Module 1 Mathemathics

MACSB / TM / A1 / 2022 / M1 / 01
For Training Purposes Only Page 1 of 66

Module 1 PART66 – Basic Training
Introduction to the Training Manual CAT A – Module 1
Introduction to the Training Manual

This training manual was prepared to provide information about the Module
1 Mathematics in accordance with related EASA Part-66 requirements.
It is expressly emphasized that this training document is of a purely
informational nature and is not subject to any revision service.
Contact
Mega Aerospace Centre Sdn. Bhd.

D/a KKIP Aerospace Training Centre
Lot 1, IZ15, Jalan 4 KKIP Timur
Kota Kinabalu Industrial Park
88460 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, MALAYSIA
Tel : +6 (088) 344 948
Fax : +6 (088) 344 948

Table of Contents CAT A – Module 1
Table of Contents
1.1 Arithmetic ....................................................................................... 6 1.2 Algebra…………………………………………………………………………………………52
1.1.1 Basic Arithmetic Operations ............................................................ 6 1.1.6 Algebraic Operations...................................................................... 52
1.1.1.1 Basic Terms of Arithmetic and Algebra .................................... 6 1.1.6.1 Arithmetic Operations with Literal Numbers .......................... 52
1.1.1.2 Basic Arithmetic Operations with Integers ............................... 9 1.1.6.2 Algebraic Equations................................................................. 56
1.1.1.3 Basic Arithmetic Operations with Fractions ........................... 15 1.1.6.3 Functions and Graphs ............................................................. 57
1.1.2 Mathematical Operations with Powers......................................... 22 1.2 Geometry ...................................................................................... 59
1.1.2.1 The Term ’Power’ ................................................................... 22 1.3.1.1 Plane Geometry ...................................................................... 59
1.1.2.2 Basic Operations with Powers ................................................ 25
1.1.2.3 Polynomials and Factoring...................................................... 27
1.1.2.4 Scientific Notation .................................................................. 30
1.1.2.5 Powers with Fractional Number Exponents (Roots) ............... 31
1.1.3 Roots and Radicals ......................................................................... 32
1.1.3.1 Definition of the Terms ’Root’ and ’Radical’........................... 32
1.1.3.2 Finding the Root ..................................................................... 34
1.1.3.3 Mathematical Operations with Roots .................................... 34
1.1.3.4 Simplification of Roots ............................................................ 36
1.1.3.5 Simplifying Radical Expressions .............................................. 37
1.1.4 Calculation of Percentage .............................................................. 37
1.1.4.1 Percentage……………………………………………………………………………37
1.1.4.2 Average Value………………………………………………………………………38
1.1.5 Physical Quantities, Standards and Units ...................................... 40
1.1.5.1 The Role of Quantities and Standards .................................... 40
1.1.5.2 Basic Units of the SI System .................................................... 42
1.1.5.3 Unit Conversions..................................................................... 50

EASA Part-66 Knowledge Requirements CAT A – Module 1
EASA Part-66 Knowledge Requirements

Knowledge Levels Level 3:
The basic knowledge requirements for category A1, B1, B2 and B3 are • A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the
indicated by the using the knowledge level indicators as Level 1, 2 or 3. The subject.
knowledge levels are described below: • A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of
knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner.
Level 1:
Objectives:
• A familiarization with the principal elements of the subject.
• The applicant should know the theory of the subject and
Objectives:
interrelationships with other subjects.
• The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the • The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the
subject. subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples.
• The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the • The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical
whole subject, using common words and examples. formulae related to the subject.
• The applicant should be able to use typical terms. • The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare
sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject.
Level 2: • The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical
• A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the manner using manufacturer's instructions.
subject. • The applicant should be able to interpret results from various
• An ability to apply that knowledge. sources and measurements and apply corrective action where
appropriate.
Objectives:
• The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical
fundamentals of the subject.
• The applicant should be able to give a general description of the
subject using, as appropriate, typical examples.
• The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in
conjunction with physical laws describing the subject.
• The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches,
drawings and schematics describing the subject.
• The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical
manner using detailed procedures.

EASA Part-66 Knowledge Requirements CAT A – Module 1
Certification Requirements
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Part 66 Annex III and the
associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:
License
Part-66 Category &
Sub- Subject Level
Module
-A-
M1.1 Arithmetic
Arithmetical terms and signs, methods of multiplication
and division, fractions and decimals, factors and
multiples, weights, measures and conversion factors, 1
ratio and proportion, averages and percentages, areas
and volumes, squares, cubes, square and cube roots.
M1.2 Algebra
Evaluating simple algebraic expressions, addition,
M1.2.a subtraction, multiplication and division, use of brackets, 1
simple algebraic fractions;
Linear equations and their solutions; Indices and powers,
negative and fractional indices; Binary and other
M1.2.b applicable numbering systems; Simultaneous equations N/A
and second-degree equations with one unknown;
Logarithms.
M1.3 Geometry
M1.3.a Simple geometrical constructions; N/A
Graphical representation; nature and uses of graphs,
M1.3.b 2
graphs of equations/functions;
Simple trigonometry; trigonometrical relationships, use
M1.3.c N/A
of tables and rectangular and polar coordinates.

Module 1.1 PART66 – Basic Training
Arithmetic CAT A – Module 1
1.1 Arithmetic
1.1.1 Basic Arithmetic Operations
1.1.1.1 Basic Terms of Arithmetic and Algebra
The study of arithmetic and algebra is the study of the general properties of Positive and negative whole numbers including the number 0 (zero) are
numbers, mainly the real numbers. referred to as ’integers’. When adding, subtracting or multiplying integers, the
result is always an integer.
The result of dividing integers is a fraction or ratio. On the number line, all
Numbers and Digits
points between two integers are fractions. Each fraction consists of a
Numbers are represented by words or signs, numerals and digits. The standard nominator and a denominator. It can be positive, negative or zero.
number system used for computations is the decimal system. All numbers can A special form of fractions is the decimal fraction, whose denominator is some
be written by means of the 10 digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). The digit place power of 10, usually indicated by a dot (decimal point) written before the
within a numeral determines its value. Each digit position represents a decimal nominator.
step, since 10 units of a step form the next higher step. For instance, in the
number 427 the 4 stands for 4 hundred, the 2 for 2 tens, and the 7 for 7 units. Integers and fractions are rational numbers. Every number that can be
represented by a finite sequence of digits is rational. Numbers, which do not
Three decimal steps form a group. For better readability groups of numerals correspond to that rule are irrational.
may be separated by a space, or by a comma in English speaking countries, or
by a point in other countries. Rational and irrational numbers form the group of real numbers. They are
called relative numbers, if they have a positive (+) or negative (–) sign, which
refers to its position to zero.
Real Numbers In mathematics, it is sometimes helpful to use letters (Latin or Greek alphabet)
Numbers are called ’natural numbers’ or ’counting numbers’, if there is no to represent numbers. The Greek letter Pi (π) is one of them. These numbers
particular sign in front or within the numeral. Using these numbers, objects are referred to as literal numbers.
can be counted, measured, sorted, grouped or divided. They make it possible to write mathematical laws and rules in shorthand. A
Refer to Figure 1. literal number can be replaced by any real number, but its meaning must not
be changed during mathematical operations.
A good way to get an idea of real and natural numbers is to refer to a number
line. Any point on the number line is chosen and called 0. The distance 01
determines a unit. Multiples of 01 determine points representing other
numbers, e.g., 2, 3, 4 etc., positive numbers to the right of 0 and negative
numbers to the left.

Figure 1: Types of Real Numbers

The Absolute Value

The absolute value of a number a, written ⎢a⎜, is the distance on the number NOTE
line from 0 to a. Thus the absolute value of 5 is the same as the absolute value
These operation symbols have to be used according to International
of –5, since each lies five units apart from 0.
Standards (SI).
Mathematical Operations In many publications and books other operation symbols will be used e.g. for
Mathematical calculations are frequently required in daily life. They are multiplication and division operations:
performed with the aid of laws and standard operations of arithmetic. The four Operation Symbol Meaning
basic arithmetic operations are:
Multiplication ×,∗ times, multiplied by
• addition
Division / , −, ÷ divided by
• subtraction
• multiplication
• division NOTE
The basic arithmetic operations are used in equations that consist of elements These operation symbols will not be used in the calculation examples and
like algebraic expressions, numerals and operation symbols. worksheets of the following lessons.
The equality symbol’=’ separates the equation into two parts. It must only be
set between two really equal values. If the values are different, the solution of When calculating with numbers, concrete and indefinite numbers must be
the task is wrong. discriminated. Concrete numbers relate to sets of objects.
The operation symbols of the four basic arithmetic operations are as follows:
Operation Symbol Meaning Example:
5 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠 + 4 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 9 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒)
Addition + plus
5 + 4 = 9 (𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒)
Subtraction – minus
Multiplication ∙ times, multiplied by,

Addition and subtraction can only be performed with concrete numbers, that
Division : divided by refer to the same set and this includes the set of indefinite numbers.

1.1.1.2 Basic Arithmetic Operations with Integers

1.1.1.2.1 Addition and Subtraction
Addition of Natural Numbers
Addition is regarded as the first elementary mathematical operation. It Example:
involves summing up two or more numbers or quantities.
Problem: 4,273 + 597 + 3,759
Adding can be described as the shortened process of forward–counting, e.g. 3
Solution:
+ 2 as 3 + 1 → 4 + 1 → 5.
4273
597
’Summands’ or ’addends’ are names for elements (numbers) which are added. + 3759
The result is called ’sum’. 8629
Summand Plus Summand Equals Sum

Addition NOTE
2 + 3 = 5
The summands can be interchanged.
For example: 3 + 2 = 2 + 3
The term sum is used for both, the result and the expression (3 + 2).
The addition of natural numbers is always practicable. The result is a natural
number.
Rules of Addition:
• Only sets of the same kind can be added. 5 US$ and 7 kg cannot be
added, since they refer to different units.
• The addition of numbers with more than one digit is generally done
in writing. First the units are added, then the tens, hundreds,
thousands etc. To this end, the summands are written unit under
unit, tens under tens, etc. A line under the summands takes the place
of the equality sign in sum columns. The result is underlined by a
double line.

Subtraction of Natural Numbers

The opposite operation of summing is taking or deducting numbers or If the minuend ’a’ is smaller than the subtrahend ’b’, the result of the
quantities from another number or quantity. This operation is called operation is negative, and the following formulae hold true:
’subtraction’. For the subtraction the operation symbol ’ – ’ is used. 𝑐 = −(𝑏 − 𝑎) 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 < 𝑏
Subtracting may be described as shortened process of backward–counting,
e.g. 7 – 3 as 7– 1 → 6– 1 → 5– 1 → 4.
The equation shows the procedure of subtracting a larger number, e.g. 9, from
The subtraction is therefore the inversion of the addition. a smaller number, e.g. 2, (2 – 9):
• minuend and subtrahend are exchanged
The number or element, from which the other element or number is taken, is
• subtraction is performed
called the ’minuend’. The number or element used for deduction is called the
’subtrahend’. The result is referred to as ’difference’. • the result is marked with a negative sign.
Minuend Minus Subtrahend Equals Difference

Subtraction Example: 2– 9 = – (9– 2) = – 7
7 - 3 = 4
The minus sign in the left expression is an operation symbol, whereas the
Similar to the term ’sum’, the term ’difference’ is used for both, the result (4) minus symbols in front of the bracket and in front of the result are signs which
and the expression consisting of minuend and subtrahend (7 – 3). declare the number and expression negative. Positive demonstrative signs are
omitted, but negative numbers and expressions must always be marked by a
respective sign.
Negative Numbers
The result of subtraction of two natural numbers may be a negative number;
e.g. the result of the operation 2 – 9 is not a natural number (positive integer), Rules of Subtraction
but the negative number –7. • Only quantities of the same kind can be subtracted from each other:
Negative numbers have been introduced by the demand, that the subtraction 7 US$ – 4 US$ = 3 US$
should be performed with no limitations. In the range of positive results, the So 5 US$ cannot be subtracted from 7 kg, since they are quantities of
minuend is larger than the subtrahend. This can be expressed in the literal different units.
number formulae:
• The elements of an equation of subtraction must not be
𝑐 = 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 > 𝑏 interchanged, without respective changes of demonstrative and
operative signs: 7 – 2 = – (2 – 7) ≠ 2 – 7

• For written solutions, using columns of numerals, the same rules to • Adding a positive integer to a negative integer means, adding a credit
positioning of digit places and to the use of the single and double line to the account, which has a debt, or subtracting from the credit the
are applicable. debt of the account. The debt of the account is decreasing.
(−5) + (+3) = – 5 + 3 = 3 – 5 = – 2
Example: • Adding a negative integer to a negative integer means, adding a debt
to the debt of the account. The debt of the account is increasing.
Problem: 5,352 – 137 – 2,241
(−5) + (−3) = – 5 – 3 = – (5 + 3) = – 8
Solution:
5352 • Subtracting a positive integer from a positive integer means,
− 137 subtracting a credit from the credit of the account. The credit of the
5215 account is decreasing.
− 2241 (+5) − (+3) = 5 − 3 = 2
2974
• Subtracting a negative integer from a positive integer means,
converting a debt to a credit and adding this converted credit to the
Adding and Subtracting of Integers credit of the account. The credit of the account is increasing.
As stated before, all positive and negative whole numbers and the number 0 (+5) − (−3) = 5 + 3 = 8
are designated ’integers’. In order to understand the rules of adding and
• Subtracting a positive integer from a negative integer means,
subtracting integers positive integers are regarded as credits and negative
converting a credit to a debt and adding this debt to the debt of the
integers as debts.
account. The debt of the account is increasing.
• Adding a positive integer to a positive integer means, adding a credit
(−5) − (+3) = −5 − 3 = − (3 + 5) = −8
to the account, which has a credit. As a result, the credit of the
account is increasing. • Subtracting a negative integer from a negative integer means,
converting a debt to a credit and adding this credit to the debt of the
(+5) + (+3) = 5 + 3 = 8
account, or subtracting from the converted credit the debt of the
• Adding a negative integer to a positive integer means, subtracting a account. The debt of the account is decreasing.
debt from the account, which has a credit. The credit of the account
(−5) − (−3) = −5 + 3 = 3 – 5 = −2
is decreasing.
(+5) + (−3) = 5 – 3 = 2

Mathematical rules to the previous examples: 1.1.1.2.2 Multiplication

• If the operation symbol before an integer and the sign of the integer Multiplication of Natural Numbers
are identical the integer is added.
Multiplication is the third of the basic arithmetic operations. It is derived from
+ (+5) = +5 the addition and is developed from the shortened writing of the addition of
identical summands. The operation symbol for the multiplication is the
− (−5) = +5
multiplication symbol ’•’ (read: times or multiplied by). Sometimes the symbol
• If the operation symbol before an integer and the sign of the integer ’x’ is used.
are different the integer is subtracted.
− (+5) = −5
Example: 3+3+3+3=4∙ 3
+ (−5) = −5
The numbers, that are multiplied, are referred to as ’factors’, the result of the
multiplication is the ’product.’ The first factor is called ’multiplicand’ and the
second one ’multiplier’. The expression formed by the factors and the result
are referred to as ’product’.
Multiplicand Multiplier
times Equals Product
Multiplication (Factor) (Factor)
3 x 12 = 36
Rules of Multiplication
• Precondition for successfully performing multiplications of natural
numbers is the knowledge of the multiplication tables up to ten.
• A concrete number can be multiplied by an indefinite number.
3 ∙ 4 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 12 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠
• Factors can be interchanged.
5 ∙ 3 = 3 ∙ 5 = 15

• The result of all multiplications with the number 0 is 0. 1.1.1.2.3 Division

𝑎 ∙ 0 = 0; 5 ∙ 0 = 0 Division of Natural Numbers
• The multiplication of several numbers is carried out by successively Division is the fourth of the basic arithmetic operations. It is the inversion of
calculating products of factor pairs. The sequence of the combination the multiplication. That means, if the result (product) of a multiplication is
of pairs does not have any influence on the result: known and one factor is missing, the division is that arithmetic operation used
to determine the unknown factor. The operation symbol for the division is the
3 ∙ 4 ∙ 7 = (3 ∙ 4) ∙ 7 = 12 ∙ 7 = 84
division symbol ’:’ (read: divided by).
3 ∙ 4 ∙ 7 = 3 ∙ (4 ∙ 7) = 3 ∙ 28 = 84
Example: 3 ∙ 4 = 12 ⇒ 12 ∶ 4 = 3 𝑜𝑟 12 ∶ 3 = 4
Multiplication of Integers
Similar to the other 3 basic arithmetic operations the problem which shall be
Integers are multiplied by observing the following rules considering the signs solved by a division is written as an equation. The element of the equation
of the numbers: which shall be divided is referred to as ’dividend’. The element by which the
• The product of 2 numbers with identical signs is always positive dividend is divided is the ’divisor’ and the result is called the ’quotient’ or
better the ’value of the quotient’, since the left side of the equation, the
+5 ∙ +6 = +30 ; −5 ∙ −6 = +30 expression ’dividend divided by divisor’, is also referred to as ’quotient’.
• The product of 2 numbers with different signs is always negative divided
Dividend Divisor Equals Quotient
+5 ∙ −6 = −30 ; −5 ∙ +6 = −30 by
Division
12 : 3 = 4
Example: +5 ∙ −6 ∙ +7 = (+5 − 6) ∙ +7 = −30 ∙ +7 = −210
Rules of Division of Natural Numbers

• The division is the inversion of the multiplication.
• Division means splitting up, sharing out or measuring.
• Concrete and indefinite numbers can be divided.
• Dividend and divisor must not be interchanged.
• The division of natural numbers does not always give a result with a
natural number. There can be a remainder. But in the domain of
rational numbers (fractions) division can be performed with no limits.

Example: Fractions
Problem: A quotient can also be written as a fraction.
858 12
858 ∶ 7 𝑜𝑟 12: 4 =
7 4
Solution:
In this example the operation symbol, the line, is set between dividend (12)
and divisor (4) and the equation symbol is arranged at the level of the
operation symbol. This presentation is called a ’fraction’ and the operation
sign is referred to as line (of fraction).
Fractions belong to the class of rational numbers. The term ’fraction’ implies a
value between two integers.
In a fraction the dividend is called the ’numerator’ and the divisor is referred
to as ’denominator’. Numerator and denominator, beside the line of fraction,
may be separated by a slash or a colon:
𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠; 122 4 1 1
7 = = 1 ÷ 5 = 1: 5
5 5
Depending on whether the denominator is smaller or larger than the divisor,
• Division by the number 0 is indefinite. the fraction is called ’proper’ or ’improper’.
Proper fraction:
3
5
Improper fraction:
6 1
=1
5 5
The improper fraction may be written as mixed number, which consists of an

integer and a proper fraction.

Division of Integers 1.1.1.3 Basic Arithmetic Operations with Fractions

Integer numbers are divided with regard to the following rules of sign Fractions may be subject to all the basic arithmetic operations and various
operation: conversions. As a special type of numbers, the working with fractions requires
special rules, however.
• If the signs of dividend and divisor are identical the quotient is
always positive: 1.1.1.3.1 Conversion of Fractions
−6 Conversion of Improper Fractions

= 3
−2 Improper fractions can be converted into a mixed number by determining the
quotient that consists of an integer plus a remainder where the latter over the
• If the signs of dividend and divisor are not identical the quotient is
denominator provides the proper fraction summand to the mixed number.
always negative:
Example:
−6
= −3 7 7 3
+2 = 7 ∶ 4 = 1 , 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 → =1
4 4 4
When converting improper fractions into mixed numbers the value of the
numbers is not changed.
Expansion of Fractions
When calculating with fractions and mixed numbers, it is sometimes necessary
to convert the numerator or the denominator of the fraction. This can only be
done by multiplying the numerator and the denominator by an identical
number.
7
Example: Numerator and denominator of the fraction have to be multiplied
8
by 4. This leads to the following expression:
7 7 ∙4 28
= =
8 8 ∙4 32
This procedure does not affect the value of the quotient.

Reduction of Fractions 1.1.1.3.2 Addition of Fractions

If numerator and denominator of proper fractions have a common divisor, In order to add fractions they must have a common denominator. In case the
they can be converted by dividing the numerator and the denominator by this denominators are different, they must be made common.
common divisor. This procedure is called ’reduction’. Addition of Fractions with Common Denominators
2
Example: The fraction contains the common divisor 2 for the numerator and Fractions with common denominators are added by retaining the
4
1
the denominator. Thus, 2 : 2 = 1 and 4 : 2 = 2 provide the quotient : denominator and adding the numerators. If the resulting fraction is an
2
improper fraction, it is usually converted into a mixed number.
2
2= 2=1 Example:
4 4 2 3 5 7 3+5+7 15
2 + + = = 178
8 8 8 8 8
When adding mixed numbers with common denominators, first the integers
are added and then the numerators.
Example:
41 + 35 + 71 = 147 = 151
6 6 6 6 6
This procedure does not affect the value of the quotient either.
Addition of Fractions with Different Denominators

In adding fractions with different denominators, first the denominators must
be converted into a common denominator. This is performed by finding the
least common denominator of all fractions to be added. Then the numerator
and the denominator of each fraction have to be multiplied by the factor that
converts the denominator into the least common denominator.
The least common denominator is the denominator which provides an integer
result when used as dividend for all denominators of the fractions to be added.

Example: 1.1.1.3.3 Subtraction of Fractions

3 5 7 As for the addition, when subtracting fractions, they must have a common
+ +
6 8 12 denominator. Different denominators must be made common.
Subtractions of Fractions with Common Denominators
24 24 24 Fractions with common denominators are subtracted by retaining the
𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 24, = 4, = 3, =2
6 8 12 denominator and subtracting the numerators. If the resulting fraction is an
improper fraction, it is usually converted to a mixed number.
3∙4 5∙3 7∙2 12 15 14 17 Example:
+ + = + + =1
6∙4 8∙3 12 ∙ 2 24 24 24 24 7 5 1 7 − 5 − 1 1
− − = =
8 8 8 8 8
In the previous example, the least common denominator is 24, since 6 is 4
times, 8 is 3 times and 12 is twice contained in 24. Thus, the first fraction has When subtracting mixed numbers with common denominators, first the
4 3
to be multiplied with 4 over ( ), the second one with 3 over 3( ), and the integers are subtracted and then the numerators.
4 3
2
third one with 2 over 2( ) to get 24 as common denominator. The procedure Example:
2
for adding mixed numbers is similar. 5 1 5−1 4 2
4 −3 = (4 − 3) + ( )=1 =1
Example: 6 6 6 6 3
1 3
2 +6
3 4 When subtracting mixed numbers, the minuend fraction may be smaller than
the subtrahend fraction. In that case, an integer unit of the minuend is
1∙4 3∙3 4 9 13 1 converted into an improper fraction.
2 +6 =2 +6 =8 =9
3 ∙4 4 ∙3 12 12 12 12 Example:
1 5 7 5 2 1
4 −2 = 3 −2 =1 =1
6 6 6 6 6 3

Subtractions of Fractions with Different Denominators 1.1.1.3.4 Multiplication of Fractions

As for the addition, when subtracting fractions with different denominators, Fundamentals of Multiplying Fractions
first the denominators must be converted into a common denominator. When multiplying fractions, the following rules have to be observed:
Example:
• Each problem of division can be written as a fraction.
5 3
− 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 24 300 5 15 3
6 8 300 ∶ 60 = = = 5; 15 ∶ 25 = =
60 1 25 5
5 ∙ 4 3 ∙ 3 20 9 11
− = − = • Fractions are multiplied by multiplying the numerators of the
6 ∙ 4 8 ∙ 3 24 24 24 fractions and the denominators separately.
nominator ∙ numerator 2 5 2 ∙ 5 10 5
The procedure for subtracting mixed numbers is similar. ⇒ ∙ = = =
denominator ∙ denominator 3 8 3 ∙ 8 24 12
Example:
2 3
6 −2 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 3 ∙ 4 = 12 Multiplication of Different Types of Numbers
3 4
Five different cases of problems can occur:
2∙4 3 ∙3 8 9 20 9 11 • multiplying an integer by a fraction
6 −2 =6 −2 =5 −2 =3
3∙4 4∙3 12 12 12 12 12 4 7 4 7 ∙4 28 3
7 ⋅ =⋅ = = = 5
5 1 5 1 ∙5 5 5
• multiplying an integer by a mixed number
4 7 14 7 ∙ 14 98 3
7⋅2 =⋅ = = = 19
5 1 5 1 ∙5 5 5
• multiplying a fraction by a fraction
2 4 2 ∙4 8
⋅ = =
3 5 3 ∙5 15

• multiplying a mixed number by a fraction 1.1.1.3.5 Division of Fractions
2 4 14 4 14 ∙ 4 56 11 Fundamentals of Dividing Fractions

4 ⋅ = ⋅ = = =3
3 5 3 5 3∙5 15 15 As stated before, a division can be written as a fraction. If the dividend and the
divisor of the quotient are interchanged the result is referred to as the
reciprocal value of the quotient.
• multiplying a mixed number by a mixed number 4 12
4 ∶ 12 = 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓
2 4 14 19 14 ∙ 19 266 11 12 4
4 ⋅3 = ⋅ = = = 17
3 5 3 5 3 ∙5 15 15
Rule of Dividing Fractions
Fractions are divided by forming the reciprocal value of the divisor (2nd
fraction) and multiplying this reciprocal value with the dividend.
2
2 3 3 2 4 2 ∙4 8
∶ = = ∙ = =
3 4 3 3 3 3 ∙3 9
4
Division of Different Types of Numbers

Eight different cases of problems may occur:
• dividing a fraction by an integer
4 4 2 4 1 4 2
∶2= ∶ = ∙ = =
5 5 1 5 2 10 5
• dividing a fraction by a mixed number
2 2 2 8 2 3 6 1
∶2 = ∶ = ∙ = =
3 3 3 3 3 8 24 4

• dividing a fraction by a fraction 1.1.1.3.6 Decimal Fractions
6 1 6 2 12 5 Fractions represented by a numerator above and a denominator below a

∶ = ∙ = =1 horizontal or diagonal line are referred to as common or vulgar fractions. But
7 2 7 1 7 7 an improper fraction can also be represented as a decimal numeral where the
integer is separated from the proper fraction by a decimal point in English
• dividing an integer by a fraction speaking countries or by a comma in other countries. In this case the digits
representing the integers are on the left side of the decimal point. On the right
3 4 3 4 7 28 1 side of the point the tenths, hundredths, thousandths etc. are placed.
4∶ = ∶ = ⋅ = = 9
7 1 7 1 3 3 3 Examples:
1 251
= 0.1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 342 = 342.251
• dividing an integer by a mixed number 10 1,000
2 9 17 9 3 27 10 In order to convert a proper fraction into a decimal fraction, the fact is used
9∶ 5 = ∶ = ⋅ = =1
3 1 3 1 17 17 17 that the proper fraction is the ratio of two integers.
Examples:
• dividing a mixed number by a fraction 1 1 5
1. = 1 ∶ 10 2. =1∶ 4 3. =5∶ 6
10 4 6
46 76 6 76 7 38 ∙ 7 266 23
8 ∶ = ∶ = ⋅ = = =9
97 9 7 9 6 9 ∙3 27 27
1 ∶ 10 = 0.1 1 ∶ 4 = 0.25 5 ∶ 6 = 0.83 …
• dividing a mixed number by an integer 0 0 0

̅1̅0̅ ̅1̅0̅ ̅5̅0̅
5 45 5 45 1 9 ∙1 9 1
5 ∶ 5 = ∶ = ⋅ = = = 1 10 8 48
8 8 1 8 5 8 ∙1 8 8
̅0̅ ̅2̅0̅ ̅2̅0̅
• dividing a mixed number by a mixed number. 20 18

̅0̅ ̅2̅
3 1
27 13 27 6 27 ∙ 3 81 3
6 ∶2 = ∶ = ⋅ = = =3
4 6 4 6 4 13 2 ∙ 13 26 26

When continuing the division of dividends which can no longer be divided

without having a remainder, often the same number or a sequence of
numbers are repeated periodically in the quotient (third case of the example
before). These fractions are called ’infinite periodic decimal fractions’ or
’periods’. They are marked by 3 points, e.g. 0.33..., or by over scoring the last
sequential digit, e.g. 0. 3.
Sometimes a division can infinitely be continued not resulting in a period.

These fractions are called ’infinite decimal fractions’.
If the division is finished at one position right of the decimal point with no
remainder, then the fraction is referred to as ’finite decimal fraction’.
Considering the infinite periodic decimal fractions, it is found that the figure
is not exact. The value is only approximated. In such cases it is recommended
to use common fractions for further calculations.
Problems that are solved with an approximate result must not be described by
an equality symbol. The symbol’≈’ (read: equals approximately) is used
instead.

1.1.2 Mathematical Operations with Powers

1.1.2.1 The Term ’Power’
It is convenient to have a shorthand for writing repeated products. For
example, the product 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 can be written as 𝑥4 . The number 4 shows
that x is used as factor 4 times in the product. Here, 4 is called the ’exponent’
or ’power’ and x is called the ’base’. The quantity 𝑥 4 is called a power. 𝑥 4 is
read as ’x to the fourth’ or ’x to the power of 4’. 𝑥 2 is read as ’x to the second’,
or more commonly ’x squared’, just as 𝑥 3 is commonly read ’x cubed’. Since
𝑥 = 𝑥1, the exponent of x is 1, but normally it is only spoken of x.
The exponent is 6 and the base is a:
𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 = 𝑎6
The exponent is 5 and the base is –2:

(−2) ∙ (−2) ∙ (−2) ∙ (−2) ∙ (−2) = (−2)5 = −32
The exponent is 3 and the base is ¼ :

1 1 1 1 3 1
( ) ( )()=()=
4 4 4 4 64
Figure 2: Basic Form of a Power Equation

The exponent is 4 and the base 2+1, or 3:
(2 + 1) ∙ (2 + 1) ∙ (2 + 1) ∙ (2 + 1) = (2 + 1)4
Refer to Figure 2.

Using literal numbers, a power equation looks like: Powers with Integer Exponents
𝑏𝑛 = 𝑏 ∙ 𝑏 ∙ 𝑏 ∙ . . .∙ 𝑏 Refer to Figure 3.
𝑏𝑛 = 𝑐 The set of natural numbers are identical with the positive integers or whole
where: positive numbers [1, 2, 3, 4 ...].
𝑏𝑛 = power term Example:
𝑐 = value or result 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 → 𝑏 = 3
𝑏 = base 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 → 𝑛 = 5
𝑛 = exponent or power index.

Example 1 in Figure 3 shows that the base 3 has been raised to the fifth power
by multiplying it five times or the result of 243 is the fifth power of 3.
With respect to the result ’c’, it is spoken of ’c’ being the nth power of the base
b. To raise a fraction to a power, as shown in Example 2, both, the numerator
and the denominator, are raised to the given power.
To obtain a numeral result from this equation, the literal numbers ’b’ and ’n’
would be replaced by real numbers. Especially the number types:
• natural number
• zero
• negative integer and
• fraction
assigned to the exponent ’n’, require specific mathematical operations or
provide specific results.
Figure 3: Use of bn = c with Natural Number Exponents

Example: Powers of Sums and Differences

3 Powers of sums and differences have the general form:
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 → 𝑏 =
4
(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + . . . )𝑛
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 → 𝑛 = 4
This means raising the power algebraically requires multiplying the expression
Three special cases do exist concerning writing and articulating a power with in the bracket ’n’ times by progressively multiplying all summands with each
natural number exponent: other, in the same manner as it would be done in case of multiplying ordinary
• If 𝑛 = 1, then 𝑐 = 𝑏1 = 𝑏. In writing and expressing, the first power algebraic summands.
is omitted, and the result is the base itself. The binomial formulae
• If 𝑛 = 2, then 𝑐 = 𝑏2. One usually speaks of squaring the number ’b’, (𝑎 + 𝑏) ⋅ (𝑎 − 𝑏) = 𝑎2 − 𝑏2
and ’c’ being the square number of ’b’.
• If 𝑛 = 3, Then 𝑐 = 𝑏3. One usually speaks of cubing the number ’b’, (𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏2
and ’c’ being the cube number of ’b’.
(𝑎 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏2
General Rules
are the most often used ones and should be remembered as they often permit
Considering the various values for the base, general rules of powers with quick mental squaring or multiplication of large number sets by multiplying,
natural number exponents can be derived: respectively squaring their sum and/or difference to the next convenient
• If the base of a power is +1, its result is +1; i.e. 1𝑛 = 1 number.
If the base of a power is zero, its result is zero ⇒ 0𝑛 = 0(𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≠ 0)

• The absolute values of powers with the same exponent are mirror
inverted to the point 0 on the number line.
⇒ |(−3)3| = |33| = |±27| = 27 ; 𝑖. 𝑒 |(±𝑏)𝑛| = |±𝑐| = 𝑐
• If the base is a negative number and the exponent an even number,
the result of the power is a number with positive sign
• If the base is a negative number and the exponent an odd number,
then the result of the power is a number with negative sign.

1.1.2.2 Basic Operations with Powers

Addition and Subtraction of Powers Division of Powers
Only powers having the same base and the same exponent may be added or 𝑎8
subtracted. A quotient, such as 𝑎3, can be simplified in almost the same way as a product.
The denominators of all quotients of this type are assumed not to be zero.
𝑘𝑎𝑛 ± 𝑚𝑎𝑛 = (𝑘 ± 𝑚)𝑎𝑛
Using the definition of an exponent, it follows:
Example:
𝑎8 𝑎∙𝑎⋅𝑎⋅𝑎⋅𝑎⋅𝑎⋅𝑎⋅𝑎⋅𝑎
15 ∙ 63 − 12 ∙ 63 = (15 − 12) ∙ 63 3=
=𝑎⋅𝑎⋅𝑎⋅𝑎⋅𝑎
𝑎 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎
= 3 ∙ 63 𝑎8
= 648 ⇒ = 𝑎5
𝑎3
Multiplication of Powers
In the same way:
An expression, such as 𝑎5 ⋅ 𝑎3, can be simplified by using the definition of an
exponent to write out the repeated factors: 𝑎3 𝑎∙ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎
=
𝑎5 ⋅ 𝑎3 = (𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎) ⋅ (𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎) 𝑎8 𝑎⋅𝑎⋅𝑎∙𝑎⋅𝑎⋅𝑎⋅𝑎⋅𝑎
= 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑎5 ⋅ 𝑎3 = 𝑎8
𝑎3 1
=
𝑎8 𝑎5
When multiplying powers with the same base the exponents are added (if the
exponents are not zero). This is called the ’product theorem’ of exponents.
𝑎𝑚 ∙ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛 And finally:
Example: 𝑎3 𝑎∙ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 𝑎3
⇒
= 𝑎⋅𝑎⋅𝑎 =1
The product of 5𝑦2 and −3𝑦4 has to be found. 𝑎3 𝑎3
Using the commutative and associative properties and the product theorem
of exponents the solution is as follows:
(5𝑦2) ∙ (−3𝑦4) = 5 ∙ (−3) ∙ 𝑦2 ∙ 𝑦4 = −15𝑦2+4
⇒ (5𝑦2) ∙ (−3𝑦4) = −15𝑦6

It can be seen from the examples that when powers with the same base are Powers with Exponent Zero
divided, the exponents are subtracted (if the exponents are whole numbers
It is known that if 𝑎 ≠ 0
and not zero). This is called the ’quotient theorem’ of exponents.
𝑎𝑚
=1
𝑎𝑚
If m and n are any whole numbers (𝑚, 𝑛 ≠ 0), and if 𝑎 ≠ 0 then:
Using the quotient theorem of exponents it follows

𝑎𝑚−𝑛 if 𝑚 >𝑛 𝑎𝑚
= 𝑎𝑚−𝑚 = 𝑎0
𝑎𝑚
𝑎𝑚
= 1 if 𝑚=𝑛 Quotient Theorem
𝑎𝑛
From these two equations it is derived that
1 𝑎0 = 1
𝑎𝑛−𝑚
if 𝑚< 𝑛
By comparing the powers and results of the completed worksheet, there are
Powers with Negative Integer conclusions, which confirm the statements made before:
From the third result of the quotient theorem (m < n) it can be derived: • A number raised to a negative power is identical with the reciprocal
1 of the corresponding positive power.
𝑎−𝑚 = 1
𝑎𝑚 i.e. 𝑎−𝑛 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 (−𝑛) < 0
𝑎𝑛
Using this definition of negative exponents, it can be shown that all the
• A number raised to the power of zero is ’1’,
theorems of exponents given above are also valid for any integer exponent,
positive, zero, or negative. i.e. 𝑎0 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 ≠ 0
Examples:
1 1
3−2 = =
32 9
1 1
5−3 = =
53 125

Raising the Power of a Power 1.1.2.3 Polynomials and Factoring

The expression (𝑎4)2 can be simplified by writing: An ’algebraic expression’ is any mathematical expression involving variables,
numbers, and a finite number of operations, such as addition, subtraction,
(𝑎4)2 = 𝑎4 ∙ 𝑎4 = 𝑎4+4 = 𝑎8 multiplication, division, or finding roots. Polynomials are the simplest kind of
algebraic expressions.
From this example the power theorem of exponents can be generalized: A ’term’ is an expression consisting of the product of a number and one or
(𝑎𝑚)𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚∙𝑛 more variables raised to powers. The number in the product (which may be 1)
is called the coefficient.
Example:
Example:
(−6𝑥2)3 ∙(−2𝑥)2
The expression has to be simplified. 1
(2𝑥3)3 ∙ (−𝑥2)3 4𝑥, − 𝑚2 𝑛, 5.
2
Using the theorems of exponents the solution is as follows: A ’polynomial’ is any finite sum of terms, such as:
• 3𝑥𝑦 − 5
(−6𝑥2)3 ∙
(−2𝑥)2 (−6)3 ∙
(𝑥2)3 ∙ (−2)2
∙ 𝑥2
= • 4𝑥3𝑚5 − 5𝑥2𝑚 + 6
(2𝑥3)3 ∙ (−𝑥2)3 23 ∙ (𝑥 ) ∙ (−𝑥 )3
3 3 2
• 3𝑥2 𝑡6𝑚 5
−216 ∙ 𝑥6 ∙ 4 ∙ 𝑥2
=
8 ∙ 𝑥9 ∙ (−𝑥6)
The expression 3𝑥𝑦 − 5 is called a ’sum of terms’ or ’algebraic sum’ even
−108 ∙ 𝑥8 though it involves subtraction, but it can also be written 3𝑥𝑦 + (−5).
=
𝑥15
−108
=
𝑥7

Simplification of Polynomials Addition and Subtraction of Polynomials

When solving or rearranging equations simplifying polynomials is often Addition and subtraction (inverse addition) of polynomials is performed by
necessary to make computation more convenient. In order to perform using associative, commutative and distributive axioms.
simplification of polynomials the following axioms are applied:
Example:
Distributive axiom:
Add the polynomials 4𝑥2 − 5𝑥 + 2 and −6𝑥2 + 3𝑥 − 4 ∶
𝑎 ( 𝑏 + 𝑐 ) = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐
(4𝑥2 − 5𝑥 + 2) + (−6𝑥2 + 3𝑥 − 4) = 4𝑥2 + (−6𝑥2) + (−5𝑥) + 3𝑥 − 2
Associative axiom:
= −2𝑥2 − 2𝑥 − 2
(𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐)
= −2(𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1)
(𝑎𝑏) 𝑐 = 𝑎 (𝑏𝑐)
Commutative axiom:
Example:
𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 +𝑎
Subtract −𝑥3 − 5𝑥2 + 3 from 4𝑥3 + 7𝑥2 − 8.
𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎
Example:
Using the fact that −(𝑎 + 𝑏) = −𝑎 + (−𝑏), the signs of the terms of the
Simplify the polynomial 4𝑥2 + 5𝑥2: second polynomial are changed and add:
4𝑥2 + 5𝑥2 = (4 + 5)𝑥2 = 9𝑥2 (𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑜𝑚)
(4𝑥3 + 7𝑥2 − 8) − (−𝑥3 − 5𝑥2 + 3) = 4𝑥3 + 7𝑥2 − 8 + 𝑥3 + 5𝑥2 − 3

Example: = 5𝑥3 + 12𝑥2 − 11
Simplify the polynomial −5𝑥2𝑦2 + 8𝑥2𝑦2 − 6𝑥2𝑦2:
−5𝑥2 + 8𝑥2𝑦2 − 6𝑥2𝑦2 = (−5 + 8 − 6)𝑥2𝑦2 = −3𝑥2𝑦2
The examples show that only terms containing exactly the same variables to
the same powers can be combined. Such terms are called ’like terms’. It is not
possible to further combine the terms in the polynomial 4𝑥 + 5𝑥2, since this
polynomial consists of unlike terms.

Multiplication of Polynomials Factoring of Polynomials

In order to find the product of two polynomials the theorem of exponents is Factoring is the reverse process of finding the product of any two polynomials.
used in addition to the distributive, commutative, and associative axioms. A polynomial is given and now it is looked for if this polynomial can be
expressed as the product of two or more simpler polynomials. The result of
Example:
the last example has been 6𝑥3 − 5𝑥2 − 4𝑥, which is the product of the two
Multiply 2𝑚2𝑧4 and 8𝑚3𝑧2𝑏 polynomials (3𝑥 − 4) and 2𝑥2 + 𝑥.
(2𝑚2𝑧4) ∙ (8𝑚3𝑧2𝑏) = 2 ∙ 8 ∙ 𝑚2 ∙ 𝑚 3 ∙ 𝑧4 ∙ 𝑧2 ∙ 𝑏 The distributive property is used to find the greatest common factor of a
= 16𝑚5𝑧6𝑏 polynomial. In the polynomial 12𝑥3 + 18𝑥2 − 9𝑥 each coefficient can be
divided by a factor of 3. Also, 𝑥 is the largest factor of 𝑥3, 𝑥2 and 𝑥. Thus 3𝑥 is
the greatest common factor of the complete polynomial.
Example: Example:
Find the product of 5𝑥2 and the polynomial 2𝑥3 − 4𝑥2 + 3𝑥 − 2. 12𝑥3 + 18𝑥2 − 9𝑥 = 3𝑥 ∙ 4𝑥2 + 3𝑥 ∙ 6𝑥 − 3𝑥 ∙ 3
= 3𝑥(4𝑥2 + 6𝑥 − 3)
5𝑥2 ∙ (2𝑥3 − 4𝑥2 + 3𝑥 − 2) = 5𝑥2 ∙ 2𝑥3 − 5𝑥2 ∙ 4𝑥2 + 5𝑥2 ∙ 3𝑥 − 5𝑥2 ∙ 2
= 10𝑥5 − 20𝑥4 + 15𝑥3 − 10𝑥2 By determining the greatest common factor the polynomial can be simplified.
Example:
Multiply (3𝑥 − 4) and (2𝑥2 + 𝑥):
(3𝑥 − 4) ∙ (2𝑥2 + 𝑥) = 3𝑥(2𝑥2 + 𝑥) − 4(2𝑥2 + 𝑥)

= 3𝑥 ∙ 2𝑥2 + 3𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 − 4 ∙ 2𝑥2 − 4 ∙ 𝑥
= 6𝑥3 + 3𝑥2 − 8𝑥2 − 4𝑥
= 6𝑥3 − 5𝑥2 − 4𝑥

1.1.2.4 Scientific Notation

An important application of integer exponents is their use in simplifying work Finally calculate the numerical factor:
with extremely large or small numbers. In scientific notations a number is
= 0.2 ∙ 105 = 20,000
written as a number between 1 and 10 (or -1 and -10) and some power of 10.
Example:
Example:
0.00 ,002,5 is written in scientific notation as 2.5 ∙ 10−6
Use scientific notation to estimate the value of:
1,360,000,000 is written as 1.36 ∙ 109
379,500 ∙ 0.001,2
147,000 is written as 1.47 ∙ 105
4,980
Scientific notations frequently make it possible to utilize the theorems of Since only an estimation is wanted, the numbers can be rounded as follows:
exponents to estimate answers or to simplify lengthy calculations as shown in
the following examples. 379,500 ∙ 0.001,2 400,000 ∙ 0.001
≈
4,980 5,000
Example:
1,920,000 ∙ 0.001,5
=? The symbol ’≈’ means ’is approximately equal to’. If each number is now
0.000,003 ∙ 45,000
written in scientific notation the answer can be estimated:
First express all numbers in scientific notation:

400,000 ∙ 0.001 4 ∙ 105 ∙ 1 ∙ 10−3
1,920,000 ∙ 0.001,5 1.92 ∙ 106 ∙ 1.5 ∙ 10−3 =
= 5,000 5 ∙ 103
0.000,003 ∙ 45,000 3.2 ∙ 10−6 ∙ 4.5 ∙ 104 4
= ∙ 10−1
5
Next, use the commutative and associative axioms and the theorems of power = 0.8 ∙ 10−1
to simplify the expressions:
= 0.08
1.92 ∙ 1,5 106 ∙ 10−3 1.92 ∙ 1.5
= ∙ = ∙ 105
3.2 ∙ 4.5 10−6 ∙ 104 3.2 ∙ 4.5

1.1.2.5 Powers with Fractional Number Exponents (Roots)

So far it is known how to solve the power equation 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑛. This is done by Example:
raising a to the power of n.
𝑎2 =4
Example: 1
𝑎
= 42
𝑏 = 22 = 2 ∙ 2 = 4
𝑎 =2
But in the equation above it can be asked for the value of 𝑎 if the numbers 𝑏
and 𝑛 are known. This leads to the first inversion of raising to the power. This As demonstrated in the examples, ‘raising to the power’ means multiplying a
mathematical operation is referred to as ’finding the root’ (the second number n times by itself. ‘Finding the root’ means knowing the result of the
inversion is referred to as ’finding the logarithm’). For explaining finding–the– multiplication by itself and to convert this number into n factors of the same
root operations, fractional number exponents are introduced. value.
In order to find the value of a, the equation above is presented in the form
1
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑏. Each side of the equation is raised by the power of , and the power
𝑛
theorem is used.
𝑎𝑛 =𝑏
1 1
(𝑎𝑛)𝑛 = (𝑏1)𝑛
𝑛∙ 1 1 ∙1
𝑎 𝑛 = 𝑏 𝑛
1
𝑎1
= 𝑏𝑛
1
𝑎
= 𝑏𝑛

1.1.3 Roots and Radicals

1.1.3.1 Definition of the Terms ’Root’ and ’Radical’
In general, powers with fractions in the exponent are referred to as ’roots’, Here, ’a’ is called the ’radicand’, ’n’ is called the ’index’ of a root or ’radical
’radicals’ or ’radices’. In the following the term ’root’ stands for all these index’, and the expression 𝑛√𝑎 is called a ’radical’ or a ’root’.
expressions.
Roots are introduced when a solution for the following equation has to be
Finding the root of ’a’ is an inverse mathematical operation for raising a natural
found:
number to a power.
𝑎𝑛 = 2
Example:
1
Using the power theorem of exponents, it can be proved whether 𝑎 = 2 is a 𝑛
𝐼𝑓 𝑛 = 1, 𝑚 = 4, 𝑏 = 16
solution of that equation:
1 1
(2𝑛)𝑛 = 2(𝑛)∙(𝑛) 1
4 4
⇒ 164 = √16 = √2 ∙ 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 2 = 2
= 21
=2
At times the root result is not a perfect whole number factor, but an irrational
1
th
The number 2 is called an n root of 2.
𝑛 number which will be displayed by a pocket calculator as a non–recurring
decimal number, e.g.:
1 1 √3 = 1.7320508.
In general, 𝑎𝑛 is the nth root of a, where 𝑎𝑛 is that number with the property
1 1 1
that (𝑎𝑛)𝑛 = 𝑎. For example, 𝑎2 represents a second (or square) root of a, 𝑎3
1 When this is done, results from the pocket calculator are rounded up to a
represents a third (or cube) root of a, and 𝑎4 represents a fourth root of a. sensible level of accuracy, e.g.
1
The nth root of a, or 𝑎𝑛, is commonly written with a radical √𝑎. Using this • rounded to three decimal places (DP) 1.732
symbol, a root can be written as: • rounded to two significant figures (SF) 1.7
1
𝑛
𝑎𝑛 = √𝑎
NOTE
Read: ’a’ to the power of one over ’n’ equals ’nth’ root of a.

When a fractional exponent has a numerator m > 1, then the numerator In contrast to the ambiguous root result in the case of an even number index
indicates the power to which the number ’a’ is to be raised, while the and positive radicand, any other combination of root index and radicand
denominator ’n’ indicates the root to be taken. provides a single result:
Thus, the equation is as follows: • If the radicand ’b’ is positive–signed and the index ’m’ an odd
𝑚
𝑛
number, then the root result ’c’ is positive–signed, e.g.:
𝑎 𝑛 = √𝑎𝑚 = 𝑏 3 3
√27 = √3 ∙ 3 ∙ 3 = 3
• If the radicand ’a’ is negative–signed and the index ’n’ an odd
Example: number, then the root result ’b’ is negative–signed; e.g.:
𝐼𝑓 𝑚 = 3, 𝑛 = 2, 𝑎 = 4 3 3
√−27 = √(−3) ∙ (−3) ∙ (−3) = −3
3
⇒ 𝑏 = 42 = √43 = √64 = √82 = 8 • If the radicand ’a’ is negative–signed and the index ’n’ an even
number, then the root result is a number of the form 𝑐√−1; e.g.:
The result of roots with an even index number ’n’ and positive radicand ’a’ may √−16 = √42 ∙ (−1) = 4√−1
have a positive or negative sign, e.g. :
√64 = √(−8)2 = √(+8)2 = +8
Thus, values with √−1 as a final result are not often used but they sometimes
occur as intermediate results of algebraic operations.
Normally the positive result is picked up as the correct root value and is
referred to as the prime result.

1.1.3.2 Finding the Root

Nowadays evaluating the value of a radical with a real number radicand is done Multiplication of Roots
by using a scientific pocket calculator. Therefore, it is not necessary to learn
how to find the root by intention and in written form. There are procedures to Rule 1
do this not using a calculator but using other aids instead, such as tables Roots having the same radicand are multiplied by converting the radical
(especially for finding square and cube roots). expression into a power expression with fractional exponents and raising the
common radicand to the sum of the exponents:
1 1 1 1
1.1.3.3 Mathematical Operations with Roots 𝑛 𝑚
√𝑎 ∙ √𝑎 = 𝑎𝑛 ∙ 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎 𝑛+ 𝑚
Since roots can be described as powers with fractional number exponents the
rules for mathematical operations are the same as those for operating with
powers. Example:
3 6 1 1
Addition and Subtraction of Roots √3 ∙ √3 = 33 ∙ 36
1 1
Rule = 33+6
Only roots having the same radicand and the same radical index may be added 2+1
or subtracted: = 36 6
3
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑎 ∙ √𝑐 ± 𝑏 ∙ √𝑐 = ( 𝑎 ± 𝑏 ) √𝑐 = 36
1
=3
Example: 2
4 6 3
√3 + √3 − √3
(4+6−3) = √3
= √3
= √3
7 = 1.732
= 12.12
NOTE
Only roots with the same radicand and radical index can be added or
4
subtracted. Sums or differences, such as √3 + √6 or 4 ∙ √3 − 2 ∙ √2,
cannot be added or subtracted.

Rule 2 Rule 2
Roots having different radicands, but the same radical index are multiplied by Roots having different radicands, but the same radical index are divided by
converting the radical expression into a power expression with fractional finding the root out of the quotient of the radicands:
exponents and raising their base product to the common exponent: 𝑛
√𝑎 𝑛𝑎
𝑛 𝑛 1
1 ∙
1 𝑛 𝑛 = √
√𝑎 ∙ √𝑏 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑛 = (𝑎 ∙ 𝑏)𝑛 = √𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 √𝑏 𝑏
Example: In order to prove this theorem, verify that:

1 1
𝑛
√4 ∙ 6 = √24 √𝑎 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝑛𝑎
𝑛 = 1 = (𝑏) = √𝑏
√𝑏 𝑏𝑛
Division of Roots Examples:
Rule 1 √6 6 3
=√=√
Roots having the same radicand are divided by converting the radical √4 4 2
expressions into power expressions with fractional exponents and raising the
common radicand to the difference of the numerator exponent (top term)
minus denominator exponent (bottom term): 300
√300
𝑛 1 = √ 3 = √100 = 10
√𝑎 𝑎𝑛 11 √3
𝑚= 1 = 𝑎 (𝑛 − 𝑚)
√𝑎 𝑎𝑚
Example:
√125 12521 1 1
−
4
= = 125
2 4
√125 1
1254
2 1 1
= 1254− =
4
125 4
4
= √125 = 3.344

1.1.3.4 Simplification of Roots

Simplifying Expressions including Multiplication and Division
The rules of multiplication and division of roots can be used to simplify roots. Example:
A root is said to be in simplified form if the following three conditions hold: 18
Simplify the root √ .
• When factored to prime factors, the radicand contains no factor to a 125
power greater than or equal to the radical index
Begin as follows:
• The radicand has no fractions
• No denominator contains a root. 18
√18
√ =
125 √125
Example: √9 ∙ √2
=
Simplify the root √24. √25 ∙ √5
3 ∙ √2
=
First the largest perfect square (square of an integer) that divides evenly into 5 ∙ √5
24 has to be found. In this example, the largest number is 4. Thus:
√24 = √4 ∙ 6 The denominator contains a root, which must be eliminated by the last
= √4 ∙ √6 condition in the definition of simplified form given above. The term √5 can be
eliminated in the denominator by multiplying both the numerator and the
= 2 ∙ √6 denominator by √5.
3 ∙ √2 3 ∙ √2 ∙ √5
=
5 ∙ √5 5 ∙ √5 ∙ √5
3 ∙ √10
=
5∙5
3 ∙ √10
=
25

1.1.3.5 Simplifying Radical Expressions 1.1.4 Calculation of Percentage

Simplifying Expressions including Addition and Subtraction 1.1.4.1 Percentage
A radical expression is an algebraic expression which contains roots. There are various applications in using the term percentage starting from
publications (news, magazines, statistics etc.) up to technical matters
Examples:
(efficiency, antenna gain, compression ratio etc.).
4
• √3 + √6 It will be stated for instance how much the percentage of the production has
• √2−1 increased over a specific time period or what percentage of the population is
√5 male or female or how much is the percentage of efficiency of a motor.
• 3
√8− √2 All this information is based on a ratio. The related numbers are called
principals e.g. the production at a specific time or the population or the power
output of a motor. These numbers will be set equal to 100 and compared with
In the previous chapter simplification of radical expressions including the percentage values e.g. the production at a different time or the male
multiplication and division had been discussed. Now it is considered, how to population or the power input of a motor related to 100.
simplify radical expressions which include addition and subtraction.
These fractions with the denominator 100 are called percentage indicated
with the symbol %. The symbol is an abbreviation for divided by 100.
Numbers such as √3, √19, and −√2 are real numbers. Therefore, the For calculations the following formula will be used:
distributive property applies to these numbers. Using this property an 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑝 𝑏 𝑏
= ∙ = or 𝑝 = 100
expression such as 4 ∙ √2 + 3 ∙ √2 can be simplified as follows: 100 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 100 𝑎 𝑎
A radical expression which includes subtraction, such as 2 ∙ √3 − 5 ∙ √3 can Where:

often be simplified in the same way: 𝑝 = percentage
2 ∙ √3 − 5 ∙ √3 = (2 − 5) ∙ √3 𝑏 = percentage value
𝑎 = principal
= −3 ∙ √3

Example: 1.1.4.2 Average Value

Last year a company produced 3000 computers. This year the company Sometimes it is necessary to calculate the average of numbers, points (e.g. for
produced 3600 computers. How much is the percentage increase of statistics) or measurement values (e.g. for calibration of measurement
production? devices).
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 3600 For calculations the following formula will be used:
= =
100 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 3000 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑛 𝑋𝑖
∑𝑖=1
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒) = , 𝑥𝑎 =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑛
3600
𝑝 = 100 ⋅ = 120 %.
3000 Where:
𝑥𝑎 = average
The percentage increase is 20 %.
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑋𝑖 = totalization value
𝑛 = number of values
Example:
The staff of a company comprises 1500 employees. 1200 of them are male.
How much is the percentage of the female employees? Example:
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 300 The following measurement values (voltages) are given.
= =
100 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 1500 𝑈1 = 1.12 𝑉, 𝑈2 = 1.24 𝑉, 𝑈3 = 1.31 𝑉, 𝑈4 = 1.15 𝑉, 𝑈5 = 1.25 𝑉
How much is the average?
300 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 ∑𝑛 𝑋𝑖
𝑝 = 100 ∙ = 20% 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒) = 𝑖=1
1500 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 , 𝑥𝑎 =
𝑛
𝑛 𝑋𝑖
∑𝑖=1 (1.12 + 1.24 + 1.31 + 1.15 + 1.25)𝑉
Example: 𝑥𝑎 = = = 1.21 𝑉
𝑛 5
The power output of a motor is 20 kW and the power input of the motor is 50
kW. How much is the percentage efficiency of the motor?

Variance Standard Deviation

Another definition which will be used in connection with average is the The standard deviation s is defined as the square root of the variance and will
variance which is a criterion indicating how the measurement values are also be classified as the mean square error of the measurement values. For
distributed or spread around the average. For calculation the following calculation the following formula will be used:
formula will be used: 𝑠 (𝑥) = √𝑣𝑎𝑟 (𝑥)
𝑛
1
𝑣𝑎𝑟(𝑥) = ∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑎)2
𝑛−1
𝑖=1 Instead of the variance the standard deviation will be used in practice more
often because the dimension of s is the same as the measurement values.
Example: 𝑠 (𝑥) = √0.00605 𝑉 = 0.00778 𝑉
For the a.m. five voltages calculate the variance.
1
𝑣𝑎𝑟(𝑥) = ((1.12 − 1.21)2 + (1.24 − 1.21)2 + (1.15 − 1.21)2 Relative Standard Deviation
4
+ (1.25 − 1.21)2 + (1.12 − 1.21)2)𝑉2 The relative standard deviation is defined as the percentage of the standard
1 deviation related to the average. For calculation the following formula will be
= ((−0.09)2 + (0.03)2 + (0.10)2 + (−0.06)2 + (0.04)2)𝑉2 used:
4
standard deviation
1 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∙ 100%
= (0.0242)𝑉2 = 0.00605 𝑉 2 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒
4
𝑠
𝑠𝑟𝑒𝑙 = ∙ 100%
𝑥𝑎
Example:
Calculate the relative standard deviation of the a.m. standard deviation
𝑠 0.00778 𝑉
𝑠𝑟𝑒𝑙 = = 100% = ∙ 100% = 0.643 %
𝑥𝑎 1.21 𝑉

1.1.5 Physical Quantities, Standards and Units

1.1.5.1 The Role of Quantities and Standards
There are a number of physical quantities whose existence is apparent by This example makes evident that a precisely defined quantity requires the
experience. Examples are length, volume, weight, time, speed, etc. In specification of a unit and its numerical factor. Thus, the unit is one of the basic
communication, the respective quantities are defined as long, large, heavy, building blocks to express the laws, rules and regulations of engineering and
short or slow, respectively. However, qualifications by adjectives are inexact, science.
depend on individual experience, and often they are exaggerated for obvious
reasons. NOTE
It would be impossible to describe the laws of nature exactly on the basis of Never apply engineering formulae without writing the unit symbols.
adjectival specifications. Exactness in describing natural events requires exact Without units, physical quantities have no significance.
determination of physical quantities and their exact measurement.
All measurements consist in determining how many times an unknown Depending on the side conditions, a quantity specification may require
quantity contains some known quantity of the same kind. Any measurement, completion by an accuracy allowance specification for measurement or
therefore, is essentially a comparison between the unknown magnitude and manufacturing purposes. However, these rules are taught under different
an accepted standard, and the accepted standard is the unit. subjects of engineering science (e.g. mathematics, engineering drawing, etc.).
For instance, a simple formula for a length quantity specification would be Many of the standard units currently in use had their origin in prehistoric
explained to a schoolboy or an engineering apprentice by the following legend: times. For example, the English sea mile is exactly the same as the Sumerian
geographical mile (3300 to 1800 BC), circle division into 360° they were
acquainted with by the Mesopotamians (2100 to 538 BC), the 24–hour day by
the ancient Egyptians, and the use of sundials can be traced back to before 35
centuries.
The metric system was first adopted by France by laws and decrees, between
1795 and 1806. The basic units of the metric system are the unit of length, the
meter and the unit of mass, the kilogram.
Refer to Figure 4.

A unit prototype is the tangible representation of a unit standard. It should be

borne in mind that a unit standard includes the prototype and respective
papers describing all details of the prototype history and of the prototype use.
Only the descriptive details of a standard enable the proper use of the
prototype. The case history is required to understand the intentions of the
inventors, should it be necessary, for the provision of prototype
reproductions.
Prototypes of the original French metric standards are preserved in the Bureau
des Archives in Paris and the international standards at the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures. The latter is an institution founded in Paris
by an international standardization committee, mainly by representatives of
nations of Central Europe. The international committee adopted the metric
system in 1875. At the turn to the 19th century more than 30 nations had
adopted the metric system.
All modern nations with considerable trade and scientific institutions have
administered bureaucratic organizations that maintain national standards and
control their use. Some of the national standard organizations keep certified
co–productions of the unit standards in Paris. Thus, the United States of
America have administered the National Bureau of Standards in Washington,
DC, for instance, where the certified copies no. 20 of the meter and the
kilogram are preserved.
The legislative power of a state decides on which unit standards shall be
obligatory, permissive or forbidden. Accordingly, tight the matter will be
handled by the state’s judicial and executive powers. One of the major tasks
of national standard organizations is to develop rules, standards and standard
instruments for calibration and re–calibration of measuring instruments used
in science, industry and commerce. Additionally, there exists an International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) in Geneva, Switzerland.
Figure 4: Prototypes of the Metric System’s Basic Units

In the following, some details of the history of a few metric standards are 1.1.5.2 Basic Units of the SI System
given, which show the intentions of the inventors, but also show how
Predecessors of the SI system and successors of the metric system are:
standards might be subject to changes, depending on the state of art,
particularly on the arts that result in measuring accuracy. • the MKS system (meter, kilogram, second system)
In contrast to the current definitions, the historical definitions are • the MKSA system (meter, kilogram, second, ampere system) which in
comprehensible to the majority of the people and, partly, the measures can technical literature may be found under the name ’Giorgi system’
be reproduced with simple means and satisfactory accuracy for the majority
of engineering purposes:
The use of the MKS system permits solving all problems requiring units
• The meter was intended to be one ten–millionth of the distance from pertaining to mechanics, while the same system, expanded by the ampere unit
the north pole to the equator along the meridian line through Paris. standard, permits solving electro–technical problems. This shows the gradual
• The meter prototype was prepared by engraving two fine lines in a expansion of the original metric system to working tools of science and of
bar of 90/10 platinum–iridium alloy at a distance calculated on the different engineering faculties.
basis of the originally intended value. The International System of Units, or SI system (System International unit),
• Accurate measurements showed that the prototype differs slightly for short, is the latest version of the original metric system. The SI system has
(about 0.023%) from the originally intended value. been accepted in 1960. Nearly half of the nations have adopted the SI system
as obligatory. The rest of the nations have adopted it as permissive.
• The kilogram was intended to be the mass of the amount of water at
its maximum density (3.98 °C) that is contained in a cube that The widespread use of the SI system throughout the world has made it the
measures one–tenth of a meter on each edge. only internationally accepted system of measurements. Acceptance will
increase, as, nowadays, computers and telephone have boosted
• The kilogram prototype is, also, made of platinum–iridium alloy. It is communication enormously. Computerized data of universities are available
a cylinder of 39 mm diameter and 39 mm height. all over the world and almost at the instant they are put into data banks.
• Accurate measurements showed that the prototype, also, differs The table of the basic units of the SI system (shown on the next page), giving
slightly from the originally intended value, mainly because the the quantities, the respective unit names and unit symbols. In contrast to the
density of the water had not been exactly MKSA system, the SI system has been expanded by units required in
• The capacity unit, liter, was defined as the volume occupied by one thermodynamics, chemistry and optics. Each of the named science branches
kilogram of water under standard conditions. needs only one additional unit. Together with the supplementary units used in
mathematics (shown on the next page), these are sufficient to describe all
• Because the kilogram definition was changed to the mass of the fields of science currently known.
prototype, and the latter turned out to be inaccurate with respect to
the originally intended value, the originally defined liter turned out
to be 1.000,028 dm3

Table of SI Units In the following, the basic units required for mechanics, or the MKS system
units will be discussed, just to show how definitions have changed from the
Quantity Unit Symbol time of metric system invention and how complex the specifications of basic
units are in their consequences.
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Definition of the Meter
Time second s
One meter is the length of the path travelled by light in a vacuum during a time
Electric current ampere A interval of 1/299,792,458th of a second.
Thermodynamic temperature* kelvin K This definition is a prime example of how the definitions of units have changed
and can only be understood by professionals.
Amount of substance mole moll
Re–definition of the meter does not mean that the meter prototypes are
Luminous intensity candela cd obsolete. The metric system definition of the meter being the distance
*Celsius temperature is expressed in degrees Celsius (symbol =°C). between the engravings on the prototype still holds true. In fact, the new
Reproduced from ANSI/IEEE Standard 268 –1992 definition has been found by carefully measuring the prototype and by
expressing the distance found in wavelengths.
Table of SI Units
Definition of the Kilogram
Quantity Quantity Quantity
The kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of the international
Plane angle radian rad prototype of the kilogram.
Solid angle steroidal sr The above definition shows that the definition of the kilogram has not changed
since the time of metric system invention. In everyday language the word
Reproduced from ANSI/IEEE Standard 268 –1992 ’weight’ is often used when strictly ’mass’ should be used and ’weighing’ an
object is used when its mass is determined.
The mass is a physical unit, as defined above. It is independent of the place
where the mass of 1 kg is measured; it is always 1 kg. For instance, an object
with a mass of 1 kg on the moon has also a mass of 1 kg on the earth or
anywhere in the space.

The weight of an object is produced by the pull of the earth, called ’gravity’. Mass is a mysterious property which affects the behavior of an object in two
This pull varies from place to place. For instance, the pull of a certain mass on ways, which will be dealt with in more detail later on. But there are two things
the moon is only 1/6th of the pull on the earth. On the surface of the earth the which should be remembered:
pull of an object varies a little from place to place. This is mainly caused by the
• All objects resist attempts to make them go faster, slower, or in a
elliptical form of the earth.
different direction. The greater the mass of an object, the greater is
The weight is only equal to the mass, when the mass unit kg is cautiously its resistance to any change in motion.
assigned to it. On earth, the variation in gravity and the type of scales used
• All objects are attracted to the earth. The greater the mass of an
have to be considered. For example, normally, calculations are made with
object, the stronger is the earth’s gravitational pull upon it.
gravity acceleration of 9.81 m/s2 to determine the pull produced by a mass.
Figure 5 shows that this value pertains to the geographical latitude of 45°. For
example, the center of Botswana is located at a geographical latitude of 22°
(south), approximately, to which a gravitational acceleration of 9.79 m/s2
would be applicable. Thus, the following measuring conditions might be
applicable:
• If a beam balance and properly calibrated weights would be used at
both locations, there would be no difference measured, due to the
fact that measured mass and standard weights exert the same pull
on the arms of the beam balance.
• If the same spring balance would be used at both locations, the
apparent weights would differ by 0.3 %, approximately, in
accordance with the difference in gravitation at the different
latitudes.
A mass exerts pull or force which can be measured by spring balances

irrespective of being calibrated in kilograms. Therefore, a spring balance
shifted to a different latitude must be re–calibrated, and for re–calibration,
standard weights calibrated in kilograms might be used.
Figure 5: Change of Gravity Due to Position on the Globe

Definition of the Second

The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation The concept of time can be associated with many aspects. Presence, past and
corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the future are concepts related to the instantaneous awareness of individuals.
ground state of the Cs133 (cesium–133 isotope) atom. However, to describe events in the past, in the future or the duration of
events, time intervals are needed, and the second is the internationally
Figure 6 shows part of an atomic clock based on a characteristic frequency
accepted time interval unit.
associated with the Cs133 isotope. The assembly is similar to the type run by
the US National Bureau of Standards. The solar system gives natural intervals, which count in years, as the earth
travels in orbit round the sun, and in days, as the earth rotates on its own axis.
An atomic clock running under the conditions specified in the SI standard for
Smaller intervals are the hour, the minute and the second, and these are man–
the second is supposed to have measurement accuracy of one part in ten to
made intervals, which have been invented a long time ago, in accordance with
the power of twelve. Predecessors of the atomic clock, with lower accuracy,
the progress in time measurement precision.
had been quartz-controlled clocks and clocks controlled by a pendulum in
vacuum. The second is the smallest one of the conventional time interval units.
Irrespective of that, it is based on observance of the solar system, as described
The second was previously defined as a fraction of 1/31,556,925.974,74,
above. Years and days have different lengths. Because of this fact, leap years
related to the solar year 1900. According to the given number of seconds in
had to be invented. For the same reason, the second is based on a man–made
the year, the SI standard atomic clock should be accurate to an allowance of
concept, the mean solar year.
one second within 1012/31,556,925.974,74 = 316,455 years.
The length of the years and days vary for several reasons. The major reasons
lie in the facts that the earth’s orbit about the sun is elliptical.
The earth’s own rotary axis tumbles periodically during a year (known as
precession) and the tumble center axis, additionally, is inclined toward the
rotary plane about the sun by a constant degree.
Smaller time variations are due to erosion of mountains, the shifting of

continents, the tidal friction, interstellar position changes, seasonal and long–
term weather changes, including melting ice caps, wind speed and wind
friction. In fact, experiments involving atomic clocks have revealed that the
speed of the earth’s rotation, slowly, but continually decreases. Eventually, a
re–definition of the time unit might be required, if the basic adherence to the
cyclic, natural events is maintained.
Figure 6: Part of an Atomic Clock

Horologists are the scientists of time measurement, or the designers of Conventional navigation is still made by observing the position of the sun. In
respective measuring devices. These people know several kinds of time: such cases, and in order to determine own ship’s positions exactly, the
difference between apparent solar time and mean solar time must be
Apparent solar time:
considered.
This is the non–uniform time experienced by our personal senses and by our
This is done by working with almanacs, like the British Nautical Almanac or the
solar system. It is the time measured with a sundial.
American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac, for instance.
Sidereal time:
In the SI system, two supplementary base units are defined, the radian and the
This is a uniform time determined by the observation of fixed stars. steroidal. These units are not very popular and are rarely found in technical
Mean solar time: literature. The radian is frequently used for weapon specifications and,
therefore, it shall be discussed here.
This is a uniform time determined by evaluating a fictitious solar system, which
has the ’mean sun’ in the center, where the earth rotates about the sun at a
mean radius, etc. In short, this solar system is a mathematically perfect
system.
The mean solar time provided the basis of the second for the former definition
dated to 1900. The fixing of the second, and the construction of the fictitious
solar system required long time observations of the real solar system, as well
as determination of the apparent solar time over a long period and careful
evaluation of the obtained data. Hence, the mean solar time had been
developed from apparent solar time.
Since abundant mean solar and sidereal time data are available, the mean
solar time is determined on the basis of the sidereal time. Sidereal time is
easier and more precisely determined by observatories, it can be converted to
mean solar time by using a respective formula, and master clocks can be reset
accordingly. Through radio transmission, the time of the master clocks are
made available at remote locations.

Definition of the Radian

The radian is the angle subtended at the center of a circle of radius 1 m by an The use of prefixes representing 10 raised to power intervals of 3 are especially
arc length 1 m along the circumference. The symbol of the radian is ’rad’. recommended. Therefore, the use of units with hecto–, deca–, deci– and
centi–prefix are non–preferred units. In applying prefixes, it should be
This exact but little confusing definition is based on simple grounds and can be
remembered that compound prefixes like milli–tera are not used, as they are
given by the following equation 2π rad = 360°. By re–arranging the equivalent
confusing and require re–thinking by a reader or by an audience.
of the radian is expressed in the conventional degree unit, 1 rad = 360°/2π =
57.3°, and the equivalent to the right angle, 90° = π/2 rad. Thus, the radian is Decimal Factor Prefix
invented to measure plane angels. Likewise, the steradian is provided to
measure solid angles. Name Power Name Symbol
One million million (billion) 1012 tera T
The range of lengths that scientists need to measure is enormous. The
diameter of the sun is more than one hundred million meters large, yet the Mega 109 giga G
diameter of the atoms of which all materials are made are less than one–
One million 106 mega M
thousand–millionth of a meter.
One thousand 103 kilo k
Writing respective quantities in full length requires many zeros and this may
be the reason of errors. Apart from that the measuring exactitude is insinuated One hundred 102 hecto h
by writing full length magnitudes but it does not really exist for the adopted Ten 101 deca da
measuring methods.
Unity 100
In mathematics large and small numbers are written as decimal powers, and
numbers are reduced to the reasonable size of exactness determined by the One tenth 10−1 deci d
applied calculation method. One hundredth 10−2 centi c
Similar rules can be applied to the specification of numbers required as One thousandth 10−3 milli m
multiplicands of units in specifying quantities in accordance with the SI system
and with chosen measuring methods. However, the SI system, additionally, One millionth 10−6 micro 𝜇
offers the option of specifying units as multiples and sub–multiples of units, in One thousand millionth 10−9 nano n
the form of decimal prefixes.
One million millionth (billionth) 10−12 pico p
The next table shows a table of the internationally agreed prefixes for the
specification of multiples and sub–multiples of standard units. The unit One thousand million millionth 10−15 femto f
prefixes represented by the decimal powers between 1012 and 10–12 are One million million millionth 10−18 atto a
quite often used in engineering, whereas the prefixes exceeding the named
range are normally used in special sciences only.

The next table shows a table of multiples and sub–multiples of the previously NOTE
discussed basic units. The tables include conventional units as a compromise
Decimal prefix symbols and unit symbols are written in one word, i.e.
for generally accepted units, like the centimeter, the ton and the hour. In
without a space between them.
fact, the name of the basic unit kilogram includes the agreed prefix ’kilo’.
Therefore, the gram is used in conjunction with specifications requiring units
smaller than the kilogram, in order to prevent compound prefixes Derived units are variations, or combinations of basic units. They occur when
basic units are used in mathematical operations, as required by applying the
laws of engineering and science.
Unit (short) Equivalent in meters (standard form)
1 kilometer (km) 1,000 m (103 m)
1 centimeter (cm) 0.01 m (10-2 m) Figure 7, details a) and b), show derivation of the square meter and of the
cubic meter by the examples of application of simple formulae. Detail c) shows
1 millimeter (mm) 0.001 m (10-3 m) a measuring cylinder calibrated in milliliters and gives the respective
instruction for reading the standard. The liter is still an accepted unit, its
1 micrometer (μm) 0.000,001 m (10-6 m)
equivalent is 1 dm3.
Equivalent in
Unit (short) (standard form)
kilograms
1 ton (t) = 1,000 kg (103 kg)
1 gram (g) = 0.001 kg (10-3 kg)
1 milligram (mg) = 0.000,001 kg (10-6 kg)
1 microgram (μg) = 0.000,000,001 kg (10-9 kg)
Equivalent in
Unit (short) (standard form)
kilograms
1 hour (h) = 3.600 s (3,6 ∙ 103 s)
1 millisecond (ms) = 0.001 s (10-3 s)
1 microsecond (μs) = 0.000,001 s (10-6 s)
1 nanosecond (ns) = 0.000,000,001 s (10-9 s)

Figure 8 shows a table of frequently used derived units. It is worthwhile noting

that quite a lot of units are named after famous scientists, for example, the
newton, the pascal and the joule. In such cases, capital letters are used for the
respective symbols, or the respective symbol consists of several letters, but
starts with a capital letter.
By reference to the column ’Equivalent, remark’ the table makes evident that
the derived units consist of basic units. The unit names after the scientists have
been chosen to save the time required for specifying all basic unit details. This
fact leads directly to the necessity of unit conversions.
Figure 7: Units of Area and Volume

Figure 8: Table of Derived Units, Examples

1.1.5.3 Unit Conversions

A unit conversion, generally, is made to transform a given unit into a more Figure 9 shows the most important equivalents between Imperial and SI
convenient unit, or into a legal unit. Unit conversions require the availability systems. The Imperial (or: fps (foot, pound, second)) system has been specially
of equivalent values, like 1 N = 1 kg m/s2, as given in Figure 8, or 1 g = 103 kg, developed for mechanics and, therefore, it can be regarded as the English
as given in basic units conversion table. These examples show that unit version of the MKS system. Among the pressure equivalents the unit lb/in2
conversions are required, also, in case only SI system units are used. In fact, (pounds per square inch) has been used, instead of the more popular unit
the latter example shows that assigning decimal prefixes is an act of unit symbol ’psi’.
conversion.
NOTE
There are a number of specific occasions requiring unit conversions:
In writing numerical quantities of derived units, the individual numbers,
• Derived units require conversion to basic units to understand them, decimal powers, basic unit symbols, and basic units with decimal prefix,
or to make them fit in a given formula. respectively, must be separated by mathematical symbols, in order to
• Frequently, the results of calculations have to be converted to adapt prevent confusion. In case of products, an empty space may be used,
them to available measuring devices, or, vice versa, measured data instead of the individual multiplication signs.
have to be adapted to formulas.
• In the past, a lot of different unit systems have been used, like the Unit conversions should be made in a mathematically correct procedure, in
Gaussian system and the English or Imperial System of Weights and order to prevent mistakes. The rules are quite simple. In the initial step,
Measures, for instance. Although Great Britain has adopted the SI equivalents are converted to conversion factors of the value ’1’. For example,
system as obligatory, the English System is still legal in quite a applied to the equivalents given for area, the formulas are:
number of states and organizations, for instance, in the United States 1 𝑓𝑡2 144 𝑖𝑛2
of America and in the whole field of aviation. =1 ⟶ =1
144 𝑖𝑛2 1 𝑓𝑡2
• Unit relation equivalents, like the hours in the day, the minute in the
hour and in the plane angle degree, as well as the second in the hour
and in the plane angle minute, are not SI system sanctioned. These 1 𝑓𝑡2 0.092,903 𝑚2
=1 ⟶ =1
units are subdivided in accordance with the sexagesimal notation, an 0.092,903 𝑚3 1 𝑓𝑡2
accepted relic from the past.
144 𝑖𝑛2 0.092,903 𝑚2
=1 ⟶ =1
There have been several attempts to change the civil time and the plane angle 0.092,903 𝑚2 144 𝑖𝑛2
intervals compatible to the decimal system. The plane angle units have been
finally changed to the radian. However, all attempts to change civil time have
been rejected and, therefore, it is frequently necessary to convert SI units to
make them comprehensible in accordance with personal experience.

Generally, from a given number ’n’ of expressions in a set of equivalents, the

number 𝑧0 = 𝑛(𝑛−1) of conversion factors can be obtained, each consisting of
a fraction of the value ’1’.
From mathematics it is known that any number in a formula can be multiplied
by the factor ’1’ without changing the value of the product or the final result
of the formula. Principally the same is done when unit conversions are applied.
The unit to be converted is multiplied by the conversion factor of value ’1’,
choosing the conversion factor that permits to cancel the units to be
eliminated from the formula. Similar to mathematics, this does not change the
value of a physical quantity, although, normally, the numerical factor and,
principally, the name of the unit are changed.
For instance, to convert 15 ft2 to the respective quantity in SI units, the
conversion factor that contains ft2 as divisor and m2 as dividend is chosen,
which is the second conversion factor of the middle set given above.
The subsequent procedure is as simple as shown in the following:
0.092, 903 𝑚2
15 𝑓𝑡2 = 15 𝑓𝑡2 ∙
1 𝑓𝑡2
= 15 ∙ 0.092, 903 𝑚2 = 1.393, 545 𝑚2
Under normal application conditions, not the complete set of conversion

factors is written down. Instead, the adequate equation is directly taken from
the available equivalent table and inserted into the formula requiring unit
conversion, applying the dividend and divisor assignation rule.
NOTE
Never apply engineering formulas without applying the mathematically
correct unit conversion rules. Correct conversion of units saves a lot of
confusion, especially when complex formulas are applied. In fact, using
units properly in applying formulas is a method to control the correct
procedure and the result in the progress of problem solving.
Figure 9: Important Equivalents Between Imperial and SI Systems

Algebra CAT A – Module 1
1.2 Algebra
1.2.1 Algebraic Operations
1.2.1.1 Arithmetic Operations with Literal Numbers
Literal Numbers Addition
In a study of numbers and of properties of numbers, it is helpful to use letters The algebraic principle for a sum with two summands may read like this:
(Latin or Greek alphabet) to represent numbers. These numbers are referred
𝑎 + 𝑏 =𝑐
to as ’literal numbers’. They make it possible to write formulae, mathematical
laws and rules in short–hand. Through the use of formulae in physics and
related fields it is known that a literal number can be replaced by any real The arrangement of the summands is free (associative law), but for a better
number. overview the summands are sorted alphabetically.
A letter like π that represents a certain fixed number is called a constant. In Example:
contrast to that, the letter ’r’ is a variable, if it is chosen to represent the radius
in circle and sphere formulae. 𝑎+𝑐+𝑑+𝑏=𝑎+𝑏+𝑐+𝑑
In general, a not exactly defined range of first alphabetic low case letters (a, b,
c, ; α, β, γ, ) are used in algebra and geometry for known quantities. A If there is a sum of equal summands, it can be expressed as a ’product’. This
range of last alphabetic letters is generally used for unknown quantities (. , product is a concrete number consisting of a real number factor or coefficient,
x, y, z). and of a literal number factor.
Example:
𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 = 5 ⋅ 𝑎 = 5𝑎
Concrete numbers of the same letter family are added by summing their
coefficients to one factor, while the letter is retained and used as the second
factor.
Example:
3𝑎 + 5𝑐 + 7𝑏 + 8𝑐 + 4𝑏 + 15 = 3𝑎 + 11𝑏 + 13𝑐 + 15

Subtraction Brackets
The algebraic principle for a difference may look like this: Brackets are mathematical symbols that express the demand that the
mathematical operation indicated outside must be applied to the total
𝑎– 𝑏 =𝑐
bracketed contents. This means that the operations within brackets are
performed before the outer ones in order to reduce the effort to a solution.
Only concrete numbers with the same letter can be subtracted as in the case The expression 𝑎 ⋅ (𝑏 + 𝑐) means: first add b and c, and then multiply the
of addition. sum by a. But the problem 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 + 𝑐 means: a has to be multiplied by b first
Example: and then c is added to the product.
10𝑎 – 3𝑎 = 7 𝑎 Examples:
3 ⋅ (5 + 2) = 3 ⋅ 7 = 21
5𝑎 – 2𝑏 – 3𝑎 = 2𝑎 – 2𝑏
3 ⋅ 5 + 2 = 15 + 2 = 17
9𝑎 + 9𝑏 – 7𝑎 + 3𝑐 – 6𝑏 – 𝑐 = 2𝑎 + 3𝑏 + 2𝑐
When performing mathematical operations with brackets, the following rules

In algebra, the previously used expressions to the left and right of the equality
have to be observed:
sign may be referred to as ’sum’, irrespective of the fact, that they contain
subtrahends. Subtrahends may be referred to as ’negative summands’. • The insertion or the removal of a bracket enclosure with plus sign has
no effect on the signs of its enclosed summands.
Negative Numbers
(𝑎 + 2𝑏 – 3𝑐) = 𝑎 + (2𝑏 – 3𝑐) = 𝑎 + 2𝑏 – 3𝑐
A literal number might be negative or positive. This raises the question of how
to treat them in the case of positive or negative operators. • The insertion or the removal of bracket enclosure with minus sign
changes the signs of all enclosed summands.
𝑎 + 2𝑏 – 𝑐 – 𝑑 + 3𝑒 = (𝑎 + 2𝑏)– (𝑐 + 𝑑 – 3𝑒)
Rules of Subtraction with Negative Numbers:
• Combining the elements of a polynomial (algebraic sum) in single
(+𝑎) – (– 𝑏) = 𝑎 + 𝑏 groups by means of brackets does not change the value of the
polynomial (associative law).
(– 𝑎) – (– 𝑏) = (– 𝑎) + 𝑏 = 𝑏 – 𝑎 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐) = (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 (𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑤)

Several Brackets Multiplication

In a polynomial there can be a few pairs of brackets, inner and outer ones. The product of the two numbers a and b can be regarded as the sum of b
Such problems are solved in an inside–out procedure, starting with solving the summands, which all equal a.
innermost enclosure, and finishing with the outmost enclosure. For a better
Example:
discrimination of sets, different types of brackets are used, such as ’{...}’, ’[...]’
and ’(...)’, given in the order of standard inside–out use. 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 +. . . . (𝑏 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠)
Example:
𝑎 – {𝑏 + [2𝑐 – (𝑑 + 4𝑒)]} = 𝑎 – {𝑏 + [2𝑐 – 𝑑 – 4𝑒]} If b is the real number ’5’, then the expression is as follows:
𝑎 – {𝑏 + 2𝑐 – 𝑑– 4𝑒} = 𝑎 – 𝑏 – 2𝑐 + 𝑑 + 4𝑒 𝑎∙5=𝑎+𝑎+𝑎+𝑎+𝑎
The multiplication symbol between the coefficient and the literal number is
generally omitted. The coefficient is written before the literal number. Literal
numbers are sorted alphabetically.
Literal number factors are multiplied by multiplying first the coefficients and
then the letters.
Example:
(3 ∙ 𝑎) ∙ (6 ∙ 𝑏) = 18𝑎𝑏
Multiplication of Positive and Negative Numbers

The product of two factors with the same sign is positive.
(+𝑎) ∙ (+𝑏) = +𝑎𝑏
(−𝑎) ∙ (−𝑏) = +𝑎𝑏
Factors with different signs result in a product with negative sign.
(−𝑎) ∙ (+𝑏) = −𝑎𝑏
(+𝑎) ∙ (−𝑏) = −𝑎𝑏

Multiplications with Algebraic Sums Division

A number is multiplied by an algebraic sum by multiplying each of the A quotient can be written as a fraction in several forms:
elements of the sum by the number: 𝑎
𝑎∶𝑏= = 𝑎/𝑏
𝑥 (𝑎 + 𝑏 – 𝑐) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 – 𝑐𝑥 (𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑤) 𝑏
Rules of Mathematical Operations with Fractions

Example:
The rules of operations with fractions are similar to those with real numbers:
3 𝑎 (4𝑏 + 𝑐 – 6𝑑) = 12𝑎𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑐 – 18𝑎𝑑
• Fractions can be reduced.
3𝑎𝑏𝑐
Algebraic sums or polynomials are multiplied by each other by multiplying = 𝑎𝑐 (𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 3𝑏)
each element of one sum by each element of the other one: 3𝑏
(𝑎 + 𝑏) ∙ (𝑐 + 𝑑) = 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑑
• The numerator and the denominator of a fraction can be multiplied
by the same factor, not changing its value.
Example:
𝑎 𝑎𝑑
(𝑎 + 3) ∙ (2𝑏 – 𝑐) = 2𝑎𝑏 + 6𝑏 – 𝑎𝑐 – 3𝑐 = (𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑑)
𝑏 𝑏𝑑
Multiplication of algebraic sums can be described as the expansion of bracket

expressions. • Fractions can only be added, if they have got a common
denominator.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎+𝑏
+ =
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
• Fractions with no common denominator have to be converted into
fractions with a common denominator before adding.
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑏 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑐𝑏
+ = + =
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑 𝑏𝑑 𝑏𝑑

• Fractions are multiplied by multiplying the numerators and the 1.2.1.2 Algebraic Equations
denominators separately. Generally, an equation is a statement of two expressions combined by an
𝑎𝑐 𝑎𝑐 equality sign ’=’, stating that their values are equal. In the fields of engineering
∙ = and science, equations are used for the description and computation of
𝑏𝑑 𝑏𝑑
technical processes and physical quantities.
Examples of simple equations are:
• Two fractions are divided by multiplying the first fraction with the
reciprocal value of the second fraction. • 3 = 3
𝑎𝑐 𝑎 𝑑 𝑎𝑑 • 3 = 2+1
∙ = ∙ =
𝑏𝑑 𝑏 𝑐 𝑏𝑐 • 5 = 3+2
• 6 = (1 + 1) (2 + 1)
Division of an Algebraic Sum by a Number • 𝑥 = 7
An algebraic sum is divided by a number by dividing each element of the sum • 𝑥 = 5𝑦

by that number.
Example: An algebraic equation contains one or more elements which are not known.
54𝑧𝑥 72𝑦𝑧 25 25 The characteristic of such an equation is that the known and unknown
(54𝑥𝑧 – 72𝑦𝑧 – 25): 9𝑧 = − − = 6𝑥 – 8𝑦 – elements of the equation are combined by algebraic operations (addition,
9𝑧 9𝑧 9𝑧 9
𝑧
multiplication, etc.). An algebraic equation represents a problem that is solved
by determining the unknown magnitude.
Example:
𝑥–5=4
x has to be determined in such a way, that 4 equals the difference of x – 5. If

the number 9 is set for x the equation is true. The result is x = 9.

1.2.1.3 Functions and Graphs

Mathematics is widely applied to a diverse number of fields, because It is often helpful to draw graphs of functions. Since two variables are involved
mathematical expressions clarify problems and suggest methods of solution. in functions, a graph of a function will require two numbered axes. Standard
There are many types of mathematical expressions, called ’functions’, which planar graphs use two numbered axes which intersect at right angles at the
are particularly useful in many applications. zero points. The horizontal axis represents the independent variable (usually
x, or, in the example, t), while the vertical axis represents the dependent
A function, also called ’correspondence’, ’map’, ’mapping’, or
variable (usually y, or, in the example, d).
’transformation’, is a relation between two sets of numbers in which one
element of the second set is assigned to each element of the first set. A This background for graphs is referred to as Cartesian Coordinate System. The
function is given, if for each value of the element of the second set a related horizontal coordinate line, or x–axis, is the abscissa and the vertical coordinate
value of the element of the first set can be calculated or observed. line, or y–axis, is the ordinate.
Considering the movement of a car going from location A to location B, the The four regions of the graph are called quadrants I, II, III, and IV, reading
travelled distance d depends on the speed v of the car and the time t elapsed. counter-clockwise from the upper right quadrant.
This is expressed by the formula
𝑑=𝑣⋅𝑡
Assuming that the speed v is a constant factor, there is one related value of
distance d (element of the first set) assigned to each point of time t (element
of the second set). Thus, the distance d is a function of time t.
NOTE
The distance d can also be a function of speed v, if the time t remains
constant.
In mathematics, functions are generally described by the literal numbers x and

y . Using these numbers, y is said to be a function of x or, in short,
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
Letter x is the independent variable and y the dependent variable.
As can be seen in the example with the moving car, the distance d depends on
the speed v and the time t . Thus, v and t are the independent variables
whereas d is the dependent variable in this function.
Refer to Figure 10. Figure 10: Cartesian Coordinate System

Refer to Figure 11.

The point P1, whose coordinate pair of values is x = 3 and y = 1, is located three
units from the zero point to the right on the horizontal number line and one
unit vertically upward. This point is labelled P1 (3,1).
Likewise, coordinate pair (x = 6; y = 2) is labelled P2 (6,2), (x = –3; y = –1) is
labelled P3 (–3,–1) and (x = –6,y = –2) is labelled P4 (–6,–2).
All these pairs of values correspond to the function y =1/3 ⋅ x. When the points
of the graph are linked by lines, the graph is a representation of the function y
=1/3 ⋅ x in the range of x from –6 to +6.
Figure 11: Graph of Function y = 1/3 ∙ x

Geometry CAT A – Module 1
1.3 Geometry
1.3.1.1 Plane Geometry
Circles Triangles
A circle is the trace of a point in a plane, which lies at a constant distance (the A triangle is formed by the direct connection of three points. Figure 13 to
radius) from a fixed point (the centre). Figure 12 gives the vocabulary and main Figure 15 give the vocabulary and classification details of triangles.
formulas of circles.
Figure 13: Vocabulary and Classification Details of Triangles (1)

Figure 12: Vocabulary and Formulas of Circles


Figure 16 and Figure 17 give the main rules and formulas for the calculation
and construction of triangles, without applying the trigonometric formulas.
Figure 16: Rules and Formulas of Triangles (1)
Figure 17: Rules and Formulas of Triangles (2)
Module 1_Mathemathics For Training Purposes Page 61 of 66

Only
Polygons
A polygon plane is a geometric figure with ’n’ sides and an equal number of
vertices, where ’n’ is any whole number greater than 2. Figure 18 to Figure 20
give the vocabulary and classification details of polygons.
Figure 19: Vocabulary and Classification Details of Polygons (2)

Figure 21 to Figure 23 give the rules and formulas of polygons.
Figure 21: Rules and Formulas of Polygons (1)

Figure 23: Rules and Formulas of Polygons (3)

1. Draw horizontal and vertical axes, and the circumcircle and mark the
points 0, A and B.
2. Draw an inclined line through A, divide it into n + 1 equal spaces,
starting in A and finding points 1 to (n + 1).
3. Draw lines through (n + 1) and (n – 3), parallel to nB, finding C and D.
4. Draw an arc about 0 with radius 0D, finding E.
5. Draw a line through E and D, finding F in the lower intersection of the
circumcircle.
Figure 22: Rules and Formulas of Polygons (2) 6. Distance CF is the length ’a’ of the side of a regular polygon.

PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

Mega Aerospace Centre Sdn. Bhd

D/a KKIP Aerospace Training Centre
Lot 1, IZ15, Jalan 4 KKIP Timur
Kota Kinabalu Industrial Park
88460 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, MALAYSIA
Tel : +6 (088) 344 948
Fax : +6 (088) 344 948

Module 1 Mathemathics

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module 1 Mathemathics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MACSB / TM / A1 / 2022 / M1 / 01

For Training Purposes Only Page 1 of 66

Introduction to the Training Manual

Mega Aerospace Centre Sdn. Bhd.

For Training Purposes Only Page 2 of 66

For Training Purposes Only Page 3 of 66

EASA Part-66 Knowledge Requirements

For Training Purposes Only Page 4 of 66

For Training Purposes Only Page 5 of 66

For Training Purposes Only Page 6 of 66

Figure 1: Types of Real Numbers

The Absolute Value

Multiplication ∙ times, multiplied by,

For Training Purposes Only Page 8 of 66

1.1.1.2 Basic Arithmetic Operations with Integers

Summand Plus Summand Equals Sum

For Training Purposes Only Page 9 of 66

Subtraction of Natural Numbers

Minuend Minus Subtrahend Equals Difference

For Training Purposes Only Page 10 of 66

For Training Purposes Only Page 11 of 66

Mathematical rules to the previous examples: 1.1.1.2.2 Multiplication

For Training Purposes Only Page 12 of 66

• The result of all multiplications with the number 0 is 0. 1.1.1.2.3 Division

Rules of Division of Natural Numbers

For Training Purposes Only Page 13 of 66

The improper fraction may be written as mixed number, which consists of an

For Training Purposes Only Page 14 of 66

Division of Integers 1.1.1.3 Basic Arithmetic Operations with Fractions

−6 Conversion of Improper Fractions

This procedure does not affect the value of the quotient.

For Training Purposes Only Page 15 of 66

Reduction of Fractions 1.1.1.3.2 Addition of Fractions

Addition of Fractions with Different Denominators

For Training Purposes Only Page 16 of 66

Example: 1.1.1.3.3 Subtraction of Fractions

For Training Purposes Only Page 17 of 66

Subtractions of Fractions with Different Denominators 1.1.1.3.4 Multiplication of Fractions

For Training Purposes Only Page 18 of 66

• multiplying a mixed number by a fraction 1.1.1.3.5 Division of Fractions

2 4 14 4 14 ∙ 4 56 11 Fundamentals of Dividing Fractions

Division of Different Types of Numbers

For Training Purposes Only Page 19 of 66

• dividing a fraction by a fraction 1.1.1.3.6 Decimal Fractions

6 1 6 2 12 5 Fractions represented by a numerator above and a denominator below a

• dividing a mixed number by an integer 0 0 0

• dividing a mixed number by a mixed number. 20 18

For Training Purposes Only Page 20 of 66

When continuing the division of dividends which can no longer be divided

Sometimes a division can infinitely be continued not resulting in a period.

For Training Purposes Only Page 21 of 66

1.1.2 Mathematical Operations with Powers

The exponent is 5 and the base is –2:

The exponent is 3 and the base is ¼ :

Figure 2: Basic Form of a Power Equation

For Training Purposes Only Page 22 of 66

𝑏𝑛 = power term Example:

𝑐 = value or result 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 → 𝑏 = 3

𝑛 = exponent or power index.

Figure 3: Use of bn = c with Natural Number Exponents

For Training Purposes Only Page 23 of 66

Example: Powers of Sums and Differences

If the base of a power is zero, its result is zero ⇒ 0𝑛 = 0(𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≠ 0)