Birefringence/doubling 0.155 (use birefringence Usually not detectable (0.009 to

blink method) 0.010)
SR/DR/AGG AGG Usually AGG, rarely DR
Optic character Not applicable Rarely biaxial positive
Magnification Parallel banded structure Not diagnostic, but might detect

dye if color appears unnatural
Fluorescence Variable, not diagnostic Inert to weak brownish to greenish

white under LW and SW
SG 2.86 (+0.03/-0.16) 2.30 (+/-0.05)
Comments Key tests are appearance, Key tests are appearance, RI, and
RI, birefringence blink, and SG. Quality of polished surface
magnification. indicates low hardness.
330
ORTHOCLASE MOONSTONE MAGNESITE CALCAREOUS CORAL
Variety Moonstone (when adularescence is Not required Not required

present)
Species Orthoclase Magnesite Calcareous coral
Group Feldspar Not required Not required
General observation Semitransparent to opaque, typically Typically white, often dyed. Can Semitranslucent to opaque white, creamy
colorless to white with blue or white also be gray, yellow, or brown. white, or very light pink. Waxy to vitreous
adularescence. Some stones show cha- Often shows gray veining like polish luster, splintery to uneven fracture
toyancy or asterism along with howlite. Vitreous polish luster, with dull fracture luster.
adularescence. Vitreous polish luster, granular to uneven fracture with
uneven to splintery fracture with vitre- dull fracture luster. (Mohs 3.5
ous to pearly fracture luster. Two to 5)
cleavage directions, parting common.
Typical cutting style Cabochons, carvings, beads Cabochons, carvings, beads Cabochons, carvings
RI 1.518 to 1.526 (+0.010) (1.52 spot 1.509 to 1.700 1.486 to 1.658

reading)
Birefringence/doubling 0.005 to 0.008 0.191 (use birefringence blink 0.172 (use birefringence blink method)
method)
SR/DR/AGG DR or AGG depending on transparency AGG AGG
Optic character Biaxial negative. Might show repeated Not usually detectable Not applicable
Magnification Centipede-like inclusions Not diagnostic Cavities from polyps, waxy fibrous
structure. Branch or tree-like form if not
carved or cabochon-cut.
Fluorescence Generally inert to blue under LW, Generally inert Inert to weak to strong bluish white under
orange under SW. Might fluoresce LW and SW
weak pink to red under LW and SW.
SG 2.58 (+/-0.03) 3.00 to 3.20 2.65 (+/-0.05)
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, and mag- Possible key tests are appearance, Key tests are appearance, RI, birefrin-
nification. Optic character, fluorescence, RI, and birefringence blink. gence blink, and magnification.
and SG might also be helpful. Birefringence blink separates dyed Fluorescence might also be helpful.
magnesite from dyed howlite.
Robert Weldon/GIA Eric Welch/GIA Eric Welch/GIA
This moonstone cabochon This moonstone contains characteristic White magnesite often has gray veining. This is the characteristic sur-
displays attractive white centipede inclusions. . face structure of unfashioned
adularescence. white coral.
331
CALCITE OPAL
Variety Onyx marble (if banded) Not required
Species Calcite Opal
General observation Semitranslucent to opaque. Translucent to opaque. White or grayish,

Occurs in almost all colors, with or without play-of-color. Vitreous to
often dyed. Vitreous to greasy resinous polish luster, conchoidal to uneven
polish luster, granular to uneven fracture with subvitreous to waxy fracture
to splintery fracture with dull luster. In some natural opals, dehydration
fracture luster. Cleavage usually causes a network of fine cracks called
not visible in aggregate. crazing.
Typical cutting style Beads, cabochons, carvings, Cabochons, freeforms, beads

Calcite is often fashioned into beads for and decorative objects
necklaces.
RI 1.486 to 1.658 (high spot 1.450 (+0.020/-0.080)
reading on aggregates)
Birefringence/doubling 0.172 (use birefringence blink None

method)
SR/DR/AGG AGG SR, commonly with ADR due to strain
Magnification Not diagnostic Possible play-of-color patterns include very

small patches or dots (pinfire); large areas
that flash predominately one color as the
gem is moved (flash); or even, distinct
Tino Hammid/GIA patches with a “brush-stroke” appearance
White opal is often seen as freeform (harlequin). There might also be areas that
carvings. lack play-of-color or that contain mineral
inclusions or patches of rock matrix. (Play-
of-color in synthetic opal tends to be much
more regular.)
Fluorescence Variable Inert to white to moderate light blue, green,

or yellow under LW and SW. Might also
phosphoresce.
SG 2.70 (+/-0.05) 2.15 (+0.08/-0.90)

This opal cabochon shows a network
of cracks called crazing. It’s the result Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence Key tests are appearance (play-of-color),
of a long period of dehydration. blink, SG, and possibly appear- RI, and fluorescence. Phosphorescence
ance. Marble is a granular might also be helpful. Some natural opal
aggregate, onyx marble is a is polymer impregnated to make it more
banded marble. Satinspar is a stable or improve its appearance.
fibrous aggregate that’s often Magnification is the key test for separating
chatoyant (the name is also natural from synthetic opal.
used for a similar variety of
gypsum).
332
SYNTHETIC OPAL
General observation Typically semitranslucent to opaque white or light bluish gray, with
play-of-color. Conchoidal to uneven fracture with subvitreous
fracture luster.
RI 1.430 to 1.470
John Koivula/GIA
Birefringence/doubling None Synthetic opal displays “snakeskin” or “chicken-

wire” structure under magnification.

Spectrum Polymer-impregnated material might show weak bands at 500 nm,

550 nm, and 580 nm. Newer, untreated (not polymer-impregnated)
synthetic opal might show bands at 550 nm and 580 nm.
Fluorescence Typically moderate bluish white to yellow under LW, weak to

strong blue to bluish white to yellow under SW. Phosphorescence is
Newer production of untreated synthetic opal—Weak to very weak Terri Weimer/GIA
chalky blue under both LW and SW, with a slightly stronger reaction
Columnar structure is characteristic of synthetic
under SW opal.
Polymer-impregnated synthetic opal—Weak purplish blue under
LW, moderate blue under SW

synthetic opal usually considerably lower than natural, at 1.88 to
1.91. Newer, untreated white synthetic opal is closer to natural, at
2.22 to 2.27.

333
GLASS PLASTIC

effect, concave facets, and facets, rounded facet junctions.
rounded facet junctions. Warm Warmer to the touch than glass
Terri Weimer/GIA to the touch compared to imitations and crystalline gemstones.
Slocum stone is an opal crystalline gemstones. Vitreous Low heft (SG), dull to waxy polish
imitation made of glass. polish luster, conchoidal luster, conchoidal fracture with
fracture with vitreous fracture waxy to vitreous fracture luster.
(Mohs 1.5 to 3).
and finishes.

Robert Weldon/GIA
This plastic imitation opal
shows true play-of-color,
which makes it more
convincing. (strain colors common)

marks (swirls). Slocum Stone
(a glass opal imitation)
contains iridescent metallic
foil that resembles crinkled
cellophane in transmitted light.
Terri Weimer/GIA Comments Key tests are RI and Key tests are RI and magnification.
This is a plastic imitation pearl. magnification. Low thermal Light heft (SG) and low thermal
Surface damage reveals the conductivity (warm to the conductivity (warm to the touch)
plastic bead underneath. touch) might also be helpful. might also be helpful.
334
Key Separations for White Gems

Jadeite from nephrite RI, spectrum, SG
Jadeite from serpentine RI, spectrum, SG
Nephrite from serpentine RI, SG
Nephrite from idocrase RI, idocrase spectrum, SG
Serpentine from alabaster RI, SG, possibly appearance
Horn from plastic Appearance, magnification
Natural from cultured pearl Magnification (structure visible at drill-hole), advanced testing,
possibly candling
Natural or cultured pearl from glass or Birefringence blink, magnification (structure), possibly RI
plastic
Natural or cultured pearl from mother-of- Shape, structure

pearl
Coral from shell Appearance, structure, RI, SG
Ivory from bone, vegetable ivory, and Magnification

plastic
Chalcedony from serpentine Fracture, quality of surface polish, spectrum, possibly RI
Chalcedony from shell RI, birefringence blink, magnification (structure), SG
Moonstone from translucent white chal- Phenomenon, cleavage, fracture, polariscope reaction, possibly
cedony fluorescence
Opal from synthetic opal Magnification, phosphorescence
Opal from plastic SG, possibly RI and magnification
335
SEPARATING GRAY AND BLACK GEMS
Gray Gems 337

RI Charts 338
Key Separations 354
Black Gems 355

RI Charts 356
Key Separations 370
Robert Weldon/GIA
Advanced laboratory testing would be required to identify these as the rare natural saltwater pearls they are.
SEPARATING GRAY AND BLACK GEMS

In this section of the Gem Identification Lab Manual, you’ll find separate RI
listings for gray and black gems. These aren’t the first shades most people think
of when it comes to “colored” stones, but there are many attractive gems in these
color categories.
GRAY GEMS
Not many transparent gems are characteristically gray, but some transparent gems
appear gray if their hues are low in saturation—pale blue, pink, or purple sapphires
are a few examples. If low cost is a goal, manufacturers might use grayish diamonds
or near-colorless grayish topaz in inexpensive jewelry.
Translucent-to-opaque gray gems include materials that also occur in other colors.
The most popular gem in this category is probably cultured pearl. Another popular
gray gem is the phenomenal variety of labradorite, named for the broad flash of
shifting color, or labradorescence, it displays. Others include jadeite, nephrite,
idocrase, and serpentine.
337
Gray Gems
2.940 to 3.220 (OTL) Hematite Imitation hematite

2.940 to 3.220 (OTL) Imitation hematite Hematite


SR (Page 340)
2.417 (OTL) Diamond Zircon

SR (Page 341)
1.925 to 1.984 (OTL) Zircon Diamond

1.810 to 1.815 (Page 341)
DR
1.762 to 1.770 Corundum Spinel

DR (Page 342)
1.720 Hydrogrossular garnet Idocrase, jadeite, nephrite, serpentine

AGG (Page 343)
1.718 Spinel Corundum

SR (Page 343)
1.713 to 1.718 Idocrase Hydrogrossular, jadeite, nephrite, serpentine

AGG (Page 344)
1.666 to 1.680 (1.65 or 1.66 Jadeite Hydrogrossular, idocrase, sillimanite, nephrite, serpentine,
spot reading common) (Page 344) chalcedony
AGG
1.660 to 1.676 Spodumene Sillimanite, topaz

DR (Page 344)
1.659 to 1.680 Sillimanite Jadeite, spodumene, nephrite

1.609 to 1.617 Topaz Spodumene

DR (Page 345)
1.606 to 1.632 Nephrite Hydrogrossular, idocrase, jadeite, sillimanite, serpentine

AGG (Page 345)
1.577 to 1.583 Beryl Quartz, orthoclase, calcite

DR (Page 346)
1.560 to 1.570 Serpentine Hydrogrossular, idocrase, jadeite, nephrite, talc, chalcedony

AGG (Page 346)
1.560 Horn Chalcedony

AGG (Page 346)
1.559 to 1.568 Labradorite feldspar Obsidian, opal

1.544 to 1.553 Quartz Beryl, orthoclase, calcite

DR (Page 347)
338
SEPARATING GRAY GEMS

1.540 to 1.590 (1.54 spot Talc (soapstone) Serpentine, chalcedony
AGG
1.535 to 1.539 (1.53 to 1.54 Chalcedony Jadeite, serpentine, horn, talc, shell, orthoclase, obsidian,
spot reading common) (Page 348) calcite
AGG
1.530 to 1.685 Pearl Cultured pearl, glass and plastic imitations

1.530 to 1.685 Cultured pearl Pearl, glass and plastic imitations

1.530 to 1.685 Shell Chalcedony

AGG (Page 350)
1.520 to 1.680 Ammonite Opal with play-of-color, synthetic opal, opal doublets and
AGG (Page 350) triplets
1.518 to 1.526 Orthoclase Beryl, quartz, chalcedony

1.490 Obsidian (natural glass) Labradorite, chalcedony

SR (Page 351)
1.486 to 1.658 Calcite (including onyx marble) Beryl, quartz, chalcedony

AGG (Page 351)
1.450 Opal Labradorite, ammonite, synthetic opal

SR (Page 352)
1.430 to 1.470 range Synthetic opal Ammonite, opal

SR (Page 352)
1.470 to 1.700 range Glass Any gray gem material

SR (Page 353)
1.460 to 1.700 range Plastic Any gray gem material

SR (Page 353)
339
HEMA T I T E IMITATION HEMAT I T E PY R I T E
Species Hematite Imitation hematite Pyrite
General observation Opaque dark gray to black, might show Opaque dark gray to black with Opaque, with metallic yellow
reddish color on fracture surfaces. Metallic metallic luster and conchoidal “brassy” appearance in larger
polish luster and splintery, granular, or fracture. Can generally be picked pieces. Small rose cuts used in
subconchoidal fracture with dull fracture up by a magnet. Intaglio pattern jewelry might appear gray or
luster. Might be slightly magnetic. High SG usually lacks graver lines. black in reflected light. Metallic
gives loose stones considerable heft. Intaglio polish luster, conchoidal to
pattern usually exhibits graver lines. uneven fracture with metallic
fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Beads, tablets, signets, intaglios Beads, tablets, signets, intaglios Faceted into small rose cuts
RI OTL OTL OTL
Birefringence/doubling 0.280 (usually not detectable) None Too opaque to test
SR/DR/AGG Too opaque to test Too opaque to test SR
Fluorescence Inert Inert Inert
SG 5.20 (+0.08/-0.25) Typically 4.00 to 7.00, although 5.00 (+/-0.10)

some imitations made of silicone
might be around 2.50
Comments Key tests are appearance, fracture, and SG Key tests are appearance, fracture, Key tests are appearance (color,
(heft). and magnetism. metallic luster) and SG. Often
sold as marcasite in the trade.
Robert Weldon/GIA Mike Havstad/GIA Eric Welch/GIA Eric Welch/GIA
Hematite has metallic luster Natural hematite often shows a The designs on imitation The marcasite used in jewelry
and high heft. The carving splintery fracture. It might also have hematite intaglios are usually is actually the mineral pyrite.
marks, called graver lines, brownish red discoloration on its frac- stamped rather than carved,
identify this intaglio as natural ture surfaces. so they lack graver lines.
hematite.
340
NATURAL NEAR-COLORLESS DIAMOND

DIAMOND ZIRCON
Species Diamond Zircon
Prism
General observation Light-toned, low-saturation grays. Transparent gray to bluish
Under 10X, look for naturals, waxy gray and brownish gray. Facet
to granular or faceted girdle edges might show chipping. 415.5
surface, bearding, sharp facet Vitreous to subadamantine

junctions. Adamantine polish luster, polish luster, conchoidal
Diffraction
step-like fracture. Perfect cleavage fracture with vitreous to
in four directions. Polish lines never subadamantine fracture luster.
oriented the same way on adjacent Negative reaction to diamond
facets. Positive reaction to diamond tester. 415.5
tester.
Very light gray to near-colorless diamonds
Typical cutting style Faceted. Girdle often faceted or Faceted might show a “cape” line at 415.5 nm in their
polished. spectra. Cooling the diamond in liquid nitrogen
helps make its spectrum more visible.
Dispersion 0.044 (moderate fire—might be 0.038 (moderate fire—might
masked by bodycolor) be masked by bodycolor)
RI OTL OTL ZIRCON
Birefringence/doubling None 0.059 (strong)
Prism
SR/DR/AGG SR (might show strain colors) DR
Optic character Not applicable Uniaxial positive 653.5
Diffraction
Magnification Angular mineral inclusions, Might be inclusion-free
fractures and cleavages, bearding, or contain natural crystal
naturals with trigons, parallel inclusions. Moderate to strong
growth marks, surface and internal doubling might be eye-visible
graining in larger stones. Always 653.5
check for doubling in three

directions. The spectrum of grayish zircon shows a
diagnostic 653.5-nm line.
Spectrum Near-colorless stones might show Key line at 653.5 nm
the “cape” line at 415.5 nm.
(Cooling diamond with liquid
nitrogen helps make its spectrum
more visible.)
Fluorescence If present, can be any color, but Inert

commonly weak to strong blue
under LW and SW
SG 3.52 (+/-0.10) 3.90 to 4.73
Comments Key tests are polish luster, OTL RI, Key tests are OTL RI reading,
SR nature, magnification, positive doubling, and spectrum.
reaction to diamond tester, and
possibly spectrum.
341
CORUNDUM
Variety Gray sapphire
Species Corundum
General observation Transparent bluish gray to brownish gray. Many corundum hues also
appear grayish in low saturations. Vitreous to subadamantine polish
RI 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005)
SR/DR/AGG DR

Both by Duncan Pay
Pleochroism Might be very weak
The inclusions in sapphire that’s not subjected
to heat treatment are typically angular and
undamaged.
(high- or low-relief crystals) that might show angular faces; intact, fine,
needle-like rutile inclusions intersecting at 60° angles in the same plane;
other fine needles at near right angles; fingerprint inclusions, intact two-
phase inclusions, straight and hexagonal growth banding; straight,
angular, possibly hexagonal color banding; and twinning lines
Natural sapphire often contains crystals as well
as needles oriented at 60º angles to each corundum of magmatic origin.
other.
Fluorescence Inert to moderate red to orange under LW and SW
SG 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05)
natural gems are RI, birefringence, and magnification. Magnification is
the key test for separating natural from synthetic corundum.
342
HYDROGROSSULAR SPINEL
Species Hydrogrossular Spinel
Prism
General observation Translucent to opaque. Low- Transparent grayish blue or 460
saturation pinks or greens. White violet, often of low saturation.

or gray colors also possible. Might Many natural spinels have a
Diffraction
show black inclusions. Often grayish “lavender” color.
mixed with idocrase. Vitreous Vitreous to subadamantine
polish luster, uneven, granular, or polish luster, conchoidal
460
splintery fracture with greasy to fracture with vitreous fracture
vitreous fracture luster. luster.
Typical cutting style Carvings, beads, cabochons, tablets Faceted gems or cabochons cutoff at 460 nm.
RI 1.720 (+0.010/-0.050) (1.72 spot 1.718 (+0.017/-0.008)

reading common, but might be
lower)
SR/DR/AGG AGG SR (rarely ADR)

Eric Welch/GIA
Magnification Might have black, peppery-looking Minute octahedra or negative
Hydrogrossular garnet might
inclusions crystals, alone or in fingerprint
have such low saturation that
patterns; included crystals, its color appears pinkish gray.
iron oxide staining
Spectrum Darker material often shows a cut- Generally faint or absent in

off below 460 nm near-colorless or gray stones
Color filter Possibly pinkish Not diagnostic
SG 3.47 (+0.08/-0.32) 3.60 (+0.10/-0.03)
Comments Key tests are spot RI and possibly Key tests are RI, SR nature, Maha Tannous/GIA
spectrum and SG. Appearance is and magnification. A low-saturation grayish violet is one of spinel’s
also distinctive. Because hydro- many hues.
grossular is often mixed with
idocrase, it might be impossible to
separate the two species.
343
IDOCRASE JADEITE SPODUMENE
Species Idocrase Jadeite Spodumene
General observation Transparent to opaque gray to grayish brown Semitransparent and translucent to Transparent. Low-saturation hues
to grayish green. Jadeite-like variety often opaque gray to black. Vitreous to appear grayish. Vitreous polish
mixed with hydrogrossular garnet. Greasy to greasy polish luster with a dimpled luster, uneven to splintery fracture
vitreous polish luster, conchoidal to uneven polished surface, granular to with vitreous fracture luster.
or granular fracture with dull to vitreous splintery fracture with dull fracture Perfect cleavage in two directions
fracture luster. luster. at nearly 90° angles to one another.
Typical cutting style Carvings, beads, cabochons, tablets Carvings, beads, cabochons Faceted
RI 1.713 to 1.718 (+0.003/-0.013) (1.70 or 1.71 1.666 to 1.680 (+/-0.008) (1.65 or 1.660 to 1.676 (+/-0.005)
spot reading common, but might be lower) 1.66 spot reading common)
Birefringence/doubling Usually not detectable Usually not detectable 0.014 to 0.016
SR/DR/AGG AGG AGG DR
Optic character Uniaxial in single-crystal material Not detectable Biaxial positive (common point
is 0.006 from the high RI)
Pleochroism None to weak in single-crystal material None None
Magnification Not diagnostic Unevenly colored, often with root- Growth tubes and liquid inclusions
like mottling
Spectrum Line at 464 nm, weak line at 528.5 nm Generally a line at 437.5 nm Not diagnostic
Fluorescence Inert Inert to weak yellow under LW, Inert

generally inert under SW
SG 3.40 (+0.10/-0.15) 3.34 (+0.06/-0.09) 3.18 (+/-0.03)
Comments Key tests are RI, appearance, magnification, Key tests are spot RI, spectrum, Key tests are RI and birefringence.
SG, and possibly spectrum. Because and SG. Might be heat-treated,
idocrase is often mixed with hydrogrossular, polymer impregnated, or dyed.
it might be impossible to separate the two
species.
IDOCRASE JADEITE
Prism
Prism
464 437.5
Diffraction
Diffraction
464 437.5
The spectrum of gray or grayish idocrase shows a key line at The spectrum of non-chrome jadeite shows a key line at
464 nm. 437.5 nm due to iron.
344
SILLIMANITE TOPAZ NEPHRITE
Variety Cat’s-eye Not required Not required
Species Sillimanite Topaz Nephrite
General observation Translucent gray, green, or brown (also blue Transparent. Low-saturation hues Translucent to opaque light to
and violet). Usually fibrous, with chatoyancy. appear grayish. Vitreous polish dark gray, possibly with lighter
Vitreous to silky polish luster, uneven fracture luster, conchoidal fracture with or darker mottling. Vitreous to
with vitreous to silky fracture luster. Perfect vitreous fracture luster. Perfect greasy polish luster, splintery to
cleavage in one direction. basal cleavage, possibly with granular fracture with dull
iridescent cleavage planes. fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Cabochon Faceted Carvings, beads, cabochons
RI 1.659 to 1.680 (+0.004/-0.006) 1.619 to 1.627 (+/-0.010); gray 1.606 to 1.632 (+0.009/-0.006)
stones typically 1.609 to 1.617 (1.61 spot reading common)
Birefringence/doubling 0.015 to 0.021 0.008 to 0.010 Usually not detectable
SR/DR/AGG DR or AGG depending on transparency DR AGG
Optic character Not detectable Biaxial positive (common point is Not detectable
Pleochroism None in translucent forms None None
Magnification Usually appears fibrous Two- and three-phase inclusions, Not diagnostic
liquid inclusions in planes
Spectrum Weak bands at 410 nm, 441 nm, and 462 nm Not diagnostic Usually not detectable
Fluorescence Generally inert Inert to weak yellow or green under Inert

LW, generally weaker under SW
SG 3.25 (+0.02/-0.11) 3.53 (+/-0.04) 2.95 (+0.15/-0.05)
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, birefringence Key tests are RI, birefringence, and Key tests are appearance, RI, and
(if detectable), SG, and possibly spectrum. optic character. SG is helpful if you SG.
Sometimes confused with jade. can’t obtain birefringence.
Shane McClure/GIA
Cat’s-eye sillimanite Natural topaz typically contains two-phase

can be translucent inclusions.
gray. Its fibrous
appearance can help
you identify it.
345
BERYL SERPENTINE HORN
Species Beryl Serpentine Horn
General observation Transparent. Low-satura- Semitransparent to opaque gray. Waxy to Semitransparent to opaque yellow to
tion hues appear grayish. greasy polish luster, granular to uneven brown to gray to almost black. Resinous to
Vitreous polish luster, fracture with dull to waxy fracture luster. vitreous polish luster, uneven to splintery
conchoidal fracture with Might show scratches and pits due to low fracture with resinous to dull fracture luster.
vitreous to resinous hardness (Mohs 2.5 to 6). Bowenite variety
fracture luster. is harder, takes a better polish, and is an
effective jade substitute.
Typical cutting style Faceted gems or cabochons Ornamental carvings, beads, cabochons Carvings, inlays, decorative objects
RI 1.577 to 1.583 (+/-0.017) 1.560 to 1.570 (+0.004/-0.070) (might be 1.560

hard to obtain due to poor polish)
Birefringence/doubling 0.005 to 0.009 Usually not detectable None
SR/DR/AGG DR AGG AGG
Optic character Uniaxial negative Not detectable Not applicable
Pleochroism None None None
Magnification Liquid, two-phase, or Translucent material might show tiny Undulating, fibrous structure
tubular inclusions black inclusions (chromite octahedra),
white veining, or moss-like inclusions
Fluorescence Generally inert Not diagnostic Variable
SG 2.72 (+0.18/-0.05) 2.57 (+0.23/-0.13) 1.70 to 1.85
Comments Key tests are RI, birefrin- Key tests are appearance, magnification, Key tests are appearance, RI, and
gence, and optic character. and possibly surface condition. magnification.
Eric Welch/GIA
Horn is often used in carvings. It can be yellow

to brown or gray to black and have resinous to
vitreous polish luster.
346
LABRADORITE QUARTZ TALC
Variety Not required Amethyst—Purple through violetish Not required

purple, grayish in low saturations
Species Labradorite Quartz Talc
Group Feldspar Not required Not required
General observation Typically gray to nearly black with Transparent to translucent. Low- Semitranslucent to opaque white,
labradorescent colors (typically green, saturation hues appear grayish, gray, brown, or light to dark
gold, or blue) visible at certain viewing especially in amethyst. Numerous green, often veined or mottled.
angles. Vitreous polish luster, uneven to inclusions might give it a milky Waxy to greasy polish luster,
splintery fracture with vitreous to appearance. Vitreous polish luster, uneven fracture with dull to waxy
pearly fracture luster. Two cleavage conchoidal fracture with vitreous fracture luster. Might show surface
directions, parting also common. fracture luster. damage due to very low hardness
(Mohs 1). Can often be scratched
with a fingernail.
Typical cutting style Faceted gems, beads, cabochons, Faceted gems, cabochons, or beads. Ornamental carvings, decorative
carvings Translucent material might be carved. objects
RI 1.559 to 1.568 (+/-0.005) 1.544 to 1.553 (very constant) 1.540 to 1.590 (+0.010/-0.002)
Birefringence/doubling 0.009 0.009 0.050 (usually difficult to detect)
SR/DR/AGG DR or AGG depending on transparency DR AGG
Optic character Biaxial positive Uniaxial positive. Might show a bull’s- Not detectable
eye or Airy’s spiral optic figure and
Brazil-law twinning under crossed
polarizing filters.
Magnification Repeated twinning, black needle-like Liquid, two-phase, and three-phase Not diagnostic
inclusions, and metallic-looking inclusions, negative crystals, and solid
platelets mineral crystals or needles. If the inclu-
sions are numerous enough, they might
produce a cat’s-eye or aventurescence.
Fluorescence Inert to weak patchy white under LW Generally inert Inert to weak pink under LW
and SW
SG 2.70 (+/-0.05) 2.66 (+0.03/-0.02) 2.75 (+0.05/-0.55)
Comments Key tests are appearance (including Key tests are RI, birefringence, optic Key tests are appearance, poor
phenomenon), RI, birefringence, character, and optic figure. quality of polished surface, RI,
optic character, and magnification and SG. Also known as steatite
(twinning). or, more commonly, “soapstone.”
The bodycolor of labradorite

is usually gray with a broad
color flash called
labradorescence.
Eric Welch/GIA
Amethyst appears grayish purple or light grayish

Terri Weimer/GIA violet when its hue has low saturation.
347
CHALCEDONY PEARL
Variety Agate—Chalcedony with Not required

curved or angular bands or
layers
Jasper—General variety term
for opaque chalcedony of any
color or combination of colors
except solid black or specially
named material
Terri Weimer/GIA
Agate is a chalcedony that features curved or Species Chalcedony Pearl

angular bands.
General observation Semitransparent to semi- Translucent to opaque. Surface
translucent gray. Greasy luster varies from dull to nearly
to vitreous polish luster, con- metallic, depending on nacre quality.
choidal fracture with dull to Uneven fracture with dull to pearly
waxy fracture luster. Might fracture luster.
show bands or layers of lighter
or darker coloration.
RI 1.535 to 1.539 (1.53 to 1.54 1.530 to 1.685

spot reading common)
Birefringence/doubling Usually not detectable 0.155 (use birefringence blink

Robert Weldon/GIA
method)
Natural pearls can occur in a range of gray
hues.
SR/DR/AGG AGG Usually too opaque to test
Spectrum Not diagnostic Variable, not diagnostic
Fluorescence Generally inert Variable. Inert to strong light blue,

yellow, green, or pink under LW
and SW.
SG 2.60 Saltwater—2.61 to 2.85

Freshwater—2.66 to 2.78 (few are
over 2.74)
Comments Key tests are spot RI and SG. Key tests are appearance, RI,
Fracture and appearance might birefringence blink, and SG. Feels
also be helpful. gritty when rubbed against a tooth,
while plastic and glass imitations
feel smooth. Heft can separate
natural pearl from plastic imitations.
X-radiography separates natural
from cultured pearl. Drill-hole
might interfere with accurate SG
reading.
348
CULTURED PEARL
from dull to nearly metallic depending on nacre quality. Uneven
shape. Color can range from neutral to near-neutral grays, with rosé
or green overtones, but can sometimes be yellow, pink or blue. Tahitian cultured pearls
Tahitian (bead nucleated)—Typical size range 8 mm to 14 mm. often have silver to dark gray
Spherical, oval, button, drop, or baroque in shape (sometimes cir- bodycolor. Their luster can be
cled). Color can range from near-neutral silver, cream, or brown to nearly metallic.
black or gray, to blue, green, yellowish green, or purple, with green,
blue, or rosé overtone.
Spherical, near-round, oval, button, drop, or semi-baroque (some-
times circled). Color can range from near-neutral white, cream, or
silver to yellow, yellowish orange, or blue, with green, blue, or rosé
overtone.
grays, whites, and creams to yellows, pinks and purples, with blue or
green overtone and orient.
RI 1.530 to 1.685
Magnification Not usually diagnostic, unless you can examine a drill-hole and
detect the bead under the nacre.
and SW.
SG 2.72 to 2.78
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, birefringence blink, SG, and magnifica-
tion. Feels gritty when rubbed against a tooth, while plastic and glass
imitations feel smooth. Heft can separate cultured pearl from plastic
imitations. X-radiography separates natural from cultured pearl.
Cultured pearls might be dyed, irradiated, or polymer-impregnated.
Dye might be detectable as concentrations in nacre, especially at the
drill-hole. Some irradiated colors are very intense and unnatural.
Impregnation might be visible with magnification. Drill-hole might
349
SHELL AMMONITE ORTHOCLASE
Variety Mother-of-pearl (when orient is present) Not required Moonstone (when adulares-
cence is present)
Species Shell Ammonite Orthoclase
General observation Translucent to opaque. Virtually any Opaque gray to brown. Jewelry-quality Transparent to opaque gray.
color, but usually white, gray, brown, material displays iridescent colors. Large, Vitreous polish luster, uneven to
yellow, orange, or pink, with layered or well-preserved specimens show a spiral struc- splintery fracture with vitreous
patterned coloring. Might also show ture. Vitreous polish luster, uneven to granular to pearly fracture luster. Might
orient (mother-of-pearl). Shell cameos fracture with greasy to dull fracture luster. show adularescence.
usually show concave backs due to the
curved contours of the shells they’re cut
from. Greasy or pearly polish luster,
uneven to splintery fracture with dull
fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Cameos, carvings, beads, cabochons, Cabochons, freeforms, and tablets. Also used Faceted gems, cabochons
inlays in doublets and triplets.
RI 1.530 to 1.685 1.520 to 1.680 (varies with mineral content) 1.518 to 1.526 (+0.010)
Birefringence/doubling 0.155 (use birefringence blink method) Usually 0.155 (varies with mineral content) 0.005 to 0.008
SR/DR/AGG AGG AGG DR or AGG depending on

transparency
Optic character Not applicable Not applicable Biaxial negative
Magnification Might show an irregular fibrous Distinctive, often iridescent, mosaic patterns Centipede-like inclusions,
structure or parallel banded structure twinning planes, possibly
(mother-of-pearl) oriented needles
Fluorescence Variable Variable, not diagnostic Inert to weak reddish orange

under LW and SW
SG 2.86 (+0.03/-0.16) Usually about 2.70 (varies with mineral 2.58 (+/-0.03)
content)
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, birefrin- Key tests are appearance (including irides- Key tests are RI, birefringence,
gence blink, and magnification. cence) and possibly RI. Ammonite is the and possibly optic character.
fossilized shell of an extinct nautilus-like
animal. It’s often polymer-impregnated to
make it more stable or improve its appearance.
Might be sold as “ammolite” in the trade.
Mother-of-pearl from the Ammonite has opaque gray to

Pinctada margaritifera brown bodycolor and iridescent
mollusk shell has gray to coloring. It might be sold whole
black bodycolor. It’s to collectors or as pieces to be
commonly fashioned inlayed into other materials for
into cameos and beads. jewelry or ornamental objects.
Robert Weldon/GIA Maha Tannous/GIA
350
OBSIDIAN CALCITE
Variety Not required Onyx marble (if banded and translucent-to-

opaque)
Species Obsidian Calcite
General observation Transparent to opaque natural Transparent to opaque, occurs in almost all colors,
glass, sometimes with a sheen. often dyed. Vitreous to greasy polish luster. Three
Gray to black, often spotted with cleavage directions. Strong eye-visible doubling.
white (“snowflake” obsidian). Cleavage usually not visible in aggregate.
Vitreous polish luster, conchoidal Terri Weimer/GIA
fracture with vitreous fracture You’ll often see obsidian in

luster. tumbled pieces as well as
in beads, cabochons, and
Typical cutting style Beads, cabochons, carvings, Beads, cabochons, carvings, and decorative carvings. The gem can range
from transparent to opaque
tumbled pieces objects. Transparent varieties occasionally faceted
and commonly occurs in solid
for collectors. dark gray.
RI 1.490 (+0.020/-0.010) 1.486 to 1.658 (high spot reading on aggregates)
Birefringence/doubling None 0.172 (use birefringence blink method)
SR/DR/AGG SR, commonly with ADR AGG
Optic character Not applicable Transparent varieties—Uniaxial negative

Others—Not diagnostic
Robert Weldon/GIA
Magnification Gas bubbles, stubby needle-like Not diagnostic
“Snowflake” obsidian has
inclusions. Might be banded or white patches on gray to black
have a sheen caused by numerous bodycolor. It’s commonly seen
oriented inclusions. in cabochons and beads.
Spectrum Not diagnostic Not diagnostic. Any visible lines are caused by
impurities or dye.
Fluorescence Generally inert Variable
SG 2.40 (+0.10/-0.07) 2.70 (+/-0.05)
Comments Key tests are RI, SG, and possibly Key tests are doubling, cleavage, RI, birefringence
magnification. Obsidian is a type blink, SG, and possibly appearance. Marble is a
of natural glass. granular aggregate, onyx marble is a banded marble. Maha Tannous/GIA
Satinspar is a fibrous aggregate that’s often
“Rainbow” obsidian commonly
chatoyant (the name is also used for a similar displays sheen in different
variety of gypsum). colors against a gray to black
bodycolor.
351
OPAL SYNTHETIC OPAL
General observation Light to medium gray bodycolor, with or without play-of- Gray, bluish gray, or grayish blue, light to dark in tone,
color. Vitreous to resinous polish luster, conchoidal to with play-of-color. Conchoidal to uneven fracture with
uneven fracture with subvitreous to waxy fracture luster. subvitreous fracture luster.
In some natural opals, dehydration causes a network of
fine cracks called crazing.
Typical cutting style Cabochons, freeforms Cabochons, carvings, beads
RI 1.450 (+0.020/-0.080) 1.430 to 1.470
SR/DR/AGG SR, commonly with ADR due to strain SR with weak to strong ADR
Magnification Possible play-of-color patterns include very small patches or Play-of-color in a mosaic pattern across the surface, with a
dots (pinfire); large areas that flash predominately one color cellular, “chicken wire,” “snakeskin,” or scale-like structure
as the gem is moved (flash); or even, distinct patches with a that’s visible with magnification and overhead or back-
“brush-stroke” appearance (harlequin). There might also be lighting. Might show columnar structure when viewed from
areas that lack play-of-color or that contain mineral inclu- the side.
sions or patches of rock matrix. (Play-of-color in synthetic
Spectrum Not diagnostic Some gems show bands at 550 nm and 580 nm
Fluorescence Inert to white to moderate light blue, green, or yellow Typically moderate bluish white to yellow under LW, weak
under LW and SW. Might phosphoresce. to strong blue to bluish white to yellow under SW.
Phosphorescence is rare and weak if present.
Blue to bluish gray polymer-impregnated synthetic opal—
Inert to very weak blue under both LW and SW
Gray polymer-impregnated synthetic opal—Very weak
greenish yellow under LW, weak greenish yellow under
SW
SG 2.15 (+0.08/-0.90) 1.97 to 2.20 (typically lower than natural opal). Polymer-
impregnated synthetic opal is usually considerably lower
than natural opal, at 1.88 to 1.91. Newer untreated gray-
blue synthetic opal is closer to natural opal, at 2.22 to 2.27.
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, SG, and possibly magnifica- Magnification is the key to separating synthetic from
tion. Fluorescence might also be helpful. SG can help natural opal. Fluorescence and phosphorescence might also
separate opal from plastic (SG 1.05 to 1.55). Some be helpful. Synthetic opal is often polymer impregnated to
natural opal is polymer impregnated to make it more make it more stable, and it has a considerably lower SG
stable or improve its appearance. than most natural opal.
Both by Robert Weldon/GIA
Opal commonly has a dark gray Synthetic opal like this Gilson
bodycolor and play-of-color in a product results when manufac-
variety of patterns. tured silica spheres are allowed
to settle and compress.
352
GLASS PLASTIC
General observation Transparent to opaque, almost any Transparent to opaque, almost any
appearance possible. Look for mold appearance possible. Look for mold
marks, orange-peel effect, concave marks, orange-peel effect, concave facets,
facets, rounded facet junctions. Warm rounded facet junctions. Warmer to the
to the touch compared to crystalline touch than glass imitations and crystalline
gemstones. Vitreous polish luster, con- gemstones. Low heft (SG), dull to waxy
choidal fracture with vitreous fracture polish luster, conchoidal fracture with
luster. waxy to vitreous fracture luster. Surface
might show numerous scratches due to
low hardness (Mohs 1.5 to 3).
Typical cutting style All styles. Can be faceted or molded to All styles. Can be molded to a variety of
a variety of shapes and finishes. shapes and finishes.
RI Usually between 1.470 and 1.700, but 1.460 to 1.700

can go to OTL
colors common)
Magnification Gas bubbles, cavities on surface where Gas bubbles, flow lines
gas bubbles were polished through,
flow marks (swirls)
Comments Key tests are RI and magnification. Key tests are RI and magnification. Low
Low thermal conductivity (warm to the heft (SG) and low thermal conductivity
touch) might also be helpful. (warm to the touch) might also be helpful.
353
Key Separations for Gray Gems

Hematite from imitation hematite Appearance, fracture, intaglio quality (carved versus
stamped), magnetism
Diamond from zircon Doubling, spectrum, SG
Corundum from spinel RI, DR vs SR
Hydrogrossular garnet from idocrase RI, spectrum, possibly SG
Idocrase from jadeite and nephrite RI, spectrum
Jadeite from nephrite RI, SG, spectrum
Spodumene from sillimanite Appearance, RI, possibly birefringence
Serpentine from talc RI, possibly hardness (talc feels greasy or “soapy”
to the touch)
Talc from jadeite and nephrite Hardness, RI, SG, spectrum (jadeite)
Natural from cultured pearl Magnification (structure visible at drill-hole), advanced

testing, possibly candling
Natural or cultured pearl from glass or plastic Birefringence blink, magnification/structure, possibly RI
Chalcedony from serpentine Fracture, hardness, possibly RI
Labradorite from ammonite Appearance, RI, birefringence blink
Onyx marble from agate Fracture, RI, birefringence blink, SG
Quartz from orthoclase feldspar RI, optic character
Obsidian from glass Appearance, magnification, possibly RI and SG
354
SEPARATING BLACK GEMS
Tino Hammid/GIA
Victorian jewelry often featured cameos of black onyx chalcedony.
BLACK GEMS
Dyed black chalcedony is one of the most common black gems. It’s sold as black
onyx in the trade. Others include black (often dyed) cultured pearls and dark,
grayish black hematite. Large quantities of black onyx and hematite are used in
men’s jewelry.
Some normally transparent gems can be so dark that they appear black. You’ll also
often encounter very dark blue or greenish blue sapphires that appear almost
completely black in normal reflected light.
355
Black Gems
2.940 to 3.220 (OTL) Hematite Imitation hematite, diamond, irradiated synthetic diamond
2.940 to 3.220 (OTL) Imitation hematite Hematite


SR (Page 358)
2.417 (OTL) Diamond Hematite, irradiated synthetic diamond, CZ

SR (Page 359)
2.417 (OTL) Irradiated synthetic diamond Hematite, diamond, CZ

SR (Page 360)
2.150 (OTL) CZ Diamond, irradiated synthetic diamond

AGG (Page 360)
1.762 to 1.770 Corundum, sapphire Spinel, tourmaline

DR (Page 361)
1.740 to 1.770 range Spinel Sapphire, tourmaline

SR (Page 362)
1.675 to 1.701 (1.68 spot Diopside Jadeite, nephrite

DR or AGG
1.666 to 1.680 (1.66 spot Jadeite Diopside, nephrite

AGG
1.660 Jet Onyx, coral, obsidian, glass, plastic

SR (Page 363)
1.620 to 1.644 Tourmaline (schorl) Sapphire, spinel

DR (Page 363)
1.606 to 1.632 (1.61 spot Nephrite Diopside, jadeite

AGG
1.560 to 1.570 Coral Jet, onyx, obsidian, glass, plastic

AGG (Page 364)
1.560 Horn Onyx, glass, plastic

AGG (Page 365)
1.535 to 1.539 (1.53 to 1.54 Chalcedony Jet, coral, horn, obsidian, glass, plastic
spot reading common) (Page 365)
AGG
1.530 to 1.685 Pearl Cultured pearl

356

1.530 to 1.685 Cultured pearl Pearl
1.490 Obsidian Jet, coral, onyx, glass, plastic

SR (Page 367)
1.450 (sugar-treated and smoke-treated Opal Synthetic opal

generally lower) (Pages 367 and 368)
SR

SR (Page 368)
1.470 to 1.700 range Glass Any black gem material

SR (Page 369)
1.460 to 1.700 range Plastic Any black gem material

SR (Page 369)
357
HEMA T I T E IMITATION HEMAT I T E PY R I T E
Species Hematite Imitation hematite Pyrite
General observation Opaque dark gray to black, might show Opaque dark gray to black with Opaque, with metallic yellow
reddish color on fracture surfaces. Metallic metallic luster and conchoidal “brassy” appearance in larger
polish luster and splintery, granular, or fracture. Can generally be picked pieces. Small rose cuts used in
subconchoidal fracture with dull fracture up by a magnet. Intaglio pattern jewelry might appear gray or
luster. Might be slightly magnetic. High SG usually lacks graver lines. black in reflected light. Metallic
gives loose stones considerable heft. Intaglio polish luster, conchoidal to
pattern usually exhibits graver lines. uneven fracture with metallic
fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Beads, tablets, signets, intaglios Beads, tablets, signets, intaglios Faceted into small rose cuts
RI OTL OTL OTL
Birefringence/doubling 0.280 (usually not detectable) None Too opaque to test
SR/DR/AGG Too opaque to test Too opaque to test SR
Fluorescence Inert Inert Inert
SG 5.20 (+0.08/-0.25) Typically 4.00 to 7.00, although 5.00 (+/-0.10)

some imitations made of silicone
might be around 2.50
Comments Key tests are appearance, fracture, and SG Key tests are appearance, fracture, Key tests are appearance (color,
(heft). and magnetism. metallic luster) and SG. Often
sold as marcasite in the trade.
Robert Weldon/GIA Mike Havstad/GIA Eric Welch/GIA Eric Welch/GIA

Hematite has metallic luster Natural hematite often shows a The designs on imitation The marcasite used in jewelry
and high heft. The carving splintery fracture. It might also have hematite intaglios are usually is actually the mineral pyrite.
marks, called graver lines, brownish red discoloration on its stamped rather than carved,
identify this intaglio as natural fracture surfaces. so they lack graver lines.
hematite.
358
NATURALLY COLORED OR IRRADIATED DIAMOND
Species Diamond
General observation Black, with an almost metallic appearance. Color due to numerous
minute black inclusions lining internal cleavages and fractures.
Inclusions give a “salt-and-pepper” appearance in transmitted light.
Polished surface shows numerous fractures, pits, and polish lines in
reflected light. Extremely sharp facet junctions. Adamantine polish Elizabeth Schrader/GIA
luster, step-like fracture with adamantine fracture luster. Perfect Naturally colored black diamond has
cleavage in four directions. Polish lines never oriented the same way an almost metallic appearance in
on adjacent facets. Positive reaction to diamond tester. Irradiated reflected light.
black diamonds are dark blue or green throughout, with no colorless
areas. They appear very dark blue or green in transmitted light.
Dispersion 0.044 (fire masked by dark bodycolor)
RI OTL
Birefringence/doubling None Shane McClure/GIA
With oblique illumination, you can see

SR/DR/AGG SR many black inclusions lining the cleav-
ages and fractures of this natural black
Magnification Numerous black inclusions lining cleavages and fractures. Non- diamond.
included areas are transparent and range from light gray to colorless.
Numerous pits with polish and drag lines on facet surfaces appear in
reflected light.
Spectrum Not diagnostic for naturally colored black diamonds. Irradiated

diamonds show a 595-nm line. (Cooling diamond with liquid
Fluorescence Some stones show a strong but patchy blue fluorescence to LW,
Robert Kane/GIA
intermixed with inert areas. Fluorescent areas correspond with the
more-transparent areas of the diamond. The more-transparent areas Natural black diamonds commonly
fluoresce a moderate chalky greenish yellow to SW. Other reactions have fractures and pits along with
polish and drag lines.
vary from inert to weak chalky greenish yellow under LW, but with
the same characteristic mottling.
SG 3.52 (+/-0.10)
Comments Key tests are polish luster, fracture, OTL RI, magnification, and
positive reaction to diamond tester. Appearance in transmitted light
separates irradiated black diamond from naturally colored black
diamond.
Shane McClure/GIA
Irradiated “black” diamonds are actually

very dark green or blue in transmitted
light.
Robert Kane/GIA
Transmitted light and close examination

reveal that this irradiated “black”
diamond is actually dark green in color.
359
IRRADIATED CZ
SYNTHETIC DIAMOND
Species Synthetic diamond CZ (synthetic cubic zirconia)
General observation Black, almost metallic Opaque black in larger pieces, but
appearance. Color is actually smaller pieces are semitranslucent
very dark green or blue if when viewed with fiber-optic lighting.
observed in transmitted light. Bodycolor in smaller pieces is dark
Extremely sharp facet junc- brownish red, similar to dark-toned
Shane McClure/GIA tions. Adamantine luster, almandite garnet. Subadamantine
Fiber-optic lighting reveals that this synthetic step-like fracture with polish luster, conchoidal fracture with
black diamond is actually very dark blue. It also adamantine fracture luster. subadamantine fracture luster. Heft
contains a typical rod-shaped flux inclusion. Perfect cleavage in four reveals that loose stones are much
directions. Positive reaction heavier than diamonds of similar size.
to diamond tester. Negative reaction to diamond tester.
Dispersion 0.044 (fire masked by dark 0.060 (fire masked by dark bodycolor)
bodycolor)
RI OTL OTL
SR/DR/AGG SR AGG if not too opaque to test
Magnification Inclusions of metallic flux, Not diagnostic

dark green or blue appear-
ance in transmitted light
Shane McClure/GIA
Opaque black CZ might be used Spectrum 595-nm line Not diagnostic

as a black diamond imitation.
Fluorescence Generally inert to both LW Inert to both LW and SW
and SW
Color filter Not diagnostic Dark red when material transmits

enough light
SG 3.52 (+/-0.10) 5.93 to 5.94
Comments Key test is magnification Key tests are negative reaction to

diamond tester, OTL RI reading, and
SG. Conchoidal fracture distinguishes
CZ from diamond. CZ is a manmade
material with no gem-quality natural
counterpart.
360
CORUNDUM
Variety Black sapphire
Species Corundum
General observation Often very dark, strongly greenish blue, sometimes with angular
zoning and silk, in transmitted light. Vitreous to subadamantine
Typical cutting style Faceted gems, cabochons, carvings Alan Jobbins
Dark sapphires commonly feature

RI 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005) (black gems might be higher) strong straight or angular color zoning,
usually with alternating dark and color-
Birefringence/doubling 0.008 to 0.010 (black gems might be higher) less zones.
SR/DR/AGG DR
Pleochroism Might show only in transmitted light. Very dark blue or violet blue
and very dark greenish blue.

(high- or low-relief crystals); intact, fine, needle-like rutile inclusions John Koivula/GIA
intersecting at 60° angles in the same plane; fingerprint inclusions,
The mineral inclusions in untreated
intact two-phase inclusions, straight and hexagonal growth banding, sapphire are intact and angular.
straight and hexagonal color banding, and twinning lines
corundum of magmatic origin.
Spectrum Powerful bands due to iron around 450 nm, visible only if you can
pass enough light through the stone
Fluorescence Inert
SG 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05)
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence, and magnification. Spectrum might
also be helpful.
361
SPINEL DIOPSIDE
Varieties Not required Cat’s-eye or star (if either phenomenon is visible)
Species Spinel Diopside
General observation Vitreous to subadamantine polish luster, conchoidal Semitranslucent to opaque dark green to black. Might show a
fracture with vitreous fracture luster. cat’s-eye or four-rayed star under a penlight. Vitreous polish
luster, conchoidal to uneven fracture with vitreous to resinous
fracture luster. Perfect cleavage in two directions at nearly 90°
angles to one another.
Typical cutting style Faceted gems, cabochons Cabochons
RI 1.740 to 1.770 (black gems might be higher) 1.675 to 1.701 (+0.029/-0.010) (spot reading usually around 1.68)
SR/DR/AGG SR (rarely with ADR) DR or AGG depending on transparency
Optic character Not applicable Biaxial positive
Pleochroism None Usually not detectable
Magnification Minute octahedra or negative crystals, alone or in Not diagnostic

fingerprint patterns; included crystals, iron oxide
staining
Spectrum Might show a very dark version of a gahnite spectrum 505-nm line common
with reflected light, including a strong, broad band in
the blue centered on 459 nm and a strong but much
narrower band, also in the blue, at 480 nm. There’s also
a moderately strong band centered on 555 nm, at the
center of fainter broad absorption between 530 nm and
575 nm. Absorption increases in intensity from about
600 nm toward the red.
SG 3.79 to 3.82 3.29 (+0.11/-0.07)
Comments Key tests are RI, SG, and spectrum. Key tests are RI, birefringence (if detectable), and possibly
spectrum and SG.
Robert Weldon/GIA
Star diopside usually displays

four-rayed asterism against a dark
green to black bodycolor.
Maha Tannous/GIA
Black spinel is an attractive gem that usually

has higher RI and SG than spinel of other
colors.
362
JADEITE JET TOURMALINE
Species Jadeite Jet Tourmaline
General observation Semitransparent to opaque gray to Semitranslucent to opaque very dark Often very dark green or brown in
black. Vitreous to greasy polish brown to black. Resinous to vitreous transmitted light. Vitreous polish luster,
luster with a dimpled polished polish luster, conchoidal fracture with conchoidal fracture with vitreous
surface, granular to splintery dull to greasy fracture luster. Very low fracture luster.
fracture with dull fracture luster. heft. Warm to the touch. Becomes elec-
trically charged when rubbed on wool.
Typical cutting style Carvings, beads, cabochons Carvings, beads Faceted gems, carvings, cabochons
RI 1.666 to 1.680 (+/-0.008) (1.66 spot 1.660 (+/-0.020) (1.68 spot reading 1.620 to 1.644 (+0.011/-0.009) (black
reading common) (black gems common) gems might be higher)
might be higher)
Birefringence/doubling Usually not detectable None Usually 0.018 to 0.020, but can go as
high as 0.040
SR/DR/AGG AGG SR DR
Optic character Not applicable Not applicable Uniaxial negative
Pleochroism None None Moderate to strong. Might be visible

only in dark stones using transmitted
light.
Magnification Often unevenly colored, with root- Not diagnostic Mineral inclusions, possibly thread-
like mottling like liquid and gas inclusions and
mirror-like gas filled fractures
Spectrum Generally a line at 437.5 nm Not diagnostic Not diagnostic
Fluorescence Generally inert Inert Generally inert
SG 3.34 (+0.06/-0.09) 1.32 (+/-0.020) 3.06 (+0.20/-0.06)
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, Key tests are RI and SG (low heft). Key tests are almost always RI and
spectrum, and SG. Might be heat- Reacts to hot point with a coal-like or birefringence. If birefringence isn’t
treated, polymer impregnated, or oily odor. obtainable, uniaxial optic figure and
dyed. SG can be helpful. Some very dark
tourmaline is called “schorl” by
mineralogists.
JADEITE
Prism
437.5
Diffraction
Maha Tannous/GIA
437.5 Jet’s semitranslucent to opaque dark gray to

black color and resinous to vitreous polish lus-
ter make it a popular carving material.
The spectrum of non-chrome jadeite shows a key line at

437.5 nm due to iron.
363
NEPHRITE CORAL
Species Nephrite Coral
General observation Translucent to opaque dark Semitranslucent to opaque

green to black, possibly with black to dark brown. Occurs in
lighter or darker mottling. branches and tree-like forms.
Vitreous to greasy polish luster, Waxy to vitreous polish luster,
splintery to granular fracture conchoidal to uneven fracture
with dull fracture luster. with dull fracture luster.
Terri Weimer/GIA
Black coral commonly shows a Typical cutting style Carvings, beads, cabochons Beads, cabochons
structure that resembles the
growth rings of a tree. RI 1.606 to 1.632 (+0.009/-0.006) 1.560 to 1.570 (+/-0.010)
(black gems might be higher)
Birefringence/doubling Usually not detectable None
SR/DR/AGG AGG AGG
Magnification Not diagnostic Concentric, circular tree-ring

growth structure. White crescents
Maha Tannous/GIA in cross-sections of the branches.
Black coral can be treated to a
golden color, but it shows a Spectrum Not diagnostic Not diagnostic
coarser appearance than naturally
colored golden coral.
SG 2.95 (+0.15/-0.05) (black 1.35 (+0.77/-0.05)

material might approach 3.10)
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, Key tests are appearance, RI,
and SG. birefringence, and magnification.
Eric Welch/GIA
Polyp holes are common in black

coral. They can help you separate
it from plastic, jet, and other
materials.
364
HORN BLACK CHALCEDONY PEARL
Variety Not required Onyx (when parallel black and Not required
white bands are present)
Species Horn Chalcedony Pearl
General observation Semitransparent to opaque Semitransparent to semitranslucent Translucent to opaque. Surface luster varies from
yellow to brown to almost black. Greasy to vitreous polish dull to nearly metallic, depending on nacre quality.
black. Resinous to vitreous luster, conchoidal to granular Uneven fracture with dull to pearly fracture luster.
polish luster, uneven to fracture with dull to waxy fracture
splintery fracture with luster. Might show bands or layers
resinous to dull fracture of lighter or darker coloration.
luster.
Typical cutting style Carvings, inlays, decorative Cabochons, carvings, inlays Not applicable
objects
RI 1.560 1.535 to 1.539 (1.53 to 1.54 spot 1.530 to 1.685

reading)
Birefringence/doubling None Usually not detectable 0.155 (use birefringence blink method)
SR/DR/AGG AGG AGG Usually too opaque to test
Magnification Undulating, fibrous structure Not diagnostic Not diagnostic
Spectrum Not diagnostic Not diagnostic Variable, not diagnostic
Fluorescence Variable Generally inert Variable. Inert to strong light blue, yellow, green,
or pink under LW and SW. Naturally colored black
pearls might show weak to moderate red to orangy
red or brownish red under LW.
SG 1.70 to 1.85 2.60 (+0.10/-0.05) Saltwater—2.61 to 2.85

Comments Key tests are appearance, Key tests are RI, SG, and Key tests are appearance, RI, birefringence blink,
RI, and magnification. possibly appearance and fracture. and SG. Feels gritty when rubbed against a tooth,
Routinely dyed and sold as while plastic and glass imitations feel smooth.
black onyx in the trade, almost Heft can separate natural pearl from plastic
always without disclosure of imitations. X-radiography separates natural from
color treatment. cultured pearl. Drill-hole might interfere with
Eric Welch/GIA
Horn is often used in carvings. It can be yellow to

brown or gray to black and have resinous to vitreous
polish luster.
365
CULTURED PEARL
shape. Color can range from neutral to near-neutral grays with rosé
Tahitian cultured pearls can have or green overtones. Often irradiated or dyed black with silver nitrate.
true black color and a nearly Tahitian (bead nucleated)—Typical size range 8 mm to 14 mm.
metallic luster. Spherical, oval, button, drop, or baroque in shape (sometimes circled).
Color can range from near-neutral silver to black, gray, or purple,
with green, blue, or rosé overtones.
grays, whites, and creams to yellows, pinks and purples, with blue or
green overtone and orient. Can be irradiated or dyed black.
RI 1.530 to 1.685
Magnification Not usually diagnostic, unless you can examine a drill-hole and
detect the bead under the nacre
and SW. Naturally colored black cultured pearls show weak to
moderate red to orangy red or brownish red under LW.
SG 2.72 to 2.78
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, birefringence blink, magnification, and
SG. Feels gritty when rubbed against a tooth, while plastic and glass
Cultured pearls might be dyed, irradiated, or polymer-impregnated.
Impregnation might be visible with magnification. Drill-hole might
366
OBSIDIAN OPAL
Species Obsidian Opal
General observation Transparent to opaque, sometimes Black, dark gray, blue, green, brown, or other
with a sheen. Gray to black, often dark bodycolor, with or without play-of-color.
spotted with white (“snowflake” Vitreous to resinous polish luster, conchoidal to
obsidian), brown to brownish uneven fracture with subvitreous to waxy frac- Robert Weldon/GIA
yellow, orange or red, rarely green, ture luster. In some natural opals, dehydration
“Snowflake” obsidian has
purple, or blue. Vitreous polish causes a network of fine cracks called crazing. white patches on gray to black
luster, conchoidal fracture with bodycolor. It’s commonly seen
vitreous fracture luster. in cabochons and beads.
Typical cutting style Cabochons, beads, ornamental Cabochons, freeforms

carvings
RI 1.490 (+0.020/-0.010) 1.450 (+0.020/-0.080)
SR/DR/AGG SR, commonly with ADR SR, commonly with ADR due to strain
Pleochroism None None Maha Tannous/GIA
“Rainbow” obsidian commonly

Magnification Gas bubbles, stubby needle-like Possible play-of-color patterns include very displays sheen in different
inclusions. Might be banded or small patches or dots (pinfire); large areas that colors against a gray to black
bodycolor.
have a sheen caused by numerous flash predominately one color as the gem is
oriented inclusions. moved (flash); or even, distinct patches with a
“brush-stroke” appearance (harlequin). There
might also be areas that lack play-of-color or
that contain mineral inclusions or patches of
rock matrix. (Play-of-color in synthetic opal
Fluorescence Generally inert Inert to white to moderate light blue, green, or Robert Weldon/GIA
yellow under LW and SW. Might phosphoresce. Opals can have black
bodycolor or very dark
SG 2.40 (+0.10/-0.07) 2.15 (+0.08/-0.90) tones of gray and blue with
play-of-color.
Comments Key tests are RI, SG, and magnifi- Key tests are RI, magnification, and SG.
cation. Appearance can also be Fluorescence might also be helpful. SG can help
helpful. Obsidian is a type of separate opal from plastic (SG 1.05 to 1.55).
natural glass. Some natural opal is polymer impregnated to
367
SUGAR-TREATED OPAL SMOKE -TREATED OPAL SYNTHETIC OPAL
Species Opal Opal Synthetic opal
General observation Opaque, uniform black body- Resembles black opal, with a Colorless, white, gray, blue, or black, with play-
color. Polish often less lustrous dark brown mottled appearance of-color. Conchoidal to uneven fracture with
than naturally colored black and unnatural play-of-color. subvitreous fracture luster.
opal. Patchy or spotty play-of- Turns black when moisture is
color. applied to the surface, but
blackness goes away when
moisture dries. Surface
damages very easily.
Typical cutting style Cabochons, carvings Cabochons, carvings Cabochons, carvings, beads
RI 1.44 to 1.45 spot RI (generally Generally 1.380 to 1.390 1.430 to 1.470

lower than untreated black opal)
SR/DR/AGG SR SR SR with weak to strong ADR
Magnification Black carbon particles visible Surface indents when a pointer Play-of-color in a mosaic pattern across the surface,
in and around patches of gem probe is pressed gently against with a cellular, “chicken wire,” “snakeskin,” or
opal or filling voids in the it. Chipped surfaces reveal scale-like structure that’s visible with magnification
surrounding matrix. Play-of- whitish opal beneath the thin and overhead or backlighting. Might show columnar
color generally appears in a surface treatment. structure when viewed from the side.
mosaic pattern near the surface
of the stone. Chipped surfaces
reveal whitish opal beneath the
thin surface treatment.
Spectrum Not diagnostic Not diagnostic Some gems show bands at 550 nm and 580 nm
Fluorescence Inert Inert Polymer-impregnated black opal is inert to LW

and very weak orange under SW. Newer untreated
synthetic black opal is inert to both LW and SW.
SG 1.98 to 2.05 (generally lower Generally lower than untreated 1.97 to 2.20 (typically lower than natural opal).
than untreated black opal) black opal Polymer-impregnated synthetic opal is usually
1.91. Newer untreated synthetic opal is closer to
natural opal, at 2.22 to 2.27.
Comments Key tests are appearance, Key tests are appearance, Magnification is the key to separating synthetic from
magnification, RI, and possibly magnification, RI, and possibly natural opal. Fluorescence and phosphorescence
SG. SG. might also be helpful. Most synthetic opal is
polymer impregnated to make it more stable.
Shane McClure/GIA Shane McClure/GIA John Koivula/GIA
Sugar-treated opals display speckled Smoke-treated opals typically show a This synthetic opal displays Snakeskin structure is visible
colors against a black background. dark, broad texture under magnifica- both columnar and snakeskin against the play-of-color of this
tion. structures. Gilson synthetic opal.
368
GLASS PLASTIC
General observation Transparent to opaque, almost Transparent to opaque, almost

any appearance possible. Look any appearance possible. Look
for mold marks, orange-peel for mold marks, orange-peel
effect, concave facets, rounded effect, concave facets, rounded
facet junctions. Warm to the facet junctions. Warmer to the
touch compared to crystalline touch than glass imitations and
gemstones. Vitreous polish luster, crystalline gemstones. Low heft
conchoidal fracture with vitreous (SG), dull to waxy polish luster,
fracture luster. conchoidal fracture with waxy to
vitreous fracture luster. Surface
might show numerous scratches
due to low hardness (Mohs 1.5
to 3).
and finishes.

Magnification Gas bubbles, cavities on surface Gas bubbles, flow lines

where gas bubbles were polished
through, flow marks (swirls)
Comments Key tests are RI and magnifica- Key tests are RI and magnifica-
tion. Low thermal conductivity tion. Low heft (SG) and low
(warm to the touch) might also thermal conductivity (warm to
be helpful. the touch) might also be helpful.
369
Key Separations for Black Gems

Hematite from imitation hematite Appearance, fracture, intaglio quality (carved versus stamped),
magnetism
Natural black diamond from irradiated Magnification and appearance in transmitted light
black diamond
Natural black diamond from irradiated Magnification

synthetic black diamond
Black diamond from black CZ Appearance in transmitted light, diamond tester, SG, possibly
color filter
Jadeite from nephrite RI, SG, possibly spectrum
Jadeite from diopside RI, SG, spectrum
Jet from plastic Magnification, hot point, possibly RI
Jet from dyed black chalcedony RI, SG, thermal conductivity
Jet from black coral RI, magnification
Natural from cultured pearl Magnification (structure visible at drill-hole), advanced testing
Natural or cultured pearl from glass or Birefringence blink, magnification/structure, possibly RI

plastic
Black coral from plastic Magnification, possibly RI
Opal from synthetic opal Magnification
Opal from sugar-treated opal Appearance, RI, magnification, possibly SG
Opal from smoke-treated opal Appearance, RI, magnification, possibly SG
Dyed black chalcedony from obsidian Fracture luster, RI, SG, possibly polariscope reaction and
magnification
370
IDENTIFYING PHENOMENAL GEMS
Star Gems 371

RI Charts 372
Key Separations 381
Cat’s-eye Gems 382

RI Charts 382
Key Separations 398
Color-change Gems 399

RI Charts 400
Key Separations 408
Gems with Play-of-color, Play-of-color-like

Effects, Iridescence, or Orient 409
RI Charts 409
Key Separations 419
Gems with Adularescence,

Labradorescence, or Aventurescence 420
RI Charts 420
Key Separations 427
Shane McClure/GIA
The presence of a phenomenon greatly reduces the number of possible identities for a gem. This
natural black opal’s play-of-color limits your identification choices to opal, treated opal, assembled
natural or synthetic opal, synthetic opal, and plastic imitations.
IDENTIFYING PHENOMENAL GEMS

The category of phenomenal gems includes gems that display stars, cat’s-eyes,
color-change, and more. Their phenomena result from the special way they
transmit and reflect light. In this section, you’ll find these gems separated by
phenomenon and listed from high to low RI.
STAR GEMS
Robert Weldon/GIA
Star gems display bands of light that reflect from intersecting needles or needle-like Star ruby is a corundum variety
inclusions. They create a shape that usually has four or six rays. The phenomenon whose identity can be determined
is called asterism. For best effect, star gems require careful cutting as cabochons. partly by observing its bodycolor and
Star sapphire is one of the best known of these, but there are many others in the phenomenon.
market. A variety of synthetics and imitations add to the separation challenges.
Assembled stones that display stars are also available in a variety of colors. You’ll
find complete information on them in the Assembled Stones section that starts on
page 437.
371
Star Gems
1.762 to 1.770 (1.76 or 1.77 Star corundum Synthetic star corundum, star garnet, star spinel, star diopside
spot reading) (Pages 373 and 374)
DR (AGG common)
1.762 to 1.770 (1.76 or 1.77 Synthetic star corundum Star corundum, star garnet, star spinel
spot reading) (Pages 375 and 376)
DR (AGG common)
1.750 to OTL range Star garnet (including almandite and Star corundum, synthetic star corundum, star spinel
SR pyrope-almandite)
(Page 376)
1.718 Star spinel Star corundum, synthetic star corundum, star garnet
(1.72 or 1.73 spot reading) (Page 377)
SR
1.675 to 1.701 (1.68 spot Star diopside Black star sapphire

reading) (Page 378)
DR (AGG common)
1.577 to 1.583 Star beryl Star quartz, star orthoclase

DR (AGG common) (Page 378)
1.544 to 1.553 (1.54 or 1.55 Star quartz Star beryl, star orthoclase
spot reading) (Page 379)
DR (AGG possible)
1.518 to 1.526 (1.52 spot Star orthoclase Star beryl, star quartz
reading) (Page 380)
DR (AGG common)
372
IDENTIFYING PHENOMENAL GEMS: ASTERISM

STAR CORUNDUM
Variety Star ruby—Orangy red to purplish red

Star sapphire—Light to dark violet, bluish violet, pure blue to
Prism
strongly greenish blue
Other colors—Designate by color (for example, black star sapphire)
468 476 693
Species Corundum
Diffraction
General observation Semitransparent to opaque, usually with a six-rayed star. Twelve-
rayed stars are rare, but when they occur, it’s usually in dark blue to
black gems. Light to dark purplish red to purple-red stones are star
ruby. Star sapphire occurs in purple, plum, violetish blue, blue, 468 476 693
greenish blue, gray, and dark tones of brown, green, and blue. The
trade sells dark grayish black or brownish black material as black The spectra of natural and synthetic rubies and pink
star sapphire. Orange and yellow star corundum is almost unknown, sapphires show lines at 659 nm, 668 nm, and 693 nm,
and green is rare. Combination of a six-rayed star that’s less than a broad absorption between about 500 nm and 610 nm,
perfect in terms of sharpness and orientation, less-intense bodycolor, and lines in the blue at 468 nm and 476 nm. There’s
rounded or bulged cabochon base, and non-calibrated size suggests also a strong cutoff in the violet. Purple sapphire might
natural origin. Vitreous to subadamantine polish luster, conchoidal show a mixture of ruby-type and sapphire-type spectra.
fracture with vitreous fracture luster. Twinned stones might show
BLUE AND GREEN SAPPHIRE
parting, which is especially obvious on black star sapphire.
Typical cutting style High, medium, or low cabochons, usually with weight-saving convex
Prism
bases
RI 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005) (1.76 or 1.77 spot reading common) 450 471
460
Birefringence/doubling 0.008 to 0.010 (usually not detectable on cabochon)
Diffraction
SR/DR/AGG DR (AGG reaction common)
Optic character Uniaxial negative, if detectable 450 471

460
Pleochroism Usually none to weak, depending on transparency

The spectra of natural blue and green sapphires
Magnification Rutile silk arranged in three sets of parallel needles that intersect one The 450-nm band is usually the strongest.
another at 60°; hexagonal growth lines, color zoning, and mineral
inclusions
Spectrum Red, pink, and purple stones—Lines at 659 nm, 668 nm, and 693
nm, a broad absorption between about 500 nm and 610 nm, and two
lines in the blue at 468 nm and 476 nm. There’s also a strong cutoff
in the violet. Purple sapphire might show a mixture of ruby-type and
sapphire-type spectra.
Blue and green stones—Bands at 450 nm, 460 nm, and 471 nm.
The 450-nm band is usually the strongest. Some heat-treated material Clayton Welch/GIA
shows only the 450-nm band, and some heated stones might show no Natural star corundum typically shows
bands at all. three sets of intact rutile needles that
intersect at 60° angles.
Fluorescence Red to pink stones—Almost inert to strong moderate red or orange-
red under both LW and SW
Blue stones—(especially light blue stones from Sri Lanka) Weak or
moderate to strong red under LW and SW. Dark stones are generally
inert to both.
SG 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05)
Robert Weldon/GIA
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, and magnification. The trade allows a
wider color range for ruby when asterism is present. The angular growth in this star sapphire
proves that it’s natural. The perpendicular
orientation of at least one ray to the
growth pattern strongly suggests the
asterism is natural and not diffusion-
induced.
373
CORUNDUM WITH STAR INDUCED BY LATTICE DIFFUSION
Species Corundum
Required treatment call Lattice diffusion treated star
General observation Star might be unnaturally sharp. Color might be confined to the
stone’s surface and concentrated around the girdle edge.
Typical cutting style Cabochons
RI 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005) (1.76 or 1.77 spot reading common)
In a natural star sapphire with a star that’s not a Birefringence/doubling 0.008 to 0.010 (usually not detectable on cabochon)
result of lattice diffusion treatment, at least one
of the star’s rays will be perpendicular to the SR/DR/AGG DR (AGG reaction common)
growth zoning.
Pleochroism Usually weak to none, depending on transparency
Magnification Rutile needles that strongly resemble those found in synthetic star
corundum and are confined to a thin surface layer. Localized or
blotchy color might be concentrated along girdle edge and bleed
into surface pits and fractures. Use diffused light to detect color
concentrations.
Spectrum Same as untreated

John Koivula/GIA
The rutile needles in lattice diffusion Fluorescence Same as untreated

treated star corundum are typically
confined to a shallow layer below the SG 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05)
surface. They resemble those in
synthetic star corundum. Comments Magnification is the key test for separating lattice diffusion treated
star corundum from untreated star corundum.
John Koivula/GIA
You might see color concentrations in

pits, cavities, and surface-reaching
fractures in corundum with asterism
induced by lattice diffusion treatment.
All by Elizabeth Schrader/GIA
The strong, angular color zoning that appears under transmitted Corundum with asterism
light proves that these are natural gems with natural blue color induced by lattice diffusion
(left). The addition of overhead light reveals that none of the rays treatment often shows a
in their stars are perpendicular to the gems’ hexagonal color strong star.
banding (right). This indicates that the stars are a result of lattice
diffusion.
374
FLAME-FUSION SYNTHETIC STAR CORUNDUM
Variety Synthetic star ruby—Orangy red to purplish red

Synthetic star sapphire—Light to dark violet, bluish violet, pure
blue to strongly greenish blue
Other colors—Designate by color
General observation Usually has a combination of an unnaturally sharp, well-centered,

six-rayed star and strong blue or red bodycolor, although many other Mike Havstad/GIA
bodycolors, including brown, gray, and white, are possible. The typical features of these flame-fusion
synthetic star sapphires are their strong, sharp,
Typical cutting style Cabochons, precisely cut, sometimes in calibrated sizes and often well-centered stars and strong bodycolor.
with flat rather than curved bases
Optic character Uniaxial negative, if detectable
Pleochroism Usually none to weak, depending on transparency
Magnification Gas bubbles, minute rutile needles confined to a shallow layer near Eric Welch/GIA
the surface, curved color banding. Curved striae in red stones. Most flame-fusion synthetic
Curved growth features might be especially visible on the flat backs star rubies and sapphires have
of cabochons. Some stones might have the manufacturer’s initial— flat bases with visible curved
the letter L—engraved on the back. growth.
Spectrum Flame-fusion synthetic star ruby—Same as natural, with chromium

lines in the red and blue
Flame-fusion synthetic blue star sapphire—No characteristic
spectrum, but the absence of iron lines around 450 nm strongly
indicates synthetic
Fluorescence Flame-fusion synthetic star ruby—Typically reacts more strongly

than natural. Might be very strong orangy red under LW and moderate
to strong orangy red under SW.
Flame-fusion synthetic blue star sapphire—Might show a weak to
moderate chalky blue to yellowish green under SW
Curved growth is visible on these
flame-fusion synthetic star sapphires.
SG 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05)
Comments Magnification is the key test for separating this synthetic from
natural star corundum.
375
PULLED SYNTHETIC STAR RUBY STAR GARNET
Variety Synthetic star ruby Star

Star rhodolite (with a purple component and a 1.750 to 1.780 RI)
Species Synthetic corundum Almandite or pyrope-almandite (depending on RI)
General observation Semitransparent, with a slightly wavy, natural- Generally a dark-toned brownish orange to brownish red to purplish red
looking star hue with low saturation. Usually displays a four-rayed star, although
some stones might show six-rayed stars. Stones cut as spheres might
show both a six-rayed and a four-rayed star, depending on viewing
orientation. Vitreous to subadamantine polish luster, conchoidal fracture
with greasy to vitreous fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Cabochons Cabochons, spheres
RI 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005) (1.76 or 1.77 Almandite—1.780 to OTL

spot reading common) Pyrope-almandite—1.750 to 1.780
Birefringence/doubling 0.008 to 0.010 (usually not detectable on None

cabochon)
SR/DR/AGG DR (AGG reaction common) SR, often with ADR
Pleochroism Usually weak to none, depending on transparency None
Magnification Extremely fine needles, low-relief curved or Needle-like inclusions, usually intersecting at 70° and 110° angles in
wavy growth, bluish white smoke-like swirls, the same plane, high- and low- relief crystals, and zircon crystals with
and gas bubbles strain halos
Spectrum Same as natural Strong bands in the green and yellow of the spectrum at 505 nm, 527
nm, and 575 nm. Most red-garnet mixtures of pyrope and almandite,
including rhodolite, show this spectrum.
Fluorescence Very strong red under LW, strong to very strong Inert
red with moderate to strong chalky blue-white
overtone under SW
SG 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05) Almandite—4.05 (+0.25/-0.12)

Pyrope-almandite—3.84 (+/-0.10)
Comments Magnification is the key test for separating this Key tests are RI, magnification, spectrum, and SG.
synthetic from natural star ruby.
ALMANDITE GARNET Most star garnets

are almandite or
pyrope-almandite.
Their characteristic
Prism
spectra have three

very strong bands
at 505 nm, 527 nm,
and 575 nm.
505 575
527
Diffraction
John Koivula/GIA Robert Weldon/GIA
Wavy patterns and small round This garnet displays a four-

and distorted gas bubbles are rayed star.
sometimes seen in pulled
synthetic star ruby. 505 575
527
376
NATURAL RED SPINEL

STAR SPINEL
Variety Star
Prism
Species Spinel
General observation Commonly opaque, with a dark-toned, low-saturation purple color.

Rare stones might be a saturated red color and highly transparent.
Might show four- or six-rayed stars. Gems cut as spheres might show
Diffraction
both, depending on viewing orientation. Vitreous to subadamantine
Typical cutting style Cabochons, spheres
RI 1.718 (+0.017/-0.008) (1.72 or 1.73 spot reading)

The spectrum of red star spinel often shows a
Birefringence/doubling None group of lines in the red, with the strongest at
686 nm, and broad absorption in the green area.
SR/DR/AGG SR
NATURAL BLUE SPINEL COLORED BY IRON
Optic character Not applicable
Pleochroism None
Prism
Magnification Not diagnostic (natural inclusions)
459
Spectrum Red stones—Might show a group of closely spaced lines in the red, 480
with the strongest one at 686 nm, plus a broad absorption of the
Diffraction
green area of the spectrum
Violet and purplish stones—Weaker version of the blue spinel
spectrum, with bands in the blue at 459 nm and 480 nm. There might
be weaker, diffused bands at 553 nm, 593 nm, and 632 nm. 459
480
Fluorescence Varies with bodycolor, but ranges from inert to weak red to orange-
red under SW and weak to strong red under LW
In its spectrum, natural blue spinel colored by
iron shows bands in the blue at 459 nm and
SG 3.60 (+0.10/-0.03) 480 nm. Bands at 553 nm, 593 nm, and
632 nm are not as sharp.
Comments Key tests are appearance of star, RI, and SG.
Spinel can show a four-

rayed or six-rayed star,
depending on cutting style
and orientation. It might
also display both types of
stars in the same gem.
Robert Weldon/GIA
377
STAR DIOPSIDE STAR BERYL
Variety Star Star morganite—Pink to purplish pink

Star aquamarine—Greenish blue to
blue-green
Star emerald—Medium-light to dark
green
Star heliodor—Slightly greenish to
orangy yellow
Robert Weldon/GIA
Species Diopside Beryl
Star diopside usually displays four-
rayed asterism against dark green to General observation Commonly semitranslucent to Semitransparent to opaque. Typically dark
black bodycolor.
opaque dark green to black, yellowish brown to black with a weak
typically with a four-rayed star six-rayed star. Depending on cutting
showing one sharp ray and one orientation, some stones might show a
diffuse ray. Six-rayed stars are combination of a six-rayed star and multi-
possible but rare. Vitreous polish ple four-rayed stars, or just a four-rayed
luster, conchoidal to uneven star. Vitreous polish luster, conchoidal
fracture with vitreous to resinous fracture with vitreous to resinous fracture
fracture luster. Perfect cleavage in luster.
two directions at nearly 90°
Typical cutting style Cabochons Cabochons
RI 1.675 to 1.701 (+0.029/-0.010) 1.577 to 1.583 (+/-0.017)

Birefringence/doubling 0.024 to 0.030 (usually not 0.005 to 0.009 (usually not detectable on
detectable on cabochon) cabochon)
SR/DR/AGG DR (AGG reaction common) DR (AGG reaction common)
Optic character Biaxial positive, if detectable Uniaxial negative, if detectable
Pleochroism Usually not detectable Weak to moderate
Magnification Stubby, black, needle-like and Sets of oriented needles, needle-like

metallic-looking inclusions channels, thin fluid films, or tabular
platelets or flakes produce six-rayed
asterism perpendicular to the length of a
correctly fashioned crystal. If crystal also
contains channels parallel to its length,
the gem can show multiple stars (six- and
four-rayed) or just a four-rayed star,
depending on cutting orientation.
Spectrum 505-nm line common Variable, not diagnostic
Fluorescence Generally inert Variable, not diagnostic
SG 3.29 (+0.11/-0.07) 2.72 (+0.18/-0.05)
Comments Key tests are appearance of star, Key tests are RI, SG, and possibly
RI, and spectrum. magnification.
378
STAR QUARTZ
Variety Star rose—Pink

Star—Other colors
Species Quartz
General observation Semitransparent to translucent or opaque, with six-rayed asterism.

Large stones often display multiple stars. Often a very light-toned
pink (rose quartz) or a translucent to opaque white to very light gray
(called milky quartz in the trade) or brown. Vitreous polish luster,
Typical cutting style Cabochons, spheres
RI 1.544 to 1.553 (1.54 or 1.55 spot reading common) Terri Weimer/GIA
Star quartz typically displays a six-rayed star.

Birefringence/doubling 0.009 (usually not detectable on cabochon) Stars often appear on both sides of large
double cabochons.
SR/DR/AGG DR (AGG reaction possible)
Optic character Uniaxial positive, if detectable. Might show a bull’s-eye or Airy’s

spiral optic figure.
Pleochroism Weak to moderate, in different tones of bodycolor
Magnification Color zoning, twinning; liquid, two-phase, and three-phase inclusions;

negative crystals
Fluorescence Star rose quartz ranges from inert to weak purple under LW and
SW. Other colors inert.
SG 2.66 (+0.03/-0.02)
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, and SG. Magnification and fluorescence
379
STAR ORTHOCLASE
Variety Star moonstone—Displays asterism and adularescence

Star sunstone—Displays asterism and aventurescence
Star sunstone moonstone—Displays asterism, adularescence, and
aventurescence
Species Orthoclase
Group Feldspar
Maha Tannous/GIA
This 14.77-ct. feldspar cabochon General observation Semitransparent to opaque, typically colorless to white with blue or
shows strong asterism as well as
white adularescence and asterism. Reddish brown aventurescent
aventurescence.
material might show eye-visible plate-like inclusions along with a
distinct four-rayed star. Silvery adularescence might also be seen along
the girdle edge. Vitreous polish luster, uneven to splintery fracture with
vitreous to pearly fracture luster. Two cleavage directions, parting also
common.
RI 1.518 to 1.526 (+0.010) (1.52 spot reading common)
Shane McClure/GIA Optic character Biaxial negative, if detectable. Might show repeated twinning under
The aventurescence in star sunstone is caused crossed polarizing filters.
by a mass of needles and elongated hematite
inclusions. Magnification Centipede-like inclusions in star moonstone. Aventurescent material
contains two sets of reflective inclusions (fine needles and elongated
hematite flakes) that intersect at near 90° angles, causing the star.
Fluorescence Adularescent material is inert to blue under LW, orange under SW.
Might fluoresce weak pink to red under both LW and SW.
Aventurescent material is inert to both LW and SW.
SG 2.58 (+/-0.03)
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, and magnification. Optic character,
fluorescence, and SG might also be helpful. As physical properties
of orthoclase and oligoclase feldspar overlap, it might require
advanced testing to separate them, especially if aventurescence is
present. Presence of adularescence indicates orthoclase.
380
Key Separations for Star Gems

Star corundum from synthetic star corundum Appearance, magnification, possibly spectrum and fluorescence
Star corundum from corundum with lattice diffusion Magnification, orientation of asterism
induced star
Star ruby from star garnet Appearance, SR vs DR nature, optic character, pleochroism, magnification,
spectrum, possibly RI and fluorescence
Synthetic star ruby from star garnet Appearance, SR vs DR nature, optic character, magnification, spectrum,
pleochroism, possibly RI and fluorescence
Star spinel from star corundum RI, spectrum, SG, possibly appearance of star
Star spinel from star garnet RI, spectrum, SG, possibly fluorescence
Star diopside from black star sapphire Appearance of star, RI, spectrum, SG
Star quartz from star sapphire Appearance of star, RI, SG, magnification
Star quartz from star orthoclase Appearance of star, RI, possibly optic character and adularescence,
if present
381
CAT’S-EYE GEMS
Cat’s-eye gems display a phenomenon called chatoyancy. When they’re properly
cut and light strikes them in just the right way, they show concentrated bands of
light across their cabochon-cut tops. The light is reflected from parallel, needle-
like inclusions or hollow tubes.
Many gems, such as garnet, corundum, and chrysoberyl, have chatoyant varieties.
Because cat’s-eye gems are in demand in the marketplace, you’ll also see many
synthetic and imitation versions of them.
Cat’s-eye Gems
1.888 (OTL) Cat’s-eye andradite garnet Cat’s-eye spessartite, cat’s-eye chrysoberyl, cat’s-eye alexandrite,
SR (Page 384) synthetic cat’s-eye alexandrite
1.810 (OTL) Cat’s-eye spessartite garnet Cat’s-eye andradite, cat’s-eye chrysoberyl, cat’s-eye alexandrite, synthetic
SR (Page 384) cat’s-eye alexandrite
1.762 to 1.770 Cat’s-eye corundum Cat’s-eye chrysoberyl, cat’s-eye alexandrite, synthetic cat’s-eye
(1.76 or 1.77 spot reading) (Page 385) alexandrite
DR (AGG common)
1.746 to 1.755 Cat’s-eye chrysoberyl Cat’s-eye garnet, cat’s-eye corundum

DR (AGG possible)
1.746 to 1.755 (1.75 spot reading) Cat’s-eye alexandrite Cat’s-eye garnet, cat’s-eye corundum, synthetic cat’s-eye alexandrite
DR (AGG possible) chrysoberyl
(Page 386)
1.746 to 1.755 (1.75 spot reading) Synthetic cat’s-eye alexandrite Cat’s-eye garnet, cat’s-eye corundum, cat’s-eye alexandrite
DR (AGG possible) chrysoberyl
(Page 387)
1.691 to 1.700 (1.69 spot reading) Cat’s-eye zoisite Cat’s-eye apatite, cat’s-eye tourmaline
DR (AGG possible) (Page 387)
1.675 to 1.701 (1.68 spot reading) Cat’s-eye diopside Cat’s-eye kornerupine, cat’s-eye enstatite, cat’s-eye sillimanite, cat’s-eye
DR (AGG possible) (Page 388) peridot, cat’s-eye apatite, cat’s-eye tourmaline, cat’s-eye actinolite
1.667 to 1.680 Cat’s-eye kornerupine Cat’s-eye diopside, cat’s-eye enstatite, cat’s-eye sillimanite, cat’s-eye
DR (AGG possible) (Page 389) peridot, cat’s-eye tourmaline
1.663 to 1.673 Cat’s-eye enstatite Cat’s-eye diopside, cat’s-eye kornerupine, cat’s-eye sillimanite, cat’s-eye
(1.66 or 1.67 spot reading) (Page 389) tourmaline, cat’s-eye actinolite
DR (AGG possible)
1.659 to 1.680 Cat’s-eye sillimanite Cat’s-eye diopside, cat’s-eye kornerupine, cat’s-eye enstatite, cat’s-eye
AGG (Page 390) actinolite
1.654 to 1.690 Cat’s-eye peridot Cat’s-eye diopside, cat’s-eye kornerupine, cat’s-eye tourmaline
(1.65 to 1.69 spot reading) (Page 390)
DR
1.634 to 1.638 (1.63 spot reading) Cat’s-eye apatite Cat’s-eye zoisite, cat’s-eye diopside, cat’s-eye tourmaline, cat’s-eye
DR (AGG possible) (Page 391) actinolite
382
IDENTIFYING PHENOMENAL GEMS: CHATOYANCY

1.624 to 1.644 Cat’s-eye tourmaline Cat’s-eye zoisite, cat’s-eye diopside, cat’s-eye kornerupine,
(1.62 or 1.64 spot reading) (Page 391) cat’s-eye enstatite, cat’s-eye peridot, cat’s-eye apatite, cat’s-eye
DR (AGG possible) actinolite
1.614 to 1.641 (1.63 spot reading) Cat’s-eye actinolite Cat’s-eye diopside, cat’s-eye enstatite, cat’s-eye sillimanite,
AGG (Page 392) cat’s eye apatite, cat’s-eye tourmaline
1.577 to 1.583 Cat’s-eye beryl (including cat’s-eye Cat’s-eye scapolite, cat’s-eye quartz, hawk’s-eye quartz,
DR (AGG possible) emerald) tiger’s-eye quartz, cat’s-eye moonstone
(Page 392)
1.550 to 1.564 (1.56 to 1.57 spot reading) Cat’s-eye scapolite Cat’s-eye beryl, cat’s-eye quartz, hawk’s-eye quartz, tiger’s-eye
DR (AGG possible) (Page 393) quartz
1.544 to 1.553 Cat’s-eye quartz Cat’s-eye beryl, cat’s-eye scapolite, hawk’s-eye quartz, tiger’s-eye
(1.54 or 1.55 spot reading) (Page 394) quartz, cat’s-eye moonstone
AGG if not too opaque to test
1.544 to 1.553 Hawk’s-eye quartz Cat’s-eye beryl, cat’s-eye scapolite, cat’s-eye quartz, tiger’s-eye
(1.54 or 1.55 spot reading) (Page 394) quartz
1.544 to 1.553 Tiger’s-eye quartz (including dyed) Cat’s-eye beryl, cat’s-eye scapolite, cat’s-eye quartz,
(1.54 or 1.55 spot reading) (Page 395) hawk’s-eye quartz
1.518 to 1.526 (1.52 spot reading) Cat’s-eye orthoclase (moonstone) Cat’s-eye beryl, cat’s-eye quartz
1.490 Cat’s-eye obsidian Cat’s-eye glass

SR (AGG possible) (Page 396)
1.450 (1.44 or 1.45 spot reading) Cat’s-eye opal Cat’s-eye glass

SR (AGG possible) (Page 397)
1.470 to 1.700 range (chatoyant material Cat’s-eye glass Any cat’s-eye gem
often OTL) (Page 397)
SR or AGG
383
CAT ’S-EYE ANDRADITE CAT ’S-EYE SPESSARTITE
Variety Cat’s-eye demantoid—Green Cat’s-eye

to yellowish green
Other colors—Designate by
color
Species Andradite Spessartite

Maha Tannous/GIA
It’s possible for a demantoid Group Garnet Garnet

garnet to show chatoyancy,
but it’s rare. General observation Semitransparent to translucent Semitransparent to translucent
yellow-green to brownish orange, brownish orange, yellowish
orange with faint chatoyant orange, reddish orange, and red-
band. Vitreous to subadaman- orange (always has an orange
tine polish luster, conchoidal to component and never any purple),
uneven fracture with vitreous with chatoyancy caused by numerous
fracture luster. Surface might parallel needles. Vitreous to sub-
show abrasions due to relatively adamantine polish luster, conchoidal
low hardness (Mohs 6.5 to 7). fracture with vitreous to sub-
adamantine fracture luster.

Nicholas DelRe/GIA
It’s possible, but rare, for a RI 1.888 (OTL) 1.810 (+0.004/-0.020) (OTL)
spessartite garnet to show
chatoyancy. Birefringence/doubling None None
SPESSARTITE GARNET SR/DR/AGG SR, commonly with ADR SR, commonly with ADR
Magnification Numerous parallel to Hollow tubes, solid needle-like

subparallel needles that inclusions (possibly tremolite)
Prism
cause chatoyancy
Spectrum Dark band at 440 nm. Manganese-related bands at 412 nm,

412 432
424
Demantoid variety also has 424 nm, and 432 nm—which some-
lines in the red. times merge to form a cutoff at
Diffraction
around 430 nm—along with iron-

related bands at 505 nm, 527 nm,
and 575 nm
412 432
424 Fluorescence Inert Inert
Key features of spessartite’s spectrum are SG 3.84 (+/-0.03) 4.15 (+0.05/-0.03)

bands in the violet at 412 nm, 424 nm, and
432 nm, along with bands at 505 nm, 527 nm, Comments Key tests are OTL RI reading, Key tests are OTL RI reading,
and 575 nm in the green-yellow. spectrum, and SG. This gem spectrum, and SG. This gem is rare.
is rare.
384
CAT’S-EYE CHRYSOBERYL
CAT ’S-EYE CORUNDUM CAT ’S-EYE CHRYSOBERYL
Variety Cat’s-eye ruby—Orangy red to Cat’s-eye

purplish red
Prism
Cat’s-eye sapphire—Light to
dark violet, bluish violet, pure
blue to strongly greenish blue
444
Other colors—Designate by
color
Diffraction
Species Corundum Chrysoberyl
General observation Semitransparent to opaque. Semitransparent to semitranslucent 444

Can occur in almost any of the yellow to yellowish green, grayish
corundum colors. Vitreous to green, brown to brownish yellow,
subadamantine polish luster, with chatoyancy. Might show four-
Cat’s-eye chrysoberyl’s spectrum reveals a
conchoidal fracture with ray asterism instead of chatoyancy
strong diagnostic band at 444 nm.
vitreous fracture luster. in extremely rare cases. Vitreous to
subadamantine polish luster, con-
choidal fracture with vitreous to
greasy fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Cabochons. Cat’s-eye can Cabochons

result if gem is cut with the
cabochon’s top parallel to the
sides of the rough crystal, at a
90° angle from the conventional
orientation for a star.
RI 1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005) 1.746 to 1.755 (+0.004/-0.006) John Parrish

(1.76 or 1.77 spot reading (1.75 spot reading common) Cat’s-eye chrysoberyl
common) often displays fine-quality
chatoyancy against a yellow
Birefringence/doubling 0.008 to 0.010 (usually not 0.008 to 0.010 (usually not to yellowish green to honey-
detectable on cabochon) detectable on cabochon) colored background.
SR/DR/AGG DR (AGG reaction common) DR (AGG reaction possible)
Optic character Uniaxial negative, if detectable Biaxial positive, if detectable
Pleochroism Usually none to weak, depend- Varies with transparency. Almost

ing on transparency undetectable in semitranslucent
gems. In semitransparent stones,
it’s the same as transparent
chrysoberyl: light to medium tones
of the bodycolor.
Magnification Silk, sets of parallel needles, Fine needles or hollow tubes that
hexagonal growth lines, color resemble silk. Might also show
zoning, and mineral inclusions fingerprints, angular included crys-
tals, negative crystals, or twinning.
Spectrum Varies with bodycolor Strong band at 444 nm
Fluorescence Varies with bodycolor Typically inert
SG 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05) 3.73 (+/-0.02)
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, Key tests are RI, SG, and spectrum.
and magnification. This gem Might be irradiated to a honey
is rare. brown bodycolor. This is rare,
but stones treated this way remain
significantly radioactive.
385

CAT ’S-EYE ALEXANDRITE
Variety Cat’s-eye alexandrite

Prism
Species Chrysoberyl
General observation Displays a combination of chatoyancy and color change from

yellowish, brownish, grayish, or bluish green in daylight or fluorescent
light to orangy or brownish red to purplish red in incandescent light.
Diffraction
Vitreous to subadamantine polish luster, conchoidal fracture with

vitreous to greasy fracture luster.
RI 1.746 to 1.755 (+0.004/-0.006) 1.75 spot reading is common

In the purple-red pleochroic direction,
alexandrite’s spectrum has strong lines in the Birefringence/doubling 0.008 to 0.010 (usually not detectable on cabochon)
red at 678 nm and 680.5; weaker ones at
645 nm and 655 nm; a broad absorption SR/DR/AGG DR (AGG reaction possible)
between 540 nm and 605 nm; weak lines in
the blue at 468 nm, 473 nm, and 476.5 nm; Optic character Biaxial positive, if detectable
and a cutoff in the violet.
Pleochroism Varies with transparency. Almost undetectable in semitranslucent
gems. Semitransparent stones might show strong green, orange, and
purple-red trichroism.
Prism
Magnification Fine needles or hollow tubes that resemble silk. Might also show
fingerprints, angular included crystals, negative crystals, or twinning.
Spectrum Might vary due to pleochroism:

Diffraction
and 680.5 nm; weaker ones at 645 nm and 655 nm; a broad absorp-
tion between about 540 nm and 605 nm; weak lines in the blue at
468 nm, 473 nm, and 476.5 nm; and a cutoff in the violet at about
470 nm
In the green pleochroic direction, alexandrite the violet at about 470 nm
between about 555 nm and 640 nm; and a Fluorescence Inert to moderate red under LW and SW
SG 3.73 (+/-0.02)
Comments Key tests are appearance of color change (in combination with
chatoyancy), RI, SG, and spectrum. Magnification separates natural
from synthetic cat’s-eye alexandrite.
Both by Elizabeth Schrader/GIA
This 16.02-ct. cat’s-eye alexandrite shows off

its color change in fluorescent light (left) and
incandescent light (right). It also features a fine,
sharp eye.
386
SYNTHETIC CAT ’S-EYE CAT ’S-EYE ZOISITE

ALEXANDRITE
Variety Synthetic cat’s-eye alexandrite Cat’s-eye tanzanite—Light to medium-dark

bluish purple and violetish blue to violet
Species Synthetic chrysoberyl Zoisite
General observation Semitransparent. Bluish green Semitransparent to translucent. Usually green or Robert Weldon/GIA
in daylight or fluorescent light, violet-blue. Tanzanite variety is typically a medium- Cat’s-eye tanzanite is an
brownish red to purple-red in dark grayish violet-blue with a sharp chatoyant extremely rare zoisite variety.
incandescent light. Vitreous to band. Green material ranges from light to dark
subadamantine polish luster, bluish green to yellowish green. Vitreous polish
conchoidal fracture with luster, conchoidal to uneven fracture with vitreous
greasy to vitreous fracture fracture luster. Perfect cleavage in one direction.
luster. Displays chatoyancy.
RI 1.746 to 1.755 (+0.004/-0.006) 1.691 to 1.700 (+/-0.005) (1.69 spot reading

common)
Birefringence/doubling 0.008 to 0.010 (usually not 0.008 to 0.013 (usually not detectable on Shane McClure/GIA
detectable on cabochon) cabochon)
Parallel growth tubes produced
the chatoyancy in this green
SR/DR/AGG DR (AGG reaction possible) DR (AGG reaction possible) zoisite.
Optic character Biaxial positive Biaxial positive, if detectable
Pleochroism Strong green, orange, and Green zoisite is greenish yellow to greenish brown,
purple-red trichroism yellowish green, and bluish green to brownish
green. Tanzanite variety is usually strong blue,
purplish red, and greenish yellow, although
orientation to show a cat’s-eye might not show the
best pleochroic color.
Magnification Pulled synthetic—Needle-like Chatoyancy is a result of numerous parallel growth

inclusions, curved straie tubes. Two- and three-phase inclusions, finger-
Floating zone synthetic—Gas prints, needles, and solid mineral inclusions might
bubbles, swirled appearance also be present.
Spectrum Same as natural Green material might show broad absorption of the
violet and most of the blue portion of the spectrum
and weak to distinct bands at 660 nm and 680 nm.
Tanzanite variety might show bands at 455 nm,
528 nm, and 595 nm.
Fluorescence Moderate to strong red under Generally inert

LW and SW
SG 3.73 (+/-0.02) 3.35 (+0.10/-0.25)
Comments Magnification is the key test Key tests are RI, birefringence, optic character,
for separating synthetic and pleochroism. Chatoyant zoisite is extremely
from natural alexandrite. rare. Green cat’s-eye zoisite might strongly
Fluorescence might also be resemble cat’s-eye tourmaline of the same color.
helpful. RI and SG are usually enough to separate them.
387
DIOPSIDE
CAT ’S-EYE DIOPSIDE
Variety Cat’s-eye
Prism
Species Diopside
General observation Bluish green to yellowish green to dark green and black. Vitreous
505
polish luster, conchoidal to uneven fracture with vitreous to resinous
fracture luster. Perfect cleavage in two directions at nearly 90°
Diffraction

505
RI 1.675 to 1.701 (+0.029/-0.010) (1.68 spot reading common)
Diopside’s spectrum shows bands at 456 nm, Birefringence/doubling 0.024 to 0.030 (usually not detectable on cabochon except by
493 nm, and 505 nm. The 505-nm band is birefringence blink)
diagnostic for the gem.
CHROME DIOPSIDE
Optic character Biaxial positive, if detectable
Pleochroism Weak to strong light and dark green

Prism
Magnification Stubby, black, needle-like inclusions and metallic-looking inclusions
Spectrum Bands at 456 nm, 493 nm, and 505 nm. The 505-nm band is
diagnostic for the gem. Vivid green material might show a chrome-
Diffraction
type spectrum with lines at 505 nm, 508 nm, 635 nm, 655 nm, and
670 nm, and a cutoff in the blue around 450 nm.
Fluorescence Green stones might fluoresce green under LW, inert to SW
SG 3.29 (+0.11/-0.07)
Chrome diopside’s spectrum shows lines
at 505 nm, 508 nm, 635 nm, 655 nm, and Comments Key tests are RI and spectrum. Might show birefringence blink.
670 nm, and a cutoff in the blue area of the
spectrum around 450 nm.
Robert Weldon/GIA
The bodycolor of cat’s-eye

diopside is often dark in tone.
388
KORNERUPINE
CAT’S-EYE KORNERUPINE CAT ’S-EYE ENSTATITE
Variety Cat’s-eye Cat’s-eye
Prism
General observation Translucent to semitranslucent Semitransparent to opaque dark

yellowish to brownish green, reddish brown to brownish green
blue-green, yellow, brown, and yellowish green. Chatoyancy
Diffraction
and colorless (rare), with fairly common in dark green stones
chatoyancy. Some might show (six-rayed asterism also possible,
asterism. Vitreous polish luster, but very rare). Vitreous polish luster,
conchoidal fracture with uneven fracture with vitreous to
vitreous fracture luster. Perfect pearly fracture luster. Distinct
cleavage in two directions. cleavage in two directions.
Kornerupine’s spectrum shows bands at 446 nm
and 503 nm along with faint lines at 430 nm,
463 nm, and 540 nm. It’s best observed in the
RI 1.667 to 1.680 (+/-0.003) 1.663 to 1.673 (+/-0.010) (1.66 or gem’s green pleochroic direction
1.67 spot reading common)
Birefringence/doubling 0.012 to 0.017 (usually not 0.008 to 0.011 (usually not

detectable on cabochon) detectable on cabochon)
SR/DR/AGG DR (AGG reaction possible) DR (AGG reaction possible)
Optic character Biaxial negative, if detectable. Biaxial positive, if detectable

Might show a pseudo-uniaxial
interference figure.
Robert Weldon/GIA
Pleochroism Strong green, yellow, and red- Weak to strong green and yellowish Kornerupine can show fine-
quality chatoyancy.
brown trichroism typical for green or brown and yellow
brownish green stones ENSTATITE
Magnification Natural inclusions Stubby, black, needle-like inclusions

and metallic-looking inclusions
Prism
Spectrum Bands at 446 nm and 503 nm Key lines in the green at 505 nm
plus faint lines at 430 nm, 463 and 550 nm. Some strongly colored
505 550
nm, and 540 nm. green stones might show vague
chrome lines in the red.
Diffraction
Fluorescence Inert to strong yellow under Inert

LW and SW
505 550
SG 3.30 (+0.05/-0.03) 3.25 (+0.15/-0.02)
Comments Key tests are RI and spectrum. Key tests are RI, spectrum, and
Pleochroism, fluorescence, and fracture. Pleochroism and SG Of the many bands and lines in enstatite’s
SG might also be helpful. might also be helpful. spectrum, the most diagnostic ones are at
505 nm and 550 nm.
Eric Welch/GIA
Cat’s-eye enstatite often has

dark green bodycolor.
389
CAT’S-EYE SILLIMANITE CAT ’S-EYE PERIDOT
Species Sillimanite Peridot
General observation Translucent gray, green, or Yellowish green to greenish yellow

brown, with sharp cat’s-eye. to brownish green bodycolor. Weak
Commonly shows fibrous to fairly strong chatoyant band
appearance. Vitreous to silky caused by reflection from numerous
Shane McClure/GIA polish luster, uneven fracture tiny dark brown oriented inclusions.
Cat’s-eye sillimanite is trans- with vitreous to silky fracture An additional weaker ray might
lucent gray, green, or brown. If luster. Perfect cleavage in one appear at certain viewing angles,
present, its fibrous appearance direction. resulting in a four-rayed star with
can help you identify it. one prominent ray and one weak
one. Vitreous polish luster, con-
PERIDOT choidal fracture with vitreous to

Prism
RI 1.659 to 1.680 (+0.004/-0.006) 1.654 to 1.690 (+/-0.020) (1.65 to

453 497
1.69 spot reading)
477
Birefringence/doubling 0.015 to 0.021 (usually not 0.035 to 0.038 (usually 0.036)
Diffraction
detectable on cabochon) (usually not detectable on cabochon

except by birefringence blink)
453 497 SR/DR/AGG AGG DR

477
Optic character Not applicable Biaxial positive or negative, if

detectable (common point is usually
Peridot has a distinctive spectrum with
bands in the blue at 453 nm, 477 nm, and
almost halfway between the
497 nm. extremes)
Pleochroism None in translucent forms Weak yellow-green and green

dichroism noticeable only in dark
stones
Magnification Usually appears fibrous. Might Numerous tiny, very thin, dark
show long, straight needles brown inclusions (probably
throughout stone. ilmenite), oriented in specific
crystal directions
Spectrum Weak bands at 410 nm, 441 Narrow bands at 453 nm, 477 nm,
nm, and 462 nm and 497 nm
Peridot might show chatoyancy. SG 3.25 (+0.02/-0.11) 3.34 (+0.04/-0.07)

It’s caused by numerous tiny
brown oriented inclusions.
Comments Key tests are RI, SG, and Key tests are RI and spectrum.
fracture. Fibrous appearance Magnification, SG, and pleochroism
and spectrum might also be might also be helpful. Might show
helpful. Sometimes confused birefringence blink.
with jade.
390
YELLOW APATITE
CAT’S-EYE APATITE CAT ’S-EYE TOURMALINE
Prism
Species Apatite Tourmaline
General observation Usually bluish green to Can be almost any color, but
520 580
yellowish green, with a fairly commonly dark bluish green to dark
well-defined chatoyant band greenish blue. Chatoyancy caused
Diffraction
that generally rolls easily. by numerous parallel hollow tubes,
Vitreous polish luster, con- so it has a coarser, less-focused eye
choidal to uneven fracture with than cat’s-eye chrysoberyl. Vitreous
vitreous fracture luster. polish luster, conchoidal fracture
520 580

Yellow apatite shows a strong and distinctive
spectrum with two sets of fine lines. One set is
RI 1.634 to 1.638 (+0.012/-0.006) 1.624 to 1.644 (+0.011/-0.009) at 520 nm and the other is at 580 nm.
(1.63 spot reading common) (1.62 to 1.64 spot reading common)
Birefringence/doubling 0.002 to 0.008 (usually not Usually 0.018 to 0.020 (usually not
detectable on cabochon) detectable on cabochon)
SR/DR/AGG DR (AGG reaction possible) DR (AGG reaction possible)
Optic character Uniaxial negative, if Uniaxial negative, if detectable

detectable. Distorted optic
figures possible. Might appear
biaxial.
Mike Havstad/GIA
Pleochroism Weak to very weak Medium to strong, usually two The tubular inclusions that cause
tones of bodycolor the chatoyancy in apatite are
usually finer and less visible than
Magnification Tubular inclusions (generally Growth tubes, thread-like liquid and those in cat’s-eye tourmaline.
finer than in cat’s-eye gas inclusions (trichites), mirror-like
tourmaline) gas-filled fractures, color zoning
Spectrum Sets of fine lines at 520 nm Not diagnostic

and 580 nm
Fluorescence Green to greenish yellow, Variable. Some pink stones might

generally stronger under LW range from inert to weak red under
than SW LW and SW
SG 3.18 (+/-0.05) 3.06 (+0.20/-0.06)
Comments Key tests are RI, spectrum, Key tests are RI, pleochroism, and
fluorescence, and SG. SG. Magnification and fluorescence
Robert Weldon/GIA
Because the inclusions in cat’s-
eye tourmaline are larger than
those in cat’s-eye chrysoberyl, its
chatoyant band is coarser and
less focused.
391
CAT ’S-EYE ACTINOLITE CAT ’S-EYE BERYL
Variety Cat’s-eye Cat’s-eye emerald—Medium-light to

dark green, slightly yellowish green to
bluish green
Cat’s-eye aquamarine—Greenish blue
to blue-green, generally light in tone
Cat’s-eye morganite—Pink to purplish
pink, often light in tone
Cat’s-eye heliodor—Light toned
Cat’s-eye actinolite is usually greenish yellow to orangy yellow
translucent. Its chatoyancy is caused Other colors—Designate by color
by fibrous structure rather than by
inclusions as in tourmaline and apatite. Species Actinolite Beryl
General observation Usually translucent, but can be Various bodycolors, with chatoyancy.
semitransparent to opaque. Light to Vitreous polish luster, conchoidal
dark green, yellowish green, and fracture with vitreous to resinous
black. Cat’s-eyes usually green to fracture luster.
yellowish green. Vitreous polish
luster, uneven fracture with dull to
Typical cutting style Cabochons. Rare transparent Cabochons

material is cut for collectors.
Shane McClure/GIA RI 1.614 to 1.641 (+0.014) (1.63 spot 1.577 to 1.583 (+/-0.017)
Chatoyancy can be present in beryl of reading common)
any color, but cat’s-eye emerald is the
most valuable. Birefringence/doubling 0.022 to 0.027 in transparent 0.005 to 0.009 (usually not detectable
material. Use the birefringence on cabochon)
blink method on cabochons
(usually not detectable).
SR/DR/AGG AGG (cat’s-eye material almost DR (AGG reaction possible)

always AGG)
Optic character Biaxial positive, if detectable Uniaxial negative, if detectable
Pleochroism Moderate yellow and dark green in Weak to moderate

transparent stones
Magnification Parallel, fibrous structure Liquid, two-phase, or tubular inclusions.

Oriented tube-like channels, liquid
inclusions, and mineral platelets might
cause chatoyancy if the finished stone
is oriented correctly.
Spectrum Might show a faint line at 503 nm Not diagnostic
SG 3.00 (+0.10/-0.05) 2.72 (+0.18/-0.05)
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, bire- Key tests are RI, SG, and possibly
fringence blink, magnification, magnification.
and spectrum. AGG polariscope
reaction might help separate cat’s-
eye actinolite from cat’s-eye
apatite, which usually shows a DR
reaction.
392
CAT ’S-EYE SCAPOLITE
Variety Cat’s-eye
Species Scapolite
General observation Semitransparent to opaque. Typically white, pink, violet, yellow, or

reddish brown to brown, with a distinct, sharp eye. Some white,
pink, or violet material appears fibrous. Vitreous polish luster,
conchoidal fracture with vitreous fracture luster. Two cleavage Elizabeth Schrader/GIA
directions. Some cat’s-eye scapolite falls into the reddish
brown to brown range.
RI Typically 1.550 to 1.564 (+0.015/-0.014) (reddish brown and brown

gems might show 1.560 to 1.585, usually with a 1.57 spot reading)
Birefringence/doubling 0.005 to 0.038, commonly 0.005 to 0.020 (increases as RI increases,

but not usually detectable on cabochon). Some reddish brown to
brown stones might show birefringence blink (birefringence around
0.025).
Optic character Uniaxial negative, if detectable
Pleochroism None Wendi Mayerson/GIA
Needles, elongated platelets, and dendritic

Magnification White, pink, or violet stones might show the parallel rod-like cavities inclusions contribute to scapolite’s cat’s-eye.
that cause the cat’s-eye. In reddish brown and brown stones, oriented
black and orangy red needles, elongated platelets, or dendritic
inclusions cause the cat’s-eye and bodycolor.
Spectrum Not diagnostic, except in pink stones, which might show lines at 652
nm and 663 nm.
Fluorescence Inert to strong pink, orange, or yellow. Some reddish brown material
might be inert to LW and strong red under SW.
SG 2.68 (+0.06/-0.08)
Comments Key tests are RI and possibly magnification and fluorescence.

Reddish brown material might closely resemble cat’s-eye beryl. If
detectable, birefringence blink might help separate them.
393
CAT ’S-EYE QUARTZ HAWK ’S-EYE QUARTZ
Variety Cat’s-eye Hawk’s-eye
Species Quartz Quartz
General observation Semitransparent to translucent Semitranslucent to opaque grayish blue,

brownish yellow to brownish often dark in tone, with typical wavy
Robert Weldon/GIA green to green-yellow or gray, chatoyancy. Eye is same color as body.
with chatoyancy. Vitreous Chatoyancy display doesn’t require an
Fine inclusions cause the chatoyancy
in cat’s-eye quartz. It can be semi- polish luster, conchoidal intense light source and it might even show
transparent to translucent. fracture with vitreous fracture on a flat surface, like the base of a cabochon.
Semitransparent material gives a DR luster. Vitreous polish luster, splintery fracture with
reaction in the polariscope. vitreous to silky fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Cabochons Cabochons, beads, tablets, carvings
RI 1.544 to 1.553 (1.54 or 1.55 1.544 to 1.553 (1.54 or 1.55 spot reading)
spot reading)
Birefringence/doubling 0.009 (usually not detectable Usually not detectable

on cabochon)
SR/DR/AGG AGG if not too opaque to test AGG if not too opaque to test
Optic character Uniaxial positive, if detectable. Not applicable

Might show a bull’s-eye or
Maha Tannous/GIA Airy’s spiral optic figure.
Inclusions can produce chatoyancy
and color in otherwise colorless quartz. Magnification Straight, oriented, needle-like Eye-visible wavy, parallel, fibrous structure
inclusions is usually distinctive.
SG 2.66 (+0.03/-0.02) 2.66 (+0.03/-0.02)
Comments Key tests are RI, SG, and Key tests are color, appearance (especially
possibly birefringence. Cat’s- structure and wavy chatoyancy), and RI.
eye quartz is generally more
transparent than either tiger’s-
eye or hawk’s-eye quartz and
Terri Weimer/GIA usually gives a DR polariscope
The chatoyancy in hawk’s-eye reaction.
quartz is caused by its fibrous
structure. Its color is typically
gray to grayish blue.
394
TIGER ’S-EYE QUARTZ DYED TIGER ’S-EYE QUARTZ
Variety Tiger’s-eye Tiger’s-eye
Species Quartz Quartz
General observation Semitranslucent to opaque brownish Semitranslucent to opaque. Any color

yellow to brown to reddish brown, is possible, including gray, bright blue,
with wavy chatoyancy. Eye is same red, or green. Eye color different from
color as body. Chatoyancy display bodycolor.
Rio Grande
doesn’t require an intense light
source and it might even show on Tiger’s-eye cabochons can be cut in a
variety of shapes and sizes. Because
a flat surface, like the base of a the “eye” is a result of structure rather
cabochon. Vitreous polish luster, than inclusions, you can see the
splintery fracture with vitreous to phenomenon even on flat surfaces.
silky fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Cabochons, beads, tablets, carvings Cabochons, beads, tablets, carvings
RI 1.544 to 1.553 (1.54 or 1.55 spot 1.544 to 1.553 (1.54 or 1.55 spot
reading) reading)
SR/DR/AGG AGG if not too opaque to test AGG if not too opaque to test
Magnification Wavy, fibrous structure usually Dye concentrations along fibers

distinctive
SG 2.66 (+0.03/-0.02) 2.66 (+0.03/-0.02)
Comments Key tests are color, appearance Key tests are appearance and Eric Welch/GIA
(especially structure and wavy magnification. Dye concentrations and unnatural

chatoyancy), and RI. Heat treatment colors prove these tiger’s-eye quartz
can cause a dark, reddish brown cabochons were dyed.
color. Bright blue, red, or green
material is dyed. Look for dye
concentrations along the fibers.
395
CAT ’S-EYE ORTHOCLASE CAT ’S-EYE OBSIDIAN
Variety Cat’s-eye moonstone Cat’s-eye
Species Orthoclase Obsidian
General observation Semitransparent to opaque. Transparent to opaque natural

Typically colorless to white body- glass with chatoyancy. Gray to
color with billowy blue or white black, brown to brownish yellow,
adularescence and chatoyancy. orange or red, rarely green,
Terri Weimer/GIA
Vitreous polish luster, uneven to purple, or blue. Vitreous polish
Orthoclase moonstone can splintery fracture with vitreous luster, conchoidal fracture with
show both chatoyancy and to pearly fracture luster. Two vitreous fracture luster.
adularescence. cleavage directions, parting also
common.
Typical cutting style Cabochons Cabochons, beads
RI 1.518 to 1.526 (+0.010) (1.52 1.490 (+0.020/-0.010)

spot RI common)
Birefringence/doubling 0.005 to 0.008 (usually not None

detectable on cabochon)
SR/DR/AGG DR or AGG depending on SR, commonly with ADR (AGG

transparency reaction possible)
Optic character Biaxial negative, if detectable. Not applicable

Might show repeated twinning
Magnification Centipede-like inclusions Gas bubbles, stubby needle-like

inclusions. Might be banded or
have numerous oriented inclusions
that cause a sheen.
Fluorescence Generally inert to blue under LW, Generally inert

orange under SW. Might fluoresce
weak pink to red under LW and
SW.
SG 2.58 (+/-0.03) 2.40 (+0.10/-0.07)
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, and Key tests are RI, magnification,
magnification. Optic character, and SG. This gem is rare.
fluorescence, and SG might also
be helpful.
396
CAT ’S-EYE OPAL CAT ’S-EYE GLASS
Variety Cat’s-eye Not required
Species Opal Glass
General observation Translucent to opaque brownish Semitranslucent to opaque. Can be any

yellow to yellowish brown. color. Chatoyancy caused by bundles of
Chatoyancy caused by many parallel optic fibers.
parallel, fine to coarse, needle-
like inclusions. Might have an
attractive “milk and honey” effect.
Vitreous to resinous polish luster. Maha Tannous/GIA
Cat’s-eye opal is typically translucent

Typical cutting style Cabochons Cabochons, beads, spheres to opaque, with brownish yellow to
yellowish brown bodycolor.
RI 1.450 (+0.020/-0.080) (1.44 or Might be between 1.470 and 1.700, but
1.45 spot reading) often OTL
SR/DR/AGG SR, commonly with ADR due to SR with ADR, or AGG due to fiber-optic
strain (AGG reaction possible) structure
Magnification Needle-like inclusions, possibly Fiber-optic structure often appears as a

red-brown, and possibly parallel sheet-like reflection on cabochon base.
or grouped; patchy clouds; red- Long fibers are often hexagonal or square
brown staining along fractures in cross-section, giving a honeycomb effect. Mike Havstad/GIA
Gas bubbles, cavities on surface, and flow The RI range of cat’s-eye glass is
or swirl marks might also be visible. often higher than the RI range of non-
chatoyant glass.
Spectrum Not diagnostic, but there might Variable, not diagnostic
be a cutoff between 400 nm and
500 nm in orange and brownish
orange stones
Fluorescence Inert to LW, inert to weak red Variable, not diagnostic

under SW
SG 2.15 (+0.08/-0.90) Usually between 2.30 and 4.50
Comments Key tests are RI, SG, and Key tests are magnification and appear-
magnification. ance. Sold as “Cathaystone,” “Catseyte,”
or “Fiber-eye” in the trade.
Magnification often reveals a honey-
comb structure in cat’s-eye glass.
397
Key Separations for Cat’s-eye Gems

Cat’s-eye chrysoberyl from cat’s-eye opal RI, spectrum, SG
Cat’s-eye chrysoberyl from cat’s-eye quartz RI, spectrum
Cat’s-eye tourmaline from cat’s-eye apatite Appearance, RI, birefringence, pleochroism, magnification, spectrum
Cat’s-eye tourmaline from cat’s-eye actinolite Appearance, transparency, magnification, polariscope reaction, possibly
pleochroism
Cat’s-eye tourmaline from cat’s-eye zoisite RI, SG
Cat’s-eye tourmaline from cat’s-eye diopside Appearance, RI, magnification
Cat’s-eye tourmaline from cat’s-eye sillimanite Appearance, transparency, magnification, RI, birefringence blink,
possibly spectrum
Cat’s-eye diopside from cat’s-eye kornerupine RI, birefringence blink, possibly magnification and pleochroism
Cat’s-eye diopside from cat’s-eye enstatite Birefringence blink, possibly spectrum
Cat’s-eye kornerupine from cat’s-eye enstatite Birefringence blink, spectrum, possibly pleochroism
Cat’s-eye apatite from cat’s-eye actinolite Appearance, transparency, birefringence blink, polariscope reaction,
magnification, spectrum
Cat’s-eye apatite from cat’s-eye sillimanite Appearance, transparency, birefringence blink, polariscope reaction,
magnification, spectrum
Cat’s-eye actinolite from cat’s-eye sillimanite RI, possibly spectrum
Cat’s-eye scapolite from cat’s-eye beryl Possibly RI, SG, and birefringence blink
Cat’s-eye quartz from hawk’s-eye and tiger’s-eye Appearance of eye (fine needles rather than wavy chatoyancy),
quartz magnification
Tiger’s-eye from hawk’s-eye quartz Color
Dyed tiger’s-eye from tiger’s-eye quartz Color of eye, magnification
Cat’s-eye opal from cat’s-eye quartz RI, magnification, possibly birefringence and SG
Cat’s-eye glass from any other chatoyant material Magnification
398
IDENTIFYING PHENOMENAL GEMS: COLOR CHANGE
Alexandrite chrysoberyl displays striking color change from incandescent (top) to fluorescent
lighting (bottom).
COLOR-CHANGE GEMS
There’s a very special category of gems that change color when they’re exposed
to different types of light. Alexandrite chrysoberyl is the most familiar color-
change gem on the market, but other gem species also include color-change
varieties.
399
Color-change Gems
OTL Color-change CZ (synthetic cubic zirconia) Color-change glass

SR (Page 401)
1.762 to 1.770 (1.76 or 1.77 Corundum, color-change sapphire Synthetic color-change sapphire, color-change garnet, alexandrite,
spot reading) (Page 402) synthetic alexandrite, color-change spinel
DR
1.762 to 1.770 (1.76 or 1.77 Synthetic corundum, synthetic color- Color-change sapphire, color-change garnet, alexandrite, synthetic
spot reading) change sapphire alexandrite, color-change spinel
DR (Page 403)
1.750 to 1.780 Color-change garnet Color-change sapphire, synthetic color-change sapphire, alexandrite,
SR (Page 404) synthetic alexandrite, color-change spinel
1.746 to 1.755 Alexandrite chrysoberyl Color-change sapphire, synthetic color-change sapphire, color-
DR (Page 405) change garnet, synthetic alexandrite, color-change spinel
1.746 to 1.755 Synthetic alexandrite chrysoberyl Color-change sapphire, synthetic color-change sapphire, color-
DR (Page 406) change garnet, alexandrite, color-change spinel
1.718 Color-change spinel Color-change sapphire, synthetic color-change sapphire, color-

SR (Page 407) change garnet, alexandrite, synthetic alexandrite
1.470 to 1.700 range (color- Color-change glass Any color-change gem

change material often OTL) (Page 407)
SR
400
COLOR-CHANGE CZ
Variety Color change
Species CZ (synthetic cubic zirconia)
General observation Manufactured in a range of colors with a variety of color-change or

color-shift effects. Might display color change from bright yellowish
green in fluorescent light to brownish orange to orange under incan-
descent light. Other possibilities are brownish orange to reddish
orange, grayish violet to pinkish purple, and pale violet to purple
color shifts with change in lighting conditions. Subadamantine
polish luster, conchoidal fracture with subadamantine fracture luster.
Heft reveals that loose stones are heavier than most other transparent
gems of similar size. Negative reaction to diamond tester.
Dispersion 0.060 (strong fire—might be masked by bodycolor)
RI OTL
SR/DR/AGG SR
Magnification Generally inclusion free, but might contain unmelted zirconium

oxide and gas bubbles
Spectrum Variable, not diagnostic Both by Eric Welch/GIA
Color-change CZ might appear green

Fluorescence Variable, not diagnostic in fluorescent light (top) and brownish
orange in incandescent light (bottom).
SG 5.60 to 6.00
Comments Key tests are detection of color change, OTL RI reading, lack of
doubling, SG, and possibly fracture. Color-change CZ has greater
heft than OTL color-change glass. CZ is a manmade material with
no gem-quality natural counterpart.
401
NATURAL COLOR-CHANGE SAPPHIRE

COLOR-CHANGE SAPPHIRE
Variety Color-change sapphire

Prism
Species Corundum
General observation Transparent. Commonly pink-brown through brownish pink and

purple, very rarely reddish brown in incandescent light, changing to
yellowish brown, grayish violet, grayish blue, or very rarely green in
Diffraction
daylight and fluorescent light. Vitreous to subadamantine polish luster,


The spectrum of natural color-change corundum
often shows chromium lines in the red and Birefringence/doubling 0.008 to 0.010
iron-related lines at about 450 nm, 460 nm,
and 470 nm. SR/DR/AGG DR
Pleochroism Varies with bodycolor
Magnification Fingerprint and two-phase inclusions; dark red-brown crystals

(possibly rutile), needles, and other natural mineral crystal inclusions.
Might also show strong color zoning in yellow, green-blue, blue,
purple-pink, and brownish pink when viewed under incandescent
light.
Spectrum Typically combines features of ruby and pink sapphire (chromium

lines in the red) with iron-related lines at about 450 nm, 460 nm, and
470 nm. Might show a vanadium line at a position similar to the one
SG 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05)
Comments Key tests are detection of color change, RI, birefringence, and
magnification.
These sapphires show rare

color change from pale
browns and soft pinks in
incandescent light (top) to
shades of greenish blue in
daylight (bottom).
402
FLAME-FUSION SYNTHETIC COLOR-CHANGE

FLAME-FUSION SYNTHETIC COLOR-CHANGE SAPPHIRE SAPPHIRE
Variety Synthetic color-change sapphire
Prism
General observation Transparent. Typically purple in incandescent light and grayish blue
in daylight and fluorescent lighting. Vitreous to subadamantine 474
Diffraction

474

The spectrum of a flame-fusion synthetic color-
SR/DR/AGG DR change sapphire shows a cutoff around 460 nm
and a strong line at 474 nm. There’s also a faint,
Optic character Uniaxial negative broad absorption between 550 nm and 610 nm
as well as a fluorescent line in the red at 690 nm.
Pleochroism Grayish violet and pinkish brown
Magnification Gas bubbles, curved growth (striae)
Spectrum Cutoff at about 460 nm, strong line due to vanadium at 474 nm,
faint broad absorption between 550 nm and 610 nm, and possibly a
fluorescent line in the red at 690 nm
Fluorescence Moderate orange to red under LW and SW. Might fluoresce red
under LW and mottled blue under SW.
SG 4.00 (+0.10/-0.05)
Flame-fusion synthetic color-change sapphire
typically appears purple under incandescent
Comments Key tests are detection of color change, RI, birefringence, magnifica- light (left) and grayish blue under fluorescent
tion, and spectrum. light (right).
403
COLOR-CHANGE GARNET
COLOR-CHANGE GARNET
Variety Color-change
Prism
Species Pyrope-spessartite
Group Garnet
General observation Transparent. Wide variety of colors. Generally intense pink to red
Diffraction
under incandescent light and greenish yellow in daylight or fluores-

cent light. Some stones might be dark grayish violet or purple under
incandescent light and dark grayish greenish blue to almost violet
under daylight or fluorescent light. Vitreous to subadamantine polish
Color-change garnet’s spectrum might show Typical cutting style Faceted gems, cabochons
only a broad absorption centered on 571 nm.
Its spectrum might also be more complex, with RI 1.750 to 1.780
bands at 410 nm, 421 nm, and 430 nm that
can merge to form a cutoff at 435 nm, along Birefringence/doubling None
with some combinations of bands at 460 nm,
480 nm, 505 nm, 525 nm, and 575 nm. The
SR/DR/AGG SR with weak to strong ADR
575-nm band is broader and stronger in gems
with strong color change.
Pleochroism None
Magnification Oriented needles, solid mineral inclusions (probably dolomite,

graphite, spinel)
Spectrum Anything from a broad absorption centered on 571 nm to a more

complex spectrum with bands at 410 nm, 421 nm, and 430 nm, which
might merge to form a cutoff at 435 nm, plus some combination of
bands at 460 nm, 480 nm, 505 nm, 525 nm, and 575 nm. In gems
with strong color change, the 575-nm band is broader and stronger.
Fluorescence Inert
SG 3.88 to 3.91
Most color-change garnets are varieties of
pyrope-spessartite garnet. This color-change
Comments Key tests are RI, SR nature, magnification, and possibly spectrum.
“malaya” garnet is shown in incandescent light
(left) and fluorescent light (right). Lack of pleochroism helps separate garnet from alexandrite if RIs
are close.
404

ALEXANDRITE
Variety Alexandrite
Prism
Species Chrysoberyl
General observation Transparent. Color change from orangy or brownish red to purplish red
in incandescent light to yellowish, brownish, grayish, or bluish green in
daylight or fluorescent light. Vitreous to subadamantine polish luster,
Diffraction
RI 1.746 to 1.755 (+0.004/-0.006)
Birefringence/doubling 0.008 to 0.010 In the purple-red pleochroic direction,

alexandrite’s spectrum has strong lines in the
SR/DR/AGG DR red at 678 nm and 680.5; weaker ones at
645 nm and 655 nm; a broad absorption
Optic character Biaxial positive between 540 nm and 605 nm; weak lines in
the blue at 468 nm, 473 nm, and 476.5 nm;
and a cutoff in the violet.
Magnification Might show fingerprints, angular included crystals, liquid inclusions, ALEXANDRITE (GREEN DIRECTION)
needle-like inclusions, or twinning
Prism
Diffraction
Fluorescence Inert to moderate red under LW and SW

In the green pleochroic direction, alexandrite
SG 3.73 (+/-0.02)
Comments Key tests are detection of color change, RI, birefringence, pleochro- 655 nm, and 665 nm; a broad absorption
ism, and spectrum. Magnification separates natural from synthetic between about 555 nm and 640 nm; and a
alexandrite. Semitransparent to opaque alexandrite can also display a cutoff in the violet at about 470 nm.
cat’s-eye.
Both by Maha Tannous/GIA John Koivula/GIA John Koivula/GIA
This alexandrite shows a fine-quality color change, Natural alexandrite often contains Negative crystals are among The angular apatite
from reddish purple in incandescent light (left) to angular fluorite crystals that the clarity characteristics crystals in this
green in fluorescent light (right). can help you separate it from found in natural alexandrite. alexandrite identify it
synthetic material. as natural.
405
General observation Transparent. Brownish red to purple-red in incandescent light and

John Koivula/GIA
bluish green in daylight or fluorescent light. Vitreous to subadamantine
Flux-grown synthetic alexan- polish luster, conchoidal fracture with greasy to vitreous fracture
drite often contains hexagonal luster.
platinum platelets.
RI 1.746 to 1.755 (+0.004/-0.006)
SR/DR/AGG DR

The large brown flux inclusion
proves that this alexandrite is Pleochroism Strong green, orange, and purple-red trichroism
a flux-grown synthetic.
Magnification Flux synthetic—Veil-like inclusions, tubes or parallel planes of flux,
hexagonal or triangular metallic platelets, uniform straight or angular
growth lines
Pulled synthetic—Needle-like inclusions, curved straie, minute gas
bubbles
Floating zone synthetic—Gas bubbles, swirled appearance
Parallel growth features give a Fluorescence Moderate to strong red under LW and SW
venetian-blind effect in flux-
grown synthetic alexandrite. SG 3.73 (+/-0.02)
Semitransparent to translucent synthetic alexandrite can also display
a cat’s-eye.
Shane McClure/GIA
Pulled synthetic alexandrite

often displays curved growth
features.
406
COLOR -CHANGE SPINEL COLOR -CHANGE GLASS
Variety Color-change Not required
Species Spinel Glass
General observation Transparent. Medium-dark purple Transparent to opaque, almost any

under incandescent light and appearance possible. Look for mold
medium-dark violetish blue under marks, orange-peel effect, concave
daylight or fluorescent light. facets, rounded facet junctions. Warm
Vitreous to subadamantine polish to the touch compared to crystalline
luster, conchoidal fracture with gemstones. Vitreous polish luster,
vitreous fracture luster. conchoidal fracture with vitreous
fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Faceted gems, cabochons All styles. Can be faceted or molded to
a variety of shapes and finishes.
RI 1.718 (+0.017/-0.008) Usually between 1.470 and 1.700, but

can go to OTL Both by Eric Welch/GIA
This color-change glass

Birefringence/doubling None None appears purplish under
incandescent light (top) and
SR/DR/AGG SR SR with ADR green under fluorescent light
(bottom).
Magnification Natural mineral inclusions, negative Gas bubbles, cavities on surface, flow
crystals, fingerprints, needles marks (swirls)
Spectrum Diffuse band at 454 nm to 461 nm, Variable, not diagnostic

faint fluorescent line at 552 nm to
554 nm, and strong fluorescent line
at 686 nm. Features might be due
to a combination of cobalt and
chromium trace elements.
Fluorescence Moderate to strong chalky red Variable, not diagnostic

under LW, inert under SW
SG 3.60 (+0.10/-0.03) Usually between 2.30 and 4.50
Comments Key tests are detection of color Key tests are detection of color
change, RI, and SG. Lack of change, RI, and magnification. Low
doubling, polariscope reaction, lack thermal conductivity (warm to the
of pleochroism, and spectrum help touch) might also be helpful.
separate spinel from other color-
change gems. Rare.
407
Key Separations for Color-change Gems

Alexandrite chrysoberyl from synthetic alexandrite Magnification, possibly fluorescence
chrysoberyl
Alexandrite chrysoberyl from color-change sapphire Appearance of color change, RI, birefringence, spectrum, SG
Alexandrite chrysoberyl from synthetic color-change Appearance of color change, RI, birefringence, magnification, spectrum
sapphire
Color-change sapphire from synthetic color-change Magnification, spectrum, possibly fluorescence

sapphire
Color-change garnet from alexandrite and color-change Birefringence, spectrum, possibly RI

sapphire
Color-change glass from color-change garnet, alexan- RI (usually below 1.70), magnification
drite, and color-change sapphire
408
IDENTIFYING PHENOMENAL GEMS: PLAY-OF-COLOR, PLAY-OF-COLOR-LIKE EFFECTS, IRIDESCENCE, OR ORIENT
GEMS WITH PLAY-OF-COLOR, PLAY-OF-COLOR-LIKE

EFFECTS, IRIDESCENCE, OR ORIENT
Many gems react to light by dividing its spectrum into individual colors and
displaying the colors in a variety of patterns. Opal’s internal structure of stacked
spheres breaks light into sparkling rainbow colors in a display called play-of-color.
Thin layers in gems like natural and cultured pearls produce gentle iridescence
and its close relative, orient.
Because these effects are in demand in the gem market, you’ll also encounter
many imitations that require careful attention to detect.
Gems with Play-of-color, Play-of-color-like Effects, Iridescence, or Orient

1.888 (OTL) Iridescent andradite garnet Black opal

SR (usually too opaque to test) (Page 410)
1.535 to 1.539 (1.53 or 1.54 Iris agate Opal

AGG
1.535 to 1.539 (1.53 or 1.54 Fire agate Opal

1.530 to 1.685 Pearl Cultured pearl, mother-of-pearl, glass and plastic

1.530 to 1.685 Cultured pearl Pearl, mother-of-pearl, glass and plastic

1.530 to 1.685 Mother-of-pearl shell Pearl, cultured pearl, opal

AGG (Page 413)
1.520 to 1.680 Ammonite Opal, synthetic opal, glass and plastic opal imitations
AGG (Page 413)
1.450 Opal Andradite, iris agate, fire agate, mother-of-pearl, ammonite, sugar- and
SR (Page 414) smoke-treated opal, synthetic opal, glass and plastic opal imitations
1.450 Fire opal Synthetic opal, glass and plastic opal imitations
SR (Page 415)
1.440 to 1.450 Sugar-treated opal Opal

SR (Page 416)
1.380 to 1.390 Smoke-treated opal Opal

SR (Page 416)
1.430 to 1.470 range Synthetic opal Ammonite, opal, fire opal, glass and plastic opal imitations
SR (Page 417)
1.500 to 1.520 range Glass imitation opal Ammonite, opal, fire opal, synthetic opal, plastic imitation opal
SR (Page 418)
1.480 to 1.530 range Plastic imitation opal Ammonite, opal, fire opal, synthetic opal, glass opal imitations
SR (Page 418)
409
IRIDESCENT ANDRADITE GARNET IRIS AGATE FIRE AGATE
Variety Not required Iris agate Fire agate
Species Andradite Chalcedony Chalcedony
Group Garnet Not required Not required
General observation Semitranslucent to opaque, with Semitransparent to translucent, Semitranslucent to opaque, with
iridescent color in angled bands, with iridescent colors best seen iridescent colors against a dark reddish
parallel zones, or sometimes in a in thin slices with transmitted brown bodycolor. Botryoidal structure,
mosaic pattern against a dark brown or light. Greasy to vitreous polish which resembles a bunch of grapes.
black body. Vitreous to subadamantine luster, conchoidal fracture. Greasy to vitreous polish luster,
polish luster, conchoidal to uneven conchoidal fracture.
fracture with vitreous fracture luster.
Might show abrasions due to relatively
low hardness (Mohs 6.5 to 7).
Typical cutting style Cabochons, freeforms Slices Cabochons, freeforms
RI 1.888 (OTL) 1.535 to 1.539 (1.53 or 1.54 spot 1.535 to 1.539 (1.53 or 1.54 spot
reading) reading)
Birefringence/doubling None Usually not detectable (rarely Usually not detectable (rarely 0.004)
0.004)
SR/DR/AGG SR, often with ADR (usually too AGG AGG if not too opaque to test
opaque to test)
Magnification Iridescence in parallel bands or a Not diagnostic Not diagnostic

mosaic-like pattern
Spectrum Possibly a dark band at 440 nm Not diagnostic Not diagnostic
Fluorescence Inert Generally inert Generally inert
SG 3.84 (+/-0.03) 2.60 (+0.10/-0.05) 2.60 (+0.10/-0.05)
Comments Key tests are OTL RI reading, SG, and Key tests are RI, SG, and appear- Key tests are appearance, structure,
magnification. Appearance and spectrum ance in transmitted light. RI, and SG.
might also be helpful. This gem is rare.
Tino Hammid/GIA Robert Weldon
Andradite might show The iridescence of iris agate shows up best Fire agate is often fashioned in a
iridescence. It’s some- in transmitted light. freeform style to best display its
times confused with iridescence.
black opal, although
gemological properties
easily separate the two.
410
PEARL
Species Pearl
General observation Translucent to opaque. Might be almost any bodycolor, but usually
white or light yellow. Bodycolor might be modified by pink, green,
or blue overtone. Orient is most commonly seen on irregularly
shaped (baroque) pearls. Polish luster varies from dull to nearly
metallic, depending on nacre quality. Uneven fracture with pearly to
dull fracture luster.
RI 1.530 to 1.685

Robert Weldon/GIA
Magnification Not diagnostic Natural pearls might show orient,

especially in irregular shapes.
and SW. Naturally colored black pearls show weak to moderate red
to orangy red or brownish red under LW.
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, birefringence blink, and SG. Feels
feel smooth. Heft can separate natural pearl from plastic imitations.
X-radiography separates natural from cultured pearl.
411
CULTURED PEARL
from dull to nearly metallic, depending on nacre quality. Orient is
most commonly seen on irregularly shaped (baroque) pearls. Uneven
fracture with pearly to dull fracture luster.
shape. Color can range from neutral to near-neutral whites and
creams with rosé or green overtones, but can sometimes be yellow,
Robert Weldon/GIA pink (sometimes dyed), or blue.
Cultured pearls might show Tahitian (bead nucleated)—Typical size range 8 mm to 14 mm.
orient, especially in baroque Spherical, oval, button, drop, or baroque in shape (sometimes circled).
and circled shapes. Color can range from near-neutral silver, cream, or brown to black or
rosé overtone.
Spherical, near-round, oval, button, drop, or semi-baroque (sometimes
circled). Color can range from near-neutral white, cream, or silver to
yellow, yellowish orange, or blue, with green, blue, or rosé overtone.
grays, whites, and creams to yellows, pinks, and purples, with blue
RI 1.530 to 1.685
the bead under the nacre. Occasionally, if the nacre layer is very thin,
you can detect the “blinking” of the layers in the bead nucleus as you
roll a strand of pearls across a flat surface. Dyes might be detectable
at drill-holes or on silk strands close to drill-holes.
and SW. Naturally colored black pearls show weak to moderate red
to orangy red or brownish red under LW.
SG 2.72 to 2.78
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence blink, SG, and magnification. Feels
gritty when rubbed against a tooth, while both plastic and glass
Cultured pearls might be dyed, irradiated, or polymer impregnated.
Impregnation might be visible with magnification.
412
SHELL AMMONITE
Variety Mother-of-pearl Not required
Species Shell Ammonite
General observation Translucent to opaque white, Opaque gray to brown. Jewelry-quality

pinkish white, or gray with material displays spectral colors. Well-
orient. Cameos usually show preserved specimens show a spiral
concave backs due to the curved structure. Vitreous polish luster, uneven
nature of the shells they’re cut to granular fracture with greasy to dull
from. Greasy or pearly polish fracture luster.
luster, uneven to splintery frac- Robert Weldon/GIA
ture with dull fracture luster. The orient in mother-of-pearl shell
shows up best when the gem is
Typical cutting style Cameos, carvings, beads, cabo- Cabochons, freeforms, tablets. Also used carved.
chons, inlays in doublets and triplets.
RI 1.530 to 1.685 1.520 to 1.680 (varies with mineral

content)
Birefringence/doubling 0.155 (use birefringence blink Usually 0.155 (varies with mineral
method) content—use birefringence blink method)
SR/DR/AGG AGG AGG
Magnification Parallel banded structure Distinctive, often iridescent, mosaic

patterns
Maha Tannous/GIA
Spectrum Not diagnostic Not diagnostic Abalone shell, called paua, displays
colorful spectral patterns, making it
Fluorescence Variable, not diagnostic Variable, not diagnostic ideal for inlays, beads, and decorative
objects.
SG 2.86 (+0.03/-0.16) Usually about 2.70 (varies with mineral
content)
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, Key tests are appearance (including
birefringence blink, and magnifi- iridescence) and possibly RI. Ammonite is
cation. Items fashioned from the fossilized shell of an extinct nautilus-
abalone (paua) shell show intense like animal. It’s often polymer-impregnated
orient against a gray background. to make it more stable or improve its
appearance. Might be sold as “ammolite”
in the trade.
Maha Tannous/GIA
This ammonite section was impregnated

with a polymer to stabilize it and bring
out its display of spectral colors.
413
OPAL
Species Opal
General observation Colorless, white, gray, bluish gray, brown, or black, with or without
play-of-color. Sometimes fashioned to include rock matrix as backing
when opal layer is thin (boulder opal).Vitreous to resinous polish
luster, conchoidal to uneven fracture with subvitreous to waxy
fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Cabochons, freeforms, beads
RI 1.450 (+0.020/-0.080)
Eric Welch/GIA
SR/DR/AGG SR, commonly with ADR due to strain
Boulder opal incorporates rock matrix into
finished pieces to improve the durability of thin Magnification Possible play-of-color patterns include very small patches or dots
opal layers. (pinfire); large areas that flash predominately one color as the gem
is moved (flash); or even, distinct patches with a “brush-stroke”
appearance (harlequin). There might also be areas that lack play-of-
color or that contain mineral inclusions or patches of rock matrix.
(Play-of-color in synthetic opal tends to be much more regular.)
Fluorescence Inert to white to moderate light blue, green, or yellow under LW and
SW. Might also phosphoresce.
SG 2.15 (+0.08/-0.90)
Comments Key tests are appearance (play-of-color), RI, and fluorescence.

Magnification and phosphorescence (if present) might also be
helpful. In some natural opals, dehydration causes a network of fine
cracks called crazing. Some natural opal is polymer impregnated to
Eric Welch/GIA Eric Welch/GIA Tino Hammid/GIA

Play-of-color is a distinctive Contra luz opals have play- White opal is often seen as
opal characteristic. of-color against a slightly freeform carvings.
milky background.
414
FIRE OPAL
Species Opal
General observation Transparent to semitranslucent yellow, red, orange-red, or orange.

Might show play-of-color. Vitreous to resinous polish luster,
conchoidal to uneven fracture with subvitreous to waxy fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Faceted gems, cabochons, freeforms
RI 1.450 (+0.020/-0.080) (Generally between 1.420 and 1.430, but Eric Welch/GIA
might read as low as 1.370) Fire opal sometimes shows play-of-
color along with its unique bodycolor.
SR/DR/AGG SR, commonly with ADR due to strain
Magnification Might show patches of play-of-color or mineral inclusions
Fluorescence Inert to moderate greenish brown under LW and SW. Might

phosphoresce.
SG 2.15 (+0.08/-0.09)
Comments Key tests are appearance (play-of-color, if present), RI, magnifica-

tion, and fluorescence.
415
SUGAR -TREATED OPAL SMOKE -TREATED OPAL
Species Opal Opal
General observation Opaque, uniform black bodycolor. Resembles black opal, with a dark brown
Polish often less lustrous than mottled appearance and unnatural play-of-
naturally colored black opal. color. Turns black when moisture is
Patchy or spotty play-of-color. applied to the surface, but blackness goes
away when moisture dries. Surface
Both by Shane McClure/GIA damages very easily.
Sugar-treated opals display speckled
colors against a black background. Typical cutting style Cabochons, carvings Cabochons, carvings
RI 1.44 to 1.45 spot RI (generally Generally 1.380 to 1.390

lower than untreated black opal)
SR/DR/AGG SR SR
Magnification Black carbon particles visible Surface indents when a pointer probe
in and around patches of gem is pressed gently against it. Chipped
opal or filling voids in the surfaces reveal whitish opal beneath the
Smoke-treated opals typically show surrounding matrix. Play-of-color thin surface treatment.
a dark, broad texture under generally appears in a mosaic
magnification. pattern near the surface of the
stone. Chipped surfaces reveal
whitish opal beneath the thin
surface treatment.
SG 1.98 to 2.05 (generally lower Generally lower than untreated black opal
than untreated black opal)
Comments Key tests are appearance, Key tests are appearance, magnification,
magnification, RI, and possibly RI, and possibly SG.
SG.
416
SYNTHETIC OPAL
General observation Semitransparent to opaque. Typically displays play-of-color against

white, gray, black, or colorless background, but almost any bodycolor
is possible including orangy red, pink, green, or blue. Material with
vivid bodycolor might be polymer impregnated. Newer untreated
(not polymer impregnated) colorless synthetic opal is much more
transparent than previously produced material and closely resembles
natural “jelly” opal. Conchoidal to uneven fracture with subvitreous
fracture luster.
Tino Hammid/GIA
Typical cutting style Cabochons, carvings, beads Synthetic opals like these can look the
same as natural opal and have some of
RI 1.430 to 1.470 the same properties, but magnification
and sometimes fluorescence can
Birefringence/doubling None separate them.

Spectrum Some colors of both untreated and polymer-impregnated synthetic

opals show bands at 550 nm and 580 nm.
Fluorescence Typically moderate bluish white to yellow under LW, weak to strong
Eric Welch/GIA
blue to bluish white to yellow under SW. Phosphorescence is rare
and weak if present. Polymer-impregnated synthetic opal comes in a
variety of colors.
Newer production of untreated synthetic opal:
Colorless and white—Very weak to weak chalky blue under both
LW and SW, slightly stronger reaction to SW
Orange—Very weak red under both LW and SW (stronger under
SW)
Black—Inert to both LW and SW
Polymer-impregnated synthetic opal:
Purplish pink to orangy pink—Weak to strong orangy pink under
LW, weak to moderate orangy pink under SW
Reddish orange—Moderate pink-orange under LW, weak to moderate
pink-orange under SW
Orangy yellow—Weak yellow under LW, moderate to strong orangy
Terri Weimer/GIA
yellow under SW
Dark brown—Moderate orange under both LW and SW This polymer-impregnated synthetic
opal shows a columnar structure.
Blue to grayish blue—Inert to very weak blue under both LW and
This is a typical characteristic of all
SW synthetic opals.
White—Weak purplish blue under LW, moderate blue under SW
Gray—Very weak greenish yellow under LW, weak greenish yellow
under SW
Black—Inert to LW, very weak orange under SW

to 1.91. Newer untreated red to orange, white to colorless, and gray to
black synthetic opal is closer to natural opal, at 2.22 to 2.27.

opal has a considerably lower SG than most natural opal and is often This Gilson synthetic opal displays
polymer impregnated to make it more stable. play-of-color along with characteristic
snakeskin structure.
417
GLASS IMITATION OPAL PLASTIC IMITATION OPAL
General observation Resembles opal. Conchoidal Similar in appearance to natural opal.

fracture with vitreous fracture luster. Generally translucent bluish white.
Conchoidal fracture with vitreous to
waxy fracture luster. Due to low
hardness (Mohs 2.5), gentle pressure
Terri Weimer/GIA
with a needle or pin will cause an
indentation in its surface.
Glass can be used to imitate
opal, but it doesn’t have true
play-of-color. Typical cutting style Cabochons Cabochons (molded)
RI 1.500 to 1.520 1.480 to 1.530
SR/DR/AGG SR with ADR SR
Magnification Gas bubbles. Often contains multi- Often not diagnostic

colored, iridescent, metallic foil
inclusions that resemble cellophane
Terri Weimer/GIA in transmitted light.
Glass imitation opal—sometimes
called Slocum Stone—can come Spectrum Not diagnostic Not diagnostic
in any color, including black.
Fluorescence Variable Strong, chalky, bluish white under
LW, weaker under SW. Does not
phosphoresce.
SG Generally 2.41 to 2.50 1.20
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, and Key tests are RI and SG. Fluorescence
magnification. Might be called might also be helpful.
Slocum Stone in the trade. Some
glass imitation opals appear to be
manufactured with layers of differ-
The metallic flakes that imitate
ently colored glass. They might
opal’s play-of-color in a glass
imitation are visible in resemble opal doublets. However,
transmitted light. both layers should contain gas
bubbles.
Maha Tannous/GIA
These “opalite” triplets are made with a plastic

imitation opal that has true play-of-color.
418
Key Separations for Gems with Play-of-color, Play-of-color-like Effects, Iridescence, or Orient
Fire agate from opal Appearance, RI, magnification, SG, possibly fluorescence
Natural from cultured pearl Magnification (if structure is visible at drill-hole), possibly blinking and
advanced testing
Natural or cultured pearl from glass or plastic Birefringence blink, magnification, structure, possibly RI
Natural or cultured pearl from mother-of-pearl Shape, structure
Opal from synthetic opal Magnification, possibly fluorescence and phosphorescence
Opal from glass imitation opal RI, magnification, possibly SG
Opal from plastic imitation opal RI, SG, possibly fluorescence
419
GEMS WITH ADULARESCENCE, LABRADORESCENCE,

OR AVENTURESCENCE
Some gems create phenomenal effects by scattering light. Adularescence gives
moonstone a cloudy bluish white light. Labradorescence—seen in labradorite
feldspar—is a broad color flash that shifts with the gem’s movements.
Aventurescence is a glittery effect caused by light reflecting from a gem’s small,
flat inclusions. These effects create unusual, attractive gems that appeal to many
sophisticated consumers.
Gems with Adularescence, Labradorescence, or Aventurescence

1.563 to 1.572 Sunstone labradorite feldspar Aventurine quartz, iolite, sunstone oligoclase, goldstone glass and
DR (Page 421) plastic
1.559 to 1.568 Labradorite feldspar Sheen obsidian

1.559 to 1.568 (1.56 spot Moonstone labradorite feldspar Moonstone orthoclase

reading) (“rainbow” moonstone)
1.544 to 1.553 Aventurine quartz Sunstone labradorite, dyed quartzite, iolite, sunstone oligoclase,
AGG (Page 422) goldstone glass and plastic
1.544 to 1.553 Dyed quartzite Aventurine quartz

AGG (Page 423)
1.542 to 1.551 Bloodshot iolite Sunstone labradorite, aventurine quartz, sunstone oligoclase,
DR (Page 423) goldstone glass and plastic
1.539 to 1.547 Sunstone oligoclase feldspar Sunstone labradorite, aventurine quartz, iolite, sunstone orthoclase,
DR or AGG (Page 424) goldstone glass and plastic
1.518 to 1.526 Moonstone orthoclase feldspar Moonstone labradorite

1.518 to 1.526 Sunstone orthoclase Sunstone oligoclase

1.490 Sheen obsidian Labradorite, goldstone glass and plastic

SR (Page 425)
1.470 to 1.700 range Goldstone glass Sunstone labradorite, aventurine quartz, iolite, sunstone oligoclase,
SR (Page 426) sheen obsidian
1.460 to 1.700 range Goldstone plastic Sunstone labradorite, aventurine quartz, iolite, sunstone oligoclase,
SR (Page 426) sheen obsidian
420
IDENTIFYING PHENOMENAL GEMS: ADULARESCENCE, LABRADORESCENCE, OR AVENTURESCENCE
LABRADORITE LABRADORITE
Variety Sunstone (when aventurescence is Not required

present)
Species Labradorite Labradorite
Group Feldspar Feldspar

Maha Tannous/GIA
General observation Oregon material (rare) ranges from Translucent to opaque. Typically gray The aventurescence in sunstone
pale pinkish orange and pink to to nearly black, with labradorescent labradorite feldspar is usually
moderate and strongly saturated colors (typically green and blue) caused by copper inclusions.
reddish orange, red orange, and visible at certain viewing angles.
deep red. Red and green bicolor Vitreous polish luster, uneven to
gems exist, but are extremely rare. splintery fracture with vitreous to
Often displays aventurescence. pearly fracture luster. Two cleavage
Vitreous polish luster, uneven to directions, parting also common.
splintery fracture with vitreous to
pearly fracture luster. Two cleavage
Typical cutting style Faceted gems, cabochons, carvings Faceted gems, cabochons
RI 1.559 to 1.568 (+/-0.005); Oregon 1.559 to 1.568 (+/-0.005)

Robert Weldon/GIA
material generally 1.563 to 1.572
Numerous copper inclusions are visible
in this sunstone labradorite feldspar.
SR/DR/AGG DR DR or AGG, depending on transparency
Optic character Biaxial positive (often shows Biaxial positive

twinning in the polariscope)
Pleochroism Oregon material might show very None

strong red and green pleochroism. If
properly oriented, a faceted gem
might appear uniformly red when
viewed from one side and green
when examined from the other.
Magnification Oregon material contains tiny orangy Repeated twinning, black needle-like Terri Weimer/GIA
yellow copper platelets, often visible inclusions, metallic-looking platelets This labradorite feldspar shows
even in facet-grade material at 10X. a multicolored flash that’s
If these are numerous enough, mostly blue, green, and yellow.
aventurescence occurs.
Fluorescence Inert Inert to weak patchy white under LW

and SW
SG 2.70 (+/-0.05); Oregon material 2.70 (+/-0.05)

Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence, Key tests are appearance of phenome-
optic character, and magnification. non, RI, birefringence, optic character,
Material from Oregon is sold in the and magnification.
trade as “sunstone” even though not Terri Weimer/GIA
every stone displays eye-visible This labradorite feldspar rough

aventurescence. shows broad flashes of blue
labradorescence.
421
MOONSTONE LABRADORITE AVENTURINE QUARTZ
Variety Moonstone Aventurine
Species Labradorite Quartz
General observation Strong blue or multicolor sheen Translucent to opaque green (due to
against almost transparent, semi- inclusions); rarely gray, yellow, or
transparent, or semitranslucent brown; with aventurescence. Vitreous
Robert Weldon/GIA body. Vitreous polish luster, uneven polish luster, granular to conchoidal
This nearly transparent labradorite to splintery fracture with vitreous to fracture with vitreous fracture luster.
shows a blue sheen. This gem is pearly fracture luster. Two cleavage
sometimes called “rainbow directions. Parting also common.
moonstone.”
RI 1.559 to 1.568 (1.56 spot reading 1.544 to 1.553

common)
Birefringence/doubling 0.009 Might not be detectable
SR/DR/AGG DR or AGG depending on trans- AGG

parency

Eric Welch/GIA
Aventurine quartz is usually translucent Pleochroism None None

to opaque green with attractive
aventurescence. Magnification Polysynthetic twinning, tiny color- Tiny, randomly distributed, green,
less inclusions disk-like chrome mica (fuchsite) flakes
or platelets
Spectrum Not diagnostic Green material shows bands at approx-

imately 649 nm and 682 nm, probably
due to mica inclusions. Other colors
not diagnostic.
Fluorescence Moderate chalky blue under LW, Inert to weak grayish green or reddish
weak pinkish orange under SW under LW and SW
SG 2.69 2.66 (+0.03/-0.02)
William Videto/GIA Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, Key tests are RI, magnification,
Chrome mica inclusions cause the fracture, fluorescence, and possibly spectrum, fluorescence, and SG.
aventurescence in aventurine quartz. birefringence. Might be called
They’re visible under magnification and “rainbow moonstone” in the trade.
sometimes with the unaided eye.
422
DYED QUARTZITE BLOODSHOT IOLITE
Variety Quartzite Not required
Species Quartz Iolite
General observation Translucent to opaque. Transparent to opaque. Violetish blue

Might be dyed any color. through slightly violetish blue with red,
Might show aventurescence plate-like hematite inclusions. Small stones
Maha Tannous/GIA
caused by crystal faces of the generally look grayish. Might also occur in
aggregate, not by inclusions, colorless, yellowish white, green, gray, or Quartzite is often dyed to imitate
jadeite. It might be confused with
as with aventurine quartz. brown, but these varieties are seldom used
aventurine quartz because its surface-
Granular to conchoidal fracture as gems. Usually strong, eye-visible reaching fractures can glitter like
with vitreous fracture luster. pleochroism. Vitreous polish luster, uneven aventurescence.
to conchoidal fracture with vitreous fracture
luster. Distinct cleavage in one direction.
Typical cutting style Cabochons, beads, tumbled Faceted gems, cabochons

pieces
RI 1.544 to 1.553 1.542 to 1.551 (+0.045/-0.011)
Birefringence/doubling Usually not detectable 0.008 to 0.012 (usually not detectable)
SR/DR/AGG AGG DR
Dyed quartzite shows dye con-
centrations in surface-reaching
Optic character Not applicable Biaxial negative
fractures. This feature can help
you separate it from aventurine
Pleochroism None Might show trichroism. quartz, but the mica inclusions in
Violet stones—Light violet, dark violet, and aventurine can break the surface,
yellow-brown so careful examination is required.
Blue stones—Colorless to yellow, blue-gray,
and dark violet
Magnification Dye concentrations in surface- Red plate-like inclusions

reaching cracks and fractures
Spectrum Cutoff at around 450 nm, band Weak bands at 426 nm and 645 nm
between approximately 630 nm (generally not diagnostic)
and 660 nm in dyed green
material
Fluorescence Generally inert Inert Robert Weldon/GIA
The aventurescence displayed by

SG 2.66 (+0.03/-0.02) 2.61 (+/-0.05) bloodshot iolite is caused by red
plate-like hematite inclusions.
Comments Key tests are RI, magnifica- Key tests are appearance, RI, birefringence,
tion, and possibly spectrum. optic character, pleochroism, and
Record both the required magnification.
treatment call and the variety
on the variety line of your
GIA worksheet.
423
OLIGOCLASE ORTHOCLASE MOONSTONE
Variety Sunstone (when aventurescence is Moonstone

present)
Species Oligoclase Orthoclase
Group Feldspar Feldspar
Terri Weimer/GIA
General observation Semitransparent to opaque yellow to Semitransparent to opaque, typically
Sunstone oligoclase feldspar is orange or brown, with a reddish or colorless to white, but can be orange,
less transparent than sunstone golden sheen from highly reflective yellow, or brown. Displays adulares-
labradorite feldspar.
inclusions. Called sunstone feldspar cence, sometimes also with chatoyancy
if inclusions are large enough to or asterism. Vitreous polish luster,
create distinct, glittery reflections. uneven to splintery fracture with
Vitreous polish luster, uneven to vitreous to pearly fracture luster.
splintery fracture with vitreous to Two cleavage directions, parting also
pearly fracture luster. Two cleavage common.
RI 1.539 to 1.547 (+0.004/-0.006) 1.518 to 1.526 (+0.010)
Terri Weimer/GIA Birefringence/doubling 0.007 to 0.010 0.005 to 0.008

Moonstone orthoclase feldspar
commonly has a colorless to near- SR/DR/AGG DR or AGG depending on DR or AGG depending on transparency
colorless bodycolor with blue or white transparency
adularescence.
Optic character Biaxial negative Biaxial negative (might show repeated
twinning under crossed polarizing
filters)
Pleochroism Usually none None
Magnification Reddish to golden metallic platelets, Centipede inclusions

probably hematite
Magnification commonly reveals Fluorescence Generally inert Inert to blue under LW, orange under
centipede inclusions in moonstone SW. Might fluoresce weak pink to red
orthoclase feldspar. under LW and SW.
SG 2.65 (+0.02/-0.03) 2.58 (+/-0.03)
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, Key tests are RI, optic character
birefringence, optic character, and (biaxial interference figure in
magnification. As physical proper- polariscope), and magnification.
ties of aventurescent oligoclase and Fluorescence and SG might also be
orthoclase feldspar overlap, advanced helpful.
testing might be needed to separate
them. Presence of adularescence
indicates orthoclase.
424
ORTHOCLASE SUNSTONE SHEEN OBSIDIAN
Species Orthoclase Obsidian
General observation Semitransparent to opaque reddish brown Transparent to opaque natural

Maha Tannous/GIA
with aventurescence due to eye-visible, glass with a sheen. Gray to
plate-like inclusions. Might also show a black, often spotted with white This 14.77-ct. orthoclase sunstone
distinct four-rayed star along with silvery (“snowflake” obsidian). Also cabochon shows strong asterism as
well as aventurescence.
adularescence. If oriented to show a star brown to brownish yellow,
across the top of the cabochon, adulares- rarely purple or blue. Vitreous
cence will appear parallel to the girdle polish luster, conchoidal
edge. Vitreous polish luster, uneven to fracture with vitreous fracture
splintery fracture with vitreous to pearly luster.
fracture luster. Two cleavage directions.
Parting also common.
RI 1.518 to 1.526 (+0.010) (1.52 spot reading 1.490 (+0.020/-0.010)

common) Shane McClure/GIA
The aventurescence in orthoclase sun-

Birefringence/doubling 0.005 to 0.008 None stone is caused by a mass of needles
and elongated hematite inclusions.
SR/DR/AGG DR or AGG depending on transparency SR, commonly with ADR
Optic character Biaxial negative. Might show repeated Not applicable

Magnification Aventurescent material contains two sets Gas bubbles, stubby needle-
of reflective inclusions (fine needles and like inclusions. Might be
elongated hematite flakes). If they intersect banded. Sheen caused by
at near 90° angles, they give rise to a star. numerous oriented inclusions.

Eric Welch/GIA
Fluorescence Inert to both LW and SW Generally inert Sheen obsidian often has gray to black
bodycolor. The sheen can appear in a
SG 2.58 (+/-0.03) 2.40 (+0.10/-0.07) variety of colors.
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, and magnifi- Key tests are RI, magnifica-
cation. Optic character, fluorescence, and tion, and SG
SG might also be helpful. As physical
properties of aventurescent orthoclase and
oligoclase feldspar overlap, advanced
testing might be needed to separate them.
Presence of adularescence indicates
orthoclase.
425
GOLDSTONE GLASS GOLDSTONE PLASTIC
Variety Goldstone Not required
General observation Transparent to opaque, with aven- Translucent to opaque, with aventures-
turescence. Usually brown or blue, cence. Look for mold marks,
but might be any color. Filled with orange-peel effect, concave facets,
Terri Weimer/GIA
tiny copper platelets. Warm to the rounded facet junctions. Warmer to
The goldstone glass at left and touch compared to crystalline the touch than glass imitations and
the goldstone plastic at right are gemstones. Vitreous polish luster, crystalline gemstones. Low heft (SG),
popular sunstone imitations.
conchoidal fracture with vitreous dull to waxy polish luster, conchoidal
fracture luster. fracture with waxy to vitreous fracture
scratches due to low hardness (Mohs
1.5 to 3).
Typical cutting style Cabochons, beads, tablets, tumbled All styles. Can be molded to a variety
stones of shapes and finishes.
RI Usually between 1.470 and 1.700, 1.460 to 1.700

but can go to OTL
Mike Havstad/GIA
Magnification reveals triangular Birefringence/doubling None None

inclusions of copper in goldstone glass.
SR/DR/AGG SR with ADR SR, commonly with strong ADR
Magnification Multitudes of brownish triangular Gas bubbles, flow lines, metallic

or hexagonal copper platelets that inclusions that look like foil strips
produce aventurescence. Gas
bubbles, cavities on surface, flow
marks (swirls).

Terri Weimer/GIA
Metallic inclusions create the Fluorescence Variable, not diagnostic Variable, not diagnostic
glittery effect in this plastic sunstone
imitation. SG Usually between 2.30 and 4.50 Usually around 2.10 due to presence
of metallic inclusions
Comments Key tests are appearance, RI, Key tests are appearance, RI, and
and magnification. Low thermal magnification. Low heft (SG) and low
conductivity (warm to the touch) thermal conductivity (warm to the
might also be helpful. touch) might also be helpful.
426
SEPARATING PHENOMENAL GEMS: ADULARESCENCE, LABRADORESCENCE, OR AVENTURESCENCE
Key Separations for Gems with Adularescence, Labradorescence, or Aventurescence

Labradorite from sheen obsidian RI, SG, possibly magnification
“Rainbow” (labradorite) moonstone from orthoclase Appearance, RI

moonstone
Aventurine quartz from aventurine feldspar Color, magnification, possibly RI
Aventurine quartz from dyed quartzite Magnification, possibly spectrum
Sunstone feldspar from goldstone glass Appearance, magnification, optic character, possibly RI
Orthoclase sunstone from oligoclase sunstone Presence of adularescence indicates orthoclase. Advanced testing might
be necessary to separate orthoclase from oligoclase.
427
IDENTIFYING GLASS, PLASTIC, ASSEMBLED
STONES, ROUGH GEMS, AND SYNTHETIC
CRYSTALS
Identifying Glass and Plastic 429

Glass 430
Plastic 435
Identifying Assembled Stones 437

RI Charts 438
Identifying Natural Rough Gems 448

Describing Natural Crystals and
Rough Gems 449
Common Natural Rough Gems Chart 451
Identifying Synthetic Crystals 469

Describing Synthetic Crystals and
Growth Processes 471
Common Synthetic Crystals Chart 472
Eric Welch/GIA
Glass and plastic can effectively imitate a wide variety of gems. These glass beads make up a convincing imitation of a pearl necklace.
IDENTIFYING GLASS AND PLASTIC

Manmade glass and plastic are materials that can effectively imitate almost any
gem. For this reason, it’s always important to consider them as gem identification
possibilities. Natural glasses such as moldavite and obsidian are also attractive
gem materials that are sometimes used in jewelry.
The RI and SG ranges for glass and plastic are similar to the same properties
in many natural gems. They never completely duplicate a gem’s optical or
physical properties or its internal characteristics, however, so you should always
be able to separate these materials with careful testing, including the use of
magnification.
429
MOLDAVITE
Species Moldavite
General observation Transparent to translucent. Medium to dark yellowish to grayish

green, generally low in saturation. Vitreous polish luster, conchoidal
fracture with vitreous fracture luster.
Typical cutting style Cabochons, beads, faceted gems, rough pieces
RI 1.490 (+0.020/-0.010)
SR/DR/AGG SR, commonly with ADR
Magnification Round and elongated gas bubbles, flow lines, roiled effect
Eric Welch/GIA
The surface of moldavite rough is typically
bumpy and pockmarked.
SG 2.36 (+/-0.04)
Comments Key tests are RI, SR nature, magnification, and SG. Color might also
be helpful. Moldavite is a type of natural glass
John Koivula/GIA Eric Welch/GIA

Natural moldavite glass commonly contains Moldavite is generally green,
round, high-relief gas bubbles. with low saturation. Transparent
specimens are often faceted.
430
OBSIDIAN
Species Obsidian
General observation Transparent to opaque natural glass, sometimes with a sheen or

iridescence. Gray to black, often spotted with white (“snowflake”
obsidian), brown to brownish yellow, orange or red; rarely green,
purple, or blue. Vitreous polish luster, conchoidal fracture with
Typical cutting style Beads, cabochons, carvings, tumbled pieces
RI 1.490 (+0.020/-0.010)
SR/DR/AGG SR, commonly with ADR

Terri Weimer/GIA
Magnification Gas bubbles, stubby needle-like inclusions. Might be banded or have
Obsidian can be transparent to
a sheen caused by numerous oriented inclusions. opaque and commonly occurs in solid
dark gray. It might be tumbled or cut
Spectrum Not diagnostic into beads, cabochons, or carvings.
SG 2.40 (+0.10/-0.07)
Comments Key tests are RI, SR nature, SG, and possibly magnification.
Obsidian is a type of natural glass.
Robert Weldon/GIA Eric Welch/GIA
“Snowflake” obsidian has white patches on Sheen obsidian’s sheen is

gray to black bodycolor. caused by many oriented
inclusions.
431
BLUE GLASS
GLASS
Species Glass
Prism
General observation Transparent to opaque, almost any appearance and color possible.
Look for mold marks and concave facets with slightly pitted and
535 635 uneven surfaces (the orange-peel effect). You might also see rounded
590 facet junctions, but this feature is also possible on most natural gems.
Warm to the touch compared to crystalline gemstones. Vitreous polish
Diffraction
luster, conchoidal fracture with vitreous fracture luster. Facet edges

often abraded due to low hardness (Mohs 5 to 6).
535 635 Typical cutting style All styles. Can be faceted or molded to a variety of shapes and finishes.
590
Dispersion Variable. High-lead glass (0.041 dispersion value) might show

The spectrum of blue glass colored by cobalt moderate fire.
shows bands at 535 nm, 590 nm, and 635 nm.
The central 590-nm band is thinner than the RI Usually between 1.470 and 1.700, but chatoyant glass is often over
two outer ones. 1.700 and high-lead glass can go to OTL
SR/DR/AGG Can be SR, SR with ADR, or AGG. Transparent material often shows
strong ADR in the form of snake-like bands and might even give a false
DR reaction during the polariscope confirmation test. Translucent-to-
semitranslucent material often shows an AGG reaction.
Pleochroism None (absence of pleochroism can help confirm SR nature in case of

false DR reaction with the polariscope)
Magnification Often contains gas bubbles, which might be spherical, oval, elongated,
tubular, or even drawn out and appear to have tails. Cutting through
gas bubbles during fashioning leaves semicircular cavities on the
finished surface. Flow marks (swirls) and patchy color distribution are
also typical.
Tino Hammid/GIA
Spectrum Mostly not diagnostic, except for blue glass colored by cobalt, which
Glass is a versatile material that can effectively produces bands at 535 nm, 590 nm, and 635 nm. The central band is
imitate almost any thinner than the two outer ones. Red glass colored by selenium might
transparent-to-opaque gem
show a broad absorption in the green and orange-yellow areas of the
material.
spectrum.
Fluorescence Variable and not diagnostic, but often appears chalky under both LW
and SW
SG Usually between 2.30 and 4.50
Comments Key tests are RI, SR nature, and magnification. Low thermal conduc-
tivity (warm to the touch) might also be helpful. The optical and
physical properties of glass rarely match the optical and physical
properties of the gems it imitates.
John Koivula/GIA
Molded glass imitations Swirl marks and elongated This manmade glass jewel
generally have concave facets, gas bubbles are typical displays typical swirl marks.
rounded facet junctions, and features of manmade glass.
pitted surfaces.
432
MATERIALS COMMONLY IMITATED BY GLASS
Transparent gemstones Gems of all colors and colorless gems, especially diamond, ruby,
sapphire, emerald, and tanzanite
Translucent-to-opaque Gems of all colors, especially jadeite (imitations called “Imori

gemstones Stone” and “Meta Jade”), nephrite, turquoise, coral, shell, ivory,
lapis lazuli, and all varieties of chalcedony
Chatoyant imitations “Fire Eye”—Contains long, tubular, parallel gas bubbles

“Catseyte,” “Cacique,” and “Cathay Cat’s-eye”—Contain long
optical fibers with hexagonal cross sections that produce a honey- Robert Weldon/GIA
comb effect A fairly convincing glass opal imitation is called
Slocum Stone in the trade.
Aventurescent imitations “Goldstone”—A colorless glass with brownish triangular or
octagonal copper crystals distributed throughout the material. The
crystals produce a glittery effect and an overall brown-to-orange
bodycolor.
Others in a variety of colors
Play-of-color imitations Slocum Stone glass—Best-known glass imitation opal. Inclusions

resemble colored cellophane in transmitted light.
Glass opal imitation—Iridescent metal foils irregularly sand-
Robert Weldon
wiched between layers of glass produce the play-of-color effect
Mother-of-pearl backed glass—Glass backed with a thin slice of Glass imitations containing
parallel optic fibers can imitate
mother-of-pearl shell. Can look like opal.
cat’s-eye gems.
Adularescent imitations Glass with a satiny texture, resembling moonstone
Imitations that simulate Various types of glass beads, produced with or without iridescent
orient coatings, to imitate natural and cultured pearls
Iridescent imitations “Aurora Borealis”—Glass with a thin iridescent coating

Some glass might tarnish over time to produce an iridescent effect.
Color-change imitations Glass manufactured to display an observable color change from

Mike Havstad/GIA
incandescent to fluorescent lighting
The RI range of cat’s-eye glass is
often higher than the RI range of
non-chatoyant glass.
Terri Weimer/GIA Mike Havstad/GIA

Parallel bundles of optic fibers Goldstone glass can imitate Magnification reveals that
with hexagonal cross-sections aventurine feldspar. goldstone glass contains
immediately identify this cabo- triangular inclusions of copper
chon as a glass imitation. metal.
Both by Eric Welch/GIA Eric Welch/GIA
This color-change glass appears purplish under incandescent “Opalized” glass is used as an
lighting (left) and green under fluorescent lighting (right). opal imitation, but it lacks the
play-of-color displayed by the
natural opal at left.
433
Key Separations for Glass Imitations

Key Separation Key Tests
Glass from translucent-to-opaque AGG materials Fracture luster, RI, magnification, SG, possibly fracture
Glass from pearl and cultured pearl Texture (glass is smooth when rubbed against a tooth), birefringence
blink
Glass from natural glass (moldavite and obsidian) Magnification, possibly color and RI. Caution: gas bubbles and flow
lines occur in both materials. Advanced testing might be necessary.
Glass from transparent SR and DR gem materials Magnification, possibly spectrum for some colors. Combination of RI,
polariscope reaction, and SG, as glass rarely duplicates all the proper-
ties of the gem materials it imitates.
Glass from natural and synthetic opal RI, magnification, possibly SG
Glass from fluorite Cleavage, RI (glass rarely below 1.48), magnification, possibly SG
Glass from plastic Heft, luster
434
PLASTIC
Species Plastic
General observation Transparent to opaque, almost any appearance and color possible.
Look for mold marks and concave facets with slightly pitted and
uneven surfaces (the orange-peel effect). You might also see rounded
facet junctions, but this feature is also possible on most natural
gems. Feels warm to the touch compared to crystalline gemstones
and even compared to glass. Waxy to vitreous polish luster, con-
choidal to uneven fracture with dull to vitreous fracture luster. Facet
edges often abraded due to low hardness (Mohs 1.5 to 3).
Typical cutting style All styles. Can be molded to a variety of shapes and finishes.
Robert Weldon/GIA
RI 1.460 to 1.700 (generally low) Plastic’s lower luster and polish quality make it
a better imitator of translucent-to-opaque gems
Birefringence/doubling None than of transparent ones.
SR/DR/AGG SR, SR with ADR, or AGG. Transparent material often shows

strong ADR in the form of snake-like bands, while translucent-to-
semitranslucent material often shows an AGG reaction.
Magnification Flow lines, patchy color distribution, and gas bubbles are typical.
Gas bubbles might be spherical, oval, elongated, tubular, or even
drawn out and appear to have tails. Cutting through gas bubbles
during fashioning leaves semicircular cavities on the finished surface.

Terri Weimer/GIA
Fluorescence Variable, not diagnostic This plastic imitation
pearl has a clearly visible
SG 1.05 to 1.55 (might sink in saturated salt solution, which has an SG mold line around its
of 1.13) circumference.
Comments Key tests are RI, magnification, and possibly SG. Burns with a hot
point, generally producing an acrid odor, although other possible
odors are camphor, carbolic acid, vinegar, sweet fruit, formaldehyde,
fish, and sour milk. This test is destructive. Do not use it on GIA
stones. The optical and physical properties of plastic rarely match
the optical and physical properties of the gems it imitates.
Copper foil inclusions create the glittery effect This plastic imitation shows typical orange-peel
in this plastic sunstone imitation. surface texture and rounded facet edges.
435
MATERIALS COMMONLY IMITATED BY PLASTIC
Transparent gemstones Gems of all colors and colorless gems, including diamond, ruby,
sapphire, and emerald
Translucent-to-opaque Gems of all colors, especially jadeite, nephrite, turquoise, and all
gemstones varieties of chalcedony
Organic gems Especially pearl and amber, but also red-to-pink and black coral,
Maha Tannous/GIA shell, ivory, jet, and tortoise shell
Plastic opal imitations can display true
play-of-color. RI and SG usually separate Aventurescent imitations Plastic with copper foil-strip inclusions can resemble goldstone
them from natural and synthetic opal. glass (copper inclusions can raise the material’s SG)
Play-of-color imitations Japanese manufacturers produce a convincing plastic imitation

opal with true play-of-color
Adularescent imitations Manufactured to resemble moonstone
Imitations with orient Materials that imitate both pearl and mother-of-pearl shell
This plastic amber imitation has an insect

“inclusion.” Best separation methods are
RI, SG, and possibly fluorescence.
Key Separations for Plastic

Plastic from jet Hot point, possibly RI
Plastic from plastic-impregnated Magnification, SG, possibly RI

(stabilized) turquoise
Plastic from pearl Texture, birefringence blink, SG
Plastic from black coral Magnification, possibly RI
Plastic from amber SG, possibly RI and fluorescence
Plastic from ivory Fracture, magnification, SG, possibly RI
Plastic from tortoise shell Appearance, magnification
Plastic from opal SG, possibly RI and magnification. Surface of

plastic indents with pointer probe.
436
IDENTIFYING ASSEMBLED STONES
GARNET-AND-GLASS DOUBLET
garnet
glass
colorless
synthetic spinel
SYNTHETIC SPINEL TRIPLET
colored cement
layer
Eric Welch/GIA
colorless synthetic
spinel Assembled stones come in a wide range of
colors. Careful observation with the unaided
eye and under magnification separates them
SAPPHIRE AND SYNTHETIC from the gems they imitate.
RUBY DOUBLET
natural sapphire
synthetic ruby
OPAL DOUBLET
opal layer
backing
OPAL TRIPLET
colorless dome
opal layer
backing
Peter Johnston/GIA
Assembled stones consist of two or more parts cemented or fused together. You’ll usually see a
separation plane where the parts meet. You might also see differences in luster or wear if the parts
are made of different materials.

Assembled stones consist of two or more pieces of material fused or cemented
together. Their components might include any natural or manmade gem material
or combination of materials. The assembled stones in this section represent the
types you’re most likely to see.
The nature of their construction makes assembled stones fairly easy to detect with
careful observation. The most obvious sign is usually the separation plane—the
place where the assembled gem’s parts come together. Other possible signs are
luster or color differences between the top and bottom segments. Immersion
makes these characteristics easy to see.
437
Assembled Stones
1.750 to OTL top Garnet-and-glass doublet Manufactured in all colors; also some face-up colorless
Base usually in 1.600s (Page 439)
Both SR
1.762 to 1.770 Sapphire and synthetic sapphire doublet Blue sapphire

DR (Page 440)
1.762 to 1.770 Sapphire and synthetic ruby doublet Ruby

DR (Page 440)
1.762 to 1.770 top Synthetic sapphire and strontium titanate doublet Diamond
DR (Page 441)
OTL base
SR
1.728 top Synthetic spinel and strontium titanate doublet Diamond

OTL base (Page 441)
Both SR
1.728 Synthetic spinel triplet Commonly manufactured in emerald, amethyst, and

SR (Page 442) peridot colors
1.666 to 1.680 (1.66 spot Jadeite triplet Fine-color natural green jadeite
AGG
1.577 to 1.583 Beryl triplet Emerald, tanzanite

DR (Page 442)
1.544 to 1.553 Quartz triplet Emerald

DR (Page 443)
1.544 to 1.553 quartz Quartz and beryl triplet Emerald

1.577 to 1.583 beryl (Page 443)
Both DR
1.54 to 1.55 spot reading Star foilback quartz Star ruby or star sapphire, other colors possible
DR (Page 443)
1.530 to 1.685 Mabé pearl Cultured pearl

1.450 Opal doublet Natural opal, synthetic opal doublet

RI varies, depending on Opal triplet Natural opal, synthetic opal triplet

material (Page 445)
Usually too opaque to test
1.450 Synthetic opal doublet Natural opal, opal doublet, opal triplet
1.450 Synthetic opal triplet Natural opal, opal doublet, opal triplet
Variable properties, Glass (foilback, triplet) All colors possible (backing adds brilliance, color, or
depending on material (Page 447) phenomenon)
438
GARNET -AND -GLASS DOUBLET
Species Garnet-and-glass doublet
Construction The top is almandite or almandite-pyrope garnet and the base is

glass. Separation plane is usually above the girdle, and might be
uneven.
General observation All colors possible, even colorless. Although the garnet cap is red,
the glass base determines the doublet’s face-up color. You should be
able to detect a difference in luster and polish quality between the
Face down, a garnet-and-glass doublet of
vitreous to subadamantine garnet cap and the vitreous glass base.
almost any color displays a distinctive red ring.
With the stone table-down against a white background, you should be This is due to the presence of the garnet cap.
able to see a red ring in all colors except red and violet, or unless the
garnet cap is very thin.
RI Almandite or almandite-pyrope garnet top—1.750 to OTL

Glass base—Generally in the 1.600s. The garnet cap is occasionally
so thin that you might obtain RIs for both the garnet and the glass
through the table. Sometimes you’ll detect only the RI of the glass. If
this happens, check for luster differences and use magnification and
the red-ring test, or check for the red-flag effect (see page 18).
SR/DR/AGG SR with ADR (top and base)

Kay Morrow
Magnification Top—Usually contains typical almandite inclusions, such as needles Under magnification, the crown of a garnet-and-
intersecting at 110º or 70º angles, high and low-relief crystals, and glass doublet might show needles. The glass
zircon crystals with strain halos. If the garnet top is very thin or if segment will display characteristic gas bubbles.
the jewel is red, the top might be difficult to see without immersion.
Base—Contains typical glass inclusions like flow lines and gas
bubbles. Gas bubbles often present in the separation plane.
Spectrum If the garnet cap is thick enough, you might see a faint almandite
spectrum consisting of three bands in the green and yellow of the
spectrum at 505 nm, 527 nm, and 575 nm.
Fluorescence The garnet cap is inert to both LW and SW. The glass base might
fluoresce any color, but often appears chalky under both LW and SW.
View parallel to the girdle plane.
Mike Havstad/GIA
Comments Key tests are luster differences between the components, RI, and In a garnet-and-glass doublet, the luster
magnification. Fluorescence might also be helpful. difference between the glass base and the
garnet cap should be apparent.
439
SAPPHIRE AND SYNTHETIC SAPPHIRE DOUBLET SAPPHIRE AND SYNTHETIC RUBY DOUBLET
Species Sapphire and synthetic sapphire doublet Sapphire and synthetic ruby doublet
Construction Natural sapphire crown, normally green or dark greenish Crown is normally green or dark greenish blue natural
blue. Flame-fusion synthetic blue sapphire pavilion. sapphire, pavilion is flame-fusion synthetic ruby.
Separation plane usually located at the girdle. Separation plane usually located at the girdle.
General observation Blue, violetish blue, or greenish blue, often dark in tone. Red, purplish red, orangy red. Might look deceptively
Might look deceptively natural. Expect shallow to very natural. Expect shallow to very shallow crown, deep
shallow crown, deep pavilion, and non-calibrated or pavilion, and non-calibrated or near-calibrated size.
near-calibrated size.
RI Natural sapphire crown—Usually 1.762 to 1.770 Natural sapphire crown—Usually 1.762 to 1.770
(+0.009/-0.005) (+0.009/-0.005)
Flame-fusion synthetic sapphire pavilion—1.762 to Flame-fusion synthetic ruby pavilion—1.762 to 1.770
1.770
Birefringence/doubling 0.008 to 0.010 (crown and pavilion) 0.008 to 0.010 (crown and pavilion)
SR/DR/AGG DR (crown and pavilion) DR (crown and pavilion)
Magnification Crown—Contains natural inclusions such as high- and Crown—Natural inclusions such as high- and low-relief
low-relief crystals, silk, and hexagonal growth banding. crystals, silk, and hexagonal growth banding. Separation
Gas bubbles in the cement layer at the separation plane. plane shows gas bubbles in the cement layer.
Pavilion—Gas bubbles and curved color banding Pavilion—Gas bubbles, curved striae
Spectrum Observe through crown and pavilion separately: Observe through crown and pavilion separately:
Crown—Generally a natural green sapphire spectrum, Crown—Generally a natural green sapphire spectrum,
with three strong lines in the violet-blue at 450 nm, with three strong lines in the violet-blue at 450 nm,
460 nm, and 471 nm due to iron 460 nm, and 471 nm due to iron
Pavilion—Not diagnostic Pavilion—Typical ruby spectrum, with fine lines in the
orange-red at 659 nm, 668 nm, and 693 nm, and a broad
absorption over the yellow and most of the green at about
500 nm to 610 nm. Also two fine, dark lines in the blue at
468 nm and 476 nm and a strong cutoff in the violet.
Fluorescence Crown generally inert to LW and SW. Pavilion inert to Crown generally inert to LW and SW. Pavilion moderate
LW, but usually weak-to-moderate chalky blue to SW. to strong red under both LW and SW. View parallel to the
View parallel to the girdle plane. girdle plane.
Comments Key tests are general observation and magnification. Key tests are general observation and magnification.
Spectrum and fluorescence might also be helpful. Spectrum and fluorescence might also be helpful.
Immersion makes green crown and blue pavilion clearly Immersion makes green crown and red pavilion clearly
visible. visible.
The separation plane is obvious in this A separation plane divides this doublet’s natural
doublet. You can also see green bodycolor green sapphire crown from its synthetic ruby
in the natural sapphire crown and curved pavilion.
color banding in the flame-fusion synthetic
sapphire pavilion.
440
SYNTHETIC SAPPHIRE AND SYNTHETIC SPINEL AND STRONTIUM

STRONTIUM TITANATE DOUBLET TITANATE DOUBLET
Species Synthetic sapphire and strontium Synthetic spinel and strontium titanate doublet
titanate doublet
Construction Top is colorless flame-fusion synthetic Top is colorless flame-fusion synthetic spinel,
sapphire, base is strontium titanate. base is strontium titanate. Often joined below the
Often joined below the girdle plane. girdle plane.
General observation Colorless. Synthetic sapphire top has Colorless. Synthetic spinel top has Mohs hardness
Mohs hardness of 9. Strontium titanate of 8. Strontium titanate base has Mohs hardness of
base has Mohs hardness of only 5 to 6, only 5 to 6, so it often has poor polish, scratches,
so it often has poor polish, scratches, and abraded facet junctions. Top has no noticeable
and abraded facet junctions. Top has no fire, base has extreme fire due to strontium
noticeable fire, base has extreme fire titanate’s 0.190 dispersion value.
due to strontium titanate’s 0.190
dispersion value.
RI Flame-fusion synthetic sapphire top— Flame-fusion synthetic spinel top—1.728

1.762 to 1.770 (+0.009/-0.005) (+/-0.010)
Strontium titanate base—OTL Strontium titanate base—OTL
Birefringence/doubling 0.008 to 0.010 (top only) None
SR/DR/AGG Top—DR SR (top and base)

Base—SR
Magnification Top might contain gas bubbles that can Top might contain gas bubbles that can be thread-
resemble needles and occur singly or like or rarely angular. Base might contain small
in string-like arrangements. Base might gas bubbles and have surface polishing marks due
contain small gas bubbles and have to low hardness. Synthetic spinel top has very low
surface polishing marks due to low relief in methylene iodide or mineral oil, while the
hardness. Synthetic sapphire top has strontium titanate base has significantly greater
very low relief in methylene iodide or relief.
mineral oil, while the strontium titanate
base has significantly greater relief.
Fluorescence Not usually diagnostic. Top is inert to Top is moderate to strong chalky blue or strong
weak bluish white, base is generally greenish blue under SW, sometimes weak green
inert. under LW. Base is generally inert.
Comments Key tests are general observation, RI, Key tests are general observation, RI, and
and magnification with immersion. magnification with immersion.
John Koivula/GIA
The separation plane is well below the girdle in

this synthetic spinel and strontium titanate doublet.
Note the extreme fire in the strontium titanate
base.
441
SYNTHETIC SPINEL TRIPLET JADEITE TRIPLET BERYL TRIPLET
Species Synthetic spinel triplet Jadeite triplet Beryl triplet
Construction Crown and pavilion of colorless Three pieces of carefully cut translu- Crown and pavilion of colorless or
flame-fusion synthetic spinel joined cent white jadeite in a hollow very lightly colored beryl, joined by
by a colored cement layer, usually at construction filled with a green colored cement layer, usually at the
the girdle plane jelly-like substance that gives the girdle plane
assembly its color.
General observation Usually green, yellow-green, or Green color imitates fine green Usually green to imitate emerald, but
violet to purple, but might be any jadeite. Surface has typical jadeite might be any other color. If you shine
color. When you shine a penlight characteristics of vitreous to greasy a penlight through the girdle area from
through the girdle area from behind, polish luster and dimpled surface. behind, crown and pavilion might
crown and pavilion might appear appear colored while girdle appears
colored, while girdle appears color- colorless.
less.
RI 1.728 (+0.012/-0.008) (crown and 1.666 to 1.680 (1.66 spot reading 1.577 to 1.583 (crown and pavilion)
pavilion) common)
Birefringence/doubling None None 0.005 to 0.009 (crown and pavilion)
SR/DR/AGG SR with ADR (crown and pavilion) AGG DR
Magnification Immersion reveals colorless crown Gas bubbles in the jelly-like layer or in Look for gas bubbles in the
and pavilion joined by a flat, colored the contacts between the components cement layer at the separation
cement layer at the girdle. Gas plane. Immersion reveals assembly
bubbles often visible in the cement components.
layer.
Spectrum Not diagnostic Same as dyed green jadeite, with a Not diagnostic
single broad band in the red-orange
area. Naturally colored green jadeite
has three lines in the same area.
Fluorescence Variable. Cement layer might Inert Variable. Cement layer might fluoresce
fluoresce differently from synthetic differently from beryl portion, which is
spinel portion, which is sometimes generally inert.
weak green under LW and moderate
to strong chalky blue or strong
greenish blue under SW.
Comments Key tests are general observation, Key tests are general observation, Key tests are general observation, RI,
RI, and magnification. magnification to reveal the assembly, and magnification.
and spectrum to demonstrate the
artificial nature of the assembled
material’s color.
John Koivula/GIA
Synthetic spinel triplets duplicate the appearance of a variety of Magnification with immersion reveals Although the separation plane appears
transparent colored gems. the separation plane in a synthetic colorless in this beryl triplet, it actually
spinel triplet. contains colored cement.
442
QUARTZ TRIPLET QUARTZ AND BERYL TRIPLET STAR FOILBACK QUARTZ
Species Quartz triplet Quartz and beryl triplet Foilback quartz
Construction Crown and pavilion of rock Quartz crown and beryl pavilion, or some- Star quartz backed by foil or some
crystal quartz, joined by colored times beryl crown and quartz pavilion. Joined other nontransparent substance to
cement layer by colored cement, usually at the girdle enhance or create a star and cause
plane. color similar to star sapphire or
star ruby.
General observation Usually green to imitate emerald, Usually green to imitate emerald, but might Usually red or blue, but other
but might be any other color. be any other color. If you shine a penlight colors are possible. If you examine
If you shine a penlight through through the girdle area from behind, crown the stone parallel to the girdle,
the girdle area from behind, and pavilion might appear colored while you’ll see the usually pink color
crown and pavilion might appear girdle appears colorless. of the quartz unchanged by the
colored while girdle appears color of the backing.
colorless.
RI 1.544 to 1.553 (crown and Rock crystal quartz crown (or pavilion)— 1.54 or 1.55 spot reading
pavilion) 1.544 to 1.553
Beryl pavilion (or crown)—1.577 to 1.583
Birefringence/doubling 0.009 (crown and pavilion) Rock crystal quartz crown (or pavilion)— Usually not detectable
0.009
Beryl pavilion (or crown)—0.005 to 0.009
SR/DR/AGG DR (crown and pavilion) DR (crown and pavilion) DR
Magnification Look for gas bubbles in the Look for gas bubbles in the cement layer at Typical quartz characteristics
cement layer at the separation the separation plane. Immersion reveals such as liquid, two-phase, and
plane. Immersion reveals assembly components. three-phase inclusions; negative
assembly components. crystals; and solid mineral crystals
or needles
Comments Key tests are general observation, Key tests are general observation, RI, and Key tests are general observation
RI, and magnification. magnification. and RI.
443
MABÉ PEARL
Species Assembled cultured blister pearl
Construction Three-part assembly consisting of a nacre dome, a filler, and a

mother-of-pearl backing.
General observation Dome-shaped, with a flat or low-domed back. Unmounted, its nature
is evident due to a clear junction plane between pearl nacre and
mother-of-pearl backing. Mounting conceals the separation plane.
Maha Tannous/GIA
Mabé pearls typically range in size from 8 to 18 mm, rarely over 20
A cross-section of a dyed black mabé mm. They might appear as symmetrical domes, pears, or heart
assembled cultured blister pearl
reveals its construction.
shapes. Colors are typically neutral to near-neutral whites and
creams with rosé or green overtones, but can sometimes be yellow-
ish. Mabés are also cultured from abalone, producing gems with
striking pink, blue, or green orient against a gray bodycolor. Surface
luster varies from dull to nearly metallic, depending on nacre quality.
Uneven fracture with pearly to dull fracture luster.
RI 1.530 to 1.685
Magnification Not usually diagnostic, unless the separation plane and mother-of-
pearl backing are visible.
Comments Key tests are RI, birefringence blink, and magnification. Typical
dome shape, flat back, and size are distinctive. Feels gritty when
rubbed against a tooth, while plastic and glass imitations feel
smooth.
444
OPAL DOUBLET OPAL TRIPLET
Species Opal doublet Opal triplet
Construction Thin piece of opal, commonly backed Colorless cabochon cap, usually rock crystal
by dyed black chalcedony or possibly quartz or colorless glass, glued to a thin piece
by glass, potch opal, or matrix. Glued of opal with colorless cement, then glued to a
with black cement. backing of dyed black chalcedony, glass, or
potch opal using black cement. Some manu-
facturers use tiny chips of opal rather than a
complete opal layer and sell the finished
stones as “opal mosaic triplets.”
General observation Assembled nature should be obvious Resembles good-quality black or gray opal.
when you examine the stone from the The mosaic pattern of the opal layer in an
side. opal mosaic triplet is readily apparent and
easily identified. Eric Welch/GIA
You can easily see the separa-

RI Opal portion should give a typical RI You can’t take the opal layer’s RI, but you tion planes in the opal doublet
of 1.450 or slightly lower. might get a quartz or glass RI reading from at left and opal triplet at right.
the cap. This will alert you that the gem isn’t
solid opal.
Magnification Not diagnostic unless the separation Not diagnostic unless the separation plane
plane and backing material are visible. and backing material are visible. Opal layer
Opal cap might show a variety of play- might show a variety of play-of-color pat-
of-color patterns, which include very terns, which include very small patches or
small patches or dots; large areas that dots; large areas that flash predominately one
flash predominately one color as the color as the gem is moved; or even, distinct
gem is moved; or even, distinct patches patches with a “brush-stroke” appearance.
with a “brush-stroke” appearance. There might be areas that lack play-of-color
There might also be areas that lack or that contain mineral inclusions or patches
play-of-color or that contain mineral of rock matrix. Synthetic opal has a much
inclusions or patches of rock matrix. more regular play-of-color pattern.
Synthetic opal has a much more regular
play-of-color pattern.
Comments Key tests are appearance and magnifi- Key tests are appearance and magnification.
cation. A cutter might leave a naturally If the gem isn’t mounted and you can
occurring layer of matrix or potch as a examine it from the side, its assembled
backing on natural opal. Don’t mistake nature should be obvious.
this type of natural opal for an assem-
bled stone.
445
SYNTHETIC OPAL DOUBLET SYNTHETIC OPAL TRIPLET
Species Synthetic opal doublet Synthetic opal triplet
Construction Thin piece of synthetic opal, Same as the opal triplet, but with a thin
commonly backed by dyed piece or pieces of synthetic opal instead
black chalcedony or possibly by of natural opal
glass, potch opal, or matrix.
Glued with black cement.
General observation Assembled nature should be Resembles good-quality black opal

obvious when you examine the
stone from the side.
RI Synthetic opal portion should You can’t take the synthetic opal layer’s
give a typical RI of 1.450 or RI, but you might get a quartz or glass
slightly lower RI reading from the cap. This will alert
you that the gem isn’t solid synthetic
opal.
Magnification Synthetic opal portion shows Synthetic opal portion shows mosaic
mosaic patches of color with a patches of color with a snakeskin or
snakeskin or scale-like structure scale-like structure or wavy patterns. If
or wavy patterns. If unmounted, unmounted, the separation plane and
the separation plane and back- backing material might be visible.
ing material might be visible.
Comments Key tests are appearance and Key tests are appearance and
magnification. magnification.
446
GLASS IMITATION OPAL TRIPLET FOILBACK
Species Glass triplet Foilback (list species of material involved—for example, foilback
quartz, foilback glass, etc.)
Construction Colorless cabochon cap, usually rock crystal or Any material with foil or a nontransparent coating covering the back
colorless glass, glued to a thin piece of glass facets to add brilliance, color, or a phenomenon
imitation opal with colorless cement, then
glued to a backing of dyed black chalcedony
or glass using black cement.
General observation Resembles good-quality black or gray opal. All colors possible. Foilbacking is obvious unless the stone is
The glass layer that imitates opal often contains mounted. A transparent gem that’s foilbacked transmits little if any
multicolored, iridescent, metallic foil inclusions light through the backing. Virtually any gem material or imitation
that resemble cellophane in transmitted light. might be foilbacked, so many different properties are possible. When
present, note foilbacking in your identification.
RI You can’t take the imitation opal layer’s RI, Varies, depending on material
but you might get a quartz or glass RI reading
from the cap. This will alert you that the gem
isn’t opal.
SR/DR/AGG AGG Varies, depending on material
Magnification Magnification might reveal gas bubbles. Opaque metallic foil shows on pavilion or cabochon base
Comments Key tests are appearance and RI. If the gem Very distinctive appearance. Rhinestones are foilbacked diamond
isn’t mounted and you can examine it from the imitations usually made of glass.
side, its assembled nature should be obvious.
Robert Weldon/GIA
Foil backings give these glass imitations a distinctive appearance.
447
IDENTIFYING NATURAL
The Seven Crystal Systems
Minerals are divided into seven crystal systems based on ROUGH GEMS
the shape and arrangement of their crystal faces and the Although most of the gems you’ll encounter are
angular relationships between them. fashioned, you might occasionally have to identify a
rough gem. Fortunately, many gem crystals have
distinctive shapes that can help you recognize them.
A rough gem’s characteristic external crystal shape
or form is called its habit. It’s a valuable clue to a
rough gem’s identity. Basic knowledge of crystal
habits and rough-gem characteristics can help you
spinel garnet avoid costly mistakes. For example, it can help you
Cubic
separate rough ruby from rough spinel, and either
one from rough red garnet or tourmaline. These are
essential separations for any busy gem business.
Gemologists classify gems into seven categories,
zircon
called crystal systems, by studying the shape and
Tetragonal arrangement of their crystal faces and the angular
relationships between them. Crystals that belong to
the cubic crystal system are the most symmetrical,
while those belonging to the triclinic crystal system
are the least.
apatite beryl Cubic (or isometric)—Diamond, fluorite, garnet,
Hexagonal pyrite, spinel
Tetragonal—Scapolite, zircon
Hexagonal—Apatite, beryl
Trigonal (or rhombohedral)—Calcite, corundum,
quartz, tourmaline
quartz corundum Orthorhombic—Andalusite, chrysoberyl, danburite,
Trigonal
iolite, peridot, topaz, zoisite (tanzanite)
Monoclinic—Diopside, epidote, feldspar (orthoclase),
spodumene
Triclinic—Feldspar (amazonite), kyanite
Orthorhombic topaz peridot zoisite
Monoclinic
spodumene
Triclinic feldspar
Peter Johnston/GIA
448
IDENTIFYING NATURAL ROUGH GEMS
Beryl
DESCRIBING NATURAL CRYSTALS AND ROUGH GEMS pinacoid
termination
These are some of the terms that gemologists use to describe rough gems:
Aggregate—A mass of tiny, randomly oriented crystals 6-sided prism
Anhedral—Lacking obvious crystal faces, like many gems that were tumbled in rivers
hexagonal cross section
Bipyramid—Shape with a pyramid at each end All by Peter Johnston/GIA
Beryl forms in the hexagonal crystal

Crystal face—One of the flat geometric planes that make up a well-formed mineral crystal system. It typically occurs as an
elongated six-sided prism with flat
Dodecahedron—A form with twelve equal diamond-shaped sides faces at each end.
Dome—Termination made up of a variety of differently shaped crystal faces on the end of a Peridot pyramid-like
prism termination
Euhedral—Well formed, with sharp crystal faces, like most gems from pegmatite pockets prism
Massive—Lacking a crystal shape
Octahedron—A form with eight equal triangular faces vertical striations
Pinacoid—Shape with a flat face at one or both ends Peridot forms in the orthorhombic
crystal system. Its crystals are often
Prismatic crystal or prism—Columnar crystal with 3, 4, 6, 8, or 12 parallel faces rounded or irregular rather than well
formed.
Pyramid—Shape with equal near-triangular faces that often meet in a point
Diamond
one of 8 triangular
Striations—Parallel growth markings, which can be horizontal, as on quartz and corundum octahedral faces
crystals, or vertical, as on tourmaline and topaz crystals
trigons
Tabular—Short and flattened crystal habit
Termination—Set of faces at the end of a prismatic crystal

growth marks
Twinned crystal—Crystal distorted during growth, so it has two or more intergrown crystals
with opposing crystal directions
Diamond forms in the cubic crystal sys-

tem. Its typical habit is the octahedron.
Tourmaline Ruby Chrysoberyl

rounded triangular growth
triangular twinning plane
markings
cross-
section
prism
flat 6-sided
prism re-entrant angle
vertical striations
Tourmaline forms in the trigonal Corundum forms in the trigonal Chrysoberyl is an orthorhombic
crystal system. Its typical habit crystal system. Typical habits crystal that usually forms as a
is an elongated triangular are tabular prisms like this ruby cyclic twin. This formation looks
prism with vertical striations. crystal as well as elongated like three crystals growing
bipyramids. together around a central point.
449
CLEAVAGE
Besides shape, cleavage is another factor that can help you identify rough gemstones. Cleavage is
a smooth, flat break in a gemstone parallel to planes of atomic weakness, caused by weak or
fewer bonds between atoms, or both. The appearance of a gem’s cleavage surfaces depends on its
crystal structure. Gemologists describe cleavage with these terms:
Perfect—A gem’s cleavage surfaces are perfectly smooth, often appearing polished (fluorite, for
example)
Easy—The gem or mineral cleaves easily with only a sharp blow (topaz, for example)
Difficult or imperfect—Cleavage is present, but hard to develop. The gem won’t break easily
along a cleavage plane (beryl, for example)
Basal—Cleavage is parallel to the crystal’s base (topaz, for example)
Distinct—The gem or mineral cleaves to produce a well-defined, recognizable cleavage surface
PARTING
Parting, a flat break in a gemstone caused by concentrated mineral inclusions parallel to a

twinning plane, is also a recognizable feature. It’s found in gems that are repeatedly twinned,
such as feldspar and black star corundum.
Eric Welch/GIA Terri Weimer/GIA Terri Weimer/GIA Maha Tannous/GIA
Calcite has perfect cleavage in three Topaz has basal cleavage, which The cleavage planes in this This ruby’s large, flat crystal
directions, resulting in smooth cleavage means any cleavage break would be single-crystal rhodochrosite “face” is actually a break
surfaces. parallel to the crystal’s base. resulted in step-like surfaces. called parting. It’s parallel to
one of the gem’s twinning
planes.
450
Common Natural Rough Gems

Gem material Crystal system Cleavage directions Page Common habits
Diamond Cubic 4, perfect 452 Octahedron, dodecahedron, macle, cube
Fluorite Cubic 4, perfect 453 Twinned cube, octahedral cleavage piece
Garnet Cubic None 454 Dodecahedron, trapezohedron
Pyrite Cubic None 455 Striated cube
Spinel Cubic Not visible 455 Octahedron, flattened twin crystal
Scapolite Tetragonal 2, perfect 456 Four-sided prism or bipyramid
Zircon Tetragonal None 456 Four-sided prism or bipyramid
Apatite Hexagonal 2, imperfect 457 Six-sided prism, often with pyramids
Beryl Hexagonal 1, very difficult 458 Six- or twelve-sided prism, sometimes with pyramids
Calcite, Iceland spar Trigonal 3, perfect 459 Cleavage piece
Corundum, ruby Trigonal None 460 Tabular crystal
Corundum, sapphire Trigonal None 460 Hexagonal bipyramid
Quartz Trigonal None 461 Six-sided prism with pyramid-like terminations
Tourmaline Trigonal None 461 Elongated, striated prism with rounded triangular cross section
Andalusite Orthorhombic 1, distinct 461 Blocky prism with domes
Chrysoberyl Orthorhombic 3, imperfect 462 Blocky prism with domes
Danburite Orthorhombic None 463 Elongated prism with domes
Iolite Orthorhombic 1, distinct 463 Rarely well formed
Peridot Orthorhombic 1, imperfect 464 Rarely well formed
Topaz Orthorhombic 1, perfect 464 Blocky or elongated prism with domes
Zoisite, tanzanite Orthorhombic 1, perfect 465 Prism with domes
Diopside Monoclinic 2, perfect 465 Prism with domes
Epidote Monoclinic 1, perfect 466 Elongated, striated prism, twinned aggregate
Orthoclase feldspar Monoclinic 2, perfect 466 Blocky prism with domes
Spodumene Monoclinic 2, perfect 467 Elongated, striated prism with irregular terminations
Amazonite feldspar Triclinic 2, perfect 467 Blocky prism with wedge-shaped faces
Labradorite feldspar Triclinic 2, perfect 468 Rarely well formed
Oligoclase feldspar Triclinic 2, perfect 468 Blocky prism with wedge-shaped faces
Kyanite Triclinic 1 perfect, 1 distinct 468 Elongated, blade-like crystal
451
NATURAL NEAR-COLORLESS DIAMOND

DIAMOND
Species Diamond
Prism
Appearance Transparent to opaque, usually very light yellow, brown, or gray to

colorless. Strongly colored crystals are very rare and valuable.
415.5
Crystal system Cubic
Diffraction
Common habits Octahedron, dodecahedron, cube (rare in gem quality). Flattened

twin crystals (macles) are also common. Surfaces of octahedral
crystals often bear trigons (tiny triangular depressions that point in
opposite directions from octahedral faces). Faces on dodecahedral
415.5
crystals are rounded, not perfectly flat. Some crystals are combina-
tions of octahedron and dodecahedron.
The spectrum of a natural near-colorless to light
yellow diamond often shows the so-called cape Cleavage Perfect in four directions, parallel to octahedral faces
line in the violet at 415.5 nm.
Mohs hardness 10
Toughness Good in cleavage directions, exceptional in all others
Spectrum Most near-colorless to light yellow stones show the “cape” line
at 415.5 nm. (Cooling diamond in liquid nitrogen helps make its
spectrum more visible.)
SG 3.52
Comments Key tests are crystal habit, distinctive growth marks (trigons), and
Maha Tannous/GIA spectrum.
The well-formed octahedron is a common
rough diamond habit.
Thomas Hunn Joel Beeson/GIA
Diamond crystals are This macle—a flattened and Distinctive trigons occupy
sometimes rounded dodeca- twinned diamond crystal— the surface of this octahedral
hedrons. has raised triangular growth diamond crystal.
markings.
452
FLUORITE (FLUORSPAR)
Species Fluorite
Appearance Transparent to opaque green, blue, brown, yellow, orange, pink,

purple, violet, or colorless
Common habits Interpenetrating twinned cubes and cubes; rarely octahedral
Cleavage Perfect in four directions. Yields octahedral cleavage pieces.
Mohs hardness 4
Toughness Poor
SG 3.18
Comments Key tests are distinctive habit, low hardness, four cleavage directions,
and possibly fluorescence. The Iceland spar variety of calcite can
look similar, but has only three cleavage directions. Calcite’s strong
doubling also distinguishes it from SR colorless fluorite. Fine,
untwinned, cube-shaped crystals and interpenetrant twinned cubes
are valued by collectors as mineral specimens. Octahedral cleavage
pieces are commonly sold at rock and mineral shows.
Joel Beeson/GIA Robert Weldon/GIA Eric Welch/GIA
Interpenetrant twinning is a Fluorite crystals sometimes This yellow fluorite octahedron

common habit of fluorite occur in cube shapes. shows its four cleavage planes.
crystals.
453
ALMANDITE GARNET
GARNET
Species and varieties Almandite—Brownish orange to brownish red to purplish red

Pyrope-almandite—Orangy red to brownish red, dark red to purplish
Prism
red to light reddish purple

Rhodolite—Must have a purple color component, purplish red
505 575
through red-purple to purple
527 Pyrope—Reddish orange, red through slightly purplish red to pale pink
Spessartite—Orange, brownish orange, yellowish orange, reddish
Diffraction
orange, red-orange
Grossularite—Near-colorless to orange, yellow, or brown, to very pale
green to dark green
505 575 Hessonite—Medium to dark orange to brownish orange
527 Tsavorite—Medium to dark green to yellowish green
Andradite—Yellow to slightly greenish yellow or brown, to green
The main features of almandite’s spectrum are Demantoid—Green through yellow-green
three very strong bands at 505 nm, 527 nm,
and 575 nm in the green and yellow areas. Group Garnet
SPESSARTITE GARNET Appearance Transparent to opaque, usually dark red to purple, but might be
orange, yellow, brown, or dark to very pale green

Prism
Common habits Dodecahedron and trapezohedron (a crystal form with 24 equal faces).
412 432
Mixtures of these two forms are also common. Often found as water-
424 worn crystals.
Diffraction
Cleavage None
Mohs hardness 6 to 7.5

412 432
424 Toughness Fair to good
Key features of spessartite’s spectrum are Spectrum Almandite, pyrope-almandite (including rhodolite)—Strong bands in
bands in the violet at 412 nm, 424 nm, and the green and yellow of the spectrum at 505 nm, 527 nm, and 575 nm
432 nm, along with bands at 505 nm, 527 nm, Spessartite—Manganese-related bands at 412 nm, 424 nm, and
and 575 nm in the green-yellow. 432 nm—which sometimes merge to form a cutoff at around 430 nm—
along with iron-related bands at 505 nm, 527 nm, and 575 nm.
Andradite—Dark band at 440 nm
Demantoid—Dark band at 443 nm in yellowish green stones. Cutoff
below 443 nm with fine lines at 620 nm, 632 nm, 693 nm, and 700 nm
in rich green stones.
SG 3.61 to 4.15
Comments Spectroscope separates purple, red, orange, and demantoid varieties of

andradite garnet from similarly colored gem materials. Dichroscope
separates transparent SR garnet from DR corundum and chrysoberyl.
SG separates garnets from similarly colored beryl, spodumene, and
tourmaline.
Robert Weldon/GIA
This dodecahedral almandite

crystal is still enclosed by its
mica schist matrix.
Robert Weldon/GIA
These almandite crystals show

trapezohedral habits.
454
NATURAL RED SPINEL

PYRITE SPINEL
Species Pyrite Spinel
Prism
Appearance Opaque, metallic, “brassy” Transparent to opaque orange to red
yellow and pink; purple, blue, and violet to
black
Crystal system Cubic Cubic
Diffraction
Common habits Cube with parallel striations, Octahedron. Well-formed crystals are
dodecahedron with five- fairly common. Might also form flat-
sided crystal faces (so tened twin crystals that resemble
distinctive that gemologists diamond macles (spinel twins).
call it a pyritohedron),
and interpenetrating twin Red spinel’s spectrum often shows closely
crystals. Might also be spaced lines in the red, with the strongest one
massive. at 686 nm. There’s also broad absorption in the
green area.
Cleavage None Not visible in gem-quality
NATURAL BLUE SPINEL COLORED BY IRON
material
Mohs hardness 6 to 6.5 8
Prism
Toughness Good Good
459
Spectrum Not diagnostic Red spinel—Strong chromium 480
spectrum with a closely spaced group
Diffraction
of up to ten fluorescent lines in the red,
with the strongest ones at 684 nm and
686 nm. There are more lines at
632 nm, 642 nm, 650 nm, 656 nm,
459
665 nm, and 675 nm, plus a broad 480
absorption of the green area of the
spectrum.
In its spectrum, natural blue spinel colored by
Blue spinel—Strong, broad band
iron shows bands in the blue at 459 nm and
centered on 459 nm, and a strong but 480 nm. Bands at 553 nm, 593 nm, and
much narrower band at 480 nm. Also 632 nm are not as sharp.
diffuse bands centered on 553 nm,
593 nm, and 632 nm.
SG 5.00 Usually 3.60. Very dark to black

stones might give SGs around 4.00.
Comments Key test is appearance Distinctive octahedral crystal habit

(metallic luster, striations, and distinctive spectra (chromium
“brassy” yellow color). spectrum in red and pink stones, iron
Much lower SG separates spectrum in violet to blue stones) help Robert Weldon/GIA
it from gold. separate spinel from similarly colored Although spinel usually crystallizes as
corundum or garnet. Dichroscope an octahedron, a flattened twin crystal
separates spinel from similarly colored resembling a diamond macle is also
common.
corundum or tourmaline.
Terri Weimer/GIA
Pyrite’s brassy metallic appearance

and often cube-like crystal form are
distinctive.
455
SCAPOLITE ZIRCON
Species Scapolite Zircon
Appearance Transparent to opaque pink, Transparent to opaque green,

orange, yellow, green, blue, yellow, orange, red, brown, and
violet, purple, and colorless gray
Crystal system Tetragonal Tetragonal
Common habits Columnar, four-sided prism Generally a four-sided bipyramid

with pyramids. Might also be divided by a short four-sided prism.
Scapolite might form as a four-sided prism massive. Sometimes a slightly more complex
with pyramids. This specimen also has vertical combination of two four-sided
striations. prisms and two four-sided
bipyramids. Often found as water-
worn crystals.
Cleavage Perfect in two directions None
Mohs hardness 6 to 6.5 6 to 7.5
Toughness Fair Fair to good
Spectrum Not diagnostic, except in pink Key line at 653.5, possibly up to 40

stones, which might show fine lines in the rest of the spectrum
lines at 663 nm and 652 nm
SG 2.60 to 2.74 3.90 to 4.73

Alan Jobbins
Zircon crystals are typically four-sided prisms Comments Cleavage and SG separate Key tests are spectrum and SG.
with pyramid-shaped terminations. scapolite from similarly Shows uranium spectrum and
colored corundum, tourma- moderate to high heft. Found
line, topaz, and spodumene. mainly in alluvial deposits, so
Spectroscope might be helpful crystals might be little more than
for pink stones. Fluorescence rounded pebbles. Doubling might
might be helpful for separating be visible if rough is transparent
colorless to yellow scapolite enough.
from similarly colored quartz.
ZIRCON
Prism
653.5
Diffraction
653.5
Zircon’s spectrum usually shows a key line at 653.5 nm. It

might also have up to 40 fine lines distributed throughout
the rest of the spectrum.
456
APATITE
Species Apatite
Appearance Transparent to opaque yellow, green, violet, purple, blue, pink,

brown, or colorless
Crystal system Hexagonal
Common habits Six-sided prism terminated by a pyramid. Might also form flattened,
tabular, six-sided prisms with numerous faces, terminated by flat
faces (pinacoids).
Mike Havstad/GIA
Cleavage Imperfect, in two directions (rarely seen) Apatite crystals often form as multi-sided
prismatic crystals with pyramid terminations.
Mohs hardness 5
Toughness Fair
Spectrum Red and colorless—Not diagnostic

Green—Group of lines at 580 nm
Orange, yellow, brown—Sets of fine lines at 520 nm and 580 nm
SG 3.18
Comments Spectrum might help identify yellow or colorless stones. Has higher
SG than similarly colored beryl, danburite, feldspar, tourmaline, and
quartz, but lower SG than topaz and corundum.
YELLOW APATITE
Prism
Diffraction
Yellow apatite shows a strong and distinctive spectrum

with two sets of fine lines. One set is at 520 nm and the
other is at 580 nm.
457
EMERALD
BERYL
Variety Emerald—Medium-light to dark green, slightly yellowish green, and

bluish green
Aquamarine—Greenish blue to blue-green, generally light in tone
Prism
Morganite—Pink to purplish pink, often light in tone

Heliodor—Light-toned greenish yellow to orangy yellow
646 683
662
Species Beryl
Diffraction
Appearance Rich green to light green to light-toned bluish green and greenish
blue, as well as yellow, red, pink, and colorless
646 683
662
Crystal system Hexagonal
Emerald’s spectrum features distinct lines at
Common habits Elongated or columnar, six-sided or twelve-sided prism terminated
680.5 nm and 683 nm, less distinct lines at
646 nm and 662 nm, and a broad absorption by flat faces, sometimes with striations along its length. Aquamarine
between 580 nm and 630 nm. crystals tend to be more columnar than emerald crystals, and they’re
often terminated by pyramid faces. Morganite (pink beryl) crystals
tend to be much shorter, flatter combinations of six-sided prisms and
pyramid faces
Cleavage Very difficult in one direction (rarely seen)
Mohs hardness 7.5 to 8
Toughness Poor (many emerald crystals are heavily fractured) to good (other
beryl varieties)
Spectrum Emerald—Distinct lines at 680.5 nm and 683 nm, less distinct lines
at 646 nm and 662 nm, a broad band between 580 nm and 630 nm,
and almost complete absorption of the violet
SG 2.72
Comments Combination of crystal shape, SG, and spectrum separates emerald

from tourmaline, diopside, garnet, and spodumene. SG and absence
of cleavage separate yellow and pink beryl from similarly colored
topaz and spodumene.
Robert Weldon/GIA Terri Weimer/GIA
Emerald crystals typically form Aquamarine usually grows as Morganite crystals are gener-
as six-sided prisms with a prismatic crystal with pina- ally more flattened and tabular
pinacoid terminations. coid terminations. It’s often than the crystals of other beryl
more columnar than emerald. varieties.
458
ICELAND SPAR CALCITE
Variety Iceland spar
Species Calcite
Appearance Transparent, colorless
Crystal system Trigonal
Common habits Various types of prisms, often six-sided, but usually seen as
rhombohedral cleavage pieces
Cleavage Perfect in three directions

Mike Havstad/GIA
Mohs hardness 3 Iceland spar calcite is transparent and color-
less. Its three cleavage directions cause it to
Toughness Poor break into well-defined pieces.
SG 2.70
Comments Cleavage separates calcite from colorless quartz, which lacks

cleavage; feldspar, with two cleavage directions; and fluorite, with
four cleavage directions. If transparent enough, Iceland spar calcite
also shows extreme doubling.
459

CORUNDUM
Variety Ruby—Orangy red to purplish red

Sapphire—Light to dark violet, bluish violet, pure blue to strongly
Prism
greenish blue
Other colors—Describe by color (for example, orange sapphire, etc.)
468 693
476 Species Corundum
Diffraction
Appearance Transparent to opaque orangy red to purplish red (ruby), violetish

blue to strongly greenish blue (sapphire). Almost all other colors, as
well as colorless, color-change, and star stones possible.
468 693
476
The spectra of natural and synthetic rubies and Common habits Most common ruby habit is a flattened, tabular, six-sided prism
pink sapphires show lines at 659 nm, 668 nm, terminated by flat faces, often with raised triangular growth markings
and 693 nm, a broad absorption between or fine lines intersecting at 120º or 60º angles. Sapphire crystals are
500 nm and 610 nm, and lines in the blue at usually tapering hexagonal bipyramids, barrel shapes, or tabular
468 nm and 476 nm. There’s also a strong cut- prisms. Bipyramidal crystals often have horizontal striations.
off in the violet. Purple sapphire might show a
mixture of ruby-type and sapphire-type spectra. Cleavage None, but twinned gems might show parting
BLUE AND GREEN SAPPHIRE Mohs hardness 9
Toughness Excellent (except in heavily twinned stones)

Prism
Spectrum Ruby, pink and purple sapphire, orange and dark pinkish orange
sapphire—Chromium spectrum with fine lines at 659 nm, 668 nm,
450 471 and 693 nm (often appears as a bright fluorescent line), and a broad
460 absorption at approximately 500 nm to 610 nm. Two fine, dark lines
at 468 nm and 476 nm distinguish ruby from red garnet and spinel.
Diffraction
There’s also a strong cutoff in the violet. Purple sapphire might show
a mixture of ruby-type and sapphire-type spectra, with chrome lines
in the red and iron bands in the blue.
450 471 Sapphire and green and iron-rich yellow sapphire—Iron spectrum
460
with three strong lines in the violet-blue at 450 nm, 460 nm, and
471 nm. The 450-nm band is usually the strongest.
The spectra of natural blue and green Pale orange sapphire—Might show a vague chrome line around
sapphires show bands at 450 nm, 460 nm, and 690 nm, vague, broad absorption between 500 nm and 600 nm, and a
471 nm. The 450-nm band is usually the cutoff around 450 nm.
strongest.
SG 4.00
Comments High SG distinguishes corundum from similarly colored quartz, beryl,

tourmaline, iolite, spodumene, topaz, and chrysoberyl. Dichroscope
separates corundum from SR garnet and spinel. Spectrum is also
useful because red, pink, and purple stones show a chromium spectrum
while blue, yellow, and green stones usually show an iron spectrum.
Duncan Pay Robert Weldon/GIA Terri Weimer/GIA Robert Weldon/GIA

Corrosion from contact with molten Corundum rough typically has a Ruby crystals are often flattened Sapphire crystals are more often
rock resulted in the rounded, glassy tabular or bipyramid shape, often and tabular, with hexagonal cross- bipyramidal or prismatic than they
surfaces on these sapphire crystals. with horizontal striations. sections. are tabular. They typically have
horizontal striations.
460
QUARTZ TOURMALINE ANDALUSITE
Variety Amethyst—Violet to purple Parti-color—Distinctive parallel color Chiastolite—Opaque, with

Citrine—Yellow to orange and brown zoning at right angles to length or in cross-like pattern against a
Smoky—Brown cross-section (includes watermelon white, gray, or brown back-
Rock crystal—Colorless tourmaline) ground
Rose—Pink
Species Quartz Tourmaline Andalusite
Appearance Transparent to opaque, almost all colors. Transparent to opaque. All colors possible, Transparent to opaque brown-
Colored varieties often display color as well as distinctive color zoning parallel ish to yellowish green to
zoning. to length or in cross-section (watermelon orangy brown, or opaque
tourmaline) with cross-shaped pattern
(chiastolite). Transparent
crystals show strong eye-
visible pleochroism.
Crystal system Trigonal Trigonal Orthorhombic
Common habits Six-sided prism, usually with distinctive Very distinctive elongated triangular or Long, slender, four-sided
horizontal striations and pyramid-like six-sided prism with rounded triangular prisms with pyramid or dome-
termination cross-section, almost always with very shaped terminations
strong vertical striations parallel to its
length
Cleavage None None Distinct in one direction
Mohs hardness 7 7 to 7.5 7 to 7.5
Toughness Good Fair Fair to good
SG 2.66 Around 3.06 3.17
Comments Distinctive crystal habit and lower Distinctive crystal habit and SG separate Crystal shape and SG
SG distinguish quartz from similarly tourmaline from similarly colored corun- distinguish andalusite from
colored topaz, corundum, spodumene, dum, spodumene, chrysoberyl, andalusite, tourmaline, zoisite, and
tourmaline, and corundum. Lack of scapolite, beryl, and quartz. Strong epidote. Both epidote and
cleavage separates quartz from feldspar. dichroism separates it from SR spinel and zoisite also show cleavage,
garnet. while andalusite doesn’t.
Robert Weldon/GIA
Quartz crystals are typically six-sided

prisms with pyramid-like terminations
and horizontal striations.
Tino Hammid/GIA Terri Weimer/GIA
Tourmaline typically forms as an In its rough form, andalusite is

elongated prism with vertical generally a long, slender prism.
striations. The crystal often has a
rounded triangular cross-section.
461

CHRYSOBERYL
Variety Alexandrite—Displays color change

Prism
Species Chrysoberyl
Appearance Transparent to opaque yellow to brown and green, often chatoyant

(cat’s-eye chrysoberyl). Rarely shows red to green color change
(alexandrite).
Diffraction
Crystal system Orthorhombic
Common habits Long prismatic crystals terminated by pyramid faces or domes. Triple
interpenetrant twins forming a hexagonal shape, with notch-shaped
In the purple-red pleochroic direction, alexandrite’s depressions (re-entrant angles) marking the boundary of each twin
spectrum has strong lines in the red at 678 nm crystal.
and 680.5; weaker ones at 645 nm and 655 nm;
a broad absorption between 540 nm and Cleavage Imperfect in three directions (rarely seen)
605 nm; weak lines in the blue at 468 nm,
473 nm, and 476.5 nm; and a cutoff in the violet.
Mohs hardness 8.5

Toughness Good to excellent
Spectrum Orange, yellow, brown, and green—Strong iron band at 444 nm

Alexandrite, purple-red pleochroic direction—Strong lines in the red
Prism
at 678 nm and 680.5 nm; weaker ones at 645 nm and 655 nm; a broad
absorption between about 540 nm and 605 nm; weak lines in the blue
at 468 nm, 473 nm, and 476.5 nm; and a cutoff in the violet
Alexandrite, green pleochroic direction—Strong lines in the red at
Diffraction
678 nm and 680.5 nm; weaker ones at 645 nm, 649 nm, 655 nm, and
665 nm; a broad absorption between about 555 nm and 640 nm; and a
Alexandrite, orange pleochroic direction—No strong absorptions
In the green pleochroic direction, alexandrite SG 3.73

680.5 nm; weaker ones at 645 nm, 649 nm, Comments SG and spectrum separate chrysoberyl from similarly colored corundum,
655 nm, and 665 nm; a broad absorption zoisite, quartz, and beryl. Crystal shape and usual absence of cleavage
between about 555 nm and 640 nm; and a separate this gem from spodumene and feldspar, both with perfect
cutoff in the violet at about 470 nm. cleavage.
CHRYSOBERYL (NON-PHENOMENAL)
Prism
444
Diffraction
Robert Weldon/GIA Both by Maha Tannous/GIA
444
Chrysoberyl often forms in a variety of Alexandrite can show
twinned arrangements, including the cyclic a distinct color
twins at left and center. It might rarely be change from reddish
Chrysoberyl’s spectrum reveals a strong found as a prismatic untwinned crystal like or grayish purple in
diagnostic band at 444 nm. the example at lower left. incandescent light
(top) to bluish green
in fluorescent light
(bottom).
462
DANBURITE IOLITE
Species Danburite Iolite
Appearance Transparent to opaque, colorless Transparent to translucent, usually

to light yellow and brown, occa- light to dark blue or violet. Transparent,
sionally pink moderately to strongly colored crystals
show remarkable eye-visible trichroism.
Crystal system Orthorhombic Orthorhombic
Common habits Slender four-sided prism with Short prism that might appear hexagonal.
pyramid or dome-shaped termi- Often found as crystal fragments or irregu-
nations lar masses rather than well-formed
crystals.
Mike Havstad/GIA
Cleavage None Visible in one direction Prismatic danburite crystals

might resemble topaz crystals,
Mohs hardness 7 7 to 7.5 but they lack that gem’s basal
cleavage.
Toughness Good Fair
Spectrum Some stones might show a Not diagnostic

doublet at 580 nm
SG 3.00 2.61
Comments Lower SG and lack of cleavage Low SG distinguishes iolite from

separate danburite from similarly similarly colored corundum, tanzanite,
colored topaz and spodumene, and tourmaline. Eye-visible pleochroism
higher SG separates it from simi- separates it from quartz and scapolite.
larly colored quartz and beryl.
Eric Welch/GIA
Iolite rough is often irregular

rather than well formed.
463
PERIDOT
PERIDOT TOPAZ
Species Peridot Topaz

Prism
Appearance Transparent to translucent Transparent to translucent

yellowish green to brownish yellow, orange, brown, pink to red
green and greenish yellow and purple, colorless to pale blue
453 497
477 and green (untreated material)
Diffraction
Crystal system Orthorhombic Orthorhombic
Common habits Short, compact, vertically Flattened four-sided prism, often

453 497 striated prism, usually with with vertical striations and pyramid
477 dome or pyramid termination. or dome-shaped termination.
Often found as rounded or Crystals often have a distinctive
irregular grains, crystal frag- “chisel-shaped” termination and a
Peridot has a distinctive spectrum with strong
bands in the blue at 453 nm, 477 nm, and ments, or irregular masses rhombohedral or diamond-shaped
497 nm. rather than well-formed cross section
crystals.
Cleavage Imperfect in one direction Basal, perfect in one direction

(rarely seen)
Mohs hardness 6.5 to 7 8
Toughness Fair to good Poor (might cleave if dropped on a

hard surface)
Eric Welch/GIA Tino Hammid/GIA
Well-formed peridot Most peridot rough Spectrum Strong, narrow bands at 453 Not diagnostic
crystals often feature occurs as irregular nm, 477 nm, and 497 nm
domes and vertical nodules rather than
striations. well-formed crystals. SG 3.34 3.53
Comments Distinctive color, iron Distinctive crystal habit, SG, and

spectrum, SG, and distinctive basal cleavage or iridescent cleavage
inclusions (dark chromite cracks help identify a topaz crystal.
crystals and “lily pads” visible
with 10X loupe) help separate
peridot from similarly colored
tourmaline, beryl, diopside,
and spodumene.
These topaz crystals show typical chisel- Topaz crystals are often multi-faced prisms with
shaped terminations and basal cleavage. vertical striations.
464
DIOPSIDE
ZOISITE DIOPSIDE
Variety Tanzanite—Light to medium- Not required

dark bluish purple and
Prism
violetish blue to violet
Species Zoisite Diopside 505
Appearance Transparent to opaque. Blue to Transparent to opaque bluish to
Diffraction
bluish purple, violet, brown, yellowish green, brown, and
yellow to green black. Might show chatoyancy or
asterism.
505
Crystal system Orthorhombic Monoclinic
Common habits Multi-faced prism, often with Columnar prism with pyramid or
Diopside’s spectrum shows bands at 456 nm,
vertical striations and pyramid dome terminations 493 nm, and 505 nm. The 505-nm band is
or dome-shaped terminations diagnostic for the gem.
Cleavage Perfect in one direction Perfect in two directions

CHROME DIOPSIDE
Mohs hardness 6 to 7 5.5 to 6
Toughness Fair to poor Poor
Prism
Spectrum Not diagnostic Ordinary green—Diagnostic band
at 505 nm, with bands also at 456
nm and 493 nm 505
508
Chrome-type—Lines at 505 nm,
508 nm, 635 nm, 655 nm, and 670
Diffraction
nm, and a cutoff around 450 nm
Black—505-nm line common
505
SG 3.35 3.29 508
Comments SG and strong trichroism Spectroscope, cleavage, and SG

separate zoisite from similarly separate transparent green varieties Chrome diopside’s spectrum shows lines
at 505 nm, 508 nm, 635 nm, 655 nm, and
colored corundum and of diopside from similarly colored
670 nm, and a cutoff in the blue area of the
chrysoberyl. tourmaline, beryl, peridot, and spectrum around 450 nm.
garnet.
Shane McClure/GIA
Diopside crystals typically occur as well-

formed prisms.
Shane McClure/GIA
Gem-quality green zoisite often

occurs as a prismatic crystal.
465
EPIDOTE
EPIDOTE ORTHOCLASE
Variety Not required Moonstone (when adularescence is

present)
Prism
Species Epidote Orthoclase

Diffraction
Appearance Transparent to opaque light to Transparent to opaque colorless to

very dark green to brown white; occasionally green, orange
to yellow and brown, gray to nearly
black. Might show phenomena
(adularescence, aventurescence,
chatoyancy, asterism).
Epidote’s spectrum usually has a very strong
band at 455 nm. It’s sometimes followed by a Crystal system Monoclinic Monoclinic
weak line at 475 nm.
Common habits Prism, but more often forms a Prismatic, blocky, with wedge-
twinned aggregate shaped faces
Cleavage Perfect in one direction Perfect and easy in two directions.

Parting common in twinned stones.
Mohs hardness 6 to 7 6 to 6.5
Toughness Fair to poor Poor
Spectrum Very strong band at 455 nm Not diagnostic

and sometimes a weak line at
475 nm
SG 3.40 2.58
Comments Cleavage, spectrum, trichroism, Cleavage and SG separate feldspar

Terri Weimer/GIA and SG separate epidote from from quartz and beryl. SG separates
Epidote crystals are typically similarly colored tourmaline. feldspar from similarly colored
“pistachio” green, with vertical spodumene, topaz, and chrysoberyl.
striations.
Robert Weldon/GIA
A well-formed orthoclase
feldspar crystal typically has a
blocky habit.
466
SPODUMENE AMAZONITE
Variety Kunzite—Pink to violet-pink, Amazonite

often light in tone
Species Spodumene Microcline
Appearance Transparent to opaque yellow to Semitranslucent to opaque light Robert Weldon/GIA

light green, pink to violet, and green to greenish blue, with distinctive Kunzite spodumene forms elongated
colorless grid-like markings and faint sheen prismatic crystals, often with irregular
terminations.
Crystal system Monoclinic Triclinic
Common habits Elongated, vertically striated prism Prismatic, blocky, with wedge-shaped
with irregular terminations, often faces
with lozenge or rhomb-shaped
cross-section. Tops of crystals
might bear distinctive rounded,
triangular raised etch markings.
Cleavage Perfect in two directions, parallel Perfect and easy in two directions Eric Welch/GIA
to length of crystal
Triangular etch marks often occur on a
spodumene crystal’s surface.
Mohs hardness 6.5 to 7 6 to 6.5
Toughness Poor Poor
SG 3.18 2.56
Comments Crystal habit and cleavage separate Distinctive appearance, cleavage, and
spodumene from similarly colored SG help identify amazonite.
tourmaline and quartz. SG separates
it from topaz, beryl, and
chrysoberyl.
Blocky amazonite feldspar crystals

typically display a grid-like pattern of
intersecting cleavages.
467
LABRADORITE FELDSPAR OLIGOCLASE FELDSPAR KYANITE
Species Labradorite Oligoclase Kyanite
Group Feldspar Feldspar Not required
Appearance Transparent to opaque. Typically Transparent to opaque. Typically Transparent to opaque. Light blue to
gray to nearly black (might show yellow, orange to brown, or brownish dark blue to green, often zoned in
labradorescence), colorless, green, red. Might also show aventurescence, bands of blue, green, and colorless.
yellow, orange to brown and asterism, or chatoyancy. Colorless, dark blue, and violet-blue
brownish red (might also show pleochroism. Might also be yellow,
aventurescence, asterism, or gray, brown, or rarely colorless.
chatoyancy)
Crystal system Triclinic Triclinic Triclinic
Common habits Usually seen in compact aggregates. Usually seen in compact aggregates. Forms long, flat prisms or distinctive
Prismatic, blocky crystals with Prismatic, blocky crystals with elongated blade-like crystals.
wedge-shaped faces appear very wedge-shaped faces appear very Commonly color zoned in bands of
rarely. Twinning common. rarely. green, blue, and colorless. Might
appear fibrous.
Cleavage Perfect and easy in two directions. Perfect and easy in two directions. Perfect in one direction, distinct in
Parting is also common. Parting is also common. another direction. Parting is also
common.
Mohs hardness 6 to 6.5 6 to 6.5 4 to 5 in one direction, 6.5 to 7 at 90º

angle to the first direction
Toughness Poor Poor Poor
SG 2.70 2.65 3.68
Comments Distinctive phenomena separate Key tests are cleavage and SG. When Key tests are pleochroism and possibly
labradorite from most other black present, aventurescence distinguishes hardness.
to gray materials. SG separates oligoclase from most other gem
transparent labradorite from most materials.
other gem materials. Cleavage and
multiple twinning planes seen under
the polariscope separate transparent
yellow labradorite from similarly
colored quartz or beryl.
Kyanite crystals typically have a fibrous blade-like

appearance and irregular blue color.
This labradorite feldspar rough

shows broad flashes of blue
labradorescence.
468
IDENTIFYING SYNTHETIC CRYSTALS
Maha Tannous/GIA
Synthetic crystals grown by melt processes

tend to have rounded outlines and circular
cross-sections.
Eric Welch/GIA
Some wholesalers specialize in selling a wide range of synthetic crystals.

A synthetic gem is a manmade material with essentially the same chemical composi-
tion, crystal structure, and properties as its natural counterpart. The presence of
synthetic gems in the market makes it important for you to be able to recognize them.
When you attend a big gem show, like the one in Tucson, Arizona, you’ll probably
find wholesalers offering a variety of synthetic crystals. Like natural crystals,
some synthetics have distinctive shapes that can help you identify them. These
features can also help you separate them from their natural counterparts.
Crystals grown by melt processes tend to be cylindrical and often contain curved
growth patterns and gas bubbles. They include diamond simulants like YAG and
GGG as well as some synthetic corundum, spinel, and chrysoberyl.
Materials grown by some solution processes might look more like natural crystals.
Some of their features might even look better than the same features in natural
gems. The junctions between the crystal faces of flux-grown synthetic corundum,
spinel, and beryl, for example, are lustrous and often very sharp. Not many natural
corundum, spinel, or beryl crystals achieve such perfection. Their junctions and
crystal faces are usually rounded and scarred from tumbling in rivers and streams.
469
Maha Tannous/GIA
Shane McClure/GIA Tino Hammid/GIA

Synthetic crystals might be fashioned Flux-grown synthetics might closely resemble their natural counterparts. Although its shape is
to resemble and be sold as natural similar, the synthetic alexandrite at right has sharper crystal faces than the natural crystal at left
ones. These flame-fusion synthetic because it grew under controlled laboratory conditions.
rubies resemble natural ruby (top) and
natural red beryl crystals (bottom).
A 10X loupe can be enough to help you detect flux or plate-like inclusions of
platinum or gold in many synthetic crystals grown by these methods.
Synthetic quartz, corundum, and beryl grown by the hydrothermal process might
all have a similar flattened shape with an irregular, or “cobbled,” surface texture
that makes them different from their natural counterparts. They might also show
clearly visible seed plates along with remnants of the wires used to suspend them
in the growth chamber.
Don’t forget that synthetic materials can be fashioned to resemble natural rough.
People who handle natural gem materials in mining areas are often the most
skilled at crafting imitations. For example, buyers in Vietnam have been fooled by
flame-fusion corundum fashioned to resemble natural pyramid-shaped sapphire
crystals, complete with correctly oriented growth marks. Magnification would
reveal the curved growth and gas bubbles typical of this type of synthetic.
470
DESCRIBING SYNTHETIC CRYSTALS AND GROWTH PROCESSES
These are some of the terms that gemologists use to describe synthetic crystals:
Boule—A cylindrical crystal produced by a melt process.
Chevron growth pattern—A feature of some hydrothermal synthetic gems that looks like
rows of pointed arches.
Curved color banding—Distinctive color zoning parallel to the surface of a flame-fusion

synthetic sapphire boule. Appears as curved color bands in fashioned stones.
Curved striae—Curved growth patterns seen in flame-fusion synthetics such as ruby and
color-change sapphire. They represent stages in the growth of the boule.
Flame fusion—A melt process in which powdered chemicals are dropped through a high-
temperature flame, where they melt onto a rotating pedestal to produce a synthetic crystal.
Used to grow corundum and spinel.
Floating zone—A melt process where a heating unit passes over a rotating solid rod of
chemicals that melt to form a synthetic crystal.
Flux growth—A solution process in which nutrients dissolve in chemicals to form

synthetic crystals. Used to grow corundum, beryl, chrysoberyl, and YAG.
Hydrothermal growth—A solution process in which nutrients dissolve in an acidic water

solution at high temperature and pressure to form synthetic crystals. Used to grow corundum,
beryl, and quartz.
Melt process—A synthetic-crystal growth method in which the chemical mixture is melted,
then recrystallized. Includes the flame-fusion, pulling, and floating zone methods.
Pulling—A melt process in which the synthetic crystal grows from a seed that is dipped
into a chemical melt, then pulled away as it gathers material. Also called the Czochralski
method. Used to grow corundum, chrysoberyl, and YAG.
Seed crystal—A tiny crystal used to initiate crystal growth and as a template to control the
size, speed, or direction of growth and the shape of a growing crystal.
Skull melt—A synthetic-crystal growth method that uses cooling pipes around an interior
of melted chemical ingredients. Used specifically to grow CZ.
Solution process—A growth method in which the synthetic crystal grows from a dissolved
chemical mixture, sometimes at high temperature and pressure. Includes flux and
hydrothermal growth methods.
Spontaneous nucleation—A synthetic-crystal growth method that starts without a seed

crystal.
471
Common Synthetic Crystals

Gem material Crystal system Cleavage directions Page Crystal shapes
Synthetic diamond Cubic 4, perfect 473 Combinations of cube and

octahedron
CZ (synthetic cubic zirconia) Cubic None 474 Columnar pieces
GGG Cubic None 474 Boules
YAG Cubic None 474 Boules, tabular crystals
Synthetic spinel Cubic Not seen 475 Boules, octahedral crystals
Synthetic beryl Hexagonal 1, very difficult 476 Six-sided prisms, tabular crystals
with cobbled surfaces
Synthetic corundum Trigonal None 477 Boules, rods, tabular crystals,

twinned crystals, tabular
crystals with cobbled surfaces
Synthetic quartz Trigonal None 478 Tabular crystals with cobbled

surfaces
Synthetic chrysoberyl Orthorhombic None 479 Rods, prismatic crystals, twinned

crystals
472
SYNTHETIC DIAMOND
Appearance Transparent to opaque. Untreated crystals typically yellow, blue,

green, or colorless. Might be treated to pink, red, yellow, or green.
Yellow crystals typically more saturated than natural material. Face-
up green color in some synthetic green crystals might be due to
alternating yellow and blue zones.
Crystal system Cubic John Koivula/GIA
Crystal shape Grown by high-pressure methods—Mixture of cube and octahedral

forms, often tapering upward from a broader base to give a pyramid
shape. Base might show an indentation where the seed crystal was
attached. Typically less than 1.00 carat in size, although non-gem-
quality crystals of over 30 carats have been grown experimentally.
Surfaces of crystals might show curved growth markings or dendritic
growth patterns. These aren’t seen on natural crystals.
Grown by carbon vapor deposition (CVD)—Flattened tabular crystals,
possibly with brown graining along with small, black, irregularly
shaped inclusions (possibly graphite). Very rare, grown experimentally. James Shigley/GIA
These yellow (top) and pale greenish

Cleavage Perfect in four directions, parallel to octahedral faces (bottom) synthetic diamond crystals
show typical combinations of cube and
Mohs hardness 10 octahedral faces.
Toughness Good in cleavage directions, exceptional in others
SG 3.52
Comments Key tests for high-pressure material are crystal shape (typically a
mixture of cube and octahedron), magnification (color zoning
parallel to cube and octahedral faces, and metallic flux inclusions),
and cross-shaped fluorescence patterns. Some crystals might be
attracted to a magnet due to numerous flux-metal inclusions. CVD
synthetic diamond is extremely rare at time of writing.
Maha Tannous/GIA
The dark indentations on the surfaces of

these synthetic diamond crystals are
points of attachment for seed crystals.
473
CZ GGG YAG
Species CZ (synthetic cubic zirconia) GGG (gadolinium gallium garnet) YAG (yttrium aluminum garnet)
Appearance Transparent to opaque. Produced Transparent. Usually colorless, but Transparent. Colorless, green, blue,
in all colors as well as colorless. might be light brown or yellow. Small pink, red, purple, orange, or yellow
Color-change material also avail- amounts of orange and blue have also material possible.
able. been produced.
Crystal system Cubic Cubic Cubic
Crystal shape Produced by skull-melt process. As Bell-shaped or cylindrical boules with Pulled—Bell-shaped or cylindrical
material cools, it splits into irregular round cross-sections, generally grown boules, up to hundreds of carats in
columnar crystals, which might be by the crystal pulling method size, with circular cross-sections.
several centimeters in length and Might contain gas bubbles.
weigh several hundred carats. Flux grown—Tabular crystals, often
with numerous flux inclusions
Cleavage None None None
Mohs hardness 8.5 6.5 8.25
Toughness Good, unless the crystal is highly Fair to good Good

strained
SG 5.60 to 6.00 (transparent material) 7.05 (+0.04/-0.01) 4.50 to 4.60
Comments Key tests are shape of rough and Key tests are cylindrical shape and SG. Key tests are shape and SG. YAG is a
SG. Higher SG and heft separate GGG’s high SG separates it from manmade material with no natural
CZ from YAG of similar color. CZ similarly colored CZ and YAG. GGG counterpart.
is a manmade material with no is a manmade material with no natural
gem-quality natural counterpart. counterpart.
Terri Weimer/GIA Terri Weimer/GIA
Eric Welch/GIA Eric Welch/GIA Terri Weimer/GIA Robert Weldon/GIA
Growers produce CZ in a wide range of colors in both CZ can be produced GGG is produced by the YAG might be produced by
transparent (top) and opaque (bottom) forms. They with an opaque metallic pulling process, resulting in the crystal pulling process,
share the same irregular columnar shape appearance that simulates cylindrical boules. This resulting in a cylindrical boule
marcasite or pyrite. GGG crystal—the top (top), or by flux growth,
portion of a larger boule— resulting in a tabular crystal
weighs 15 oz. (447 g.). (bottom).
474
FLUX-GROWN SYNTHETIC BLUE SPINEL

SYNTHETIC SPINEL
Species Synthetic spinel
Prism
Appearance Transparent to opaque. Flame-fusion material manufactured in a
range of colors, including a light-toned blue resembling aquamarine,
a greenish blue resembling zircon, a dark grayish green resembling
tourmaline, a vivid, dark, slightly greenish blue resembling sapphire,
a light-toned yellowish green resembling peridot, and a pale pink.
Diffraction
There’s also a translucent material that imitates moonstone and an
opaque blue “sintered” material that imitates lapis lazuli. Flux-grown
material is typically red or blue, but scientists have grown a related
mineral—synthetic gahnite—experimentally by the flux method in a
variety of other colors.
Flux-grown synthetic blue spinel’s spectrum has
bands between 535 nm and 550 nm, 560 nm
Crystal shape Flame fusion—Cylindrical boule that tapers toward the base, often
and 590 nm, and 615 nm and 635 nm, together
with a slightly square cross-section. Might be several centimeters in with a weak absorption at 430 nm that increases
length. through the violet.
Flux grown—Octahedral shape similar to natural crystal, with
relatively flat, smooth faces and sharp edges. Base of crystal has
an irregular surface, which might be a point of attachment (natural
crystals often have intact octahedral points). Magnification might
reveal flux inclusions. Synthetic crystals have been grown over 10
carats in size.
Cleavage Almost never seen
Mohs hardness 8
Terri Weimer/GIA
Toughness Good Most synthetic spinel is produced by flame
fusion. The cylindrical shape of this blue spinel
SG Flame fusion—3.64 (+0.02/-0.12) boule is typical.
Flux grown—3.61 (+/-0.03)
Comments Flame fusion—Key tests are crystal shape, SG, and spectrum.
Magnification might reveal gas bubbles. Boules might show strong
ADR (crosshatch effect common) with polariscope. Color filter and
spectrum separate blue flame-fusion synthetic spinel from similarly
colored flame-fusion synthetic sapphire boules. Crystal shape and
SG separate blue flame-fusion spinel from similarly colored
hydrothermal synthetic quartz.
Flux grown—Key test is magnification, which reveals flux inclusions.
Spectrum is a key test for blue material, which lacks iron-related Some flame-fusion synthetic spinel boules have
sides that are nearly straight (left) and cross-
bands at 459 nm and 480 nm in the blue. Vivid color and sharpness
sections that are rounded squares (right).
of junctions between crystal faces might indicate synthetic.
Robert Weldon/GIA Both by Eric Welch/GIA
Flux-grown synthetic spinel This Russian flux-grown synthetic spinel has the same
crystals can be up to 10 arrangement of triangular faces (left) as a natural crystal. Its
carats in size. They have the broken base (right) indicates its synthetic nature, as the points
same crystal shape as natural on most natural gem-quality spinel crystals are intact.
rough.
475
SYNTHETIC BERYL
Variety Synthetic emerald—Medium to medium-dark green to bluish green

Synthetic aquamarine—Greenish blue to blue-green, generally light
in tone
Synthetic morganite—Pink to purplish pink, often light in tone
Synthetic heliodor—Light-toned, slightly greenish yellow to orangy
yellow
Species Synthetic beryl
Terri Weimer/GIA Appearance Green, blue-green to greenish blue, pink, and red. Bicolor synthetic
Although the synthetic emerald crystals in beryl crystals, including “watermelon” type, have been grown
this 237.94-ct. Chatham flux-grown cluster experimentally.
look very similar to natural crystals, their
vivid color and inclusions mark them as Crystal system Hexagonal
synthetics.
Crystal shape Flux grown—Synthetic emerald is usually flux grown, although
hydrothermal growth is becoming the preferred method. Resembles
natural material. Six-or twelve-sided columns terminated by flat
faces. Often seen as small groups of radiating columnar crystals.
Vivid nature of color and sharpness of junctions between crystal
faces might indicate synthetic.
Hydrothermal—Tabular crystals with irregular (cobbled) top and
bottom surfaces typical of this growth method. Seed plates and wires
(used to suspend the seed plate in growth medium) often visible.
Emerald, aquamarine, and red to pink beryl are grown by the
hydrothermal process.
Cleavage Very difficult in one direction, almost never seen
Mohs hardness 7.5 to 8
Toughness Synthetic emerald is poor to good, and slightly tougher than natural
Both by Eric Welch/GIA emerald. Good in other varieties.
These Russian-grown synthetic
emeralds’ tabular shapes, SG Flux grown—Synthetic emerald 2.66 to 2.69
cobbled surface textures (top), Hydrothermal—Synthetic aquamarine 2.72 (+0.18/-0.05), synthetic
and colorless seed plates emerald 2.61 to 2.76, synthetic red and pink beryl 2.67 to 2.70
(bottom) identify them as prod-
ucts of hydrothermal growth.
Comments Flux grown—Key tests are six-sided columnar shape and magnifica-
tion, which might reveal wispy veils and flux inclusions as well as
platinum or gold platelets that appear metallic with reflected lighting.
Vivid color and sharpness of junctions between crystal faces often
indicate synthetic.
Hydrothermal—Key tests are tabular crystal shape with cobbled or
cobblestone texture on some faces and presence of seed plate.
Magnification might reveal seed plate, nailhead spicules, platinum or
gold platelets, and chevron or mosaic growth patterns.
Eric Welch/GIA
The tabular shapes of these hydro-

thermal synthetic aquamarine
crystals separate them from
natural ones, which usually grow
as six- or twelve-sided columns.
476
SYNTHETIC CORUNDUM
Variety Synthetic ruby—Orangy red to purplish red

Synthetic sapphire—Light to dark violet, bluish violet, pure blue to
strongly greenish blue
Synthetic color-change sapphire—Typically reddish purple or purple
in incandescent light and grayish blue in daylight or fluorescent light
Other colors—Designate by color Terri Weimer/GIA
When they cool, synthetic corundum

boules often split lengthways down the
middle.
Appearance Transparent to opaque (with asterism). Virtually all colors manufac-
tured by flame-fusion process. Blue, orange to orange-red, and
red-to-pink material manufactured by flux-growth process.
Crystal shape Flame fusion—Cylindrical boule with a circular cross-section that

tapers toward the base. Boules typically several centimeters in length,
sometimes split lengthways after cooling due to strain. Both by Eric Welch/GIA
Pulled—Cylindrical rods or boules with circular cross-sections. These Ramaura flux-grown synthetic rubies are
Pulled synthetic pink sapphire rods might be as large as several characterized by flattened tabular shapes, surface
hundred carats. markings (left), and complex twinning (right).
Flux grown—Might be tabular or display complex twinning.
Synthetic blue sapphire crystals are typically small, but synthetic
rubies and pink sapphires as large as several hundred carats have
been produced. Vivid color and sharp junctions between crystal faces
might indicate synthetic.
Hydrothermal—Tabular crystals with irregular cobbled top and
bottom surfaces typical of this growth method. Might be several
centimeters in length. Seed plates and wires (used to suspend the seed
plate in growth medium) often visible.
Cleavage None
Mohs hardness 9
Toughness Excellent, except in twinned or strained material Robert Weldon
Some flux-grown synthetic

SG 4.00 (+/-0.05) sapphires can be very large. This
fancy pink Chatham synthetic
Comments Flame fusion—Key tests are shape of rough boule and magnification, weighs 884 cts.
which reveals gas bubbles and curved growth.
Pulled—Key tests are cylindrical shape of rough and magnification,
which might reveal gas bubbles or faint curved growth.
Flux grown—Key test is magnification, which might reveal flux
inclusions. In some flux-grown synthetic rubies, large flux inclusions
might be close to the crystal’s surface and orange, yellow, or white in
color. Triangular or hexagonal platinum platelets are common in most
flux-grown synthetic corundum.
Hydrothermal—Key tests are tabular crystal shape with cobbled or
Eric Welch/GIA Tino Hammid/GIA
cobblestone texture on some faces and presence of seed plate.
Magnification might reveal chevron or mosaic growth patterns. Flux-grown synthetic Flattened tabular
blue sapphire crystals shape and cobbled
are typically tabular, surface texture
with uneven color identify these crystals
distribution. as hydrothermal
synthetic corundum.
477
SYNTHETIC QUARTZ
Variety Synthetic amethyst—Purple through violetish purple

Synthetic citrine—Pale yellow through strong yellow to yellowish
orange, reddish orange, and reddish brown
Synthetic ametrine—Bicolor combination of amethyst and citrine
colors
Species Synthetic quartz
Appearance Transparent, all colors seen in nature, plus bright cobalt blue, green-
ish yellow, and grayish green not seen in nature. Pink material (more
transparent than rose quartz) and limited quantities of aventurescent
material also manufactured.
Both by Terri Weimer/GIA Crystal shape Tabular crystals with irregular (cobbled) top and bottom surfaces
typical of hydrothermal growth method. Seed plates and wires (used
Vivid blue color, tabular shape,
colorless seed plate (top), and to suspend the seed plate in growth medium) often visible. Large
cobbled surface texture (bottom), crystals up to several centimeters in length are produced. Crystals
identify this 39-oz. (1.107-kg) grown on natural seeds (rare) might display habit identical to natural.
crystal as hydrothermal
synthetic quartz. Cleavage None
Mohs hardness 7
Toughness Good
SG 2.66 (+0.03/-0.02)
Comments Key tests are tabular shape, with cobbled or cobblestone texture on
some faces, presence of seed plate, and possibly unnatural color. Blue
material might show cobalt bands through the spectroscope. Pink
material is typically much more transparent than natural rose quartz.
Colorless seed plates are easily visible

in this whole hydrothermal synthetic
amethyst crystal (top) and this
polished hydrothermal synthetic
ametrine section (bottom).
478
SYNTHETIC CHRYSOBERYL
Variety Synthetic alexandrite—Displays color change

Appearance Synthetic alexandrite is bluish green in daylight or fluorescent

light, brownish red to purple-red in incandescent light. Non-phenom-
enal medium to light green and bluish green material colored by
vanadium might be sold as “mint” chrysoberyl. Pink synthetic
chrysoberyl has been produced experimentally.
Crystal system Orthorhombic

Tino Hammid/GIA
Crystal shape Pulled—Cylindrical rod or boule. Synthetic alexandrite often

flawless. Non-phenomenal vanadium-colored green material
sometimes contains irregular curved growth and gas bubbles.
Flux grown—Might resemble natural material, with both twinned
and untwinned crystals, including cyclic twins that resemble natural
twinned crystals. Typically several carats in size. Crystals usually
contain flux inclusions, which provide the best way to separate them
from natural material. Vivid nature of color and sharpness of junctions
between crystal faces might indicate synthetic. Eric Welch/GIA
Like natural alexandrite chrysoberyl,

Cleavage None flux-grown synthetics can grow as
twinned crystals (top) or untwinned
Mohs hardness 8.5 prisms (bottom).
Toughness Excellent
SG 3.73 (+/-0.02)
Comments Pulled—Key test is crystal shape and possibly magnification.

Often flawless, but curved growth and tiny gas bubbles might be
visible with immersion.
Flux grown—Key test is magnification, which might reveal flux
inclusions. Strong pleochroism (green, orange, purple-red) in
synthetic alexandrite separates it from natural and synthetic color-
change corundum.
479
GEM IDENTIFICATION RI CHART
This chart lists all the gem materials in the manual. The listings are in descending RI
order to make it easy for you to find a gem with a known RI. The chart also lists basic
information on each gem’s birefringence, transparency, and possible color range.
Page references in the last column will direct you to the detailed entry or entries for
each gem, broken down by color, phenomenon, and sometimes treatment.
GEM IDENTIFICATION RI CHART
Gem RI Birefringence Transparency Possible colors Lab manual page
Hematite OTL 0.280 (usually not O Metallic, dark gray to Gray—Page 340
2.940 to 3.220 detectable) black Black—Page 358
Imitation hematite OTL None O Metallic, dark gray to Gray—Page 340

black Black—Page 358
Pyrite OTL Too opaque to test O Metallic, brassy yellow Orange, yellow—Page 281
Gray—Page 340
Black—Page 358
Rough—Page 455
Synthetic moissanite OTL 0.043 TP Near-colorless, often Colorless—Page 301

2.648 to 2.691 with a greenish tint;
black
Synthetic rutile OTL 0.287 TP Near-colorless, usually Colorless—Page 301

2.616 to 2.903 with a slight yellow or
blue tint
Diamond OTL None (SR) TP Typically near-colorless, Red, pink, purple—Page 83

2.417 but can be any color Irradiated red—Page 84
Blue—Page 139
Irradiated blue—Page 140
Green—Page 186
HPHT-treated green—
Page 187
Yellow to brown—Page 243
Irradiated orange to
yellow—Page 244
HPHT-treated yellow—Page
245
Colorless—Page 302
Fracture-filled—Page 303
Laser-drilled—Page 304
HPHT-treated colorless—
Page 304
Gray—Page 341
Black—Page 359
Rough—Page 452
HPHT synthetic OTL None (SR) TP Yellow, brown, blue Red (treated color)—Page
diamond 2.417 green, colorless; any 85
color possible through Blue—Page 140
treatment Green—Page 188
Irradiated black—Page 360
Crystal—Page 473
CVD synthetic OTL None (SR) TP Brown, brownish Brown, yellow—Page 248
diamond 2.417 yellow, colorless Colorless—Page 305
Strontium titanate OTL None (SR) TP Typically colorless Colorless—Page 307

2.409
481
CZ (synthetic cubic OTL None (SR) TP to O Typically colorless, but Red, pink (TP)—Page 86
zirconia) 2.150 might be any color Pink (TL)—Page 119
Translucent pink: Blue, violet—Page 141
2.140 Green—Page 189
Yellow, orange—Page 250
White—Page 322
Black—Page 360
Color-change—Page 401
Crystal—Page 474
GGG (gadolinium gallium OTL None (SR) TP Typically colorless, but Blue—Page 141
garnet) 1.970 (+0.060) might be blue, yellow, Yellow, brown—Page 250
brown Colorless—Page 307
Crystal—Page 474
Zircon OTL High-type: 0.059 TP Almost all colors Red, pink, purple—Page 86
High-type: 1.925 to Low-type: might Blue—Page 142
1.984 approach zero Green—Page 189
(+/-0.040) Yellow to brown—Page 251
Low-type: 1.810 Colorless—Page 308
to 1.815 Gray—Page 341
(+/-0.030) Rough—Page 456
Sphene OTL 0.100 to 0.135 TP Green, yellow to brown Green—Page 190

1.900 to 2.034 Yellow to brown—Page 252
(+/-0.020)
Andradite garnet OTL None (SR) TP to O Green (demantoid), Green—Page 190

1.888 yellow to brown, rarely Yellow to brown—Page 252
(+0.007/-0.033) chatoyant or with iri- Cat’s-eye—Page 384
descence Iridescent—Page 410
Rough—Page 454
YAG (yttrium aluminum OTL None (SR) TP Typically colorless, but Red, pink, purple—Page 86
garnet) 1.833 might be any color Blue—Page 143
(+/-0.100) Green—Page 191
Crystal—Page 474
Spessartite garnet 1.810 None (SR) TP to TL Reddish orange to Red—Page 87

(+0.004/-0.020) orangy brown, rarely Orange—Page 253
chatoyant Cat’s-eye—Page 384
Rough—Page 454
Gahnite 1.800 (might be None (SR) TP to TL Very dark blue or green Blue—Page 143
nearly OTL) to black
(+0.005/-0.010)
Uvarovite garnet OTL None (SR) TP Green Green—Page 191

1.798 to 1.864
(crystals often too
tiny to test)
482
RI CHART
Almandite garnet 1.780 to OTL None (SR) TP Purple to brownish red Red, pink, purple—Page 87
Star—Page 376
Rough—Page 454
Corundum 1.762 to 1.770 0.008 to 0.010 TP to O All colors, colorless; Red, pink, purple—Page 88
(+0.009/-0.005) might show asterism, Red, lattice diffusion
1.76 or 1.77 spot chatoyancy, or color treated—Page 89
RI change Color-change—Page 95,
194, and 402
Blue, violet—Page 144
Blue, lattice diffusion
treated—Page 145
Green—Page 192
Yellow, lattice diffusion
treated—Page 256
Gray—Page 342
Black—Page 361
Star—Page 373
Star, lattice diffusion
treated—Page 374
Cat’s-eye—Page 385
Rough—Page 460
Synthetic corundum 1.762 to 1.770 0.008 to 0.010 TP All colors, colorless; Red, pink, purple (flame
(+0.009/-0.005) might show asterism or fusion)—Page 90
1.76 or 1.77 spot color change Red, pink, purple (pulled)—
RI Page 91
Red, pink, purple (floating
zone)—Page 91
Red, pink, purple (flux)—
Page 92
Red, pink, purple
(hydrothermal)—Page 92
Red, pink, purple (over-
growth)—Page 94
Color-change—Pages 95
and 403
Blue, violet (flame fusion)—
Page 145
Blue, violet (flux)—Page 146
Blue, violet (hydrothermal)—
Page 146
Green (flame fusion)—
Page 193
Green (hydrothermal)—
Page 193
Yellow to brown (flame
fusion)—Page 257
Yellow to brown (flux)—
Page 258
Yellow to brown (hydrother-
mal)—Page 258
Star (flame fusion)—Page
375
Star (pulled)—Page 376
Crystal—Page 477
483
Ruby-in-zoisite Ruby crystals: 1.76 Not detectable O Purplish red ruby crys- Red—Page 120
to 1.77 spot tals in green zoisite Green—Page 226
Zoisite matrix: 1.70 and black hornblende
spot matrix
Gahnospinel 1.760 (+/-0.020) None (SR) TP to TL Very dark blue or green Blue—Page 148
to black
Benitoite 1.757 to 1.804 0.047 (blinks to OTL) TP Blue to violet Blue—Page 148
Grossularite-andradite Green: 1.762 to None (SR) TP Green to yellow and Green—Page 195
garnet 1.764 brown, chatoyant in Yellow, brown—Page 254
Yellowish green: rare cases
1.752 to 1.769
Orange to brown:
1.773 to 1.779
Pyrope-spessartite garnet 1.750 to 1.780 None (SR) TP Pinkish orange, reddish Red, pink—Page 96
orange, orange; might Orange—Page 260
show color change Color-change—Page 404
Pyrope-almandite garnet 1.750 to 1.780 None (SR) TP Purple, purplish red to Red, purple—Page 96
brownish red Star—Page 376
Rough—Page 454
Alexandrite chrysoberyl 1.746 to 1.755 0.008 to 0.010 TP Yellowish to bluish Red—Page 97

(+0.004/-0.006) green (daylight), Green—Page 196
orangy red to purplish Cat’s-eye—Page 386
red (incandescent General information—Page
light) 405
Rough—Page 462
Synthetic alexandrite 1.746 to 1.755 0.008 to 0.010 TP Same as natural Red—Page 98

chrysoberyl (+0.004/-0.006) Green—Page 197
General information—Page
406
Crystal—Page 479
Chrysoberyl 1.746 to 1.755 0.008 to 0.010 TP to TL Green, yellow to Green—Page 198

(+0.004/-0.006) brown; might show Yellow to brown—Page 261
1.75 spot RI chatoyancy Cat’s-eye—Page 385
Rough—Page 462
Synthetic non-phenome- 1.742 to 1.755 0.008 to 0.010 TP Intense green Green—Page 198
nal chrysoberyl (+0.004/-0.006) Crystal—Page 479
Grossularite garnet 1.740 None (SR) TP Green to yellow, Green—Page 199

(+0.020/-0.010) brown, and colorless Yellow, brown—Page 261
Rough—Page 454
484
RI CHART
Single-crystal rhodonite 1.733 to 1.747 0.010 to 0.014 TP Red, orangy red, pink Red, pink—Page 99
(+0.010/-0.013)
Opaque rhodonite 1.733 to 1.747 None (AGG) O Red, brownish to pur- Red, pink—Page 121
(1.73 to 1.75 spot plish red, pink
RI)
Azurmalachite Azurite: 1.730 to Azurite: 0.106 O Bands of blue and Blue—Page 167
1.836 (+/-0.010) Malachite: 0.254 green Green—Page 224
Malachite: 1.655 to
1.909
Azurite 1.730 to 1.836 0.106 STP to O Dark blue to violetish Blue—Page 167
(+/-0.010) blue
Pyrope garnet 1.730 to 1.750 None (SR) TP Purplish red to brown- Red, pink, purple—Page 99
(1.740 normal, but ish red, light pink (rare) Rough—Page 454
can go as low as
1.717)
Unakite 1.729 to 1.768 None (AGG) O Mottled green, pink, Red, pink—Page 121
(1.74 to 1.76 or and gray appearance Green—Page 224
1.52 to 1.54 spot
RI, depending on
where you test)
Epidote 1.729 to 1.768 0.019 to 0.045 TP to TL Green, brown, yellow, Green—Page 199
(+0.012/-0.035) black Yellow, brown—Page 262
Rough—Page 466
Flame-fusion synthetic 1.728 None (SR) TP Red (rare), pink, blue, Red, pink—Page 100
spinel (+0.012/-0.008) light green, colorless Blue—Page 149
Red (very rare): Green—Page 200
1.722 (+/-0.003) Colorless—Page 310
Crystal—Page 475
Flux-grown synthetic Red, pink: 1.719 None (SR) TP Red, pink, blue Red, pink—Page 100
spinel (+/-0.003) Blue—Page 150
Blue: 1.714 Crystal—Page 475
(+/-0.003)
Hydrogrossular garnet 1.720 None (AGG) TL to O Pink, green Pink—Page 122

(+0.010/-0.050) Green—Page 225
1.72 spot RI Gray—Page 343
Taaffeite 1.719 to 1.723 0.004 to 0.005 TP Pink, red, purple, violet, Red, pink, purple—
(+/-0.002) brown, colorless Page 101
Spinel 1.718 None (SR) TP to O Red, pink, purple, blue, Red, pink—Page 101
(+0.017/-0.008) violet, black Blue—Page 150
1.72 or 1.73 spot Gray—Page 343
RI Black—Page 362
Black: 1.740 to Star—Page 377
1.770 or higher Color-change—Page 407
Rough—Page 455
485
Kyanite 1.716 to 1.731 0.012 to 0.017 TP to TL Blue, often with green Blue—Page 152
(+/-0.004) and colorless zones Rough—Page 468
Transparent idocrase 1.713 to 1.718 0.001 to 0.012 TP Green, yellow, brown Green—Page 200
(+0.003/-0.013) Yellow, brown—Page 262
Gray—Page 344
Translucent-to-opaque 1.713 to 1.718 Usually not detectable TL to O Green, yellowish Green—Page 226
idocrase (+0.003/-0.013) green, brownish yellow, Yellow, brown—Page 281
1.70 or 1.71 spot gray, and white White—Page 322
RI Gray—Page 344
Zoisite 1.691 to 1.700 0.008 to 0.013 TP to TL Blue, violet, purple Purple—Page 102
(+/-0.005) (tanzanite), green Blue, violet—Page 152
1.69 spot RI (transparent green Green—Page 201
zoisite) Cat’s-eye—Page 387
Rough—Page 465
Thulite zoisite 1.691 to 1.700 Usually not detectable TL to O Pink to orangy pink to Pink, red—Page 122
(+/-0.005) red, often mottled with
1.70 spot RI com- gray or white
mon, but might be
low to mid-1.50s
due to impurities
Axinite 1.678 to 1.688 0.010 to 0.012 TP to TL Purplish brown Brown—Page 263

(+/-0.005)
Diopside 1.675 to 1.701 0.024 to 0.030 TP to O Green or black. Might Green—Page 201
(+0.029/-0.010) show chatoyancy or Black—Page 362
1.68 spot RI asterism Star—Page 378
Rough—Page 465
Sinhalite 1.668 to 1.707 0.036 to 0.039 TP to TL Yellow, brown Yellow, brown—Page 263
(+0.005/-0.003)
Kornerupine 1.667 to 1.680 0.013 to 0.017 TP to TL Yellowish to brownish Green—Page 202

(+/-0.003) Cat’s-eye: 0.012 to green, blue-green, yel- Yellow, brown—Page 264
0.017 low, brown, colorless Cat’s-eye—Page 389
Jadeite 1.666 to 1.680 Usually not detectable STP to O Green, yellow, laven- Lavender—Page 123
(+/-0.008) der, white, gray, black; Dyed lavender—Page 123
1.66 spot RI often shows mottling Blue—Page 168
Gray: 1.65 or 1.66 Green—Page 227
spot RI Dyed green—Page 228
Treated green—Page 228
Yellow, brown—Page 282
White—Page 322
Gray—Page 344
Black—Page 363
Enstatite 1.663 to 1.673 0.008 to 0.011 TP to O Reddish to greenish Green—Page 202

(+/-0.010) brown, yellow, color- Brown, yellow—Page 264
1.66 or 1.67 spot less; might show Colorless—Page 310
RI chatoyancy or asterism Cat’s-eye—Page 389
486
RI CHART
Spodumene 1.660 to 1.676 0.014 to 0.016 TP Pink to violet-pink, Pink (kunzite)—Page 102
(+/-0.005) green, yellow, color- Violet (kunzite)—Page 153
less, possibly gray Green—Page 203
Yellow—Page 265
Gray—Page 344
Rough—Page 467
Jet 1.660 None (SR) STL to O Very dark brown to Black—Page 363
(+/-0.020) black
1.68 spot RI
Sillimanite 1.659 to 1.680 0.015 to 0.021 TL Gray or possibly Gray—Page 345

(+0.004/-0.006) brown, might show Cat’s-eye—Page 390
chatoyancy
Malachite 1.655 to OTL 0.254 (use blink O Curved or angular Green—Page 224
(1.909) technique) banding in different
intensities of green
Peridot 1.654 to 1.690 0.035 to 0.038 TP Green, yellowish Green—Page 203

(+/-0.020) green, greenish yellow; Cat’s-eye—Page 390
1.65 to 1.69 spot rarely chatoyant Rough—Page 464
RI
Euclase 1.652 to 1.671 0.019 to 0.020 TP Blue, green, colorless Blue—Page 153
(+0.006/-0.002) Green—Page 204
Jeremejevite 1.640 to 1.651 0.009 TP Blue, greenish blue, Blue—Page 153

(+0.002/-0.001) yellow; might be parti-
colored
Synthetic forsterite 1.635 to 1.670 0.034 to 0.035 TP Blue to violet Blue—Page 154
Andalusite 1.634 to 1.643 0.007 to 0.013 TP Green, red, orange to Red—Page 102
(+/-0.005) brown Green—Page 204
Yellow, brown—Page 265
Rough—Page 461
Chiastolite andalusite 1.63 or 1.64 spot Usually not detectable TL to O Brown, gray Brown—Page 282
RI
Apatite 1.634 to 1.638 0.002 to 0.008 TP Almost all colors, color- Pink—Page 103
(+0.012/-0.006) Colorless: 0.002 to less; might show Blue—Page 154
1.63 spot RI 0.006 chatoyancy Green—Page 205
Yellow—Page 266
Rough—Page 457
Danburite 1.630 to 1.636 0.006 TP to TL Pink, yellow, colorless Pink—Page 103

(+/-0.003) Yellow—Page 266
Rough—Page 463
487
Topaz: red, pink, purple, 1.629 to 1.637 0.008 to 0.010 TP Pink, red to purple, Red, pink, purple—Page 103
yellow, and brown Topaz range: 1.619 reddish orange to Yellow to brown—Page 267
to 1.627 (+/-0.010) yellow and brown Rough—Page 464
Tourmaline 1.624 to 1.644 0.018 to 0.020 TP All colors, colorless; Red, pink, purple—Page 104
(+0.011/-0.009) (up to 0.040 possible might show chatoyancy Parti-colored—Pages 104,
Black: 1.620 to in dark stones) 155, and 206
1.644 Blue—Page 155
(+0.011/-0.009) Green—Page 205
1.62 or 1.64 Yellow to brown—Page 267
spot RI Colorless—Page 312
Black—Page 363
Rough—Page 461
Prehnite 1.616 to 1.649 0.020 to 0.033 STP to TL Light green to yellow- Green—Page 229
1.63 spot RI ish “celery” green
Actinolite 1.614 to 1.641 0.022 to 0.027 TP to O Light to dark green, Cat’s-eye—Page 392
(+0.014) yellowish green, black;
1.63 spot RI with chatoyancy
Lazulite 1.612 to 1.643 0.031 TP to O Medium to dark green- Blue (TP)—Page 156
(+/-0.005) ish blue to violetish Blue (TL to O)—Page 168
blue
Turquoise 1.610 to 1.650 Usually not detectable STL to O Greenish blue, bluish Blue—Page 169
1.61 spot RI green Impregnated blue—Page
Impregnated: as 170
low as 1.56 spot RI Green—Page 229
Synthetic turquoise 1.610 to 1.650 Usually not detectable STL to O Light to medium blue Blue—Page 170
1.61 spot RI and green Green—Page 230
Topaz: colorless to blue 1.609 to 1.617 0.008 to 0.010 TP Blue, colorless, gray Blue—Page 156
Topaz range: 1.619 Treated green—Page 207
to 1.627 (+/-0.010) Colorless—Page 312
Gray—Page 345
Rough—Page 464
Pezzottaite 1.608 to 1.617 0.008 to 0.009 TP Purplish pink Pink—Page 105

(+0.010)
Sugilite 1.607 to 1.610 Usually not detectable STP to O Red-purple to violetish Red, pink, purple—Page
(+0.001/-0.002) purple, rarely pink 124
Might be 1.54 spot
due to quartz
impurities
Nephrite 1.606 to 1.632 Usually not detectable TL to O Light to dark green, Dyed lavender—Page 124
(+0.009/-0.006) yellow to brown, white, Green—Page 230
1.61 spot RI gray, black; often mot- Yellow, brown—Page 283
common tled White—Page 323
Gray—Page 345
Black—Page 364
488
RI CHART
Brazilianite 1.602 to 1.621 0.019 to 0.021 TP to TL Yellowish green to Green—Page 207

(+/-0.003) greenish yellow Yellow—Page 267
Pectolite 1.599 to 1.628 0.029 to 0.038 STP to O Slightly grayish to Blue—Page 171
(+0.017/-0.004) yellowish white, green
1.60 spot RI or blue, sometimes
common light pink
Single-crystal 1.597 to 1.817 0.220 TP Pink to dark red Pink, red—Page 105
rhodochrosite (+/-0.003)
Translucent-to-opaque 1.597 to 1.817 0.220 TL to O Pink, brownish red, Pink, red—Page 125
rhodochrosite (+/-0.003) orangy pink, often with
agate-like banding
Howlite 1.586 to 1.605 0.019 (usually not STL to O White, might be dyed Dyed red, pink—Page 125
(+/-0.003) detectable) any color Dyed blue—Page 171
1.59 spot RI White—Page 323
Beryl (other than red 1.577 to 1.583 0.005 to 0.009 TP to O Usually light-toned, Pink (morganite)—Page 106
beryl and emerald) (+/-0.017) Morganite: 0.007 to slightly yellowish green, Blue (aquamarine)—Page
Morganite: 1.583 0.008 greenish blue to blue- 156
to 1.590 green, yellow to Maxixe (blue)—Page 157
(+0.012/-0.011) colorless, gray; pink Green—Page 207
Aquamarine: 1.569 to purplish pink Yellow (heliodor)—Page 268
to 1.575 (morganite) Colorless (goshenite)—
Page 313
Gray—Page 346
Star—Page 378
Rough—Page 458
Emerald 1.577 to 1.583 0.005 to 0.009 TP to TL Medium-light to dark Green—Page 208

(+/-0.017) Trapiche: Usually not green, slightly yellowish Trapiche (green)—Page 208
Trapiche: 1.56 or detectable to bluish green; rare Fracture-filled—Page 209
1.57 spot RI examples might show Star—Page 378
chatoyancy Cat’s-eye—Page 392
Rough—Page 458
Hydrothermal synthetic 1.577 to 1.583 0.005 to 0.009 TP Same as natural Blue (aquamarine)—Page
beryl (other than synthetic (+/-0.017) 157
emerald and synthetic red Yellow—Page 268
beryl) Crystal—Page 476
Hydrothermal synthetic 1.571 to 1.578 0.006 to 0.008 TP Red to orange-red Red—Page 106
red beryl (+0.002/-0.003)
Hydrothermal synthetic 1.571 to 1.577 0.004 to 0.008 TP Medium-light to dark Green—Page 210
emerald (+0.007/-0.002) (depends on manufac- green, slightly yellowish Crystal—Page 476
(depends on turer) to bluish green
manufacturer)
Red beryl 1.566 to 1.572 0.006 to 0.008 TP Purplish red to Red—Page 107
(+0.002/-0.003) orange-red
489
“Overgrowth” and “sand- 1.566 to 1.570 0.006 (overgrowth) TP Medium to medium- Green—Page 210
wich” hydrothermal (overgrowth) 0.004 (sandwich) dark green to very
synthetic emerald 1.575 to 1.581 slightly bluish green
(sandwich)
Flux synthetic emerald 1.562 to 1.566 0.003 to 0.005 TP Medium-light to dark Green—Page 211
(+/-0.003) (depends on green, slightly yellowish Crystal—Page 476
(depends on manufacturer) to bluish green
manufacturer)
Variscite 1.560 to 1.590 Usually not detectable TL to O Yellowish green, bluish Green—Page 230
(+0.003/-0.006) green, often mottled
1.57 spot RI with yellow matrix
Coral 1.560 to 1.570 None STL to O Dark brown, black, Golden—Page 283
(+/-0.010) golden Black—Page 364
Serpentine 1.560 to 1.570 Usually not detectable STP to O Green to greenish Green—Page 231
(+0.004/-0.070) yellow, white, brown, Yellow, brown—Page 283
gray, black (often White—Page 323
mottled) Gray—Page 346
Horn 1.560 None STP to O Yellow to brown, white, Yellow, brown—Page 284
gray to almost black White—Page 324
Gray—Page 346
Black—Page 365
Labradorite feldspar 1.559 to 1.568 0.009 TP to O Colorless, green, Red, pink—Page 107
(+/-0.005) yellow, orange to Green—Page 213
1.56 spot RI brownish red; might Yellow, orange (including
Oregon material show labradorescence, sunstone)—Page 268
commonly 1.563 aventurescence, or Colorless—Page 313
to 1.572 adularescence White—Page 324
Gray—Page 347
Sunstone (general infor-
mation)—Page 421
421
Moonstone (including rain-
bow)—Page 422
Rough—Page 468
Saussurite 1.56 or 1.70 spot None O Grayish to yellowish Green—Page 227

RI green, often mottled
(depending on area
tested)
Tortoise shell 1.550 (-0.010) None STP to STL Mottled yellow and Yellow, brown—Page 284
brown
Scapolite 1.550 to 1.564 0.005 to 0.038 TP to O Violet, red, purple, Red, purple—Page 108
(+0.015/-0.014) Yellow: 0.004 to orange, yellow, green, Blue, violet—Page 157
Purple to violet: 0.037 blue, colorless; might Green—Page 213
1.536 to 1.541 show chatoyancy Yellow to brown—Page 269
Brown cat’s-eye: Colorless—Page 313
1.560 to 1.585 Cat’s-eye—Page 393
Rough—Page 456
490
RI CHART
Charoite 1.550 to 1.559 Usually not detectable STL to O Purple with swirls of Purple—Page 125
(+/-0.002) black, gray, white, and
1.55 or 1.56 spot brownish orange,
RI fibrous appearance
Gilson imitation coral 1.55 spot RI Weak, but sometimes STL to O Red, pink Red, pink—Page 126
detectable
Quartz 1.544 to 1.553 0.009 TP to O Purple through violetish Amethyst (purple)—Page

1.54 or 1.55 spot purple, pink, yellow, 108
RI brown, orange, yellow- Ametrine—Pages 109 and
ish green, green with 269
tiny mica inclusions, Quench-crackled, dyed
colorless; might show red—Page 111
chatoyancy or asterism Rose—Page 126
Blue, aqua-aura Aqua-aura—Page 158
Amethyst (blue)—Page
159
Blue (TL to O)—Page 172
Green (praseolite)—Page
214
Quench-crackled, dyed
green—Page 214
Aventurine (green)—Page
232
Yellow, orange, brown—
Page 269
Gray—Page 347
Star—Page 379
Aventurine (general infor-
mation)—Page 422
Rough—Page 461
Hawk’s-eye quartz 1.544 to 1.553 Usually not detectable STL to O Dark grayish blue with General information—Page
1.54 or 1.55 spot wavy chatoyancy 394
RI
Tiger’s-eye quartz 1.544 to 1.553 Usually not detectable STL to O Brownish yellow to Yellow, brown—Page 284
1.54 or 1.55 spot reddish brown with General information—Page
RI wavy chatoyancy 395
Dyed—Page 395
Synthetic quartz 1.544 to 1.553 0.009 TP Pink, purple, yellow, Amethyst (purple)—Page
orange, colorless 109
Ametrine—Pages 110 and
270
Pink—Page 110
Blue—Page 158
Amethyst (blue)—Page
159
Citrine—Page 270
Crystal—Page 478
491
Dyed quartzite 1.544 to 1.553 Usually not detectable TL to O Can be dyed any color, Red, pink, purple—Page
sometimes shows 126
aventurescence Green—Page 232
Aventurescent—Page 423
Iolite 1.542 to 1.551 0.008 to 0.012 TP to O Violet through slightly Blue, violet—Page 160
(+0.045/-0.011) violetish blue Bloodshot—Page 423
Rough—Page 463
Talc (soapstone) 1.540 to 1.590 0.050 STL to O White, gray, brown, Green—Page 232
(+0.010/-0.002) Usually not detectable green; often veined or Brown—Page 285
1.54 spot RI mottled White—Page 324
Gray—Page 347
Amber 1.540 None (SR) TP to O Yellow, brown, orange, Orange, yellow, brown
(+0.005/-0.001) white (TP)—Page 271
Orange, yellow, brown (TL
to O)—Page 285
Copal resin 1.540 (-0.010) None (SR) TP to TL Yellow, orange, brown Orange, yellow, brown
(TP)—Page 271
Orange, yellow, brown
(TL)—Page 286
Bone 1.540 None O Light yellow, white Yellow—Page 286

White—Page 325
Vegetable ivory 1.540 None O Light yellow, white Yellow—Page 286

White—Page 325
Oligoclase feldspar 1.539 to 1.547 0.007 to 0.010 STP to O Yellow, orange, brown, Yellow to brown—Page
(+0.004/-0.006) to brownish red vari- 287
eties might show Colorless—Page 315
aventurescence (sun- White—Page 325
stone); also colorless, Sunstone—Page 424
gray, white Rough—Page 468
Ivory (elephant) 1.535 to 1.540 None TL to O White to light yellow Yellow—Page 287
(usually 1.540) White—Page 326
Chalcedony 1.535 to 1.539 Usually not detectable STP to O Virtually all colors, Red—Page 127
1.53 to 1.54 sometimes banded or Dyed blue—Page 172
spot RI patterned; might show Dyed blue jasper—Page
Green, orange, iridescence 173
white, black, iris: Dyed green—Page 233
1.53 to 1.54 Green—Page 234
Orange, brown—Page 288
White—Page 327
Gray—Page 348
Black—Page 365
Iris agate—Page 410
Fire agate—Page 410
492
RI CHART
Chrysocolla-in-chalcedony 1.535 to 1.539 Usually not detectable TL to STL Blue to green-blue; Blue—Page 173
1.53 to 1.54 spot often unevenly colored; Green—Page 233
RI might resemble fine
turquoise
Chrysoprase chalcedony 1.535 to 1.539 Usually not detectable STP to TL Light to medium-dark Green—Page 233
1.53 or 1.54 spot yellowish green
RI
Chrome chalcedony 1.535 to 1.539 Usually not detectable TL to STL Green to slightly bluish Green—Page 234
1.53 or 1.54 spot green
RI
Natural pearl 1.530 to 1.685 0.155 TL to O Usually white or light Pink—Page 128
yellow, might be gray Yellow—Page 289
or black; might have White—Page 328
pink, green, or blue Gray—Page 348
overtones Black—Page 365
411
Cultured pearl 1.530 to 1.685 0.155 TL to O Usually white or light Pink—Page 128
yellow or even black; Yellow—Page 290
might have pink, green, White—Page 329
or blue overtones; Gray—Page 349
might be dyed any Black—Page 366
color General information—Page
412
Calcareous concretions 1.530 to 1.685 0.155 TL to O Pink, orange, yellow, Pink—Page 129
brown Yellow—Page 291
Shell 1.530 to 1.685 0.155 TL to O Usually white, gray, Pink—Page 129

brown, yellow, orange, Yellow to brown—Page 291
or pink with layered or White (mother-of-pearl)—
patterned coloring Page 330
Gray—Page 350
413
Maw-sit-sit 1.53 to 1.74 spot None O Green with dark green Green—Page 225
RI to black veining or
mottling
Gilson imitation lapis 1.530 to 1.550 None O Intense medium blue to Blue—Page 174
(often vague) violetish blue; might
contain gold-colored
inclusions
Amazonite microcline 1.522 to 1.530 0.008 (usually not TL to O Light green to greenish Blue—Page 174
feldspar (+/-0.004) detectable) blue with grid-like Green—Page 235
1.53 spot RI appearance Rough—Page 467
493
Ammonite 1.520 to 1.680 0.155 O Gray to brown, with Brown—Page 292

(varies with mineral iridescent colors Gray—Page 350
content) General information—Page
413
Alabaster 1.520 to 1.529 0.009 to 0.010 TL to O White, gray, impurities White—Page 330
(+/-0.001) Usually not detectable might make it yellow-
1.52 or 1.53 spot ish, reddish, brownish
RI or greenish; might be
banded like marble
Orthoclase feldspar 1.518 to 1.526 0.005 to 0.008 TP to O Colorless, orange, Orange, yellow, brown—
(+0.010) yellow to brown Page 272
1.52 spot RI Colorless—Page 316
Gray—Page 350
Sunstone—Page 425
Rough—Page 466
Moonstone orthoclase 1.518 to 1.526 0.005 to 0.008 STP to O Yellow, brown, orange, Yellow to brown—Page 292
feldspar (+0.010) white, colorless, green White—Page 331
1.52 spot RI Star—Page 380
424
Rough—Page 466
Magnesite 1.509 to 1.700 0.191 TL to O White, often dyed any Dyed red, pink, purple—
color Page 129
Dyed blue—Page 175
White—Page 331
Lapis lazuli 1.50 or 1.67 spot None STL to O Medium to dark, slightly Blue—Page 175
RI greenish blue to
(depends on violetish blue; mottled
where you test) with white calcite and
specks of pyrite
Eilat stone 1.50 or 1.61 to Might be 0.250 STL to O Mottled blue to green Blue—Page 176
OTL (depends on where
you test)
Moldavite 1.490 None (SR) TP to TL Medium to dark yellow- Green—Page 214

(+0.020/-0.010) ish to grayish green General information—Page
430
Obsidian 1.490 None (SR) TP to O Gray, black, brown, Brown—Page 293

(+0.020/-0.010) yellowish brown, Gray—Page 351
orange, red, rarely Black—Page 367
green, blue, purple; Cat’s-eye—Page 396
might show a sheen Sheen—Page 425
431
Calcareous coral 1.486 to 1.658 0.172 STL to O Pink to dark red, white Red, pink—Page 130
White—Page 331
494
RI CHART
Calcite 1.486 to 1.658 0.172 TP to O Occurs in almost all Red (TP)—Page 111
colors (might be dyed) Red (TL to O)—Page 130
Blue, violet (TP)—Page 160
Blue, violet (TL to O)—Page
176
Green (TP)—Page 215
Green (STL to O)—Page
235
Yellow (TP)—Page 272
Yellow (STL to O)—Page
293
White—Page 332
Gray—Page 351
Calcite (Iceland spar) 1.486 to 1.658 0.172 TP Colorless Colorless—Page 316

Rough—Page 459
Sodalite 1.483 None (SR) STP to O Dark blue to violetish Blue—Page 177
(+/-0.004) blue, often with white
veining
Glass 1.470 to 1.700 None (SR/ADR) TP to O All colors Pages 430 to 434, plus
(might go to OTL) entry in each color/trans-
parency section
Color change—Page 407
Imitation opal—Page 418
Goldstone—Page 426
Plastic 1.460 to 1.700 None (SR/ADR) TP to O All colors Pages 435 to 436, plus
entry in each color/
transparency section
Imitation opal—Page 418
Goldstone—Page 426
Opal 1.450 None (SR) TP to O Yellow, orange, red, Red (fire opal)—Page 111
(+0.020/-0.080) colorless, black, gray, Red, pink (TL to O)—Page
1.44 or 1.45 spot white, green, blue, vio- 131
RI (some fire opal let; with or without Blue, violet—Page 177
as low as 1.37) play-of-color Green—Page 236
Smoke-treated: Orange, yellow, brown
1.380 to 1.390 (TP)—Page 273
Orange, yellow, brown (TL
to O)—Page 294
White—Page 332
Gray—Page 352
Black—Page 367
Sugar-treated—Pages 368
and 416
Smoke-treated—Pages 368
and 416
414
Fire opal—Page 415
495
Fluorite 1.434 None (SR) TP to O Pink, purple, blue, Pink (TP)—Page 112
(+/-0.001) violet, green, orange, Pink (TL to O)—Page 132
yellow, brown, color- Blue, violet (TP)—Page 161
less Blue, violet (TL to O)—Page
178
Green—Page 215
Rough—Page 453
Synthetic opal 1.430 to 1.470 None (SR) STP to O Play-of-color against Red, pink (STP)—Page 112
gray, black, white, Red, pink (STL)—Page 131
colorless, red, orange, Blue (STP)—Page 161
blue, or yellow back- Blue (STL)—Page 178
ground Green (STP)—Page 216
Green (STL)—Page 236
Orange, yellow (STP)—
Page 274
Orange, yellow (STL)—
Page 294
White—Page 333
Gray—Page 352
Black—Page 368
417
Assembled stones Varies with Varies with TP Can be any color Pages 438 to 447
components components
496
GEM IDENTIFICATION
Gem Identification Lab Manual

• Instrumentation and Testing
• The Gem Identification Process
• Separating Red, Pink, and Purple Gems
• Separating Blue and Violet Gems
• Separating Green Gems
• Separating Orange, Yellow, and Brown Gems
• Separating Colorless and White Gems
• Separating Gray and Black Gems
• Identifying Phenomenal Gems
• Identifying Imitations, Rough, and Synthetic Crystals
• Gem Identification RI Chart

Gem Ident LabManual

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INSTRUMENTATION

GEM IDENTIFICATION IDENTIFYING

The Gem Identification Process 65

Separating Red, Pink, and Purple Gems 77

Separating Blue and Violet Gems 135

Separating Green Gems 181

Separating Orange, Yellow, and Brown Gems 239

Separating Colorless and White Gems 297

Separating Gray and Black Gems 337

Identifying Phenomenal Gems 371

Identifying Glass and Plastic 429

Identifying Assembled Stones 437

Identifying Rough Gems 448

Identifying Synthetic Crystals 469

Gem Identification RI Chart 481

GEM IDENTIFICATION LAB MANUAL

HOW TO IDENTIFY GEMS USING THIS MANUAL

INFORMATION FOR GIA STUDENTS

Using the Refractometer 13

Using the Polariscope 31

Using the Dichroscope 37

Using the Spectroscope 47

INSTRUMENTATION AND TESTING

Gem Hues and Abbreviations

Robert Weldon/GIA Robert Weldon/GIA Maha Tannous/GIA

Asterism Adularescence Chatoyancy

Aventurescence Color change Iridescence

Robert Weldon/GIA Mike Havstad/GIA Robert Weldon/GIA

Orient Labradorescence Play-of-color

Chatoyancy (C)—Cat’s-eye effect caused by light reflecting from minute, parallel,

BREAKS IN THE STONE

DISPERSION AND FIRE

LOOKING FOR THE RED-RING EFFECT

GIA DUPLEX REFRACTOMETER

hemicylinder Eric Welch/GIA

scale You need to use a light source with the refrac-

USING THE REFRACTOMETER

White Light Monochromatic Light

The accuracy of an RI reading depends on the:

DETERMINING MAXIMUM BIREFRINGENCE

Highest RI reading — lowest RI reading = birefringence

TESTING FOR DR AND CALCULATING BIREFRINGENCE

PRECAUTIONS AND LIMITATIONS

Use the spot-reading method to take an RI on stones with curved surfaces.

50/50 Blink Average

1.58 1.58 1.58

All by Peter Johnston/GIA

You can sometimes determine birefringence

PRECAUTIONS AND LIMITATIONS

DETERMINING OPTIC CHARACTER AND OPTIC SIGN

OPTIC SIGN OF A UNIAXIAL STONE

OPTIC SIGN OF A BIAXIAL STONE

In uniaxial gems, only one shade cutoff moves

Uniaxial Negative Uniaxial Positive

Lower numerical cutoff Lower numerical cutoff

VISUAL PLOTTING FOR BIAXIAL GEMS

Biaxial Biaxial Biaxial

Lower numerical Higher numerical

Both by Peter Johnston/GIA

In biaxial gems, both shade cutoffs move during a 180° rotation.

ADVANCED TECHNIQUE USING THE POLARIZING FILTER

ADVANCED TECHNIQUE TO DETERMINE OPTIC SIGN IN A BIAXIAL

In this example, the RI readings are for chrome