Modulo 16

Module
16
16.1: Fundamentals
16.2: Engine Performance
16.3: Engine Construction
16.4: Engine Fuel Systems Piston Engine
16.5: Starting and Ignition systems
16.6: Induction, Exhaust and Cooling Systems Licence Category B1
16.7: Supercharging/Turbocharging Issue number 2
16.8: Lubricants and Fuels
16.9: Lubrication Systems
16.10: Engine Indication Systems
16.11: Powerplant Installation
16.12: Engine Monitoring and Ground Operation
16.13: Engine Storage and Preservation
Licence Category B1 and B3
16.1 Fundamentals
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be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by • The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical
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Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the drawings and schematics describing the subject.
allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable • The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical
subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the manner using detailed procedures.
category B2 basic knowledge levels.
LEVEL 3
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows: • A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the
subject.
LEVEL 1 • A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of
• A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject. knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner.
Objectives: Objectives:
• The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the • The applicant should know the theory of the subject and
subject. interrelationships with other subjects.
• The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the • The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the
whole subject, using common words and examples. subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples.
• The applicant should be able to use typical terms. • The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical
formulae related to the subject.
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• A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject.
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• An ability to apply that knowledge. manner using the manufacturers’ instructions.
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Total Training Support Ltd 1-2

© Copyright 2020 Module 16.1 Fundamentals Issue 2 – July 2020
Certification statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA
Regulation (EU) No. 1321/2014 Annex III (Part-66) Appendix I,
and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:
Knowledge
Part-66 Levels
Objective
Ref.
A B1 B3
Mechanical, thermal and 16.1 1 2 2
volumetric efficiencies;
Operating principles – 2-stroke,
4-stroke, Otto and Diesel;
Piston displacement and
compression ratio;
Engine configuration and firing
order.

Table of Contents
Introduction ___________________________________ 6 Engine configurations __________________________ 80
Type of engines ______________________________ 6 General ____________________________________ 80
History of aero-gasoline engines __________________ 6 Inline engines ________________________________ 80
Examples of modern aero-gasoline engines ________ 14
Opposed or O-type engines _____________________ 80
History of Diesel aero engines __________________ 16 V-type engines _______________________________ 82
Examples of modern aero-Diesel engines _________ 20 X-type engines _______________________________ 82
Piston engine world records ____________________ 22 H-type engines _______________________________ 82
Development of power _________________________ 24 Radial engines _______________________________ 86
Rotary engines _______________________________ 90
Operating principles ___________________________ 28
Wankle engines ______________________________ 92
The 4-stroke cycle engine ______________________ 28
Cylinder numbering ___________________________ 94
The Otto cycle _______________________________ 34
The Diesel cycle _____________________________ 38 Firing order __________________________________ 96
Valve timing ________________________________ 42 General ____________________________________ 96
Valve operation ______________________________ 46 Single-row radial engines_______________________ 96
Pre-Ignition _________________________________ 46 Double-row radial engines ______________________ 96
The 2-stroke cycle engine ______________________ 48 Inline and V-engines __________________________ 98
Diesel engines ______________________________ 52 Horizontally-opposed engines __________________ 100
Gasoline and Diesel engines – three differences ____ 64 Left-hand rotation ____________________________ 102
Piston displacement ___________________________ 66 Valve configurations __________________________ 104
Compression ratio ____________________________ 68 Camshaft configurations ______________________ 110
Engine efficiencies ____________________________ 70 Gasoline and Diesel engines – a comparison ______ 112
Mechanical efficiency _________________________ 70
Thermal efficiency ____________________________ 70 Glossary of piston engine terms ________________ 118
Volumetric efficiency __________________________ 76
Efficiencies of Diesel engines ___________________ 78

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Introduction
Type of engines History of aero-gasoline engines
Several methods can classify aircraft engines. They can be Pistons in cylinders first saw use in steam engines. Scotland’s
classed by operating cycles, cylinder arrangement, or the James Watt crafted the first good ones during the 1770s. A
method of thrust production. century later, the German inventors Nicolaus Otto and Gottlieb
Daimler introduced gasoline as the fuel, burned directly within
All are heat engines that convert fuel into heat energy that is the cylinders. Such motors powered the earliest automobiles.
converted to mechanical energy to produce thrust. Most of the They were lighter and more mobile than steam engines, more
current aircraft engines are of the internal combustion type reliable, and easier to start.
because the combustion process takes place inside the engine.
Aircraft engines come in many different types, reciprocating- Some single-piston gasoline engines entered service, but for
piston, rotary, two- or four-cycle, spark-ignition, Diesel, and air- use with aeroplanes, most such engines had several pistons,
or water-cooled. Reciprocating engines also have subdivisions each shuttling back and forth within its cylinder. Each piston
based on the type of cylinder arrangement. also had a connecting rod, which pushed on a crank that was
part of a crankshaft. This crankshaft drove the propeller.
Manufacturers have developed some designs that are used
more commonly than others and are, therefore, recognised as Engines built for aeroplanes had to produce plenty of power
‘conventional’. Reciprocating engines may be classified while remaining light in weight. The first American aeroplane
according to the cylinder arrangement (inline, V-type, radial, builders – Wilbur and Orville Wright, Glenn Curtiss – used
and opposed) or according to the method of cooling (liquid- motors that resembled those of cars. They were heavy and
cooled or air-cooled). complex because they used water-filled plumbing to stay cool.
A French engine of 1908, the Gnome, introduced air cooling as

a way to eliminate the plumbing and lighten the weight. It was
known as a rotary engine. The Wright and Curtiss motors had
been mounted firmly in supports, with the shaft and propeller
spinning. Rotary engines reversed that, with the shaft being
held tightly – and the engine spinning! The propeller was
mounted to the rotating engine, which stayed cool by having its
cylinders whirl in the open air.

Numerous types of Gnome engines were designed and built,
one of the most famous being the 165-hp 9-N Monosoupape
(one valve). It was used during the first world war, primarily
in the Nieuport 28. The engine had one valve per cylinder.
Having no intake valves, its fuel mixture entered the
cylinders through circular holes or ports cut in the cylinder
walls. The propeller was bolted firmly to the engine and it,
along with the cylinders, turned as a single unit around a
stationary crankshaft rigidly mounted to the fuselage of the
aeroplane. The rotary engine used castor oil for lubrication.

During the first world war, rotaries attained tremendous Thus, the air-cooled radial engine emerged. This type of air-
popularity. They were less complicated and easier to make cooled engine arranged its cylinders to extend radially outward
than the water-cooled type. They powered such outstanding from its hub, like spokes of a wheel. The US Navy became an
fighter aeroplanes as German’s Fokker DR-1 and Britain’s early supporter of radials, which offered reliability along with
Sopwith Camel. They used castor oil for lubrication because it lightweight. This was an essential feature if aeroplanes were to
did not dissolve in gasoline. However, they tended to spray this take off successfully from an aircraft carrier’s flight deck.
oil all over, making a smelly mess. Worse, they were limited in
power. The best of them reached 190 to 210 kW (260 to With financial support from the Navy, two American firms,
280 hp). Wright Aeronautical and Pratt & Whitney began building air-
cooled radials. The Wright Whirlwind, in 1924, delivered
Thus, in 1917 a group of American engine builders returned to 164 kW (220 hp). A year later, the Pratt & Whitney Wasp was
water cooling as they sought a 300-kW (400-hp) engine. The tested at 306 kW (410 hp).
engine that resulted, the Liberty, was the most powerful aircraft
engine of its day, with the US car industry building more than Aircraft designers wanted to build aeroplanes that could fly at
20,000 of them. Water-cooled engines built in Europe also high altitudes. High-flying aeroplanes could swoop down on
outperformed the air-cooled rotaries and lasted longer. With the their enemies and also were harder to shoot down. Bombers
war continuing until late in 1918, the rotaries lost favour. and passenger aircraft flying at high altitudes could fly faster
because air is thin at high altitudes and there is less drag in the
In this fashion, designers returned to water-cooled motors that thinner air. These aeroplanes also could fly farther on a tank of
again were fixed in position. They stayed cool by having water fuel.
or antifreeze flow in channels through the engine to carry away
the heat. A radiator cooled the heated water. In addition to But because the air was thinner at high altitude, aircraft engines
offering plenty of power, such motors could be enclosed produced much less power. They needed air to operate, and
entirely within a streamlined housing, to reduce drag and thus they could not produce power unless they had sufficient air.
produce higher speeds in flight. Rolls Royce, Britain’s leading Designers responded by fitting the engine with a supercharger.
engine builder, built only water-cooled motors. This was a pump that took in air and compressed it. The extra
air, fed into an engine, enabled it to continue to put out full
Air-cooled rotaries were mostly out of the picture after 1920. power even at high altitude.
Even so, air-cooled engines offered tempting advantages.
They dispensed with radiators that leaked, hoses that burst,
cooling jackets that corroded, and water pumps that failed.

Sopwith camel A Caudron seaplane being craned onto
La Foudre in 1914

Early superchargers underwent tests before the end of the first Leaded gasoline improved an aircraft engine’s performance by
world war, but they were heavy and offered little advantage. enabling it to use a supercharger more effectively while using
The development of superchargers proved to be technically less fuel. The results were spectacular. The best engine of the
demanding, but by 1930, the best British and American engines first world war, the Liberty, developed 300 kW (400 hp). During
installed such units routinely. In the United States, the Army- the second world war, The Rolls-Royce Merlin engine was
funded work on superchargers at another engine-builder, about the same size – and put out 1,640 kW (2,200 hp).
General Electric. After 1935, engines fitted with GE’s Samuel Heron, a long-time leader in the development of aircraft
superchargers gave full power at heights above 9,000 m engines and fuels, writes that “it is probably true that about half
(30,000 ft). the gain in power was due to fuel”.
Fuels for aviation also demanded attention. When engine These advances in supercharging and knock-resistant fuels
designers tried to build motors with greater power, they ran into laid the groundwork for the engines of the second world war. In
the problem of ‘knock’. This had to do with the way fuel burned 1939, the German test pilot Fritz Wendel flew a piston-powered
within them. An aeroplane engine had a carburettor that took in fighter to a speed record of 755 KM/H (469 mph). US bombers
fuel and air, producing a highly flammable mixture of gasoline used superchargers to carry heavy bomb loads at 10,000 m
vapour with air, which went into the cylinders. There, this mix (34,000 ft). They also achieved a long-range, the B-29 bomber
was supposed to burn very rapidly, but in a controlled manner. had the range of 9,000 km (5,600 miles). Fighters routinely
Unfortunately, the mixture tended to explode, which damaged topped 640 KM/H (400 mph). Airliners, led by the Lockheed
engines. The motor then was said to knock. Constellation, showed that they could fly non-stop from coast
to coast of the USA.
Poor-grade fuels avoided knock but produced little power. Soon
after the first world war, an American chemist, Thomas Midgely, By 1945, the jet engine was drawing both attention and
determined that small quantities of a suitable chemical added excitement. Jet fighters came quickly to the forefront. However,
to high-grade gasoline might help it burn without knock. He tried while early jet engines gave dramatic increases in speed, they
several additives and found that the best was tetraethyl lead. showed poor fuel economy. It took time before engine builders
The US Army began experiments with leaded aviation fuel as learned to build jets that could sip fuel rather than gulp it. Until
early as 1922; the Navy adopted it for its carrier-based aircraft that happened, the piston engine retained its advantage for use
in 1926. Leaded gasoline became standard as a high-test fuel, in bombers and airliners, which needed to be able to fly a great
used widely in cars as well as in aircraft. distance without refuelling.

Messerschmitt Bf109 Supermarine Spitfire

Rolls Royce Merlin engine – the powerplant of the
Supermarine Spitfire and Avro Lancaster

Modern-day horizontally opposed gasoline aero-engine

Examples of modern aero-gasoline engines
Rotax two-stroke engines
Rotax, build engines for a number of specialty markets, Continental IOF-240 engine
including motorcycles, watercraft, and snowmobiles. The
When introduced in 2002, the engine was rare in that it had
single-cylinder two-stroke model 277, an early Rotax aircraft
neither magnetos nor mixture control. Instead, the ignition
engine, put out 26 hp, weighed just 30 kg (65 lbs) with
and fuel flow are controlled electronically. In addition to
reduction drive and exhaust, and cost just over $1,000.
providing the optimal fuel/air mixture – the IOF-240 burns
From 1975 through today, Rotax has produced more than
about 19 l (5 gal) per hour – the electronic system allows for
170,000 aircraft engines, most of them two-stroke
more accurate engine analysis and troubleshooting. The
lightweight models. From the 277, Rotax progressed to
IOF-240 was first introduced in the Liberty XL2, a two-seat
building ever more capable and powerful models, including
carbon fibre aeroplane developed from the Europa kit
the popular 447 and 503 models up to the 582, one of the
aeroplane, which became the first piston-engine aeroplane
most technologically advanced two-stroke engines, with
certified with FADEC.
rotary valves, oil injection, dual carbs and electronic ignition.
The 582, which is still in production today, powers many
dozens of light-aircraft models.

Lycoming O-540 engine
Continental TSIO-550 engine
As had been done by other manufacturers – sometimes to
good effect – Lycoming expanded the horsepower range of The six-cylinder, fuel-injected TSIO-550 is the turbocharged
its four-cylinder aircraft engines by adding another pair of version of the IO-550, which was first introduced by
opposed cylinders, creating a six-cylinder engine with 50% Continental in 1983. Engines in the IO-550 series produce
more potential power. The 540 series engines got their start anywhere from 110 to 270 kW (280 to 360 hp). In the 1990s,
in 1957 as new larger personal and charter aeroplanes at Raytheon’s request, Continental tweaked the IO-550 to
pressed the need for more power. Piper made great use of optimise the performance of the 225 kW (300 hp) engine
the engine, most notably in its Navajo line-up, PA-32s, that powers the Beechcraft Baron 58. The result was a
Aztecs, Comanches and Mirages, but numerous other smooth, reliable engine that was hard to beat in its class.
manufacturers opted for 540-power as well, including Aero With even better performance at higher altitude thanks to its
Commander, Pitts and Robinson Helicopter’s R44. As with dual turbochargers, the TSIO-550 powers the three top-
the four-cylinder version, the 540 is available in a variety of performing modern-day single-engine certified piston
models, with turbocharging a popular option. aeroplanes: the Cessna TTx, Cirrus SR22 and Mooney
Acclaim.

History of Diesel aero engines
The aircraft Diesel engine or aero Diesel has not been widely The first successful flight of a Diesel-powered aircraft was
used. Diesel engines were used in airships and were tried in made on September 18, 1928, in a Stinson model SM-IDX
aircraft in the late 1920s and 1930s but were never widely Detroiter, registration number X7654. Around 1936, the heavier
adopted. Their main advantages are their excellent specific fuel but less thirsty Diesel engines were only preferred over
consumption and the somewhat higher density of their fuel. gasoline engines when flight time was over 6–7 hours.
Still, these have been outweighed by a combination of inherent
disadvantages compared to gasoline-fuelled or turboprop Entering service in the early 1930s, the two-stroke Junkers
engines. Jumo 205 opposed-piston engine was much more widely used
than previous aero Diesels. It was moderately successful in its
The ever-rising cost of AVGAS and doubts about its future use in the Blohm & Voss Ha 139 and even more so in airship
availability have spurred a resurgence in aircraft Diesel engine use. In Britain Napier & Son license-built the larger Junkers
production in recent years. Jumo 204 as the Napier Culverin, but it did not see production
use in this form. A Daimler-Benz Diesel engine was also used
Several manufacturers built Diesel aero engines in the 1920s in Zeppelins, including the ill-fated LZ 129 Hindenburg. This
and 1930s; the best known were the Packard air-cooled radial, engine proved unsuitable in military applications, and
and the Junkers Jumo 205, which was moderately successful subsequent German aircraft engine development concentrated
but proved unsuitable for combat use during the second world on gasoline and jet engines.
war. The Blohm & Voss Bv 138 trimotor maritime patrol flying
boat, however, was powered with the more advanced Junkers
Jumo 207 powerplant. It was more successful, with its trio of
Diesel Jumo 207s conferring upwards of a maximum 2,100 km
(1,300 miles) combat radius. Nearly 300 examples of the Bv
138 were built during the second world war.
The first successful Diesel engine explicitly developed for

aircraft was the Packard radial Diesel of 1928–1929, which was
laid out in the familiar air-cooled radial format similar to Wright
and Pratt & Whitney designs and was contemporary with the
Beardmore Tornado used in the R101 airship. The use of a
Diesel had been specified for its low-fire-risk fuel.

The Centurion line of Diesel engines found early success on the Diamond DA-42 twin

The Soviet second world war era four-engine strategic bomber Several factors have emerged to change this equation. Several
Petlyakov Pe-8 was built with Charomskiy ACh-30 Diesel new manufacturers of general aviation aircraft developing new
engines, but later in the production run Diesels were replaced designs have emerged. In Europe, in particular, AVGAS has
with radial gasoline engines because of efficiency concerns. become very expensive. In several (particularly remote)
The Yermolaev Yer-2 long-range medium bomber was also locations, AVGAS is harder to obtain than Diesel fuel. Finally,
built with Charomskiy Diesel engines. automotive Diesel technologies have significantly improved in
recent years, offering higher power-to-weight ratios more
Other manufacturers also experimented with Diesel engines in suitable for aircraft application.
this period, such as the French Bloch (later Dassault Aviation),
whose MB203 bomber prototype used Clerget Diesels of radial Certified Diesel-powered light aeroplanes are currently
design. The Royal Aircraft Establishment developed an available, and several companies are developing new engine
experimental compression ignition (Diesel) version of the Rolls- and aircraft designs for the purpose – many of these run on
Royce Condor in 1932, flying it in a Hawker Horsley for test readily available jet fuel (kerosene), or conventional automotive
purposes. Diesel.
Interest in Diesel engines in the post-war period was sporadic.

The lower power-to-weight ratio of Diesels, particularly
compared to turboprop engines, weighed against the Diesel
engine. With fuel available cheaply and most research interest
in turboprops and jets for high-speed airliners, Diesel-powered
aircraft virtually disappeared. The near-death of the general
aviation market in the 1990s saw a massive decline in the
development of any new aircraft engine types.
Napier & Son in Britain had developed the Napier Culverin, a

derivative of the Junkers Jumo 205, before the second world
war, and took up aero Diesel engines again in the 1950s. The
British Air Ministry supported the development of the 2,200 kW
(3,000 hp) Napier Nomad, a combination of piston and
turboprop engines, which was exceptionally efficient in terms of
brake specific fuel consumption but judged too bulky and
complicated and cancelled in 1955.

Thielert TAE 125-02-99 4-cylinder Diesel engine Hybrid Air Vehicles HAV 304 Airlander 10, aerostatic aerodynamic
lift 4 × Thielert Centurion 325 hp V8 diesel engine
Cessna 172, with Centurion 120 engine

Diamond DA42 twinstar powered by Austro-Diesel engines
Examples of modern aero-Diesel engines

Piston engine world records
First Largest
The Wright brothers made the first controlled, sustained flight The Lycoming XR-7755 was the largest piston-driven aircraft
of a powered, heavier than air aircraft with the Wright Flyer on engine ever produced, with 36 cylinders totalling about 127 L
December 17, 1903, four miles south of Kitty Hawk, North (7,750 in³) of displacement and a power output of 3,700 kW
Carolina USA. (5,000 hp) for 2,740 kg (6,050 lbs). It was initially intended to
be used in the ‘European bomber’ that eventually emerged as
Fastest the Convair B-36. Only two examples were built before the
On 2nd September 2017, Steve Hinton Jr. established a new project was terminated in 1946.
speed record for a propeller-driven piston-engine aircraft by
flying the heavily-modified second world war North American Most common
P-51 Mustang, Voodoo, at an average speed of 855.41 km/h Lycoming Engines is a major American manufacturer of aircraft
(531.53 mph). A Hawker Sea Fury holds the unofficial record engines. With a factory in Williamsport, Pennsylvania,
for the fastest piston-engine aeroplane in level flight at Lycoming produces a line of horizontally opposed, air-cooled,
880 km/h (547 mph). four-, six- and eight-cylinder engines including the only FAA-
certified aerobatic and helicopter piston engines on the market.
Highest The company has built more than 325,000 piston aircraft
The Grob Strato 2C set the world altitude record for manned engines and powers more than half the world’s general aviation
piston-engine aircraft of 18,552 m (60,897') on 4 August 1995. fleet, both rotary- and fixed-wing. Lycoming is an operating
It was powered by two Teledyne Continental TSIO-550 division of Avco Corporation, itself a subsidiary of Textron
turbocharged piston engine with Pratt & Whitney PW127 gas
generator to provide a constant supply of pressurised air to the
piston engine at high altitude. This had the advantage of
maintaining power at high altitudes. Each engine drove a 6 m
(19' 8") diameter five-bladed propeller.

Grob G-850 Strato 2
North American P51

Mustang Voodoo
Wilbur Wright adjusts the engine

of his aircraft, France 1908
Lycoming engine
Lycoming XR7755

Development of power
The power of an internal combustion engine comes from When the piston slides downward because of the pressure of
burning a mixture of fuel and air in a small, enclosed space. the expanding gas in the cylinder, the upper end of the
When this mixture bums, it expands considerably, and the push connecting rod moves downward in a straight line. The lower
or pressure created is used to move the piston, thereby rotating end of the connecting rod moves down and in a circular motion
the crankshaft. This motion is eventually sent to the wheels that at the same time. This moves the throw and, in turn, the throw
move the vehicle. Since similar action occurs in each cylinder rotates the crankshaft; this rotation is the desired result. The
of an engine, we will use one cylinder to describe the steps in crankshaft and connecting rod combination is a mechanism to
the development of power. change straight-line or reciprocating motion, to circular or rotary
motion.
The one-cylinder engine consists of four basic parts, as shown
below. Each movement of the piston from top to bottom or from bottom
to top is called a stroke. The piston makes two-strokes (an
First, we must have a cylinder that is closed at one end; this upstroke and a downstroke), as the crankshaft makes one
cylinder is similar to a tall metal can that is stationary within the complete revolution.
engine block. Inside this cylinder is the piston – a movable plug.
It fits snugly into the cylinder but can still slide up and down
easily. This piston movement is caused by fuel burning in the
cylinder. The up-and-down movement of the piston is called
reciprocating motion. This motion must be changed into rotary
motion, so the wheels or tracks of a vehicle can rotate. This
change is accomplished by a throw on the crankshaft and the
connecting rod which connects the piston and crankshaft throw.
The throw is an offset section of the crankshaft that scribes a

circle, as the shaft rotates. The top end of the connecting rod is
connected to the piston and must, therefore, go up and down.
The lower end of the connecting rod is attached to the

crankshaft. The lower end of the connecting rod also moves up
and down, but because it is attached to the crankshaft, it must
also move in a circle.

Conversion of reciprocating motion into rotational motion

The piston is connected to the rotating crankshaft by a
connecting rod. In view (A), the piston is at the beginning or top
of the stroke. As the crankshaft rotates, the connecting rod pulls
the piston down. When the crankshaft has rotated one-half turn,
the piston is at the bottom of the stroke (green ghost).
As the crankshaft rotates in view (B), the connecting rod pulls

the piston down. The piston continues moving downward until
the motion of the crankshaft causes it to begin moving up. The
position of the piston at the instant its motion changes from
down to up is known as the bottom dead centre (BDC). The
position of the piston at the instant, its motion changes from up
to down is known as the top dead centre (TDC).
The term ‘dead’ indicates where one motion has stopped (the
piston has reached the end of the stroke) and its opposite
turning motion is ready to start. These positions are called ‘rock’
positions.

Top dead centre (TDC) and bottom dead centre (BDC) Basic piston engine

Operating principles
The 4-stroke cycle engine
In this type of engine, four-strokes are required to complete the Two complete revolutions of the crankshaft (720°) are required
required series of events or the operating cycle of each for the four-strokes. Thus, each cylinder in an engine of this
cylinder. type fires once in every two revolutions of the crankshaft. In the
following discussion of the four-stroke cycle engine operation,
1 – Induction (first down-stroke) note that the timing of the ignition and the valve events vary
The inlet valve is open, the piston moves down the cylinder considerably in different engines. Many factors influence the
(from TDC to BDC), fuel/air mixture is drawn into the cylinder timing of a specific engine, and the engine manufacturer’s
(the charge). recommendations in this respect must be followed in
maintenance and overhaul. The timing of the valve and ignition
2 – Compression (first upstroke) events is always specified in its degrees of crankshaft travel. It
Both of the valves are closed, the piston moves back up the should be remembered that a certain amount of crankshaft
cylinder (from BDC to TDC), fuel/air mixture is compressed into travel is required to open a valve fully; therefore, the specified
the combustion chamber. timing represents the start of opening rather than the fully open
3 – Power (second down-stroke) position of the valve. An example of the four-stroke cycle can
Both valves remain closed, and a spark occurs igniting the be seen below.
compressed fuel/air mixture. The rapid expansion of the
burning mixture forces the piston back down the cylinder (from
TDC to BDC).
4 – Exhaust (second upstroke)

The exhaust valve is open, the piston moves back up the
cylinder (from BDC to TDC). The burnt gases having now
performed their usual work on the power stroke, are expelled
into the atmosphere.

The gasoline internal
combustion engine works
on the Otto cycle
The four-strokes of the Otto cycle

Induction (intake) stroke
During the intake stroke, the piston is pulled downward in the The intake valve is timed to close about 50° to 75° past BDC
cylinder by the rotation of the crankshaft. This reduces the on the compression stroke, depending upon the specific
pressure in the cylinder and causes air under atmospheric engine, to allow the momentum of the incoming gases to
pressure to flow through the carburettor, which meters the charge the cylinder more completely. Because of the
correct amount of fuel. The fuel/air mixture passes through the comparatively large volume of the cylinder above the piston
intake pipes and intake valves into the cylinders. The quantity when the piston is near BDC, the slight upward travel of the
or weight of the fuel/air charge depends upon the degree of piston during this time does not have a significant effect on the
throttle opening. incoming flow of gases. This late timing can be carried too far
because the gases may be forced back through the intake
The intake valve is opened considerably before the piston valve and defeat the purpose of the late closing.
reaches TDC on the exhaust stroke, to induce a higher quantity
of the fuel/air charge into the cylinder and thus increase the Compression stroke
horsepower. The distance the valve may be opened before After the intake valve is closed, the continued upward travel of
TDC, however, is limited by several factors, such as the the piston compresses the fuel/air mixture to obtain the desired
possibility that hot gases remaining in the cylinder from the burning and expansion characteristics. The charge is fired
previous cycle may flashback into the intake pipe and the using an electric spark as the piston approaches TDC. The time
induction system. of ignition varies from 20° to 35° before TDC, depending upon
the requirements of the specific engine to ensure complete
In all high-power aircraft engines, both the intake and the combustion of the charge by the time the piston is slightly past
exhaust valves are off the valve seats at TDC at the start of the the TDC position.
intake stroke. As mentioned above, the intake valve opens
before TDC on the exhaust stroke (valve lead), and the closing Many factors affect ignition timing, and the engine
of the exhaust valve is delayed considerably after the piston manufacturer has expended considerable time in research and
has passed TDC and has started the intake stroke (valve lag). testing to determine the best setting. All engines incorporate
This timing is called valve overlap and is designed to aid in devices for adjusting the ignition timing, and the ignition system
cooling the cylinder internally by circulating the cool incoming must be timed according to the engine manufacturer’s
fuel/air mixture, to increase the amount of the fuel/ air mixture recommendations.
induced into the cylinder, and to aid in scavenging the by-
products of combustion from the cylinder.

Intake and compression stroke

Power (combustion) stroke Exhaust stroke
As the piston moves through the TDC position at the end of the As the piston travels through BDC at the completion of the
compression stroke and starts down on the power stroke, it is power stroke and starts upwards on the exhaust stroke, it
pushed downward by the rapid expansion of the burning gases begins to push the burnt exhaust gasses of out of the exhaust
within the cylinder head with a force that can be greater than port. The speed of the exhaust gasses leaving the cylinder
15 tons (30,000 psi) at the maximum power output of the creates low pressure in the cylinder. This low pressure speeds
engine. The temperature of these burning gases may be the flow of the fresh fuel/air charge into the cylinder as the
between 1,650°C and 2,750°C (3,000°F and 4,000°F). As the intake valve begins to open. The intake valve opening is timed
piston is forced down during the power stroke by the pressure to occur at 8° to 55° before TDC on the exhaust stroke on
the burning gases exert upon it, the downward movement of various engines.
the connecting rod is changed to rotary movement by the
crankshaft. Then, the rotary movement is transmitted to the Aircraft Systems - 03 – Engine
propeller shaft to drive the propeller. As the burning gases are https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gIdXLMVP6VU
expanded, the temperature drops to within safe limits before
the exhaust gases flow out through the exhaust port.
The timing of the exhaust valve opening is determined by,

among other considerations, the desirability of using as much
of the expansive force as possible and of scavenging the
cylinder as completely and rapidly as possible. The valve is
opened considerably before BDC on the power stroke (on
some engines at 50° and 75° before BDC) while there is still
some pressure in the cylinder. This timing is used so that the
pressure can force the gases out of the exhaust port as soon
as possible. This process frees the cylinder of waste heat after
the desired expansion has been obtained and avoids
overheating the cylinder and piston. Thorough scavenging is
very important because any exhaust products remaining in the
cylinder dilute the incoming charge at the start of the next cycle.

Combustion and exhaust stroke

The Otto cycle
The German engineer, Nicolaus Otto, was the first to develop Using the engine stage numbering system, we begin at the
a functioning four-stroke engine, which is why the four-stroke lower left with stage 1 being the beginning of the intake stroke
principle is sometimes known as the Otto cycle. Four-stroke of the engine. The pressure is near atmospheric pressure, and
engines using spark plugs are known as Otto engines. The Otto the gas volume is at a minimum.
cycle consists of:
Between stage 1 and stage 2, the piston is pulled out of the
• adiabatic compression; cylinder with the intake valve open. The pressure remains
• heat addition at constant volume; constant, and the gas volume increases as the fuel/air mixture
• adiabatic expansion; and is drawn into the cylinder through the intake valve.
• rejection of heat at constant volume.
Stage 2 begins the compression stroke of the engine with the
To understand how a piston engine works, we must study the closing of the intake valve. Between stage 2 and stage 3, the
basic thermodynamics of gases. Gases have various piston moves back into the cylinder, the gas volume decreases,
properties that we can observe with our senses, including the and the pressure increases because work is done on the gas
gas pressure P, temperature T, mass, and volume V that by the piston. Stage 3 is the beginning of the combustion of the
contains the gas. Scientific observation has determined that fuel/air mixture. The combustion occurs very quickly, and the
these variables are related to one another, and the values of volume remains constant. Heat is released during combustion,
these properties determine the state of the gas. A which increases both the temperature and the pressure,
thermodynamic process, such as heating or compressing the according to the equation of state.
gas, changes the values of the state variables in a manner
which is described by the laws of thermodynamics. The work Stage 4 begins the power stroke of the engine. Between stages
done by a gas and the heat transferred to it depends on the 4 and 5, the piston is driven towards the crankshaft. The
beginning and end states and on the process used to change volume in the cylinder is increased, and the pressure falls as
the state. It is possible to perform a series of processes, in the gas does work on the piston. At stage 5, the exhaust valve
which the state is changed during each process, but the gas is opened, and the residual heat in the gas is exchanged with
eventually returns to its original state. Such a series of the surroundings. The volume remains constant, and the
processes is called a cycle and forms the basis for pressure adjusts back to atmospheric conditions.
understanding engine operation.
Here we discuss the Otto Thermodynamic Cycle which is

used in all internal combustion engines. Below is a P-V diagram
of the Otto cycle.

The gasoline internal
combustion engine works
on the Otto cycle
The Otto cycle P-V diagram

Stage 6 begins the exhaust stroke of the engine during which
the piston moves back into the cylinder, the volume decreases,
and the pressure remains constant. At the end of the exhaust
stroke, conditions have returned to stage 1, and the process
repeats itself.
During the cycle, work is done on the gas by the piston between
stages 2 and 3. The gas does work on the piston between
stages 4 and 5. The difference between the work done by the
gas and the work done on the gas is the area enclosed by the
cycle curve and is the work produced by the cycle. The work
times the rate of the cycle (cycles per second) is equal to the
power produced by the engine.
The area enclosed by the cycle on a P-V diagram is

proportional to the work produced by the cycle. Here we have
shown an ideal Otto cycle in which there is no heat entering (or
leaving) the gas during the compression and power strokes
(this is the definition of ‘adiabatic’), no friction losses, and
instantaneous burning occurring at constant volume.
In reality, the ideal cycle does not occur, and there are many
losses associated with each process. These losses are
generally accounted for by efficiency factors which multiply and
modify the ideal result. For a real cycle, the shape of the P-V
diagram is similar to the ideal, but the area (work) is always less
than the ideal value.

The Otto cycle P-V diagram

The Diesel cycle
In the Diesel cycle, heat is supplied at constant pressure, In the true Diesel engine, only air is initially introduced into the
whereas in the Otto cycle heat is supplied at constant volume. combustion chamber. The air is then compressed with a
Similar in construction to the Otto engine, the Diesel is also a compression ratio typically between 15:1 and 23:1 resulting in
closed cycle internal combustion engine. Still, instead of using 40-bar (4.0 MPa; 580 psi) pressure compared to 8 to 14 bar
a spark to ignite the fuel, ignition is achieved by rapid (0.80 to 1.40 MPa; 120 to 200 psi) in the gasoline engine.
compression of the fuel-air mixture to a higher pressure than in
the Otto engine. This high compression causes the temperature of the air to rise
to 550°C (1,022°F). At about the top of the compression stroke,
The higher compression ratio allows greater efficiencies to be fuel is injected directly into the compressed air in the
achieved by the Diesel. combustion chamber. For this reason, the Diesel engine is
often called a compression-ignition engine. This may be into a
The Diesel cycle uses the following processes: (typically toroidal) void in the top of the piston or a pre-chamber
depending upon the design of the engine.
A to B – Compression stroke – Adiabatic compression of air
in the cylinder. No fuel added yet. The fuel injector ensures that the fuel is broken down into small
droplets and that the fuel is distributed evenly. The heat of the
B to C – Ignition – Isobaric heat addition. Fuel introduced into compressed air vaporises fuel from the surface of the droplets.
the compressed air at the top of the compression stroke. Fuel The vapour is then ignited by the heat from the compressed air
mixture ignited while the pressure is essentially constant. in the combustion chamber. The droplets continue to vaporise
C to D – Expansion (power) stroke – Adiabatic expansion of from their surfaces and burn, getting smaller, until all the fuel in
the hot gases in the cylinder. the droplets has been burnt. Combustion occurs at a
substantially constant pressure during the first part of the power
D to A – Exhaust stroke – Ejection of the spent, hot gases. stroke. The start of vaporisation causes a delay before ignition
and the characteristic Diesel knocking sound as the vapour
Induction stroke. Intake of the next air charge into the cylinder. reaches ignition temperature and causes an abrupt increase in
The volume of exhaust gasses is the same as the air charge. pressure above the piston (not shown on the P-V indicator
diagram). When combustion is complete, the combustion
Diesel Engine, How it works gases expand as the piston descends further; the high pressure
https://youtu.be/DZt5xU44IfQ in the cylinder drives the piston downward, supplying power to
the crankshaft.

An aero Diesel engine works on the Diesel cycle
How Diesel Engines Work - Part - 1 (Four Stroke

Combustion Cycle)
https://youtu.be/fTAUq6G9apg
How Diesel Engines Work - Part - 2 (Stages of

Combustion)
https://youtu.be/HapIGjHkBHU
How Diesel Engines Work - Part - 3 (Valve Timing

Diagram)
https://youtu.be/DBDGOvsxpq8 The Diesel cycle PV diagram
How Diesel Engines Work! (Animation)

https://youtu.be/s2WGFELXPNg
Diesel Engine, How it works

https://youtu.be/DZt5xU44IfQ

The PV diagram is a simplified and idealised representation of Ideally, the adiabatic expansion should continue, extending the
the events involved in a Diesel engine cycle, arranged to line C–D to the right until the pressure falls to that of the
illustrate the similarity with a Carnot cycle. Starting at A, the surrounding air. Still, the loss of efficiency caused by this
piston is at bottom dead centre, and both valves are closed at unresisted expansion is justified by the practical difficulties
the start of the compression stroke; the cylinder contains air at involved in recovering it (the engine would have to be much
atmospheric pressure. larger).
Between A and B, the air is compressed adiabatically – that is After the opening of the exhaust valve, the exhaust stroke
without heat transfer to or from the environment – by the rising follows, but this (and the following induction stroke) are not
piston. (This is only approximately true since there is some heat shown on the diagram. If shown, they would be represented by
exchange with the cylinder walls.) a low-pressure loop at the bottom of the diagram. At A, the
exhaust and induction strokes are complete, and the cylinder is
During this compression, the volume is reduced, the pressure again filled with air.
and temperature both rise.
The piston-cylinder system absorbs energy between A and B.
At or slightly before B (TDC) fuel is injected and burns in the In essence, this is the work needed to compress the air in the
compressed hot air. Chemical energy is released, and this cylinder and is provided by mechanical kinetic energy stored in
constitutes an injection of thermal energy (heat) into the the flywheel of the engine.
compressed gas.
Work output is done by the piston-cylinder combination
Combustion and heating occur between B and C. In this between B and D. The difference between these two
interval, the pressure remains constant since the piston increments of work is the indicated work output per cycle. It is
descends, and the volume increases; the temperature rises as represented by the area enclosed by the PV loop.
a consequence of the energy of combustion. At C fuel injection
and combustion are complete, and the cylinder contains gas at The adiabatic expansion is in a higher-pressure range than the
a higher temperature than at B. compression because the gas in the cylinder is hotter during
expansion than during compression. It is for this reason that the
Between C and D this hot gas expands, again approximately loop has a finite area, and the net output of work during a cycle
adiabatically. Work is done on the system to which the engine is positive.
is connected. During this expansion phase, the volume of the
gas rises, and its temperature and pressure both fall.
At D, the exhaust valve opens, and the pressure falls abruptly

to atmospheric (approximately). This is unresisted expansion,
and no useful work is done by it.
In the Diesel engine, air is compressed adiabatically with a
PV diagram for the Ideal Diesel cycle. compression ratio typically between 15 and 20. This
compression raises the temperature to the ignition
The cycle follows the letters A to D in a clockwise direction. temperature of the fuel mixture which is formed by injecting
fuel once the air is compressed.
The horizontal axis is volume of the cylinder. In the Diesel
cycle the combustion occurs at almost constant pressure. The ideal air-standard cycle is modelled as a reversible
adiabatic compression followed by a constant pressure
On this diagram the work that is generated for each cycle
combustion process, then an adiabatic expansion as a power
corresponds to the area within the loop.
stroke and an isovolumetric exhaust. A new air charge is taken
in at the end of the exhaust, as indicated by the processes on
the diagram PV diagram.
Valve timing
The theoretical four-stroke cycle that has been described
indicates that the valves open or close when the piston is
precisely at TDC or BDC. In practice, the theoretical four-stroke
cycle is operationally inefficient mainly due to three factors:
• The inertia of the coming fuel/air mixture and the out-

going combustion gases;
• The burning rate of the fuel/air mixture, which, although
rapid, is not instantaneous; and
• The ineffective crank angle formed between the
connecting rod and the crankshaft around the TDC and
BDC positions, where for a larger rotary movement of
the crankshaft there is a relatively small linear
movement of the piston.
These deficiencies can be minimised by varying the valve

timing and the point of ignition.

Four-stroke cycle
The modified four-stroke cycle Inlet valve lead
In practice, the opening and closing of the inlet and exhaust For the induction stroke, the opening of the inlet valve is
valves vary about the TDC and BDC positions. The actual initiated before TDC to ensure that it is fully open when the
timing depends upon engine type. The following is a typical piston commences its downward stroke, so reducing the time
application. It is usual to represent practical valve operations between the piston moving down the cylinder and the charge
and the point of ignition on a valve and ignition timing diagram, flowing in.
which indicates the angular position of the crankshaft when
each valve commences to open and finishes closing. A typical Inlet valve lag
example of such a diagram is illustrated below. This inlet valve is kept open as long as possible to induce the
maximum cylinder charge. The incoming gas continues to enter
Study the diagram and take special note of the terms, lead, lag the cylinder for some time after the piston has passed BDC,
and overlap. due to its momentum. This delays the closing of the inlet valve
after BDC, until a point when the pressure in the cylinder is
Valve lead: This indicates that the inlet valve has opened approximately equal to the pressure in the induction manifold.
before the piston has reached TDC, also that the exhaust valve
opens before BDC. The first problem; that of the inertia of the mixture, has been
effectively dealt with.
Valve lag: This indicates that the inlet valve closes after the
piston has passed BDC and that the exhaust valve closes after Ignition timing
the piston has passed TDC. When ignited the fuel/air mixture burns at a rate which depends
on the ratio of fuel to air; rich mixtures burn faster than usual or
Valve overlap: This is the period when both the exhaust and weak mixtures. Although the mixture burns quickly, combustion
inlet valves are open together with the exhaust valve closing is not instantaneous. Therefore, the ignition is arranged to
and the inlet valve opening. occur before TDC at the end of the compression stroke, so that
maximum pressure is achieved shortly after TDC of the power
One factor that affects engine efficiency is the inertia of the stroke. The point at which ignition occurs must be timed to suit
incoming fuel/air mixture – it was slow to start moving when the the mixture and the engine RPM. The earlier ignition occurs
inlet valve opened. Some delay is inevitable as the mixture is before TDC; the more advanced the ignition said to be. When
stationary in the induction manifold while the valve is closed. occurring later, that is near to TDC; the ignition is said to be
When the valve opens, the charge has to accelerate to the retarded.
speed of the piston, which can be alleviated by opening the inlet
valve early. The valve and ignition diagram for a specific engine typically
shows ignition occurring at the fully advanced position.

• A – advanced – for weak mixture or high RPM.
• N – normal
• R – retarded – for rich mixture or low RPM.
Note: Ignition is usually timed to suit engine ‘cruise’ RPM. That

is the range where the engine spends most of its
operating lifetime.
Four-stroke valve timing diagram

Valve operation Pre-Ignition
The valves are spring-loaded closed and opened by the Pre-ignition is a fault condition, not a design feature. It is the
mechanism comprising cams, tappets, pushrods, and rocker term used when the charge is ignited before the intended point
arms geared to the crankshaft. by means other than the spark and is usually caused by a hot
spot in an overheated engine.
The gear wheel on the camshaft has twice the number of teeth
as the gear wheel on the crankshaft, so you can appreciate that This leads to a loss of power and a heavy load on the piston,
the mechanism operates at half crankshaft speed so that each connecting rod and crankshaft components, which could
valve opens and closes once for every two revolutions of the contribute to component damage.
crankshaft.
Remembering that in the four-stroke cycle there is only one

induction stroke in every two crankshaft revolutions, it is no
doubt apparent to you that the inlet valve needs opening only
once in two revolutions of the crankshaft. This also applies to
the exhaust valve.
Valve clearance
Valve clearance is measured in thousandths of an inch or
millimetre between the rocker arm and the valve stem. The
reason for this clearance is that when, for example, the engine
is on the compression stroke, the inlet and exhaust valves must
remain closed. Without the specified clearance, the mechanism
would be rigid, and the slightest maladjustment or expansion of
the valve stem would cause the valve to remain slightly open.
The mixture would leak from the cylinder with obvious results.
It is customary to set the valve clearance of the cylinder being

timed to the hot or running clearance as specified in approved
maintenance manuals.

Valve operating mechanism
Valve clearance

The 2-stroke cycle engine
In the two-stroke-cycle engine, the same four events (intake, It might appear then that the two-stroke-cycle engine can
compression, power, and exhaust) take place in only two- produce twice as much power as the four-stroke-cycle engine
strokes of the piston and one complete revolution of the of the same size, operating at the same speed. However, this
crankshaft. The two-piston strokes are the compression stroke power increase is limited to approximately 70 to 80% because
(upward stroke of the piston) and power stroke (the downward some of the power is used to drive a blower that forces the air
stroke of the piston). charge into the cylinder under pressure.
Sequence of events Also, the burned gases are not completely cleared from the
cylinder, reducing combustion efficiency. Additionally, because
(1) – Scavenging (intake) – A fresh change of air is forced into of the much shorter period, the intake port is open (compared
the cylinder intake ports by the blower. Exhaust gases to the period the intake valve in a four-stroke is open), a
escape through the open exhaust valves. relatively smaller amount of air is admitted. Hence, with less air,
less power per stroke is produced in a two-stroke-cycle engine.
(2) – Compression – As the piston moves upward, the intake
ports are covered, and the exhaust valves close. The air The following shows the difference between a 2- and 4-stroke
is compressed in the cylinder; the piston continues to cycle.
move towards TDC.
Light-sport two-stroke aircraft engines
(3) – Injection/ignition and (4) – Combustion – When the Light-sport/ultralight aircraft engines can be classified several
piston nears the top of its stroke, fuel is injected into the methods, such as by operating cycles, cylinder arrangement,
cylinder. The fuel ignites due to the heat of compression. and air or water-cooled. An inline engine generally has two
cylinders, is two-cycle, and is available in several horsepower
(5) – Expansion (power) – The rapid expansion of burning ranges. These engines may be either be liquid-cooled, air-
gases forces the piston down. cooled, or a combination of both. They have only one
(6) – Exhaust – As the piston nears BDC, the exhaust valves crankshaft that drives the reduction gearbox or propeller
open, starting the release of exhaust directly. Most of the other cylinder configurations used are
horizontally opposed, ranging from two to six cylinders from
As shown earlier, a power stroke is produced every crankshaft several manufacturers. These engines are either gear
revolution within the two-stroke-cycle engine, whereas the four- reduction or direct drive. There are a growing number of
stroke-cycle engine requires two revolutions for one power manufacturers of small, two-stroke engines on the market such
stroke. as Rotax and Limbach.

Two-stroke Four-stroke
1. One cycle equals 1. One cycle
The two-stroke cycle one crankshaft equals two
revolution and crankshaft
four piston revolutions and
strokes two piston
strokes.
2. Requires a 2. Blower is
blower optional.
3. Requires intake 3. Requires only
intake exhaust
ports or and
exhaust valves,
intake ports and
exhaust valves.
Four-cylinder,
horizontally-opposed,
air-cooled, two-cycle
engine

Characteristics of two-stroke engines
1) For a given speed and a given output, a two-stroke engine The Rotax inline cylinder arrangement has a small frontal area
require one half piston displacement, i.e. the piston is half and provides improved streamlining. The two-cylinder, inline
as heavy, half as bulky and half as expensive as a four- two-stroke engine, which is piston ported with air-cooled
stroke engine piston. cylinder heads and cylinders, is available in a fan or free air-
2) They are simpler in design and less complicated in valve cooled version. Being a two-stroke cycle engine, the oil and fuel
design and operation than four-stroke engines. must be mixed in the fuel tank oil some models. Other models
3) Since every revolution produces one power stroke, use a lubrication system, such as the 503 oil-injection
therefore torque produced at the crankshaft is uniform, lubrication system. This system does not mix the fuel and oil as
necessitating a lighter flywheel the oil is stored in a separate tank.
4) Due to the absence of moving parts like cam and
followers, rocker arm and other valve actuating As the engine needs lubrication, the oil is injected directly from
mechanisms, it has higher mechanical efficiency in this tank. The typical ignition system is a breakerless ignition
comparison to a 4-stroke. system with a dual ignition system used on the 503, and a
5) They have poor scavenging due to absence of separate single ignition system used on the 447-engine series.
exhaust stroke. This results in less oxygen and less
burning of fuel in the cylinder and less output due to Both systems are of a magneto capacitor-discharge design.
diluting of the fresh incoming gases by the left-over The engine is equipped with a carburetion system with one or
exhaust. Hence, the thermal efficiency is quite low. These two piston-type carburettors. One pneumatic-driven fuel pump
engines are usually air-cooled. delivers the fuel to the carburettors. The propeller is driven via
6) The fuel and lubricating oil consumption are a flange-connected gearbox with an incorporated shock
comparatively high due to the loss of fresh gases through absorber. The exhaust system collects the exhaust gases and
the exhaust ports. directs them overboard. These engines come with an
7) They are lighter in weight and require lesser space due to integrated alternating current (AC) generator (12 V 170 W) with
the absence of valves and valve gears. external rectifier-regulator as an optional extra.
Example: Limbach L 275 EF – 24 hp

Two-cylinder, horizontal opposed, air-cooled, two-cycle engine,
with a fuel-saving electronic engine management system and
mixture lubrication. Suitable for pusher and tractor installations.

Two-stroke engine operation
Limbach L 275 EF – 24 hp
Rotax 447 UL SCDI 40
Diesel engines
In recent years, the development in aircraft engines has been High torque at low RPM
more or less concentrating on Diesel engines. We have seen Diesel fuel burns slower than gasoline, therefore, restricting the
one-off installations to fully developed engine production lines. maximum RPM of the engine to around 4,500 RPM. On the
Several companies are active in this market primarily due to contrary, Diesel engines deliver remarkably high torque at low
major concern of long-term availability and the relatively high RPM. This is ideal for propeller-driven aircraft. One drawback
price of Avgas. is that due to higher compression and acting forces in the
engine, these engines tend to be a bit heavier than a
Diesel engines can use jet fuel (Avtur or Jet-A). This fuel is comparable gasoline engine. Two-stroke Diesel engines
available worldwide and can also be made of renewable overcome this problem, because they have a power stroke for
sources (biomass) which will contribute to a cleaner every revolution per cylinder, compared to a four-stroke Diesel
environment. (every other revolution per cylinder).
Last but not least; Diesel engines have an excellent specific Aircraft Diesel engines are usually the inline or flat-four type,
fuel consumption compared to their Avgas counterparts, and but BMW and Packard (among others) developed a radial
as the fuel is denser too, the range of a Diesel-powered aircraft Diesel engine.
is improved.
Reliable design
Diesel engines use the compression-ignition principle. Fuel is Diesel engines are simpler (compared to gasoline types). They
injected into the combustion chamber (either direct or indirect) have no ignition system, are more reliable, durable, have more
under high pressure. Due to compression of air by the piston in torque, use less fuel and have higher thermal efficiency. They
the cylinder, temperatures are very high (700 – 900°C) and the use denser fuel which gives more range (about 9%) for the
fuel ignites almost instantly when injected. Therefore, there is same volume.
no need for a carburettor, a throttle valve (no carburettor ice!)
or a separate ignition system. Fuel system
As already said, due to the fuel injection method used, there is
Starting a Diesel in a cold environment can be difficult; a form no carburettor or associated throttle valve. Power is controlled
of preheating should be used. To implement this, Diesel by the amount of fuel injected by the high-pressure fuel pump.
engines use a glow plug in each cylinder to preheat the cold air This is a very reliable but also very delicate piece of hardware.
before and after starting and thus help the combustion the first The fuel must be filtered (below 70 micron) and fed through a
couple of minutes after a cold start. water/fuel separator sometimes combined with an electric
heater so that any water is dissolved in the fuel and cannot
cause blocking of filters due to ice formation.

Delta Hawk V4 Diesel engine
BMW radial Diesel engine
Diesel engine valve timing

With the high-pressure fuel system and injector, there is more The Jumo solved this problem to a large extent through a
fuel fed to the engine than it uses, this extra fuel is heated by creative arrangement of the ports. The intake port was located
the engine and return to the tank in use. The advantage is that under the ‘lower’ piston, while the exhaust port was under the
warm fuel reduces the possibility of ice formation. ‘upper’. The lower crankshaft ran eleven degrees behind the
upper, meaning that the exhaust ports opened and, even more
Example: Junkers Jumo 205D importantly, closed first, allowing proper scavenging. This
These engines all used a two-stroke cycle with twelve pistons system made the two-stroke Jumos run as cleanly and almost
sharing six cylinders, piston crown to piston crown in an as efficiently as four-stroke engines using valves, but with
opposed-piston configuration. This unusual configuration considerably less complexity.
required two crankshafts, one at the bottom of the cylinder
block and the other at the top, geared together. The pistons
moved towards each other during the operating cycle. Intake
and exhaust manifolds were duplicated on both sides of the
block. There were two cam-operated injection pumps per
cylinder, each feeding two nozzles, for four nozzles per cylinder
in total.
As is typical of two-stroke designs, the Jumos used no valves.

Instead, it featured fixed intake and exhaust port apertures cut
into the cylinder liners which were uncovered when the pistons
reached a certain point in their stroke. Usually, such designs
have poor volumetric efficiency because both ports open and
close at the same time and are generally located across from
each other in the cylinder. This leads to poor scavenging of the
burnt charge, which is why valve-less two-strokes generally
produce smoke and are inefficient.

Supercharged 868 hp 17:1 compression
Junkers Jumo ‘boxer’ arrangement

Junkers JU 87 equipped with Junker Jumo engine
Turbo and intercooler 2-stroke Diesel
As Diesel engines will be more substantial in construction Several engines that are being developed are of the two-stroke
compared to a gasoline engine, it pays to increase efficiency design. A two-stroke Diesel cannot be compared to a two-
and power to weight ratio by adding a turbo or supercharger stroke gasoline engine which uses a mix of fuel and oil (1:50)
combined with an intercooler. Air compressed by the to lubricate the engine by pressure in the crankcase (caused
turbocharger heats up and is cooled to lower its density by an by the moving piston). Burning this mixture results in highly
intercooler, and the extra compressed air can burn more fuel polluting exhaust gasses (blue smoke).
for the same cylinder volume. The increased power is the
result. Two-stroke Diesel engines have more in common with their
four-stroke cousins, but the engine strokes occur in one
Diesel knock revolution: intake, compression, power, and exhaust. Timing is
The older type of Diesel engines (tractor type) have a crucial here. Some engine designs use intake ports and
characteristic sound; Diesel knock, especially when the engine exhaust valves, whereas others have ports only and the pistons
is cold and at low RPM. This knock is the same as detonation acting toward each other in pairs in the same cylinder.
in a gasoline engine due to unstable combustion and high peak
pressures. This knocking was one of the reasons that these Two-stroke Diesel engines must use some type of blower to
older Diesel engines were built quite heavy. start as their intake stroke is not capable of inhaling air. At this
point, the intake port is open, but the piston is near or at the
Conclusion bottom dead centre, so there is no displacement of anything.
Modern light-weight Diesel engines have dealt with this typical The blower, usually a roots-type, is engine driven and blows air
Diesel knock. They use indirect injection, where fuel is injected under pressure into the cylinders. Most of these engines also
into a pre-chamber and two-stage injectors, which prolong have a turbocharger which takes over from the roots blower
combustion. Electronic engine control (FADEC), compression when the engine is running, usually after reaching a certain
ratios that are not over 1:20, and better fuel-air mixing all have RPM. And as RPM range is rather narrow (900 – 2,700 RPM),
led to almost no knock at all. the turbo can be perfectly matched to the engine requirements.
Diesel engines can be two- or four-stroke types; both types are The two-stroke Diesel engine has some advantages not found
used in aviation. Automotive Diesel engines are almost in the four-stroke types which are of tremendous advantage to
exclusively four-strokes, but in marine applications the large its application as an aero engine.
propulsion engines are two-strokes.

Weight and power Smoothness
With twice as many power strokes per engine revolution, a two- Two-stroke engines run smoother than four-stroke engines
stroke Diesel engine produces more power than a four-stroke because two-stroke engines have twice as many power
Diesel of the same displacement. A two-stroke engine of the impulses at the same RPM. The lighter, more frequent power
same power as a four-stroke does not have the same weight. impulses mean less damping is required from the flywheel,
hence smaller, lighter flywheels can be used. This permits more
Response and acceleration rapid acceleration and unprecedented transient load response.
Since every cylinder of a two-stroke engine produces a power
stroke for every revolution, there is a quick response to load Lower exhaust temperatures
changes, for example with a constant speed propeller. More air goes through a two-stroke engine than a four-stroke
for the same amount of fuel consumed. This results in lower
Durability exhaust temperatures for two-stroke Diesel engines and more
The two-stroke engine spreads the load; each cylinder is extended valve and turbo life.
producing two lighter power impulses per two revolutions
instead of the single substantial impulse of a four-stroke Higher piston loads
engine. At normal loads and speeds, there is no load reversal The piston loads in a two-stroke Diesel are higher than in a four-
on pistons, rods, and bearings; this continuous downward stroke, mainly because there is always downward pressure on
loading reduces impact load effects. Lighter loading permits the piston either by the combustion or by pushing out the
two-stroke Diesel engines to use more compact structural and exhaust gasses. There is no load reversal to build up the oil film
load-bearing parts without overstressing. The lighter power on the piston pin.
impulses are produced by smaller displacement
cylinders – which means smaller pistons and shorter An innovative manufacturer uses a sort of ball bearing in the
connecting rods for comparable engine performance. Shorter piston with pressure lubrication; this design also solves the
stroke lowers piston speed, a significant factor in cylinder life. problem with piston cooling and lubrication.
All of these weight and size advantages are achieved without

sacrificing engine life.

Indirect versus direct fuel injection
A DI (direct injection) engine has the Diesel fuel injected 4-stroke Diesel
straight into cylinder almost at the top of the compression This type of engine uses two revolutions to accomplish its task.
stroke. In the old days, this meant that it burned and expanded Intake, compression in the first revolution and power and
very quickly, making a noisy, rattily engine. This is why most exhaust stroke in the second revolution, timing is less critical.
Diesel cars were IDI (indirect injection); the rough behaviour Power is lower compared to its two-stroke cousin, but that can
was fixed by injecting the fuel into a small pre-combustion be overcome by running it at a higher RPM and using a gearbox
chamber which is connected to the cylinder by a narrow to reduce the RPM for the propeller.
passage. This slows down the combustion as the gasses have
to escape through the narrow passage into the cylinder. This Everything else being equal, compared with a two-stroke Diesel
gives a softer bang and a smoother engine, but the gasses of the same displacement and RPM, the four-stroke type is
have to work harder, which reduces the efficiency a little. heavier and has less power for its weight. Several engines that
However, the newer DI engines use other techniques to smooth are being developed are of four-stroke design. They use a
the behaviour of the engine, such as two stage injection and gearbox; to get more power, they need more RPM, two-strokes
electronic control of the injectors. are usually direct driven and have more power/torque at lower
efficient propeller RPM. They usually have electronic engine
Performance at altitude management called FADEC (which must be dual for
A two-stroke Diesel can run without a turbocharger just by redundancy, a dual electrical system is also needed).
using a roots blower to scavenge the engine from exhaust
gasses. This roots blower is not a supercharger but supplies This type of Diesel uses intake and exhaust valves to regulate
the engine with enough air to clean the cylinders for the next the gas flow. At the intake stroke, the piston moves downward,
fuel injection and power stroke. This is seen as a naturally and the intake valve is open. When the piston starts to move
aspirated engine. up again (after reaching BDC) the compression stroke has
started, and both intake and exhaust valves must be closed.
Adding a turbocharger would give the advantage of more air; Temperature and pressure rise quickly in the cylinder.
thus, more fuel can be injected, and the engine would be able
to sustain its rated power to a higher altitude. More air through
the engine also means better scavenging and cooler exhaust
valves translating to longer engine life and more reliable
engine.

Operation Indirect-injection engines use lower pressure fuel systems (to
When the piston is almost at TDC fuel is injected, and after a 300 bar) and have softer combustion than direct-injection
slight delay, the finely atomised fuel starts to burn. Temperature engines. These engines also have lower toxic exhaust
and pressure rise even more and push the piston down in what emissions, particularly concerning HC and NOX. Optimised
is called the power stroke. The heat of combustion also heats pre-chamber engines have a 40% lower particulate emission,
the cylinder. mainly because of better air-fuel mixing in the pre-chamber.
In the last stroke, the piston moves up, and the exhaust valve Increasing power
is open, thereby forcing the burnt gases out the cylinder. There must be increased fuel flow to increase power, but there
is a limit. Optimum fuel/air ratio is about 1:14.7; thus, the engine
Valve timing needs more air first before adding fuel. One way to do that is
During the above process, the valves do not open and close with a supercharger or turbocharger. But as compressing air
when the piston is precisely at the top or bottom of the cylinder. raises its temperature and density the air from a supercharger
This is not very efficient. Valve opening and closing occur with or turbocharger must be cooled with a radiator (intercooler).
some overlap so that the energy of the moving gas is used to
intake fresh air and remove the burnt gas from the cylinder in a Power is then raised and can be held constant up until a certain
continuous motion so that optimum cylinder breathing is altitude where the turbo cannot deliver any more pressure and
accomplished without too much energy losses. reaches its maximum RPM.
Combustion chambers Fuel injection system

Both two- and four-stroke Diesel can use either a pre-chamber As the Diesel engine intakes air during its intake stroke, the way
(indirect-injection or IDI) or direct-injection (DI). Pre-chamber to regulate RPM or power is by varying the amount of fuel
engines use a small space where fuel is injected and connected injected. Be it a two- or four-stroke engine. This system must
through a small canal to the main combustion area. Direct- regulate the fuel quantity at all speeds and loads. The engine
injection engines have the fuel injected into the cylinder above requires the correct amount of fuel at the correct time, pressure,
the piston. sequence and point in the combustion process.
The advantage of a direct-injection engine is a reduced fuel FADEC

consumption up to 15% compared with indirect engines. The Modern four-stroke Diesel engines have a full authority digital
disadvantage of direct-injection systems are higher combustion engine controller (FADEC) that regulates the fuel injection
noise and restricted maximum RPM, and they require higher system and accounts for the multitude of variables of the
injection pressures and a more complex fuel system. engine concerning smoke, combustion pressure, EGT, torque
and engine speed limits.

Example: Thielert Centurion
When it hit the market in the late 1990s, the Thielert turbo- The Diesel engine’s high compression results in better fuel
Diesel engine promised a real revolution. An extensive efficiency and the higher operating RPM of the Centurion
reworking of a high-tech Mercedes automotive engine, the allows higher power to be developed from a smaller
Centurion, seemed to offer it all: a power-to-weight ratio displacement, in comparison to conventional aircraft piston
competitive with gas piston engines, the ability to run on jet-A engines.
fuel, turbocharging and excellent fuel efficiency. Diamond
Aircraft was the original adopter, designing the next-gen light A Centurion engine complete with CSU, reduction gearbox,
twin TwinStar seemingly around the engines. Sadly, gearbox turbocharger and FADEC engine management system is
problems – the engine uses a reduction drive to get the prop considerably more substantial than the more conventional
speed down to useful RPM ranges – plagued the engine, with Continental and Lycoming engines with which it competes.
unacceptably short overhaul intervals and sky-high However, the Centurion’s lower fuel consumption compensates
maintenance costs. Today, the Thielert engine is owned by this weight disadvantage. Even though they lack the magnetos
Continental Motors, which has worked hard to improve the and spark plugs of conventional gasoline (gas) piston engines,
engine’s value proposition while reintroducing it in new and Centurion engines are considerably more complicated.
retrofit applications.
All Centurion engines are water-cooled, turbocharged, and

employ a single-lever digital engine management system
(FADEC). This simplifies engine management for the pilot, as
well as improving reliability as it prevents the engine from being
operated improperly. The series utilises either jet fuel or Diesel
fuel. The high compression ratio of the engine combined with
the digitally controlled fuel injection system mirrors similar
advances in automotive technology.
Centurion series engines are always fitted with constant-speed

propellers which allow the engine to be operated at the
optimum speed at all times. However, the standard operating
speed is too high for any suitable propeller, and so the propeller
is driven through a reduction gearbox. The constant-speed
propeller and reduction gear result in a propeller tip speed that
is 10-15% lower than comparable conventional avgas engines,
reducing propeller noise.
Light aircraft equipped with Thielert Centurion engine
Thielert Centurion engine

Example: Austro Engine AE300
The Austro Engine E4 (marketed as the AE 300) is a liquid-
cooled, inline, four-cylinder, four-stroke Diesel engine which
produces 170 hp and is capable of producing 100% power at
11,800' density altitude.
The engine, developed by Austro Engine in collaboration with

MB Technology GmbH (Mercedes Benz), Bosch General
Aviation Technology GmbH and HÖR Technologies, features
the very latest in high-pressure common-rail fuel injection
technology. It offers even better specific fuel consumption than
the first-generation turbo-Diesel engines originally used by
Diamond.
With more than 2,000,000 accumulated flight hours in the

turbo-Diesel powered Diamond Aircraft fleet, Diamond is the
most experienced aeroplane manufacturer concerning turbo-
Diesel piston engine operation. This experience has benefitted
the development of the Austro Engine, with features such as a
FADEC controlled actuator driving a conventional constant
speed propeller governor, a high mounted turbocharger to
permit gravity oil return, a torsional vibration absorber in place
of a wearing clutch, robust electrical harnesses and
connectors, heavy-duty reduction gearbox, four-point engine
mount and countless detail features to ensure reliability, and
reduced maintenance costs.
The combination of low fuel burn, independence from leaded

fuel and low noise emission, makes the AE300 the most
environmentally friendly piston engine available. The ability to
operate on globally available jet-fuel makes the AE300
particularly suitable for strategic applications and markets
where Avgas 100LL is either expensive or has limited
availability.
Austro Diesel engine AE300 Light aircraft equipped with Austro Diesel engine

Gasoline and Diesel engines – three differences
Spark-ignition versus compression-ignition

Where a gasoline engine compresses a pre-mixed air/fuel Note: automotive Diesel engines do have a throttle, but this is
mixture and which is then ignited by a spark plug (hence the to provide engine shut-off function and to provide engine
name ‘spark-ignition’), the Diesel engine compresses only air. braking when going downhill.
The compression ratio is, however, much higher than that of
the gasoline engine – high enough that the rise in temperature Since the Diesel engine always compresses the same amount
is great enough that when the fuel is injected into the cylinder of air, the difference when more or less fuel is injected, the
at TDC, it ignites (hence the name ‘compression ignition’). air/fuel ratio, alone governs the power of the engine. A Diesel-
powered aircraft has no throttle lever. Instead, the lever that the
This fundamental difference in operation divides the gasoline pilot adjusts to change the power is known as the power lever.
engine and the Diesel engine into the two categories of internal
combustion engine; the spark-ignition engine and the Air/fuel ratio
compression ignition engine, respectively. Gasoline and Diesel have similar stoichiometric ratios (15:1).
Throttle versus no-throttle However, a gasoline engine operates in a range of air/fuel ratio
Since the air and fuel is pre-mixed with a gasoline engine, using slightly above stoichiometric (lean) and slightly below
a carburettor, for example, the power output of the engine is stoichiometric (rich).
varied by opening and closing a throttle valve. This lets more,
or less pre-mixed air/fuel mixture into the cylinder, the result A Diesel engine operates in a range of air/fuel ratio which is all
being that the air and fuel is varied the same amount as the lean, typically between 18:1 and 70:1. The difference in air/fuel
throttle is opened or closed. Although the mixture ratio can be ratio is what determines the power output of the Diesel engine,
varied in the carburettor, this is not done to change the power and hence the term “quality controlled” as opposed to “quantity
setting, but rather, for other reasons, such as cooling and controlled”.
altitude compensation.
The gasoline engine is sometimes referred to as “quantity

controlled,” and the Diesel engine “quality controlled” due to
the methods of manipulating the power of the engines.
A Diesel engine has no throttle. Power is varied by injecting

more or less fuel into the combustion chamber during the power
stroke.

Gasoline Vs Diesel - 4 Major Differences
https://youtu.be/rXVJG9n6BAs
Diesel Engines and Common Rail

https://youtu.be/lVAdJlZr8_k
Gasoline (Gasoline) Engine vs Diesel Engine

https://youtu.be/bZUoLo5t7kg
Aero Diesel engines have no spark

plug(s) nor associated ignition system
Aero Diesel engines have no

carburettor nor throttle valve
Air/fuel ratio ranges of gasoline and Diesel engines

Power lever of an aero Diesel-powered aircraft
Piston displacement
The size of an engine cylinder is indicated in terms of bore and To express the displacement of the engine in the metric
stroke. Bore is the inside diameter of the cylinder. Stroke is the system, convert cubic inches to cubic centimetres by
distance between top dead centre (TDC) and bottom dead multiplying cubic inches by 16.39. Notice that 16.39 is constant.
centre (BDC).
307.44 in3 × 16.39 = 5,038.9416 cm3
The bore is always mentioned first. For example, a 3½ × 4
cylinder means that the cylinder bore, or diameter, is 3½" and To convert cubic centimetres into litres, divide the cubic
the length of the stroke is 4". These measurements are used to centimetres by 1,000.
calculate displacement.
5,038.9416 = 5.0389416 ÷ 1,000
Piston Displacement is the volume of space that the piston
displaces, as it moves from one end of the stroke to the other. The displacement of the engine is expressed as 5.0 L in the
Thus, the piston displacement in a 3½" × 4" cylinder would be metric system.
the area of a 3½" circle multiplied by 4 (the length of the stroke.)
The area of a circle is πR2, where R is the radius of the circle.
With S being the length of the stroke, the formula for volume
(V) is the following:
V = πR2 × S
= 3.14 × (1 .75)2 × 4
= 3.14 × 3.06 × 4
= 38.43 in3
The total displacement of an engine is found by multiplying the

volume of one cylinder by the total number of cylinders.
38.43 in3 × 8 cylinders = 307.44 in3.
The displacement of the engine is expressed as 307 in3 in

America.

Cylinder bore and stroke

Compression ratio
The compression ratio of an engine is a measurement of how The fuel chemists have overcome knocking by creating anti-
much the air-fuel charge is compressed in the engine cylinder. knock fuels. Oxygen must be present if combustion is to occur
It is calculated by dividing the volume of one cylinder with the in the cylinder. Since air is the source of the supply of oxygen
piston at BDC by the volume with the piston TDC. used in engines, the problem arises of getting the proper
amount of air to support combustion. This factor is known as
One should note that the volume in the cylinder at TDC is called the air/fuel ratio.
the clearance volume. For example, suppose that an engine
cylinder has a volume of 80 in3 with the piston at BDC and a A gasoline engine normally operates at intermediate speeds on
volume of 10 in3 with the piston at TDC. a 15:1 ratio; that is, 15 lb of air to 1 lb of gasoline.
The compression ratio in this cylinder is 8 to 1, determined by

dividing 80 in3 by 10 in3. The air-fuel mixture is compressed
from 80 to 10 in3 or to one-eighth of its original volume.
Two significant advantages of increasing the compression ratio

are that the power and economy of the engine improve without
added weight or size. The improvements come about because
with a higher compression ratio, the air-fuel mixture is
squeezed more. This means a higher initial pressure at the start
of the power stroke. As a result, there is more force on the
piston for a greater part of the power stroke; therefore, more
power is obtained from each power stroke.
Increasing the compression ratio, however, brings some

problems. Fuel can withstand only a certain amount of
squeezing without knocking. Knocking is the sudden burning of
the air-fuel mixture that causes a quick increase in pressure
and rapping or knocking noise.

Compression ratio
Volumetric efficiency

Engine efficiencies
Mechanical efficiency • in a four-stroke-cycle engine, a considerable amount of
Mechanical efficiency is the ratio that shows how much of the horsepower is used to drive the valve train.
power developed by the expanding gases in the cylinder is
delivered to the output shaft. It is a comparison between the Thermal efficiency
brake horsepower (bhp) and the indicated horsepower (ihp). It Any study of engines and power involves consideration of heat
can be expressed by the formula: as the source of power. The heat produced by the burning of
gasoline in the cylinders causes a rapid expansion of the gases
bhp in the cylinder, and this, in turn, moves the pistons and creates
Mechanical efficiency =
ihp mechanical energy. It has long been known that mechanical
work can be converted into heat and that a given amount of
Brake horsepower is the useful power delivered to the propeller heat contains the energy equivalent of a certain amount of
shaft. Indicated horsepower is the total hp developed in the mechanical work. Heat and work are theoretically
Cylinders. The difference between the two is friction interchangeable and bear a fixed relation to each other. Heat
horsepower (fhp); the power lost in overcoming friction. The can, therefore, be measured in work units (for example, ft-lb)
factor that has the most significant effect on mechanical as well as in heat units.
efficiency is the friction within the engine itself. The friction
between moving parts in an engine remains practically constant The British thermal unit (BTU) of heat is the quantity of heat
throughout an engine’s speed range. Therefore, the required to raise the temperature of 1 lb of water by 1°F. It is
mechanical efficiency of an engine is highest when the engine equivalent to 778 ft-lb of mechanical work. A pound of gasoline
is running at the RPM at which maximum bhp is developed. fuel, when burned with enough air to consume it completely,
Mechanical efficiency of the average aircraft reciprocating gives up about 201,000 BTU, the equivalent of 15,560,000 ft-lb
engine approaches 90%. of mechanical work. These quantities express the heat energy
of the fuel in heat and work units, respectively.
This is the relationship between the actual power produced in
the engine (indicated horsepower) and the actual power The ratio of useful work done by an engine to the heat energy
delivered at the crankshaft (brake horsepower). The actual of the fuel it uses, expressed in work or heat units, is called the
power is always less than the power produced within the thermal efficiency of the engine. If two similar engines use
engine. This is due to the following: equal amounts of fuel, the engine that converts the greater part
of the energy in the fuel into work (higher thermal efficiency)
• friction losses between the many moving parts of the delivers the greater amount of power.
engine; and

Engine power losses

Furthermore, the engine that has the higher thermal efficiency The thermal efficiency of an engine may be based on either bhp
has less waste heat to dispose of to the valves, cylinders, or indicated horsepower (ihp) and is represented by the
pistons, and cooling system of the engine. High thermal following formula.
efficiency also means low specific fuel consumption and,
therefore, less fuel for a flight of a given distance at a given ihp × 33,000
power. Indicated thermal efficiency = weight of fuel burned/min
× heat value × 778
Thus, the practical importance of high thermal efficiency is
threefold, and it constitutes one of the most desirable features The formula for brake thermal efficiency is the same as shown
in the performance of an aircraft engine. above, except the value for bhp is inserted instead of the value
for ihp.
Of the total heat produced, 25 to 30% is utilised for power
output, 15 to 20% is lost in cooling (heat radiated from cylinder
head fins), 5 to 10% is lost in overcoming the friction of moving
parts, and 40 to 45% is lost through the exhaust. Anything that
increases the heat content going into mechanical work on the
piston, which reduces the friction and pumping losses, or which
reduces the quantity of unburned fuel or the heat loss to the
engine parts, increases the thermal efficiency.
The portion of the total heat of combustion that is turned into

mechanical work depends to a great extent upon the
compression ratio. The compression ratio is the ratio of the
piston displacement plus combustion chamber space to the
combustion chamber space, as mentioned earlier. Other things
being equal, the higher the compression ratio is, the larger is
the proportion of the heat energy of combustion turned into
useful work at the crankshaft. On the other hand, increasing the
compression ratio increases the cylinder head temperature.
This is a limiting factor because the extremely high temperature
created by high compression ratios causes the material in the
cylinder to deteriorate rapidly and the fuel to detonate instead
of burning at a controlled rate.

Engine power losses

Example
An engine delivers 85 bhp for 1 hour and during that time In addition to energy lost through waste heat, there are the
consumes 50 lb of fuel. Assuming the fuel has a heat content following inherent losses in the piston engine.
of 18,800 BTU per pound, find the thermal efficiency of the
engine: • Much energy is consumed when the piston must
compress the mixture on the compression stroke.
85 ihp × 33,000 2,805,000 • Energy from the fuel is consumed to pull the intake
=
0.833 × 18,800 BTU × 778 12,184,50 mixture into the cylinder.
• Energy from the fuel is consumed to push the exhaust
gases out of the cylinder.
Brake thermal efficiency = 0.23 or 23%
Reciprocating engines are only about 34% thermally efficient;

that is, they transform only about 34% of the total heat potential
of the burning fuel into mechanical energy. The remainder of
the heat is lost through the exhaust gases, the cooling system,
and the friction within the engine. The thermal distribution of a
reciprocating engine is shown below.
A large amount of energy from the fuel is lost through heat and
not used in an internal combustion engine. This unused heat is
of no value to the engine and must be removed from it. Heat is
dissipated in the following ways:
• The cooling system removes heat from the engine to

control engine operating temperature.
• A significant portion of the heat produced by the engine
exits through the exhaust system.
• The engine radiates a portion of the heat to the
atmosphere
• A portion of this waste heat may be channelled to the
passenger compartment to heat it.
• The lubricating oil in the engine removes a portion of the
waste heat.

Engine power losses

Volumetric efficiency is a ratio expressed in terms of Many factors decrease volumetric efficiency, including:
percentages. It is a comparison of the volume of fuel/air charge
(corrected for temperature and pressure) inducted into the • part-throttle operation;
cylinders to the total piston displacement of the engine. Various • long intake pipes of small diameter;
factors cause a departure from a 100% volumetric efficiency. • sharp bends in the induction system;
The pistons of a naturally aspirated engine displace the same • carburettor air temperature too high;
volume each time they travel from top centre to bottom centre • cylinder-head temperature too high;
of the cylinders. The amount of charge that fills this volume on • incomplete scavenging; and
the intake stroke depends on the existing pressure and • improper valve timing.
temperature of the surrounding atmosphere. Therefore, to find
the volumetric efficiency of an engine, standards for Volumetric efficiency can be increased in the following ways:
atmospheric pressure and temperature had to be established. • Keep the intake mixture cool by ducting intake air from
The US standard atmosphere was established in 1958 and outside the engine compartment.
provides the necessary pressure and temperature values to • By keeping the fuel cool, you can keep the intake mixture
calculate volumetric efficiency. cooler.
• The colder the mixture, the higher the volumetric
The standard sea level temperature is 59°F or 15°C. At this
temperature, the pressure of one atmosphere is efficiency, because a cool mixture is denser or more
14.69 lb/29.92" Hg. These standard sea-level conditions tightly packed.
• Modify the intake passages.
determine a standard density. If the engine draws in a volume
• Changes to the intake passages, that make it easier for
of charge of this density equal to its piston displacement, it is
said to be operating at 100% volumetric efficiency. An engine the mixture to flow through, increase the volumetric
drawing in less volume than this has a volumetric efficiency efficiency. Other changes include reshaping ports to
lower than 100%. An engine equipped with true supercharging smooth bends, reshaping the back of the valve heads,
(boost above 30" Hg) may have a volumetric efficiency higher or polishing the inside of the ports.
• Altering the time that the valves open or how far they
than 100%. The equation for volumetric efficiency is:
open can increase volumetric efficiency.
Volume of charge • By supercharging and turbocharging, you can bring the
Volumetric volumetric efficiency figures to over 100%.
= (corrected for temperature and pressure)
efficiency
Piston displacement

Modification of inlet passages

Efficiencies of Diesel engines
Thermal efficiency
The thermal efficiency of an internal combustion engine is the Very lean operation (as seen at lower loads) results in lower
ratio between the work output and the heat input into the combustion temperatures and therefore lower heat losses in
system. the cycle.
Diesel engines are considerably more thermally efficient than Diesel engines do not run richer than stoichiometric at high
gasoline engines. loads, unlike gasoline engines, making them more efficient.
Gasoline engines typically run about 15–20% over-rich at full
The three main reasons for this are: load.
• higher compression ratio;
• unthrottled operation; and
• lean combustion.
As well as the high level of compression, allowing combustion

to take place without a separate ignition system, a high
compression ratio greatly increases the engine’s efficiency.
Increasing the compression ratio in a spark-ignition engine
where fuel and air are mixed before entry to the cylinder is
limited by the need to prevent damaging pre-ignition. Since only
air is compressed in a Diesel engine, and fuel is not introduced
into the cylinder until shortly before top dead centre (TDC),
premature detonation is not a problem and compression ratios
are much higher.
Unthrottled operation in the Diesel engine virtually eliminates

the pumping loop in the P-V diagram found with Otto cycle
(gasoline) engines running at part load, since the piston does
not have to work against a vacuum during the intake stroke.
The pumping loop represents negative work in the cycle, as
seen below.

Volumetric efficiency is a parameter to find the effectiveness of
an engine induction process. It is the ratio between the actual
volume of charge inducted into the cylinder and the swept
volume of the piston.
Regarding volumetric efficiency, Diesel engines are ideally

more efficient than gasoline engines. Since the intake is not
throttled, and additionally it is usually turbocharged or
supercharged, and the engine runs at a relatively slow speed
and accelerates gradually.
The volumetric efficiency is greatly affected at greater engine

speeds which is the operating range of gasoline engines. The
opening and closing of the valves cause a fluctuated frequency
of flow. The mass of air bounces back when it hits the closed
valve. If the valve opens for the next stroke when the air mass
is moving against the direction of flow, due to the shock wave
generated by a closed valve, a more considerable negative
pressure is required to suck in the air. This leads to improper
filling of the cylinder, which results in lower volumetric
efficiency, called the resonance effect.

Engine configurations
General Inline engines
Engines are also classified according to the arrangement of the An inline engine generally has an even number of cylinders,
cylinders although some three-cylinder engines have been constructed.
This engine may be either liquid-cooled or air-cooled and has
Classifications include: only one crankshaft, which is located either above or below the
cylinders. If the engine is designed to operate with the cylinders
• inline; below the crankshaft, it is called an inverted engine.
• horizontal opposed;
• V; The inline engine has a small frontal area and is better adapted
• X; to streamlining. When mounted with the cylinders in an inverted
• H; position, it offers the added advantages of shorter landing gear
• radial; and and greater pilot visibility. With an increase in engine size, the
• Wankle. air-cooled, inline type offers additional problems to provide
proper cooling; therefore, this type of engine is confined to low-
The cylinders are numbered. The cylinder nearest the front of and medium-horsepower engines used in very old light aircraft.
an inline engine is number 1. The others are numbered 2, 3, 4, An example would be a DeHavilland Gypsy Major engine used
and so on, from front to rear. In V-type engines, the numbering on a DeHavilland Tiger Moth
sequence varies by manufacturer. You should always consult
the manufacturer’s manual for the correct order. Opposed or O-type engines
The opposed-type engine has two banks of cylinders directly
The firing order (which is different from the numbering order) of opposite each other with a crankshaft in the centre. The pistons
the cylinders of most engines is stamped on the cylinder block of both cylinder banks are connected to the single crankshaft.
or the manufacturer’s nameplate. If you are unable to locate the Although the engine can be either liquid-cooled or air-cooled,
firing order and no operation or instruction manual is available, the air-cooled version is used predominantly in aviation. It is
turn the engine over by the crankshaft and watch the order in generally mounted with the cylinders in a horizontal position.
which the intake valves open. The opposed-type engine has a low weight-to-horsepower
ratio, and its narrow silhouette makes it ideal for horizontal
installation on the aircraft wings (twin-engine applications).
Another advantage is its low vibration characteristics. The
opposed engine is the most commonly found engine
configuration in the General aviation world.

Lycoming O-145 (horizontally opposed)
De Havilland Gypsy II engine (inline)

V-type engines
In V-type engines, the cylinders are arranged in two inline An H engine is effectively two flat engines, one atop or beside
banks generally set 60° apart. Most of the engines have the other. The ‘two engines’ each have a crankshaft, which is
12 cylinders, which are either liquid-cooled or air-cooled. The then geared together at one end for power-take-off. The H
engines are designated by a V followed by a dash and the configuration allows the building of multi-cylinder engines that
number of cylinders. For example, the Rolls Royce Merlin V-12. are shorter than the alternatives, sometimes delivering
This type of engine was used mostly during the second world advantages on aircraft. The power-to-weight ratio is not as
war, and its use is mostly limited to vintage fighter aircraft. good as more straightforward configurations employing one
V-type engines could also be inverted. crankshaft. There is excellent mechanical balance, especially
desirable and otherwise difficult to achieve in a four-cylinder
X-type engines engine. An example of an H engine would be a Napier Sabre
An X-engine is an engine comprising twinned V-block engines (H-24 36.7 L, 3,500 hp) or a Rolls-Royce Eagle (H-24 46.2 L,
horizontally opposed to each other. Thus, the cylinders are 3,200 hp). Lycoming and Pratt & Whitney also built H engines.
arranged in four banks, driving a common crankshaft. Viewed
head-on, this would appear as an X. X-engines were often
coupled engines derived from existing powerplants. The
X-4520 had four banks of six air-cooled cylinders. The banks
were arranged at 90-degree intervals around a common
crankshaft housed in an aluminium, barrel-type crankcase. The
cylinders had a 146 mm (5.75") bore, 184 mm stroke (7.25"),
and 4.9 to 1 compression ratio. Total displacement was 74 L
(4,518 in3) and 987 kW (1,323 hp)
H-type engines
An H engine (or H-block) is an engine configuration in which
the cylinders are aligned so that if viewed from the front, they
appear to be in a vertical or horizontal letter H.

Typical engine cylinder configurations
Typical engine cylinder configurations

Horizontally opposed engine
Radial engine
Napier Sabre (24-cylinder H-block engine)

V-type engine (Rolls-Royce Merlin (V-12))

Daimler Benz 601 (inverted V12)
Allison X-4520 (24-cylinder X-block engine)

Radial engines
The radial engine consists of a row, or rows, of cylinders,
arranged radially about a central crankcase. This type of engine
has proven to be very rugged and dependable. The number of
cylinders which make up a row can be three, five, seven, or
nine. Some radial engines have up to 4 rows of seven or nine
cylinders arranged radially about the crankcase, one in front of
the other. These are called double row radials. One type of
radial engine has four rows of cylinders with seven cylinders in
each row for a total of 28 cylinders. Radial engines are still used
in some older cargo aeroplanes, warbirds, and crop spray
aeroplanes. Although many of these engines still exist, their
use is limited. The single-row, nine-cylinder radial engine is of
relatively simple construction, having a one-piece nose and a
two-section main crankcase. The larger twin-row engines are
of slightly more complex construction than the single row
engines. For example, the crankcase of the Wright R-3350
engine is composed of the crankcase front section, four
crankcase main sections (front main, front centre, rear centre,
and rear main), rear cam and tappet housing, supercharger
front housing, supercharger rear housing, and supercharger
rear housing cover. Pratt & Whitney engines of comparable
size incorporate the same basic sections, although the
construction and the nomenclature differ considerably.

Bristol Mercury (single row radial) Pratt & Whitney Double Wasp R-2800
2-row 18-cylinder radial (up to 2,800 hp (2,090 kW))

Pratt & Whitney R-4360 Wasp Major The Curtiss H-1640 Chieftain ‘hexagon’
4-row 28-cylinder radial (up to 4,300 hp (3,210 kW)) or ‘inline-radial’ engine

Ayres Air Tractor

Rotary engines
Unlike most familiar engines that move a crankshaft to drive a
propeller, one of the most common examples was the Gnome
Rotary which was designed with a stationary crankshaft around
which the cylinders, crankcase and propeller spun. Two
brothers, Laurent and Louis Seguin came up with the idea, and
their Société des Moteurs Gnome engine was unveiled at the
Paris Air Show in 1908. Gnome engines were widely used in
first world war aeroplanes and were developed in a range from
50 to 160 hp. Generally, a lower number of moving parts is
preferable when it comes to engines, and rotary engines did
not stand the test of time.

Gnome rotary engine

Wankle engines
Although not commonly used, some modern light general Wankle engines are in current production and are
aviation aircraft such as motor gliders use Wankle engines, and manufactured by Austro and Mistral.
they are commonly used on military uncrewed aerial vehicles
(UAVs). The Wankel engine is a type of internal combustion Austro Engine AE50R
engine using an eccentric rotary design to convert pressure into The engine is a single rotor four-stroke, air and liquid-cooled,
rotating motion. 294 cm3 (17.9 in3) gasoline Wankel engine design, with a
mechanical gearbox reduction drive employing a helical gear
All parts rotate consistently in one direction, as opposed to the set with a reduction ratio of 3.225:1. Cooling is predominantly
conventional reciprocating piston engine, which has pistons liquid, with forced air cooling for the rotor core. A starter and
violently changing direction. In contrast to the more common generator are standard equipment. It employs dual capacitor
reciprocating piston designs, the Wankel engine delivers discharge ignition with variable ignition timing and produces
advantages of simplicity, smoothness, compactness, high 55 hp (41 kW)
RPM, and a high power-to-weight ratio. This is primarily
because three power pulses per rotor revolution are produced Mistral G-200
compared to one per revolution in a two-stroke piston engine The engine is a two-rotor four-stroke 3 × 654 cm3 (3 × 39.9 in3)
and one per two revolutions in a four-stroke piston engine. At per rotor displacement, liquid-cooled, gasoline Wankel engine
the actual output shaft, there is only one power pulse per design, with a mechanical gearbox reduction drive. It employs
revolution. Since the output shaft spins three times as fast as dual electronic ignition systems and produces 200 hp at 2,250
the actual rotor, it makes it roughly equivalent to a two-stroke propeller RPM.
piston engine of the same displacement. The displacement
only measures one face of the rotor since only one face is Mistral G-300 The engine is a three-rotor, 3 × 3 × 654 cm3
working for each output shaft revolution. The engine is (39.9 in3) displacement, liquid-cooled, gasoline Wankel engine
commonly referred to as a rotary engine. However, this name design, with a mechanical gearbox reduction drive. It employs
also applies to other completely different designs, primarily dual electronic ignition systems and produces 300 hp (224 kW)
aircraft engines with their cylinders arranged circularly around at 2,250 RPM.
the crankshaft. The four-stage cycle of intake, compression,
ignition, and exhaust occur each revolution at each of the three
rotor tips moving inside the oval-like epitrochoid-shaped
housing, enabling the three power pulses per rotor revolution.
The rotor is similar in shape to a Reuleaux triangle with the
sides somewhat flatter.

UAVs are commonly
powered by the Wankel
engine
Austro AE50R Wankle engine
Mistral G-300 Wankle engine Wankel engine operation

Cylinder numbering
Occasionally, it is necessary to refer to the left or right side of
the engine or a particular cylinder. Therefore, it is necessary to
know the engine directions and how cylinders of an engine are
numbered. The propeller shaft end of the engine is always the
front end, and the accessory end is the rear end, regardless of
how the engine is mounted in an aircraft. When referring to the
right side or left side of an engine, always assume the view is
from the rear or accessory end. As seen from this position,
crankshaft rotation is referred to as either clockwise or
counterclockwise.
Inline and V-type engine cylinders are usually numbered from

the rear. In V-engines, the cylinder banks are known as the
right bank and the left bank, as viewed from the accessory end.
The cylinder numbering of the opposed engine begins with the

right rear as No. 1 and the left rear as No. 2. The one forward
of No. 1 is No. 3; the one forward of No. 2 is No. 4, and so on.
The numbering of opposed engine cylinders is by no means
standard. Some manufacturers number their cylinders from the
rear (continental) and others from the front of the engine
(Lycoming). Always refer to the appropriate engine manual to
determine the numbering system used by that manufacturer.
Single-row radial engine cylinders are numbered clockwise

when viewed from the rear. Cylinder No. 1 is the top cylinder.
In double-row engines, the same system is used. The No. 1
cylinder is the top one in the rear row. No. 2 cylinder is the first
one clockwise from No. 1, but No. 2 is in the front row. No. 3
cylinder is the next one clockwise to No. 2 but is in the rear row.
Thus, all odd-numbered cylinders are in the rear row, and all
even-numbered cylinders are in the front row.

Cylinder numbering

Firing order
General
The firing order of an engine is the sequence in which the power Double-row radial engines
event occurs in the different cylinders. The firing order is On a double-row radial engine, the firing order is somewhat
designed to provide for balance and to eliminate vibration to the complicated. The firing order is arranged with the firing impulse
greatest extent possible. The smoothness of a reciprocating occurring in a cylinder in one row and then in a cylinder in the
engine is determined by the spacing and the timing of the firing other row; therefore, two cylinders in the same row never fire in
impulses. An engine is inherently smooth when all of the firing succession.
impulses are separated by an equal number of degrees of
crankshaft rotation; the closer together the firing impulses, the An easy method for computing the firing order of a 14-cylinder
smoother the engine. double-row radial engine is to start with any number from I to
14 and add 9 or subtract 5 (called the firing order numbers),
In radial engines, the firing order must follow a particular pattern whichever produces a result from 1 to 14 inclusive. For
since the firing impulses must follow the motion of the crank example, starting with 8, 9 cannot be added since the answer
throw during its rotation. In inline engines, the firing orders may would then be more than 14; therefore, subtract 5 from 8 to get
vary somewhat, yet most orders are arranged so that the firing 3, add 9 to 3 to get 12, subtract 5 from 12 to get 7, subtract 5
of cylinders is evenly distributed along the crankshaft. Six- from 7 to get 2, and so on.
cylinder inline engines generally have a firing order of 1-5-3-6-
2-4. Cylinder firing order in opposed engines can usually be The firing order numbers of an 18-cylinder, double-row radial
listed in pairs of cylinders, as each pair fires across the centre engine are 11 and 7; that is, begin with any number from 1 to
main bearing. The firing order of six-cylinder opposed engines 18 and add 11 or subtract 7. For example, beginning with 1,
is 1-4-5-2-3-6. The firing order of one model four-cylinder add 11 to get 12; 11 cannot be added to 12 because the total
opposed engine is 1-4-2-3, but on another model, it is 1-3-2-4. would be more than 18, so subtract 7 to gets 5, add 11 to 5 to
get 16, subtract 7 from 16 to get 9, subtract 7 from 9 to get 2,
Single-row radial engines add 11 to 2 to get 13, and continue this process for 18 cylinders.
On a single-row radial engine, all the odd-numbered cylinders
fire in numerical succession; then, the even-numbered
cylinders fire in numerical succession. On a five-cylinder radial
engine, for example, the firing order is 1-3-5-2-4, and; on a
seven-cylinder radial engine, it is 1-3-5-7-2-4-6. The firing order
of a nine-cylinder radial engine is1-3-5-7-9-2-4-6-8

Firing order of radial engines

Inline and V-engines
The crankshaft in a four-cylinder inline engine has two sets of
throws, 180° apart. The throws for cylinders 1 and 4 are
together. The throws for cylinders 2 and 3 are together and are
180° from those for 1 and 4. The pistons in cylinders 1 and 4
are at the top of their stroke at the same time those in cylinders
2 and 3 are at the bottom of theirs. This movement of the
pistons gives the engines a firing order of 1-2-4-3 or 1-3-4-2.
V-8 engines are essentially two four-cylinder banks on a single

crankcase, with one cylinder in each bank sharing a crankshaft
throw. The left bank fires 1-2-4-3, and the right bank fires 4-3-
1-2.
The crankshaft used in a six-cylinder inline engine has three

sets of throws, 120° apart. The throws for cylinders 1 and 6 are
together, and 120° from those for cylinders 2 and 5. 120° from
2 and 5 are the throws for cylinders 3 and 4. With this
arrangement, the pistons in cylinders 1 and 6 come to the top
of their stroke together; 120° later, pistons 2 and 5; 120° later,
pistons 3 and 4. This type of crankshaft gives the engine a firing
order of 1-5-3-6-2-4.
A V-12 engine has two banks of six cylinders firing the same
sequence, but the right bank starts its firing at the opposite end
of the engine.

Firing order of online and V engines

Horizontally-opposed engines
Both Continental Motors (CMG) and Textron-Lycoming make
four- and six-cylinder horizontally opposed engines. Their four-
cylinder engines use a 180° crankshaft, and their six-cylinder
engines use a 60° crankshaft. Textron-Lycoming also makes
an eight-cylinder horizontally-opposed engine with a 90°
crankshaft.
The right-hand bank of cylinders on CMG engines are offset to

the rear of the cylinders on the left side, and cylinder number 1
is the right rear cylinder. The firing order for a four-cylinder
CMG engine is 1-3-2-4. The firing order for a six-cylinder CMG
engine is 1-6-3-2-5-4.
The right-hand bank of cylinders on Textron-Lycoming engines

are offset forward, and cylinder number 1 is the right front
cylinder. The firing order for a Textron-Lycoming engine is 1-3-
2-4, for a six-cylinder engine it is 1-4-5-2-3-6, and for an eight-
cylinder engine, it is 1-5-8-3-2-6-7-4.

Firing order of horizontally opposed engines – Textron-Lycoming and Continental engines

Left-hand rotation
All cylinders of Lycoming aircraft engines are numbered from
the front or propeller end to the rear with cylinder No.1 being
furthest forward. Most of the engines have the odd number
cylinders on the right side and even number cylinders on the
left side. However, the TIO and TIGO-541 series engines are
numbered with the odd number cylinders on the left side and
even number cylinders on the right side of the engine.
Engines with the letter ‘L’ in the model prefix, such as LTIO-
540-J2BD, denotes that the engine has a counter-clockwise
rotation of the crankshaft when viewed from the rear of the
engine. To work out the left-hand firing order from the right-
hand firing order, transpose the number 1 cylinder to the rear
and read backwards

Cylinder numbering

Valve configurations
The majority of internal combustion engines also are classified
according to the position and arrangement of the intake and
exhaust valves, whether the valves are located in the cylinder
head or cylinder block.
The following are types of valve arrangements with which you

may come in contact.
I-head – The intake and the exhaust valves are both mounted
in a cylinder head directly above the cylinder. This arrangement
requires a tappet, a pushrod, and a rocker arm above the
cylinder to reverse the direction of valve movement. Although
this configuration is the most popular for current gasoline and
Diesel engines, it is rapidly being superseded by the overhead
camshaft.
L-head – The intake and the exhaust valves are both located
on the same side of the piston and cylinder. The valve
operating mechanism is located directly below the valves, and
one camshaft actuates both the intake and the exhaust valves.

I-head and L-head valve arrangements

F-head – The intake valves are generally located in the head,
while the exhaust valves are located in the engine block. The
intake valves in the head are actuated from the camshaft
through tappets, pushrods, and rocker arms. The exhaust
valves are actuated directly by tappets on the camshaft.
T-head – The intake and the exhaust valves are located on

opposite sides of the cylinder in the engine block; each requires
their own camshaft.

F-head and T-head valve arrangements

Sleeve valve – is a type of valve mechanism for piston
engines, distinct from the usual poppet valve. Sleeve valve
engines saw use in several pre-second world war luxury cars
and, in the United States, in the Willys-Knight car and light
truck. They subsequently fell from use due to advances in
poppet-valve technology, including sodium cooling, and the
Knight system double sleeve engine’s tendency to burn much
lubricating oil or to seize due to lack of it. The Scottish Argyll
company used its own, much simpler and more efficient, single
sleeve system (Burt-McCollum) in its cars. After extensive
development, this system saw substantial use in British military
aircraft engines of the 1940s, such as the Napier Sabre, Bristol
Hercules and Centaurus.

Sleeve valve
Camshaft configurations
Single overhead camshaft – The camshaft is located in the
cylinder head. The intake and the exhaust valves are both
operated from a shared camshaft. The valve train may be
arranged to operate directly through the lifters, as shown in
view A below, or by rocker arms, as shown in view B. This
configuration is becoming popular for passenger car gasoline
engines.
Double overhead camshaft – When the double overhead

camshaft is used, the intake and the exhaust valves each
operate from separate camshafts directly through the lifters. It
provides excellent engine performance and is used in more
expensive automotive applications.

Single overhead cam valve arrangements Double overhead cam valve arrangements

Gasoline and Diesel engines – a
comparison
At a time when many oil companies are reducing, if not Using FADEC (Full Authority Digital Engine Control) with Diesel
eliminating, the production of AVGAS, and in an environment engines provides another advantage. In traditional AVGAS
in which better fuel economy and green engine technology are engine operation, the engine relies on spark plugs, a fuel/air
a necessity, there is a growing demand for alternatives. One metering unit, and a throttle for proper operation. In a Diesel
solution is the use of Diesel engines. engine, there are no spark plugs, fuel/air metering units, or
throttle. Diesel engines rely on a single-engine fuel control lever
Diesel engines have many advantages over traditional AVGAS and an automatic propeller pitch control in the cockpit. High
engines. They run on heavy fuels such as JET-A or Diesel fuel. compression ratios (18:1) coupled with high fuel pressures and
Heavier fuels mean weight per gallon is more than that of temperatures, ignite the fuel instantaneously as it leaves the
AVGAS. However, JET-A and Diesel fuel have a higher BTU fuel injector.
(British Thermal Unit) than AVGAS.
Diesel engines provide the ability to produce sea-level rated
Simply stated, JET-A and Diesel fuel produce more heat horsepower at high altitudes with supercharging or
energy per gallon than does AVGAS. Also, JET-A and Diesel turbocharging, as do AVGAS engines.
fuel are more readily available and easier to manufacture or
refine. What that means to the pilot is more power at altitude. A typical
normally aspirated engine produces maximum power only at
Internationally, Diesel fuel is approximately one third less than sea level.
the price of AVGAS. Diesel engines also use their fuel more
economically. For example, adjusted for horsepower, the 1.7 One disadvantage of using aviation Diesel engines is the
Thielert Centurion Diesel engine consumes approximately 25% upfront expense to make the conversion from a traditional
less fuel per hour at 75% cruise compared to a Lycoming O-360 engine. For example, currently, converting a typical Cessna
AVGAS engine at 75% cruise. 172 from an AVGAS engine to a Diesel engine is over $50,000
firewall-forward. A new AVGAS engine is approximately
$30,000 firewall-forward. Aircraft owners must decide if the
advantage of the Diesel engine is worth the additional cost.

Another disadvantage of Diesel engines is their cold-weather Premier Diesel Conversion
starting and operation. Since the aircraft Diesel engine relies https://youtu.be/Wyf7F2L02To
on higher cylinder temperatures to ignite the fuel/air mixture,
cold weather starting may be difficult. However, many Diesel Cessna’s New Turbo Diesel 172 Skyhawk
engines utilise a preheat oil system to combat cold weather https://youtu.be/bEaQO_2Httg
operation issues.
The current state of aircraft engine design has been stagnant.

Most of the engines now used in general aviation aircraft were
designed in the 1940s, 1950s or early 1960s. For example, the
O-235 engine was first certified in 1942, and the GSO-480-
A1A6 was certificated in 1955. Many of the engines have been
updated over the years, including refinement of the basic
design, the materials used, and switching to fuel injection
instead of carburettors.
Continental Engines offers FADEC as an option for some of

their engines. The newest Continental IO-240, an AVGAS
engine, was certified in 2007 under Type Certificate Data Sheet
(TCDS) E7S0. The engine may be delivered without the
FADEC option, under a different TCDS. The engine still uses a
spark plug in each cylinder and has a fuel injector and FADEC
options.
The Austro engine from Austria was certified in 2009. The

engine is a Diesel engine and runs on JET-A fuel. This is the
newest engine certified by the European authorities, which is
accepted by the FAA. The engine is similar to the Thielert
Diesel engine. It is an option used in the Diamond Twin Star
aircraft.
Some examples on the following pages compare the features

of several engines (Lycoming is AVGAS; DeltaHawk, Thielert,
Zoche, SMA and Austro are Diesels).

Lycoming IO-540
SMA SR305-230
Thielert Centurion 1.7
Lycoming IO-360
Delta Hawk DH200V Zoche Z002A Austro AE 300

Comparison between a gasoline engine and Diesel engine can Gasoline Engines Diesel Engines
be made in aspects like working pressures, combustion,
operating cycle, compression ratios, thermal efficiency, engine 6 The combustion of fuel The combustion of fuel takes
speeds, maintenance cost and running costs as listed below. takes place approximately place approximately at
at constant volume. In constant pressure. In other
other words, it works on words, it works on the Diesel
Gasoline Engines Diesel Engines
the Otto cycle. cycle.
1 A gasoline engine draws a A Diesel engine draws only
7 The thermal efficiency is The thermal efficiency is up
mixture of gasoline and air air during the induction
up to about 26%. to about 40%.
during the induction stroke.
stroke. 8 Overheating trouble is Overheating trouble is less in
more in gasoline engine Diesel engine due to high
2 The carburettor is installed The injector or atomiser is
due to low thermal thermal efficiency.
in gasoline engines to mix installed in Diesel engines to
efficiency.
air and gasoline in the inject the fuel at the end of
required proportion and to the compression stroke. 9 The starting of the The starting of the Diesel
supply it to the engine gasoline engine is easy engine is slightly more
during the induction due to the low difficult due to a higher
stroke. compression ratio. compression ratio compared
to a gasoline engine.
3 The pressure at the end of The pressure at the end of
the compression is about the compression is about 10 As the compression ratio As the compression ratio is
10 bar. 35 bar. is low, the gasoline high, the Diesel engines are
engines are cheaper and costlier and heavier in
4 The charge (i.e. gasoline The fuel is injected in the
lighter in weight. weight.
and air mixture) is ignited form of fine spray. The
with the help of spark temperature of the 11 The running cost of a The running cost of a Diesel
plug. compressed air is about 600° gasoline engine is high engine is low because of the
C at a pressure of about because of the higher cost lower cost of Diesel fuel.
35 bar. of gasoline fuel.
5 A gasoline engine has a A Diesel engine has a 12 The maintenance cost is The maintenance cost is
compression ratio of compression ratio of lower. more.
approximately from 6 to approximately 15 to 25. 13 Gasoline engines are Diesel engines are relatively
10. high-speed engines. low-speed engines.

Lycoming O-320 engine (gasoline)
SMA SR305-230 engine (Diesel)
This little four-cylinder engine from Pennsylvania
manufacturer Lycoming epitomises the light-aeroplane The four-cylinder SR305-230 diesel engine was developed
engine, helped by the fact that it powered some of the most by French company SMA, which is now a subsidiary of
popular light aeroplanes ever, including later models of the Safran. The engine was first flown in 1998 on the French
Cessna 172 and the Piper PA-28 Cherokee. With four airframe Socata TB-20 and FAA certified in 2002. Recently,
cylinders arranged two per side, big air-cooled heads to the SR305-230 was chosen to power Cessna’s latest
keep the cylinders happy, a normally carburetted fuel version of the immensely popular Cessna 182 Skylane – the
system and dual magneto ignition, all driving a fixed-blade Turbo Skylane JT-A. The engine is air- and oil-cooled and
prop, the 150 hp O-320 took a 1930s design and updated it compatible with jet-A, which is widely available at airports
with the latest materials and manufacturing techniques. The around the world. In addition to eliminating the growing
bottom line is the O-320 delivers reliability, affordability and concern of 100LL availability, the SR305 has an electronic
familiarity. control unit that optimises the performance of the engine in
all phases of ground and flight operations, reducing the
workload for the pilot. SMA claims the operating cost of the
SR305 is reduced by about 40 percent compared with avgas
engines because of its longer 2,400 TBO, reduced number
of parts and lower fuel consumption.
Glossary of piston engine terms
A A
Aeration The introduction of air into a liquid. Atomisation The formation of a liquid into a spray.
Aerofoil The shape of the blade section Attenuator A means of stopping fuel flow
formed to give lift. fluctuation.
Accessories Rate of change of velocity Automatic Self-operating.
Velocity Distance Auxiliary Something helpful which is
= or
Time (Time)2 supplementary.
Adaptor A connection for joining two Axial flow engine An engine in which the gas flow
components through which a fluid or travels along the centre line of the
electricity can be transferred from one engine from front to rear.
section or component to the other.
AFRCU Air/fuel ratio control unit.
B
Allowance The permitted difference in
dimensions to allow for various fits. Backlash The working clearance, measured at
the pitch circles of any two gears in
Aluminised Coated with aluminium to resist mesh.
corrosion.
Baffles Plates fitted to prevent or control the
Aneroid capsule A metal container from which most of movement of a fluid in the direction
the air has been exhausted. It is then which it would otherwise flow.
sensitive to variations of outside
pressure. Balancing Adjusting the size and position of
weights to bring a rotating assembly
Angle of attack AoA is the angle that the chord line into static and dynamic balance.
makes with the direction of airflow.
Barometric The atmosphere. It is reduced with an
Annular Circular, ring formation around pressure increase of altitude.
components.
Approach Minimum engine speed for landing
minimum aircraft.
B B
Bearing The part of a mechanism in which a Breather A duct connecting the crankcase to
rotating shaft revolves and is the atmosphere that prevents the
supported. build-up of crankcase pressure.
Blacklight Ultraviolet light whose rays are in the British thermal unit The amount of heat required to raise
lower end of the visible spectrum. the (BTU) temperature of one pound
While more or less invisible to the of water one degree Fahrenheit.
human eye, they excite or make
Brittleness The liability of a particular metal to
visible such materials as fluorescent
fracture on receiving a blow or shock.
dyes.
Bulkhead A transverse partition which
Blade angle The angle between the chord line and
separates one compartment from
the aeroplane of rotation.
another; a typical example is a
Bleed The removal of air or air fireproof bulkhead on the engine.
contaminated liquid from an enclosed
Burr A rough, sharp ridge or protection at
fluid circuit.
the edges of a part after it has been
Bonding Linking together all the metal parts of worked or machined.
an aircraft to obtain positive electrical
Bush A hollow cylindrical one-piece
continuity.
bearing, usually phosphor bronze or
Bore The internal diameter of a cylindrical cast iron.
part.
By-pass ratio Mass airflow flowing through the by-
Brake specific fuel The number of pounds of fuel burned pass duct divided by that passing
consumption per hour to produce one brake through the core engine.
(BSFC) horsepower.
Brazing Uniting two metals using molten
brass. The higher temperature is C
required than for soldering, but the Calibrate To measure or check against a
joint is stronger. known accurate master tool or
instrument.

C C
Clapper A precision measuring device with a Choke bore A method of boring a cylinder of an
micrometre single movable jaw, advanced by a aircraft engine in which the top, that
screw. One revolution of the crew portion affected by the mass of the
advances the movable jaw 0.025". cylinder head, has a diameter slightly
less than that of the main bore of the
Clapper, Vernier A micrometre calliper with a special
barrel. When the cylinder reaches
Vernier micrometre.
operating temperature, the mass of
Cam An eccentric projection on a revolving the head has caused the bore to
shaft designed to change rotary expand, so it is straight throughout its
motion into reciprocating motion. length.
Cam-ground piston An aircraft engine piston ground in Choked Restricted or blocked, possibly using
such a way that its diameter parallel sonic methods.
to the wrist pin boss is less than its
Chord The imaginary line joining the centre
diameter perpendicular to the boss.
leading edge of an aerofoil to the
When the piston reaches its operating
centre trailing edge.
temperature, the difference in mass
has caused the piston to expand to a Chuck A particular type of vice used to hold
perfect circular form. a job or tool during machining
operations.
Capillary A tube possessing a hair-like bore.
Clearance The space provided between two
Casting Pouring molten metal into a mould in
working parts to allow for freedom of
which it is allowed to solidify the
movement, lubrication and variation
resultant solidified shape.
in size of position due to heat or
Centrifugal The throwing out action of a revolving distortion.
unit or mass.
Clutch A device by which two shafts or
Check To make a comparison of a rotating members may be connected
measurement of time, temperature, or disconnected while at rest or in
size, pressure or any other quantity relative motion.
with the correct [missing text] for that
Coarse pitch Largest blade angle normally used.
measurement.

C C
Co-axial Shafts or gears which have the same Convection current The movement set up in heated air or
centre line. fluid due to the part of the substance
moving away from the source of heat
Combustible Liable to burn to spring suddenly into
and carrying heat with it.
flame.
Convergent A convergent duct is one that has a
Combustion That portion of the cylinder of a
gradual reduction in the size of the
chamber (piston reciprocating engine in which the
bore, a passage which narrows in the
engine) combustion takes place. It is that
direction of flow.
portion above the piston.
Corrected (non- This is an RPM obtained by
Combustion Gas turbine engines – the assembly
dimensional) RPM correcting an observed RPM using
chamber (gas which contains the flame.
graphs or formulae to allow for the
turbine engine)
effects of temperature on the engine.
Compensated An oil pressure relief valve with a We normally correct the international
relief valve thermostatic valve to decrease the standard atmosphere (ISA)
regulated pressure when the oil conditions.
warms up. High pressure is allowed
Corrosion The slow wearing-away of a surface,
to force the cold oil through the
especially metals, by chemical action,
engine, but the pressure
e.g., oxidisation.
automatically decreases when the oil
warms up. Corrugated Having a ridged or wrinkled surface.
Compression ratio The ratio of volume before Crocus An abrasive cloth with a very fine
compression to the volume after cloth(paper) dark red abrasive on its surface. It is
compression. used for polishing of metals.
Compression ring The top piston ring used to provide a Cylinder baffles Thin sheet metal covers and
seal for the gases in the cylinder and deflectors attached to air-cooled
to transfer heat from the piston into cylinders to force air through the
the cylinder walls. cooling fins to remove the maximum
amount of heat.
Conductivity The ability of volume before
compression to the volume after
compression.
D D
Dead throttle Movement of the throttle lever with no Diaphragm A flexible partition used to transmit
corresponding response from the force.
engine. 10° of movement at the
Disconnect Uncouple or detach pipelines,
maximum rev/min position.
controls, cables, etc.
Movement corresponding response
from the engine. 10° of movement at Distributor A component to distribute electrical
the maximum rev/min position. impulses to the relevant cylinder (or
combustion chamber) spark plug.
De-icing Application of a fluid (alcohol) or heat
to a component to break up and/or Divergent A divergent duct is one that has a
prevent the formation of ice. gradual increase in the size of the
bore, a passage which widens in the
De-inhibit To remove the inhibitor from an item
direction of flow.
before being put into service (see
inhibit). Dolls eyes Black and white blinders used to
indicate fuel, oil and air pressures, to
Density The mass per unit volume of material;
pilot.
expressed as grams/cm3 or
kilograms/m3 Double acting Influenced by pressure on either side.
Density altitude That altitude in standard air which Dowel A small diameter raised plug which
compares with existing air density. fits into a matching hole, use for
locating items.
Depression A pressure below standard
atmospheric pressure. Drag The resistance offered by the air to a
blade section moving through it.
Detent That which locks or unlocks a
mechanism. Drain A small hole or pipeline leading from
a component to atmosphere, to allow
Detonation The almost instantaneous release of
fluid to vent, or to empty a tank, cavity
heat energy from fuel in an aircraft
or sump.
engine caused by the fuel-air mixture
reaching its critical pressure and Drum The hollow shaft on which the
temperature. It is an explosion rather compressor vanes are mounted.
than a smooth burning process.

D E
Duct A cast or drilled hole forming a Efficiency The ratio of the amount of heat
passage to convey air, oil, fuel, etc., (mechanical) energy converted into useful work to
through engine parts, e.g., pressure the amount of heat energy in the fuel
balance duct in the carburettor. used.
Dynamic damper A counterweight on a crankshaft of an Efficiency The ratio of the volume of the charge
aircraft engine. It is attached in such (volumetric) taken in at a cylinder, reduced to
a way that it can rock back and forth standard conditions, to the actual
while the shaft is spinning and absorb volume of the cylinder.
dynamic vibrations. It, in essence,
Elasticity The capacity of a material to return to
changes the resonant frequency of
its original dimensions on the removal
the engine propeller combination.
of distorting forces.
Empirical Relying on observation or
E experiment, not on theory.
Efficiency (of a The proportion that the actual power End float The axial movement or a gear or
machine) or effort is of the ideal power, work or shaft mounted in bearings.
effort, expressed as a percentage. An Engine, aircraft An engine that is used to propel an
engine that is 70% efficient does 70% aircraft. It includes the turbochargers
of the work it could do were there no and accessories necessary for its
losses. functioning but does not include the
Mechanical advantage propeller.
Velocity ratio Engine, dry sump An engine in which most of the
lubricating oil is carried in an external
Or tank and is fed to the pressure pump
by gravity. After it has lubricated the
Work out
engine, it is pumped back into the
Energy in tank by an engine-driven scavenger
pump.

E E
Engine, external A form of a heat engine in which the Engine, An engine with cylinders lying flat in
combustion chemical energy in the fuel is horizontally two rows, one on either side of the
converted into heat energy outside of opposed crankcase.
the engine.
Engine, inline An engine with all of the cylinders in a
Engine, four-cycle The most common event cycle for single line. The crankcase may be
(four-stroke) aircraft engines. The four-stroke five- located either above or below the
event cycle consists of an intake cylinders. If it is above, it is called an
stroke, in which the piston moves inverted inline engine.
inward with the intake valve open and
Engine, internal A form of a heat engine in which the
a compression stroke in which the
combustion chemical energy in the fuel is
piston moves outward with both
converted into heat energy inside the
valves closed. Near the top of the
engine.
compression stroke, ignition occurs.
The power stroke is an inward stroke Engine, An engine which converts the heat
of the piston with both valves closed, reciprocating energy from burning fuel into the
and the exhaust stroke occurs when reciprocating movement of the
the piston moves outward with the pistons. This movement is converted
exhaust valve open. At this point, the into rotary motion by the connecting
cycle begins again. rods and crankshaft.
Engine, gas A form of a heat engine in which the Engine, An engine assembled by the engine
turbine burning fuel adds energy to the remanufactured manufacturer or his authorised agent
compressed air and accelerates the built up of used parts which are held
air through the remainder of the to the new parts’ dimensional limits.
engine. Some of the energy is The engine is given zero-time records
extracted to turn the air compressor, and usually the same warranty and
and the remainder accelerates the air guarantee as the new engine.
to produce thrust. Some of this
energy can be converted into torque
to drive a propeller or a system of
rotors for a helicopter.

E E
Engine, rotary A form of aircraft engine popular Engine, two-cycle A reciprocating engine in which a
radial during the first world war, in which the power (two-stroke) impulse occurs on
propeller was attached to the each stroke of the piston. As the
crankcase and the pistons were piston moves outward, the fuel-air
attached to an offset cam mounted on mixture is drawn into the crankcase
the airframe. As the engine runs, the below the piston while above the
cylinders, crankcase and propellers piston the mixture is compressed.
all spin around. Near the top of the stroke, ignition
occurs and, as the piston moves
Engine, static An engine with all of the cylinders out
downward, power is exerted on the
radiating radial from a small central crankcase. A
crankshaft. Near the bottom of the
single-throw crankshaft is used for
stroke, exhaust action takes place on
each row of cylinders. All single-row
one side of the cylinder and intake
radial engines have an odd number of
action occurs on the opposite side.
cylinders, but two or four rows may
be used if more power is required. Engine, V An engine with cylinders arranged in
two rows, attached to the crankcase
Engine, turboprop A turbine engine which drives a
in the form of a ‘V’, with an angle of
propeller through a reduction gearing
between 45° and 60° between the
arrangement. Much of the energy in
banks.
the exhaust gases is converted into
torque rather than using its Engine, wet sump An engine in which all of the oil
acceleration to move the aircraft. supply is carried within the engine
itself.
Epicyclic gear Where a gear or train of gears
revolves around the circumference of
a larger gear.
Examine To make a visual survey of the
condition of an item.

E F
Extrusion Forcing plastic metal through a die of Flexible coupling Used to connect two shafts in which
required shape using hydraulic perfect rigid alignment is impossible.
pressure.
Flight manual Approved information which must be
carried in an aircraft. This includes
the engine operating limits and any
F other information that is vital to the
Fatigue The diminishing resistance to fracture pilot.
caused by fluctuating stresses. Flock Pulverised wool or cotton fibres
Fillet A radius formed at an intersection. attached to screen wire used as an
air filter. The flock covered screen is
Filtered The process in which the fluids are lightly oiled, and it holds dirt and dust,
separated from the solids. preventing it from entering the
Fit Correctly attach one item to another. engine.
Fits There are four types of fits Fluctuation To waver.
1. Force fits, requiring hydraulic Flux A substance used to clean the
pressure or heat to mat the parts. surface of a job, prevent oxidisation
2. Driving fits, requiring pressure, or and aid the flow of the material in
hammering to mate the parts. such processes as fusion, soldering,
3. Push fits, requiring to be pushed brazing and welding.
into position to mate the parts;
parts are not free to rotate. Forging Shaping the metal by hammer blows.
4. Running fits, where the parts are Fuel/air ratio The proportion of fuel to air in a
free to rotate. combustible mixture.
Flame propagation The spread of the flame from the Fulcrum The points about which a lever is
point of ignition. supported or rotates.
Flange A projecting rim, e.g., cylinder flange.
Flashpoint The temperature at which vapour will
ignite if brought into contact with a
flame.
G H
Gag To prevent movement (especially Horsepower, The amount of horsepower required
rotation). friction to turn the engine against the friction
of the moving parts and to compress
Gasket A thin sheet of material sandwiched
the charges in the cylinders.
between surfaces to make a gastight
joint. Horsepower, The total horsepower developed in
Indicated the engine. It is the sum of the brake
Gear ratio The ratio between the output and
horsepower delivered to the propeller
input speeds of a train of gears.
shaft and the friction horsepower
Generate To produce, e.g., electrical energy. required to drive the engine.
Governor A speed controlling unit. Housing That part of a mechanism which
Ground idling The amount of fuel used by the carries a bearing.
consumption engine at the lowest RPM on the Hydrometrical Combination of hydraulic and
ground. mechanical operation.
Hysteresis A lag, delay or differential in a
function or operating point in a
H system.
Half-ball valve In the shape of a half-ball, positioned
over the end of a duct and capable of
controlling fluid flow. I
Horsepower Practical measurement of power used Idler gear A gear in a train of gears which
for aircraft engines. It is the reverses the direction of motion but
accomplishment of 33,000 ft-pounds does not change the overall ratio of
of work in one minute. the train gear.
Horsepower, brake The actual horsepower delivered to Impeller The rotating member of a centrifugal
the propeller shaft of an engine. pump or blower imparts kinetic
energy.
Inconel Heat-resisting steel.

I K
Inhibit To cover temporarily with a protective Kinetic The energy contained in a body due
film to resist corrosion. to motion.
Inspect To examine and where necessary Knuckle pin The hardened steel pin that holds an
test, equipment; the review by a articulating rod in the master rod of a
supervisor of the work of tradesmen. radial engine.
Insulate To separate using a non-conductor.
Interference fit A fit between two parts in which the L
part being put into a hole is larger
than the hole itself. To assemble the Labyrinth Seal formed by a series of passages.
parts, the hole is expanded by Laminated Consisting of thin plates, one upon
heating, and the part is shrunk by the other.
chilling.
Lap To polish using fine abrasive and
ISA International standard atmosphere. production of a flat surface.
1013 mbar, 15°C.
Lift Caused by pressure differences on
Isolating To separate one system from blade surfaces.
another.
Lug An irregular projection.
Isochronous A constant time or at a constant
speed.
M
J Mach number The ratio of the velocity of a body to
the local velocity of sound.
Jointing A thin paper gasket.
Magnetic flux Lines of magnetic energy given off
Journal That part of a rotating shaft that is from a magnet.
supported in a bearing.

M N
Magneto A self-contained, permanent-magnet Nimonic A special heat-resisting alloy.
AC generator with a set of current
Nitriding A form of case hardening in which the
interrupter contacts and a step-up
steel part is heated in an atmosphere
transformer. It is used to supply the
of ammonia. The ammonia breaks
high voltage required for ignition in an
down, and its nitrogen combines with
aircraft engine.
aluminium in the steel to form a
Mandrel An accurately ground shaft for tough, abrasive-resistant aluminium-
supporting or locating a hollow part nitride surface. Cylinder walls and
during measurement or machining, crankshafts journals are nitrided.
the mandrel accurately fits the hole.
Nominal A figure or value about which is a
Master switch Switch in an electrical circuit capable permitted variation.
of isolating the whole circuit.
O
Mating Surfaces that are or will be in contact
Observed RPM The rev/minute as read directly from
with others.
the cockpit tachometer.
Mechanical The ratio of load to effort.
Oil, ashless A popular mineral oil which contains
advantage (of a
dispersant no ash-forming additives but does
machine)
contain additives which prevent
Meter An instrument used for measuring. contaminants clustering together. It
Metering A test instrument for measuring the keeps the contaminants dispersed
serviceability of the insulation of low- throughout the oil.
tension electrical wiring. Oil, detergent Mineral oil to which, ash forming
Motoring cycle Turning the engine through a starting additives has been added to increase
cycle without a light up. its resistance to oxidation. Because of
its tendency to lose carbon deposits,
it is not used in aircraft engines.
N
Neoprene A form of rubberised material used for
joints and diaphragms.
O O
Oil, synthetic Lubricating oil with a synthetic rather Overhaul, top The overhaul of the cylinders of an
than gasoline base. It has less aircraft engine. It consists of grinding
tendency toward oxidation and sludge the valves, replacing the piston rings
formation than gasoline oils. It is and doing anything else necessary to
extensively used in turbine engines restore the cylinders to their proper
and is gaining popularity in condition. The crankcase of the
reciprocating engines. engine is not opened.
Oil control ring The piston rings below the Overswing The tendency of the engine to
compression rings used to control the temporarily exceed maximum rev/min
amount of oil between the piston and on full throttle opening.
the cylinder wall. It is usually a multi-
piece ring typically fits into a groove
with holes to drain part of the oil back P
to the inside of the piston.
P1 Air intake pressure.
Oil scraper (wiper) A piston ring located at the bottom, or
ring skirt end of a piston, used to wipe the P2 Compressor outlet pressure (single
oil either toward or away from the oil spool engines).
control ring, depending on the design P3 Combustion chamber outlet pressure
of the engine. (single spool engines).
Orifice An opening at the end of a tube or P4 Jet pipe pressure (single spool
pipe. engines).
Overhaul, major The complete disassembly, cleaning, Parameter A variable quantity, which is
inspection, repair and reassembly of measurable and affects other
an engine or other components of an variables, e.g., the parameter of
aircraft. temperature varies mass flow.

P P
Permamould An engine crankcase which has been Plane of rotation The aeroplane at right angles of the
crankcase pressure-moulded in a permanent rotating shaft.
mould rather than being sand-cast. It
Planetary gears A reduction gearing arrangement in
is thinner and denser than a sand-
which the propeller shaft is attached
cast crankcase.
to an adapter holding several small
Gasoline A substance containing a form of planetary gears. These gears run
chemical energy used as fuel for between a sun gear and a ring gear,
most of our aircraft engines. It is a either of which may be driven by the
natural hydrocarbon product which crankshaft and the other is fixed into
was in ancient times, plant or animal the nose section. Planetary gears are
life but was buried under billions of efficient and do not reverse the
tons of earth. It is obtained as a liquid direction of rotation between the two
from deep wells. shafts.
Pigmented Coloured with pigment, colouring Plastic 1. The property whereby a material
matter or dye. is easily deformed.
2. A synthetic resin, capable of
Pinion The smaller of a pair of high ratio
being moulded.
gears.
Plenum Space is considered to be filled with
Piston The total volume swept by the pistons
matter (as opposed to vacuum).
displacement of an engine in one revolution of the
crankshaft. Porous chrome An electrolytically deposited coating
plating of chromium on walls of aircraft
Pitting Surfaces are said to be pitted when
engine cylinders. The surface
corrosion, excessive heating, or
contains thousands of tiny cracks
hammering has caused shallow
which hold oil to provide for cylinder
irregular depressions in the surface,
wall lubrication.
for example, the effect of rust on iron
and steel. Port An opening for the inlet and/or outlet
of gases.
Pivot Pin or hinge about which rotation may
take place. Pour point The lowest temperature at which a
fluid will pour without disturbance.
Plane Flat surfaces.
P P
Power; P The item rate of doing work. It is force Pressurise To raise the pressure in a
times distance divided by time. compartment.
Pre-ignition Ignition occurring in the cylinder Preventive Simple or minor preservation
before the time of standard ignition. It maintenance operations and replacement of small
is often caused by a local hot spot in standard parts not involving complex
the combustion chamber igniting the assembly operations.
fuel-air mixture.
Primary First.
Pressure altitude It is the altitude at which the air
Priming To fill a system with its own fluid.
pressure, ISA day, is equal to the
local air pressure during a ground Progressively To alter by easy stages.
run, irrespective of your actual height variable
above sea level.
Or, the altitude shown when the
aircraft altimeter is set to 1013 mbar. Q
Pressure, brake A computed value (not measured) of Quill drive A short drive shaft designed to shear
mean effective the average pressure that exists in at its waisted portion used to prevent
(BMEP) the cylinder of an engine during the continued driving force being
power stroke. transmitted to seized or partly seized
Pressure, The average measured pressure in components.
indicated mean the cylinder of an engine during the
effective (IMEP) power stroke.
R
Pressure, manifold The absolute pressure measured at
the appropriate point in the induction Radial Issuing as rays from a common
systems of an aircraft engine and centre.
usually expressed in inches of
Rated maximum The maximum approved brake
mercury.
continuous power horsepower developed by an aircraft
Pressure ratio The ratio of pressures at two points in engine approved for an unrestricted
an engine, e.g., P1/P2 ratio or P3/P4 period.
ratio.
R R
Rated take-off The approved brake horsepower that Rod, master The only connecting rod in a radial
horsepower is allowed to be developed by an engine whose big end passes around
aircraft engine for a period not the crankshaft. All of the other rods
exceeding five minutes. connect to the master rod and
oscillate back and forth rather than
Reciprocating Movements backwards and forwards
encircling the crankshaft.
motion in a straight line.
Root End of blade nearest hub.
Recognition This process consists of dismantling
the assembly, renewing worn and Rotor The revolving part of a component.
unserviceable parts, reassembling
and testing.
Reconnect Correctly couple pipelines, controls S
cable, etc. Scaler quantity That which is considered to have
Refit To correctly replace an item that he magnitude only.
previously been removed. Scoring The term applied to scratch-like
Replenish To refill a container to a given level, marks found on bearings or cylinder
pressure or quantity. walls and pistons caused by lack of
lubrication or by the ingress of dirt
Resonant A condition in which a mechanical between the bearing surfaces.
system is allowed to vibrate when its
natural frequency is the same as the Secondary Second.
frequency of the applied force. Servo That portion of the system which
Rich mixture One which has an excess of fuel. assists in the operation of the primary
system.
Rigid Fixed, will not move, stiff, unyielding.
Shim A thin piece of metal cut to shape,
Rod, articulating The rod in a radial engine that used between two surfaces to adjust
connects the piston to the master rod. their distance accurately apart.
It rocks back and forth rather than
encircle the crankshaft. It is called a Shroud A portion of a component which
link rod. covers or shields.

S S
Solenoid A coil of wire with a movable core. Standard The conditions for a standard
atmosphere atmosphere (ICAO) are
Specific fuel The weight of fuel required to
Pressure = 14.7 lbf/in2 absolute
produce a unit of output an hour;
= 29.92" Hg absolute
expressed as pounds of fuel/brake
Temperature = 15°C
horsepower/hour, or, pounds of
fuel/pound thrust/hour. Stator To be stationary, fixed compressor
blades.
Specific gravity The weight of a fluid by comparison
(relative density) to the same volume of water. Stellite A tough and wear-resistant metal
used for valve faces and stem tips. It
Spectrometric oil A system of oil analysis in which a
contains cobalt, tungsten, chromium,
sample is burned in an arc and the
and molybdenum.
resulting light is examined for its
wavelengths. This test can determine Stress An applied load. Tensile stress is a
the amount of the different metals force that tends to stretch a body;
suspended in the oil and can indicate shear stress, a force that tends to cut
an impending engine failure. through its section and a compressive
stress a force that tends to collapse it.
Spigot An extension which will enter and
help to locate one engine part to Stroke The distance that the piston moves
another, to ensure concentricity. from one end of its travel to the other.
Splines or A series of longitudinal ridges on the Stoichiometric Chemical combination which
serrations outer surface of a shaft, separated by ultimately uses all the products of the
grooves, these fit into a similarly reaction.
grooved and ridged counterpart.
Suction The production of a partial vacuum
Stagger angle The angle formed between the chord causing fluid to move or adhere.
line of a compressor blade and the
Surge To move up and down or to and fro,
horizontal centre line of the engine.
in waves.
Stamping Shaping and/or cutting using dies in a
Swirl The rotary motion is given to a fluid.
press.
Synchronise To cause two or more events to
happen at the same time.
T T
Tachometer Engine rev/minute gauge may be in Turbocharger An air compressor used to increase
% of maximum rev/minute. the pressure of the air entering the fuel
metering system; the compressor is
Tertiary Third.
driven by a high-speed turbine which
Test To make sure, by using the is spun by the exhaust gases leaving
necessary test equipment, that a the engine.
component functions correctly.
Thrust A propulsive force that tends to move
an aircraft forward.
U None
Thrust bearing A shaft bearing designed to take an
axial load.
The time between A recommendation of the V
overhauls (TBO) manufacturer or an aircraft engine as
Vacuum A region in which the gas pressure is
to the amount of time that the engine
considerably lower than atmospheric
can operate under average conditions
pressure. A perfect vacuum is
before it should be overhauled.
practically unobtainable.
Overhauls at this time will result in the
most economical operation. Valve clearance, The clearance between the valve
cold stem and the rocker arm of an engine
Tip End of blade furthest from the hub.
using solid valve lifters when the
Torque A force tending to rotate or twist a engine is cold.
shaft.
Valve clearance, The clearance between the valve
Trim A small adjustment to fuel flow, e.g., hot stem and the rocker arm of an engine
top temperature trimming. using solid valve lifters when the
Turbine That part of an engine which is engine is at operating temperature.
rotated by the medium of gas flow.

V V
Valve Clearance, The clearance to which a poppet Valve overlap The angular distance of crankshaft
Timing valve using solid lifters is adjusted to rotation when the piston is passing
set the cam-to crankshaft timing. The top centre on the exhaust stroke
valves in one cylinder are adjusted to when the intake and exhaust valves
this clearance, the timing is set, and are both open.
the valves are then re-adjusted to the
Vaporisation The conversion of fluids or solids into
cold clearance.
a gas.
Valve float A condition in which the frequency of
Varsol A gasoline product which is similar to
the valve opening exactly
naphtha, used as a solvent for
corresponds to the resonant
washing aircraft engine parts.
frequency of the valve spring. Under
these conditions, the valve spring will Vector quantity That which has both magnitude and
exert no closing force. direction.
Valve lag The number of degrees of crankshaft Velocity Distance divided by time or rate of
rotation after top or bottom centre at change of distance.
which the intake or exhaust valve Velocity ratio (of a Effort’s distance moved; load’s
opens or closes. For example, if the machine) distance moved
intake valve closes 60° after bottom
centre on the compression stroke, it Vent A small escape pipe which carries off
has a valve lag of 60°. excess pressures or vapours.
Valve lead The number of degrees of rotation Venturi A reduction in the bore of a duct, with
before the top or bottom centre at convergent upstream and divergent
which the intake or exhaust valve downstream walls that increases the
opens or closes. For example, if an speed of the fluid flow.
intake valve opens 15° before the Vibration Oscillation, rapid motion to and fro, of
piston reaches the top centre on the a liquid or solid whose equilibrium
exhaust stroke, it is said to have a has been disturbed.
15°-valve lead.
Viscosity The reluctance of a fluid to flow, or to
change shape easily.

V
Viscosity index The measure of the change in
viscosity of oil with a change in
temperature.
Volatile Easily vaporised.
W
Weak mixture One which has an excess of air.
Windmilling The act of being turned by the air
(motion) stream.
Wipe contact Where contact is made between a
fixed and a moving object, e.g.
carbon brushes in a magneto.
Work The product of force and distance.
Wrist pin A hardened and polished steel pin
that attaches the small end of a
connecting rod into a piston.
X None
Y None
Z None


16.2 Engine Performance

Copyright notice
Knowledge levels – Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft conjunction with physical laws describing the subject.
Maintenance Licence • The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches,
LEVEL 3
subject.
appropriate.

© Copyright 2020 Module 16.2 Engine Performance Issue 2 – July 2020
Knowledge
Part-66 Levels
Objective
Ref.
A B1 B3
Power calculation and 16.2 1 2 2
measurement;
Factors affecting engine power;
Mixtures/leaning, pre-ignition

Table of Contents
Engine performance ____________________________ 6 Detonation and pre-ignition _____________________ 48
Work _______________________________________ 6 Detonation __________________________________ 48
Horsepower __________________________________ 6 Pre-ignition__________________________________ 52
Indicated horsepower (iHP) ______________________ 8
Friction mean effective pressure (FMEP) __________ 12 Factors affecting engine power __________________ 54
Mechanical efficiency _________________________ 14 Temperature and density of air __________________ 54
Brake horsepower ____________________________ 16 Humidity ____________________________________ 54
Shaft horsepower ____________________________ 18 Fuel mixture _________________________________ 54
Horsepower conversions_______________________ 18 Compression ________________________________ 55
Fuel metering ________________________________ 56
Power calculation and measurement _____________ 20 Idle mixture _________________________________ 60
Definitions __________________________________ 20
The induction manifold _________________________ 62
Power measuring machines ____________________ 22 Operational effect of valve clearance ______________ 64
Testing with a hydraulic dynamometer ____________ 22 Ignition system _______________________________ 69
Testing with a test club propeller _________________ 26 Propeller governor ____________________________ 70
Calibration records ___________________________ 30 Overlapping phases of engine operation ___________ 72
Test cell requirements _________________________ 32 Engine power troubleshooting ___________________ 73
Engine instruments ___________________________ 32
The engine test ______________________________ 36
Mixtures and leaning __________________________ 38
General ____________________________________ 38
Air/fuel ratio _________________________________ 38
Specific fuel consumption (sfc) __________________ 38
Stoichiometric mixture _________________________ 38
Lean and rich mixtures ________________________ 40
Fuel metering devices _________________________ 42
Definition of peak EGT ________________________ 44
Limitations of power at peak EGT ________________ 44
Best economy mixture_________________________ 45
Best power mixture ___________________________ 45
Leaning Lycoming O-540/IO-540 ________________ 46


Engine performance
All aircraft engines are rated according to their ability to do work The standard unit of mechanical power is horsepower (hp).
and produce power. This section presents an explanation of Late in the 18th century, James Watt, the inventor of the steam
work and power and how they are calculated. Also discussed engine, found that an English workhorse could work at the rate
are the various efficiencies that govern the power output of a of 550 ft.lb per second, or 33,000 ft.lb per minute, for a
reciprocating engine. reasonable length of time. From his observations came the unit
of horsepower, which is the standard unit of mechanical power
Work in the imperial system of measurement. To calculate the hp
A physicist defines work as force times distance. Work done by rating of an engine, divide the power developed in ft.lb per
a force acting on a body is equal to the magnitude of the force minute by 33,000, or the power in ft.lb per second by 550.
multiplied by the distance through which the force acts.
ft.lb per min.
Work (W) = Force (F) × Distance (d) One hp =
33,000
or
Several standards measure work. The most common unit is
called foot-pound (ft.lb). If a one-pound mass is raised one foot, ft.lb per sec.
one ft.lb of work has been performed. The greater the mass is 550
and/or the higher the distance is, the greater the work
performed.
As stated above, work is the product of force and distance, and
Horsepower power is work per unit of time. Consequently, if a 33,000 lb
The output from a piston engine is known as power, but what weight is lifted through a vertical distance of 1 foot in 1 minute,
is power? the power expended is 33,000 ft.lb per minute, or precisely
1 hp.
Power is the rate of doing work. These factors to be taken into
consideration when calculating power are: Work is performed not only when a force is applied for lifting;
force may be applied in any direction. If a 100 lb weight is
• the force exerted;
dragged along the ground, a force is still being applied to
• the distance the force moves; and
perform work, although the direction of the resulting motion is
• the time required to do the work.
approximately horizontal. The amount of this force would
depend upon the roughness of the ground.

Indicated horsepower (iHP)
The indicated horsepower produced by an engine is the Where:
horsepower calculated from the indicated mean effective
pressure and the other factors which affect the power output of P = indicated mean effective pressure, in psi
an engine. Indicated horsepower is the power developed in the L = length of the stroke, in feet or fractions of a foot
combustion chambers without reference to friction losses within A = area of the piston head or cross-sectional area of the
the engine. This horsepower is calculated as a function of the cylinder, in square inches
actual cylinder pressure recorded during engine operation. N = number of power strokes per minute
K = number of cylinders
To facilitate the indicated horsepower calculations, a
mechanical indicating device, such as is attached to the engine In the formula above, the area of the piston multiplied by the
cylinder, scribes the actual pressure existing in the cylinder indicated mean effective pressure gives the force acting on the
during the complete operating cycle. The kind of graph shown piston in pounds. This force multiplied by the length of the
below can represent this press variation. Notice that the stroke in feet gives the work performed in one power stroke,
cylinder pressure rises on the compression stroke reaches a which, multiplied by the number of power strokes per minute,
peak after the top centre and decreases as the piston moves gives the number of ft.lb per minute of work produced by one
down on the power stroke. Since the cylinder pressure varies cylinder. Multiplying this result by the number of cylinders in the
during the operating cycle, an average pressure (line AB) is engine gives the amount of work performed in ft.lb. Since hp is
computed. This average pressure, if applied steadily during the defined as work done at the rate of 33,000 ft.lb per minute, the
time of the power stroke, would do the same amount of work total number of ft.lb of work performed is divided by 33,000 to
as the varying pressure during the same period. This average find the indicated horsepower.
pressure is known as indicated mean effective pressure and is
included in the indicated horsepower calculation with other
engine specifications. If the characteristics and the indicated
mean effective pressure of an engine are known, it is possible
to calculate the indicated horsepower rating.
The indicated horsepower for a four-stroke engine can be

calculated from the following formula, in which the letter
symbols in the numerator are arranged to spell the word
“PLANK” to assist in memorising the formula:
PLANK
Indicated horsepower =
33,000
Piston engine indicated power diagram

Example
Given:
Indicated mean effective pressure (P) = 165 lb/in2

Stroke (L) = 6 in. or 0.5 ft.
Bore = 5.5 in
RPM = 3,000
No. of cylinders (K) = 12
PLANK
Indicated hp =
33,000 ft.lb/min.
Find indicated hp.
A is found by using the equation:

A = ¼ πD2
A = ¼ × 3.1416 × 5.5 in. × 5.5 in.
= 23.76 in2
N is found by multiplying the RPM by ½

(1 power stroke for every 2 RPM):
N = ½ × 3,000 = 1,500
Now, substituting in the formula:
165 lb/in2 × 0.5 ft × 23.76 in2 × 1,500 × 12

Indicated hp =
33,000 ft.lb/min.
Indicated hp = 1069.20


Friction mean effective pressure (FMEP)
The lost mechanical work is regarded as ‘friction’ work. It has
the generic name friction, but it contains all the engine losses:
pumping losses, actual friction (mechanical rubbing) losses
and auxiliary devices (accessory) losses.
Through the combustion process, we get a theoretical amount

of work which can be used for propulsion, called indicated work
Wi. Subtracting the friction losses work Wf, we end up with an
effective work We, which can be used for propulsion.
We = Wi – Wf (1)
The “friction” losses work is made up from:
• pumping work Wp
• rubbing friction work Wr
• auxiliary devices work Wa
Wf = Wp + Wr + Wa (2)
We can also use normalised parameters, like mean effective

pressure (MEP), to define “friction” losses. The brake mean
effective pressure (BMEP) is what we have at the crankshaft.
BMEP is the difference between the indicated mean effective
pressure (IMEP) and “friction” mean effective pressure (FMEP).
BMEP = IMEP – FMEP (3)
where the “friction” mean effective pressure (FMEP) is the sum

of pumping mean effective pressure (PMEP), mechanical
rubbing mean effective pressure (RMEP) and auxiliary mean
effective pressure (AMEP).
FMEP = PMEP + RMEP + AMEP (4)


Mechanical efficiency
The mechanical efficiency of the engine is the ratio between Since the internal combustion engine is a complex machinery,
the brake mean effective pressure and the indicated mean with a multitude of components and systems, there are many
effective pressure: sources for energy losses:
BMEP • mechanical rubbing losses: piston assembly, connecting

ƞm = (5)
IMEP rod, crankshaft, balance shaft, valve train system;
• pumping losses: intake and exhaust; and
• auxiliary device losses: oil pump, fuel pump, water
Replacing equation (3) in (5) gives: pump, alternator, AC compressor, etc.
IMEP – FMEP FMEP The moving parts of the engine (piston assembly, connection
ƞm = = 1 – (6)
IMEP IMEP rod, crankshaft and valve train) account for more than half of
the FMEP. Between these components, half of the losses come
from the piston assembly:
From equation (6), we can see that the lower is the friction
mean effective pressure (FMEP), the higher is the mechanical
Components Average values of the
efficiency of the internal combustion engine. So, reducing the
friction losses
friction losses for a given engine reduces fuel consumption and
improve the power output. Piston assembly 49%
Also, the heat losses of an internal combustion engine need to Crankshaft system 18%
be dissipated by the cooling system and the lubrication system. Connecting rod system 16%
Lowering the FMEP reduces the component size in the cooling
Valvetrain system 17%
and lubrication system, which means further efficiency
improvement.
The friction losses are not constant; they depend on engine
speed and temperature. The lower the temperature, the higher
the oil viscosity, the higher the friction losses.

Engine components
Engine friction distribution graph

Brake horsepower
The indicated horsepower calculation discussed in the The collar and drum form a friction brake, which can be
preceding paragraph is the theoretical power of a frictionless adjusted by a wheel. An arm of a known length is rigidly
engine. The total horsepower lost in overcoming friction must attached to or is a part of the hinged collar and terminates at a
be subtracted from the indicated horsepower to arrive at the point that rests on a set of scales. As the propeller shaft rotates,
actual horsepower delivered to the propeller. The power it tends to carry the hinged collar of the brake with it and is
delivered to the propeller for useful work is known as brake prevented from doing so only by the arm that rests on the scale.
horsepower (bhp). The difference between indicated and The scale indicates the force necessary to arrest the motion of
brake horsepower is known as friction horsepower, which is the arm. If the resulting force registered on the scale is
the horsepower required to overcome mechanical losses, such multiplied by the length of the arm, the resulting product is the
as the pumping action of the pistons, the friction of the pistons, torque exerted by the rotating shaft. For example, if the scale
and the friction of all other moving parts. registers 200 lb and the length of the arm is 3.18 ft, the torque
exerted by the shaft is:
The measurement of an engine’s bhp involves the
measurement of a quantity known as torque or twisting 200 lb × 3.18 ft = 636 lb.ft
moment. Torque is the product of a force and the distance of
the force from the axis about which it acts, or Once the torque is known, the work done per revolution of the
propeller shaft can be computed without difficulty by the
Torque = Force × Distance (at right angles to the force) equation:
Torque is a measure of load and is correctly expressed in Work per revolution = 2π × torque
pound.inches (lb.in) or pound.feet (lb.ft). Torque should not be
confused with work, which is expressed in inch.pounds (in.lb) If work per revolution is multiplied by the RPM, the result is work
or foot-pounds (ft.lb). per minute or power. If the work is expressed in ft.lb per minute,
this quantity is divided by 33,000. The result is the brake
There are numerous devices for measuring torque, such as a horsepower of the shaft.
dynamometer or a torque meter. One straightforward type of
device that can be used to demonstrate torque calculations is Power = Work per revolution × RPM
the Prony brake. All of these torque-measuring devices are and
used for calculating the power output of an engine on a test bhp = Work per revolution × RPM
stand. It consists mainly of a hinged collar, or brake, which can 33,000
be clamped to a drum splined to the propeller shaft.
2πr × force on the scales (lb) × length of arm (ft) × RPM
33,000

Prony brake principle
Aero engine in a test stand

Shaft horsepower
Shaft horsepower (SHP) is the power delivered to the propeller
shaft of an aircraft powered by a piston engine.
This may be measured, or estimated, from the indicated

horsepower given a standard figure for the losses in the
transmission (typical figures are around 10%).
Effective (true) horsepower

Effective horsepower (EHP), or true horsepower (THP) is the
power converted to useful work. In the case of a road vehicle,
this is the power turned into forward motion as measured on a
chassis dynamometer.
Horsepower conversions
1 horsepower = 550 ft.lb/second

1 horsepower = 33,000 ft.lb/minute
1 horsepower = 42.44 BTU/minute
1 horsepower = 0.7456999 kilowatts
1 kilowatt = 1.34102 horsepower

Distribution of engine power

Power calculation and measurement
As a technician, you must know the various ways that engines Power is the rate at which work is done. It takes more power to
and engine performance are measured. An engine may be work rapidly than to work slowly. Engines are rated by the
measured in terms of cylinder diameter, piston stroke, and the amount of work they can do per minute. An engine that does
number of cylinders. It may be measured, performance-wise, more work per minute than another is more powerful. The work
by the torque and horsepower it develops and by efficiency. capacity of an engine is measured in horsepower (hp). Through
testing, it was determined that an average horse could lift a
Definitions 200 lb weight to a height of 165 ft one minute. The equivalent
Work is the movement of a body against an opposing force. In of one horsepower can be reached by multiplying 165 ft by
the mechanical sense of the term, this is done when resistance 200 lb (work formula) for a total of 33,000 ft.lb per minute.
is overcome by force acting through a measured distance.
Work is measured in units of foot-pounds. One foot-pound of The formula for horsepower is the following:
work is equivalent to lifting a 1 lb weight a distance of 1 ft. Work
is always the force exerted over a distance. When there is no ft.lb per min L×W
HP = =
movement of an object, there is no work, regardless of how 33,000 33,000 × t
much force is exerted
L = length, in feet, through which W is moved
Energy is the ability to do work. Energy takes many forms, such W = force, in pounds, that is exerted through distance L
as heat, light, sound, stored energy (potential), or as an object T = time, in minutes, required to move W through L
in motion (kinetic energy). The energy performs work by
changing from one form to another.
Take the operation of a car, for example. It does the following:

When a car is sitting still and not running, it has potential energy
stored in the gasoline. When a car is set in motion, the gasoline
is burned, hanging its potential energy into heat energy. The
engine then transforms the heat energy into kinetic energy by
forcing the car into motion. Brakes accomplish the action of
stopping the car. By the action of friction, the brakes transform
kinetic energy back to heat energy. When all the kinetic energy
is transformed into heat energy, the car stops.

Lifting 1 lb through 1 ft requires 1 lb/ft of energy
Horsepower calculation principle

Power measuring machines
Aircraft piston engines require testing after overhaul to ensure Improper piston ring conditioning, or run-in, may result in
that the engines produce the rated power within the parameters unsatisfactory engine operation with high oil consumption. A
and limits set by the manufacturers. There are three basic process called bearing burnishing creates a highly polished
methods to measure the engine power output, (1) by using a surface on new bearings and bushings installed during
dynamometer which indicates the power absorbed by it, (2) by overhaul. The burnishing is usually accomplished during the
using a torque measuring system in conjunction with a load first periods of the engine run-in at comparatively slow engine
dissipating device and (3) by using a calibrated test club speeds.
propellers (TCPs).
The failure of any part during engine testing or run-in requires
The procedures and equipment used in determining that an that the engine is returned, repaired, and wholly retested. After
engine is ready for airworthy service and is in excellent an engine has completed test requirements, it is then specially
mechanical condition, usually requires the use of a test stand, treated to prevent corrosion if it is shipped or stored before
or test cell, although the aircraft can be used. The method of being installed in an aircraft. During the final run-in period
engine testing or run-in that takes place during overhaul before during testing, the engines are operated on the proper grade of
delivery of the engine is critical to the airworthiness of the fuel prescribed for the particular kind of engine. The oil system
engine. It must be emphasised that engine run-in is as vital as is serviced with a mixture of corrosion-preventive compound
any other phase of engine overhaul, for it is how the quality of and engine oil. The temperature of this mixture is maintained at
a new or newly overhauled engine is checked. It is the final step 105°C to 121°C. Near the end of the final run-in, the corrosion-
in the preparation of an engine for service. Thus, the reliability preventive mixture (CPM) is used as the engine lubricant. The
and potential service life of an engine are in question until it has engine induction passages and combustion chambers are also
satisfactorily passed the cell test. treated with CPM by an aspiration method. CPM is drawn or
breathed into the engine.
The test serves a dual purpose. First, it accomplishes piston
ring run-in and bearing burnishing. Second, it provides valuable Testing with a hydraulic dynamometer
information that is used to evaluate engine performance and Hydraulic dynamometers (also referred to as water brakes)
determine engine condition. Piston rings must be seated have been designed to be compact, robust and to allow easy
correctly in the cylinder in which they are installed, to provide maintenance. Some of these models are available with a
proper oil flow to the upper portion of the cylinder barrel walls streamlined, fabricated base.
with a minimum loss of oil. The process is called piston ring run-
in (break-in) and is accomplished chiefly by controlled These engine dynos are fitted with two half couplings, which,
operation of the engine in the high-speed range. with the rotor, are oil-injected onto the shaft. The standard
machines run in grease lubricated rolling element bearings.

Dynamometer showing lever and load cell

The hydraulic dynamometer working compartment consists of
individual semi-circular shaped vanes cast into stainless steel
rotor and stators. Water flowing in a toroidal vortex pattern
around these vanes creates a torque reaction through the
dynamometer casing which is resisted and measured by a
precision load-cell torque-testing apparatus involves a load cell
with a torque arm arrangement mounted to a specific load. As
a force is applied to the load, the armature compresses the load
cell. From the load cell data and moment arm length, torque
information can be calculated. The dynamometer load is
controlled by a ‘butterfly’ water outlet valve, operated by a
closed-loop electro-hydraulic servo system. The power
absorbed by the dynamometer is carried away by the water in
the form of heat.
The dynamometer is operated manually by opening or closing

the inlet valve to the absorber system, thereby restricting the
flow of water to the rotor blades and causing less load on the
engine. At a given set throttle position, the engine output speed
will vary between idle and redline depending on how open the
inlet flow valve to the dynamometer is. With the valve in a
completely open state, the engine will stall as it has more load
on it than the engine can produce. Measurements of engine
power require shaft speed as well as torque produced by the
absorber system. A hall effect sensor is implemented on the
output shaft of the engine to measure shaft speed. For torque,
a load cell is mounted on rod ends at a specific distance away
from the axis of rotation

Computerised testbed displays Lycoming engine mounted in test cradle
and coupled to dynamometer
Lever on LHS – engine power lever
Lever on RHS – dynamometer water valve control (resistance)

Testing with a test club propeller
Piston engine testing using TCP, also referred to as the fan The power absorption characteristics of the multiple-pitch-
method of testing, consists of running the engine on a test setting TCPs are varied during calibration, by resetting the pitch
stand with a calibrated TCP and test instrumentation as stops incorporated in the hub. These settings must not be
specified by the manufacturer. Engine power output under this altered without further recalibration at the altered settings.
test condition is indicated by the engine revolutions per minute
(RPM), corrected for the atmospheric conditions prevailing at A flight propeller may be modified for use as a TCP. The design
the time of the test. This method of engine power measurement of the modification should include an adjustment procedure for
is critically dependant on the use of a calibrated TCP, test use during calibration and regular maintenance actions to
instruments and application of correction factors. ensure its integrity. Once a flight prop has been used as a TCP,
it should not be used again for flight purposes because of
TCPs recommended by the engine manufacturers must be higher stresses induced during engine testing.
used. Where the manufacturer has only provided the
specifications of acceptable TCPs, an appropriate choice has The calibration of a TCP is best carried out in the engine test
to be made and substantiated. An alternate TCP can be used cell using a torque measuring system. However, where engines
per approved data, which takes into consideration the power are tested in the open air, without the confines of test cell walls,
dispersal characteristics, ability to withstand prolonged a TCP could be calibrated in a similar facility.
operation under test conditions, and ability to meet engine-
cooling requirements. In general, TCPs are calibrated at corrected takeoff power
subject to engine manufacturer’s instructions. The engine
TCPs are available in two types: those that have a single set instrumentation, installation details including cooling shrouds
pitch that cannot be altered and those that have multiple pre- and safety precautions, are to be per manufacturer’s
set pitch positions that can be selected and locked to suit instructions. Data used for TCP calibration must be corrected
engine type and model. TCPs with single set pitch are usually for the atmospheric conditions, because a calibrated TCP that
made with square-tipped blades of laminated wood is adequately maintained can remain in service for several
construction. The blades are made wide to provide maximum years, under different atmospheric conditions, without the need
power absorption and airflow with minimum tip diameter. These for recalibration.
TCPs are initially made with larger diameters than required and
are “cropped” during initial calibration to meet the power and
speed requirements of a specific engine.

Engine testing with test club propellers

Before the start of a calibration engine run, it is recommended For supercharged engines
that the target brake horsepower (BHPt) and the target speed The target speed (RPMt) is calculated by the following method:
(RPMt) are calculated.
In the chart, draw a vertical line from the observed air
The target brake horsepower (BHPt) is calculated by the temperature on the horizontal scale to the correction curve, and
following formula for un-supercharged engines at full throttle. from that point of intersection, draw a horizontal line. The
intersection of the horizontal line and the vertical scale gives
the correction factor (K).
RPMr
RPMt =
K
Where
Where RPMt = target speed to be achieved during test club

calibration engine run;
BHPt = target BHP to be achieved during test club calibration RPMr = rated takeoff engine speed at sea level conditions;
engine run; K = correction factor read from the chart below.
BHPr = rated take off BHP of the engine at sea level
conditions;
Po = atmospheric pressure in hectopascals;
to = air intake temperature, °C;
R = engine compression ratio.

RPM correction factor determination

A calibrated engine is a new or newly overhauled and tested Calibration records
engine that meets all of the manufacturer’s performance data. The following data should be recorded for the TCP after it has
A calibrated engine may be used for TCP calibration. met the calibration requirements.
Calibrated instruments must be used along with cooling
shrouds as specified by the manufacturer. The engine run For the fixed-pitch wooden TCP:
procedures, performance limitations, and safety precautions
• Record the date of calibration, tip diameter, the rated
specified by the manufacturer must be followed at all times.
Run the engine to the target speed (RPMt ) and at this speed; power, and speed for which it is calibrated. It is
the power developed as measured by the torque measuring recommended to mark this data on the TCP.
system should indicate the target power (BHPt). A tolerance of • Record the facility and torque measuring system or
±20 RPM can be applied for speed and –2% for BHP during the engine serial number used for calibration.
calibration run. Wooden TCPs can be ‘cropped’ per • Record the chord and pitch angle of each blade at
manufacturers’ instructions to achieve the calibration approximately 150 mm (6") intervals.
• Record the physical condition of the prop, nicks, dents,
requirements, whereas for the adjustable pitch propellers, the
pitch stops can be adjusted to meet the requirements. When a erosion, and other damage using diagrams where
flight propeller is used as a TCP, the adjustment procedure appropriate.
• Carry out a static balance.
must be in accord with the document which approves its use as
a TCP. The calibration run should be repeated at least three For the adjustable pitch metal TCP:
times to ensure consistent results, with each run meeting the
calibration requirements. • Record the date of calibration, the power, and speed for
which it is calibrated. It is recommended to mark this
Before the start of a calibration engine run, it is recommended data on the TCP.
that the target brake horsepower (BHPt) and the target speed • Mark the pitch stop settings so that any changes can be
(RPMt) are calculated. easily detected.
• Record the facility and torque measuring system or
It is preferable to use a test facility with a torque measuring
system to calibrate a TCP because the power developed, and engine serial number used for calibration.
• Record the physical condition of the prop, nicks, dents,
RPM can be measured simultaneously during calibration runs.
The following procedure applies to such a facility and may be erosion, and other damage using diagrams where
used where the manufacturer’s instructions for TCP calibration appropriate.
• Carry out static balance and crack-check using
are not available.
fluorescent penetrant inspection (FPI).
A record of the engines tested should be maintained for each

TCP.
Engine testing with test club propellers

Test cell requirements
The test cell requires an area to mount and hold the engine for • Carburettor air temperature gauge
testing. The cell needs to have the controls, instruments, and • Fuel pressure gauge
any special equipment to evaluate the total performance of the • Fuel flowmeter
engine. A test club should be used for testing instead of a flight • Manifold pressure gauge
propeller. A test club provides more cooling airflow and the • Oil temperature gauge
correct amount of load. Alternatively, the engine will be coupled • Oil pressure gauge
to a dynamometer. The operational tests and test procedures • Tachometer
vary with individual engines, but the basic requirements are
• Exhaust gas temperature gauge
generally closely related.
• Cylinder head temperature gauge
Engine instruments • Torque meter
The test cell control room contains the controls used to operate
the engine and the instruments used to measure various Instrument markings, ranges of operation, minimum and
temperatures and pressures, fuel flow, and other factors. These maximum limits, and the interpretation of these markings are
devices are necessary for providing an accurate check and an general to all the instruments. Generally, the instrument
evaluation of the operating engine. The control room is marking system consists of three colours; red, yellow, and
separate from, but adjacent to, space (test cell) that houses the green. A red line, or mark, indicates a point beyond which a
engine being tested. The safe, economical, and reliable testing dangerous operating condition exists. A red arc indicates a
of modem aircraft engines depends mostly upon the use of dangerous operating range due generally to an engine
instruments. In engine run-in procedures, the same basic propeller vibration range. This arc can be passed through, but
engine instruments are used as when the engine is installed in the engine cannot be operated in this area. Of the two, the red
the aircraft, plus some additional connections to these mark is used more commonly and is located radially on the
instruments, and some indicating and measuring devices that cover glass or dial fan. The yellow arc covets a given range of
cannot be practically installed in the aircraft. Instruments used operation and is an indication of caution. Generally, the yellow
in the testing procedures are inspected and calibrated arc is located on the outer circumference of the instrument
periodically, as are instruments installed in the aircraft; thus, cover glass or dial face. The green arc shows a normal and
accurate information concerning engine operation is ensured. safe range of operation. When the markings appear on the
cover glass, a white line is used as an index mark, often called
Engine instruments can operate using different methods, some a slippage mark. The white radial mark indicates any
mechanically, some electrically, and some by sensing the direct movement between the cover glass and the case, a condition
pressure of air or liquid. Some of the basic instruments are: that would cause mislocation of the other range and limit
markings.

Digital engine test ‘run screen’ of engine on a dynamometer

Another device that measures the actual usable horsepower of Torque is a force that, when applied, tends to result in twisting
an engine is the prony brake. It isn’t often used today but is an object, rather than its physical movement. When the torque
simple to understand. It is useful for learning the concept of is being measured, the force that is applied must be multiplied
horsepower-measuring tools. It consists of a flywheel by the distance from the axis of the object. Torque is measured
surrounded by a large braking device. One end of an arm is in pound-feet (not to be confused with work which is measured
attached to the braking device, while the other end exerts in foot-pounds). When torque is applied to an object, the force
pressure on a scale. In operation, the engine is attached to and and distance from the axis depend on each other.
drives the flywheel. The braking device is tightened until the
engine is slowed to a predetermined RPM. As the braking For example, when 100 ft.lb of torque is applied to a nut, it is
device slows the engine, the arm attached to it exerts pressure equivalent to a 100-lb force being applied from a wrench that is
on a scale. 1-foot long. When a 2 ft-long wrench is used, only a 50 lb force
is required.
Based on the reading at the scale and engine RPM, a brake
horsepower valve is calculated by using the following formula: Do not confuse torque with work or with power. Both work and
power indicate motion, but torque does not. It is merely a
2π × length of arm × engine RPM × scale reading turning effort that the engine applies to the wheels through
33,000 gears and shafts.
It must be noted that 6.28 and 33,000 are constants in the

formula, meaning they never change. For example, a given
engine exerts a force of 300 lb on a scale through a 2 ft-long
arm when the brake device holds the speed of the engine at
3,000 RPM.
By using the formula, calculate the brake horsepower as

follows:
342.55 brake horsepower

2π × 2 × 3000 × 300 =
33,000

Prony brake

The engine test
As previously stated, the engine test at the end of an engine Friction is the resistance to motion between two objects in
overhaul is essential to do the initial break-in, determine correct contact with each other. The reason a sledge does not slide on
operation and engine performance. bare earth is because of friction. It slides on snow because
snow offers little resistance, while the bare earth offers a great
During the engine test, it would be typical to complete the deal of resistance. Friction is both desirable and undesirable in
following operations: an automobile or any other vehicle. Friction in an engine is
undesirable because it decreases the power output; in other
• a run-in; words, it dissipates some of the energy the engine produces.
• an oil consumption run; This is overcome by using oil, so moving components in the
• an oil-pressure relief-valve test and adjustment; engine slide or roll over each other smoothly. Frictional
• an idle speed and mixture adjustment; horsepower (fHP) is the power needed to overcome engine
• a magneto timing check; and friction. It is a measure of resistance to movement between
• a performance check. engine parts.
Engine torque is a rating of the turning force at the engine Frictional horsepower is power lost to friction. It reduces the
crankshaft. When combustion pressure pushes the piston amount of power left to propel a vehicle. Friction, however, is
down, a strong rotating force is applied to the crankshaft. This desirable in clutches and brakes, since friction is exactly what
turning force is sent to the transmission or transaxle, driveline is needed for them to perform their function correctly.
or drivelines, and drive wheels, moving the vehicle. Engine
torque specifications are provided in a shop manual for a One other term you often encounter is inertia. Inertia is a
particular vehicle. One example, 78 lb/ft @ 3,000 RPM, is characteristic of all material objects. It causes them to resist
given for one particular engine; this engine is capable of change in speed or direction of travel. A motionless object
producing 78 lb/ft of torque when operating at 3,000 revolutions tends to remain at rest, and a moving object tends to keep
per minute. moving at the same speed and in the same direction.
An excellent example of inertia is the tendency of your car to

keep moving even after you have removed your foot from the
accelerator. You apply the brake to overcome the inertia of the
car or its tendency to keep moving.

Engine run-in test limits
Fuel pressure Fuel – minimum Maximum oil Oil pressure Oil inlet Oil Max cylinder head Full throttle
psi – at inlets to octane rating consumption operating – psi temp °F outlet* temp bayonet engine speed
carb or injector aviation grade lbs/hr qt/hr Normal Idle temp °F location °F RPM
O-235-C1, -C1B, -C2A, -C2B, -E 2-5 80/87 0.9 0.50 75-85 25 165-230 190-210 500 2,800
O-235-F, -G, -J 2-5 100/130 0.9 0.50 75-85 25 165-230 190-210 500 2,800
O-235-C2C,-H2C 2-5 80/87 0.9 0.50 75-85 25 165-230 190-210 500 2,600
O-290-D, -D2 2-5 80/87 1.0 0.56 75-85 25 165-230 190-210 500 2,600
O-230-A, -E 2-5 80/87 1.2 0.67 75-85 25 165-230 190-210 500 2,700
O-320-B, -D 2-5 91/96 1.2 0.67 75-85 25 165-230 190-210 500 2,700
IO-320-A, -E 18-28 80/87 1.2 0.67 75-85 25 165-230 190-210 500 2,700
IO-320-B, -D 18-28 91/96 1.2 0.67 75-85 25 165-230 190-210 500 2,700
LIO-320-B 18-28 91/96 1.2 0.67 75-85 25 165-230 190-210 500 2,700
IO-320-C 18-28 100/130 1.2 0.67 75-85 25 165-230 190-210 500 2,700
LIO-320-C 18-28 100/130 1.2 0.67 75-85 25 165-230 190-210 500 2,700
AIO-320-A, -B, -C 18-28 91/96 1.2 0.67 75-85 25 165-230 190-210 500 2,700
O-340-A 2-5 91/96 1.3 0.72 75-85 25 165-230 190-210 500 2,700
O-360-A, -C (except -A1C, -C3B and -C2D) 2-5 91/96 1.4 0.78 75-85 25 165-230 190-210 500 2,700
*– desired during oil consumption run.
**– do not exceed 3,150 RPM – for test stand at 24-25 in.Hg manifold pressure. For oil consumption run, operated 3,100 RPM at 24 in.Hg manifold pressure.
Examples of engine run-in test limits
Recommended run-in schedule

RPM Load Time (minutes) Remarks
1200 Propeller load 10

1500 Propeller load 10
00 Propeller load 10 Check magneto drop
2000 Propeller load 10 off. Do not exceed
125 RPM on either
2200 Propeller load 10 magneto or 35 RPM
2400 Propeller load 10 between magnetos.
Normal rated* Propeller load 15
Normal rated* Propeller load 60 Oil consumption run
*See engine run-in test limits table

Mixtures and leaning
General Specific fuel consumption (sfc)
Fuel, which is a hydrocarbon, combines with the oxygen and The thermal efficiency of an engine is an important
burns when ignited by the spark plug; however, the nitrogen in consideration. However, the specific fuel consumption, which
the air is an inert gas and does not burn, therefore slowing is the number of pounds of fuel burned per hour to produce
down the rate of combustion to maintain acceptable each brake horsepower, is a more precise measure of engine
temperatures. performance.
The fuel used should have excellent calorific value, that is, the Stoichiometric mixture
amount of heat from a given weight of fuel, as this affects the The air/fuel ratio determines whether a mixture is combustible
payload or range of the aircraft. It should be non-corrosive to at all, how much energy is being released, and how many
the fuel lines and components. It should have good volatility, unwanted pollutants are produced in the reaction. Typically, a
which is the tendency to evaporate to give a smooth start in range of fuel to air ratios exists, outside of which ignition does
cold conditions, but should not vaporise too rapidly when hot, not occur. These are known as the lower and upper explosive
as this would cause vapour locks in the fuel lines. limits. The air/fuel ratio is an important measure for anti-
pollution and performance-tuning reasons. If exactly enough air
Air/fuel ratio is provided to burn all of the fuel completely, the ratio is known
At low engine power and RPM, the gas flow through the as the stoichiometric mixture, often abbreviated to ‘stoich’.
cylinders is slow. Due to valve overlap, the incoming gas
(mixture) is diluted by the burnt gas still in the cylinders, so the Ratios lower than stoichiometric are considered “rich”. Rich
mixture has to be enriched to ensure smooth running is mixtures are less efficient, but may produce more power and
maintained as the RPM are decreased. burn cooler. Ratios higher than stoichiometric are considered
“lean.” Lean mixtures are more efficient but may cause higher
This mixture requirement is dependent upon: temperatures, which can lead to the formation of nitrogen
oxides. Some engines are designed with features to allow lean-
• engine speed; and burn.
• power output.
The stoichiometric ratio is the exact ratio of air to fuel at which
If you look at the diagram below you will see that the rich or complete combustion takes place. The stoichiometric ratio of
normal cruise range is about 13:1 to 14:1, from there down to combustion varies for various fuels. If the engine has less air
the idle, and from there up to takeoff, the mixture is enriched to than the stoichiometric ratio, it is a rich mixture, because it is
10:1. The economy cruise line is a result of pilot selection when rich in gasoline. A stoichiometric ratio is neither too rich nor too
flight level and cruise power have been established. lean. It contains just enough oxygen to burn all the fuel.
Typical mixture requirements

Lean and rich mixtures
The chemically correct mixture, or air/fuel ratio, of gasoline, is At full-power takeoff, a ratio of approximately 10:1 is standard,
15:1. This stoichiometric ratio gives the highest combustion with most of the extra fuel use for cooling, as there is not
temperature when all the oxygen and fuel are used up but is enough oxygen in the mixture to burn it.
also so hot that it leads to detonation.
A richer mixture, or weaker mixture, than stoichiometric, lowers

the combustion temperature; slightly rich is better as the extra
fuel has a cooling action, a weaker mixture results in a power
loss as all the oxygen is not used.
For maximum power, most engines run at 12.5:1; this extra fuel
ensures that all cylinders get a little richer than stoichiometric
because the mixture is not always evenly distributed in the
induction manifold.
Weak mixture (lean)

A weak mixture burns more slowly and at lower temperatures
than stoichiometric. Although the power is down, an increase in
efficiency due to the cooler burn gives a decrease in fuel
consumption so ‘specific fuel consumption’ drops. Consider the
economy cruise condition shown in the diagram above.
If the mixture is permitted to go too lean, the combustion

chamber will experience an oxidising flame. In combination with
high power settings, this will result in hight CHT, possible
detonation, very hot, burnt or sticky valves and maybe damage
to the pistons resulting in a power failure.
Rich mixture
At a power setting above the cruise range, any increase in RPM
and cylinder pressures result in higher mixture temperatures
and eventually detonation. To overcome the problem the
engine is usually operated with a slightly richer mixture to
safeguard against engine damage.
Fuel metering devices
The basic requirement of a reciprocating fuel metering system The rich mixture requirements for an aircraft engine are
is the same, regardless of the type of system used or the model established by running a power curve to determine the fuel/ air
engine in which the equipment is installed. It must meter fuel mixture for obtaining maximum usable power. This curve is
proportionately to air to establish the proper fuel/air mixture plotted at 100 RPM intervals from idle speed to takeoff speed
ratio for the engine at all speeds and altitudes at which the (diagram below top-right). Since the power range must add fuel
engine may be operated. In the fuel/air mixture curves shown to the basic fuel/air mixture requirements to keep cylinder-head
in the diagram below left, note that the basic best-power and temperatures in a safe range, the fuel mixture must become
best-economy fuel/air mixture requirements for reciprocating gradually richer as powers above cruise are used (the diagram
engines are approximately the same. The fuel metering system below left). In the power range, the engine runs on a much
must atomise and distribute the fuel from the carburettor into leaner mixture, as indicated in the curves. However, on the
the mass airflow. This must be accomplished so that the fuel/air leaner mixture, the cylinder-head temperature would exceed
charges going to all cylinders holds equal amounts of fuel. Each the maximum permissible temperatures, and detonation would
one of the engine’s cylinders should receive the same quantity occur.
of fuel/air mixture and at the same fuel/air ratio.
The best economy setting is established by running a series of
Due to the drop in atmospheric pressure, as altitude is curves through the cruise range, as shown in the graph in the
increased, the density of the air also decreases. A normally diagram below bottom-right, the low point (auto-lean) in the
aspirated engine has a fixed amount or volume of air that it can curve is the fuel/air mixture where the minimum fuel per
draw in during the intake stroke, therefore less air is drawn into horsepower is used. In this range, the engine usually operates
the engine as altitude increases. Less air tends to make on slightly leaner mixtures and operates on richer mixtures than
carburettors run richer at altitude than at ground level, because the low-point mixture. If a mixture leaner than that specified for
of the decreased density of the airflow through the carburettor the engine is used, the leanest cylinder of the engine is apt to
throat for a given volume of air. Thus, a mixture control must be backfire because the slower burning rate of the lean mixture
provided to lean the mixture and compensate for this natural results in a continued burning in the cylinder when the next
enrichment. Some aircraft use carburettors in which the mixture intake stroke starts.
control is operated manually. Other aircraft employ carburettors
which automatically lean the carburettor mixture at altitude to
maintain the proper fuel/air mixture.

Power versus fuel/air mixture curve
Fuel/air mixture curves Specific fuel consumption curve

Definition of peak EGT
A simple definition of peak EGT is the chemically correct It is also important to understand that leaning to roughness at
mixture of fuel and air, which gives 100% utilisation of all the the engine manufacturer’s recommended cruise power is not
fuel and all the air. an indication of detonation but indicates typical characteristics
of distribution to the individual cylinders. The roughness
From peak EGT, either increasing or decreasing the fuel flow indicates that the leanest cylinder has become so lean, it is
causes a decrease in EGT. When richer than peak EGT, beginning to miss. This is typical of an engine with a float-type
cooling occurs because there is excess fuel, and when leaner carburettor. Damage to an engine from leaning does not occur
than peak, cooling occurs because there is excess air. at the manufacturer’s recommended cruise power but takes
place at higher than cruise power. As far as the pilot is
Peak EGT with a float-type carburetted engine is frequently a concerned, operating on the lean side of peak EGT can only be
vague point because of less efficient distribution (than fuel accomplished with fuel-injected engines of at least 250 hp or
injection) to the individual cylinders by this type of metering higher because the fuel flows in the lower horsepower engines
device. As a result, float-type carburetted engines tend to are so small. It isn’t possible with float-type carburettors
operate smoother at +4° to +10° on the rich side of peak EGT. because of the fuel/air distribution problem.
Whereas, fuel-injected engines at 250 hp and higher provide a
more precise peak, and therefore the EGT system is likewise a Limitations of power at peak EGT
more precise method of fuel management with fuel injection. Lycoming allows leaning to peak EGT at 75% power and below
on direct-drive normally aspirated engines (75% power for the
Operation at peak EGT, particularly on long flights, can be an O-540 is approximately 195 bhp obtained at approximately
advantage not only for purposes of increased range but there 2,450 RPM whereas the IO-540 produces 225 bhp at
is less likelihood of spark plug fouling as well. approximately 2,450 RPM). However, the limit at peak EGT on
In cold outside air temperature flight conditions, the mixture geared, supercharged power plants is imposed at 65% power
distribution is poorer for both fuel injected and carburetted or below. With Lycoming turbocharged engines, where the EGT
engines. However, with the float-type carburettor operating in gauge is used to interpret turbine inlet temperature (TIT), the
below freezing ambient temperatures, the fuel/air distribution is maximum allowable TIT specified in the pilot's operating
worsened, resulting in a temperature difference between handbook (POH) should not be exceeded when attempting to
individual exhaust stacks. find a peak temperature by manual leaning. Where a cylinder
head temperature (CHT) is also available, the operator should
always cross-check the CHT as a routine procedure when
leaning. Remember that whenever CHT reaches the maximum
before reaching peak EGT, then CHT rather than EGT should
dictate the limit of allowable leaning.

Best economy mixture 1. It saves fuel – an economy aid.
The best economy mixture as it relates to the EGT system 2. It aids proper mixture control – more precise fuel
begins at peak. For all practical purposes with Lycoming management.
engines, peak EGT is right at the edge of best economy mixture 3. It helps increase range.
and is our only practical point of reference in the best economy 4. It can detect some types of engine trouble.
mixture range. At the manufacturer’s recommended cruise 5. It aids peak engine performance at cruise.
power, peak EGT causes a slight loss of horsepower usually 6. It helps prevent spark plug fouling.
reflected in two or three miles per hour of airspeed. If the pilot
attempts to go leaner than peak EGT (with fuel injection only), Although the use of the EGT has the advantages listed above,
the power decreases rapidly as fuel flow decreases. from a pilot’s point of view, there are also some possible
disadvantages. Poor mixture distribution to the cylinders
Best power mixture (particularly in carburetted engines) is the primary reason for
Best power mixture, or sometimes termed maximum power these disadvantages. The EGT probe is to be installed in the
range, as depicted on the EGT gauge, is in the range of plus leanest cylinder. However, this changes with altitude and power
38°C on the rich side of peak. Best power mixture provides setting, therefore making it very difficult, or perhaps impossible,
fastest indicated airspeed for a cruise power setting, although to choose the best cylinder for probe installation. Without an
it is generally not considered a practical economic mixture for EGT installation, the pilot can easily lean using the leanest
cruise purposes. However, the best power mixture generally cylinder of a carburetted engine by simply leaning to find engine
provides a safe amount of fuel for a power setting higher than roughness from the first indication of ‘lean misfire’ and then
the engine manufacturer’s recommended cruise, except that richening the mixture to smooth engine operation.
needed for takeoff power.
The EGT system must be in perfect working order to give
Maximum leaning (peak EGT) does not damage an engine at accurate readings. The probes in the exhaust system
the engine manufacturer’s recommended cruise power. deteriorate with age and continuous use. This often causes the
Damage is caused by maximum leaning at higher than gauge to read a temperature that is not accurate, and therefore
recommended cruise power where the manuals do not allow it, a peak reading that is not reached soon enough. This results in
and when the aircraft does not have a complete set of reliable over leaning to the lean side of peak where operation is not
engine instruments to protect the power plants. Excessive recommended. Frequent maintenance to ensure that
leaning under such high-power conditions can cause temperature probes are in good condition reduces the
detonation and/or pre-ignition and possible engine failure. possibility of inaccuracies. However, the pilot cannot determine
the accuracy of this rather critical reading during operation.
The significant advantages of an EGT system to the operator
are as follows:

Leaning Lycoming O-540/IO-540 During let-down flight operations it may be necessary to lean
Manual leaning may be monitored by exhaust gas temperature carburetted or fuel-injected engines manually to obtain smooth
indication, fuel flow indication, and by observation of engine operation.
speed and/or airspeed. However, whatever instruments are
used in leaning the mixture, the following general rules should A. Leaning to exhaust gas temperature gauge
be observed by the operator of Lycoming aircraft engines.
Normally aspirated engines with fuel injectors or carburettors.
General rules
Never exceed the maximum redline cylinder head temperature a) Maximum power cruise (approximately 75%
limit. power) – never lean beyond 150 °F on the rich side of
peak EGT unless aircraft operator’s manual shows
For maximum service life, cylinder head temperatures should otherwise. Monitor cylinder head temperatures.
be maintained below 224 °C (435 °F) during high-performance b) Best economy cruise (approximately 75% power and
cruise operation and below 205 °C (400 °F) for economy cruise below) – operate at peak EGT.
powers.
B. Leaning to flowmeter
On engines with manual mixture control, maintain mixture
control in “FULL RICH” position for rated takeoff, climb and Lean to applicable fuel-flow tables or lean-to indicator marked
maximum cruise powers (above approximately 75%). for correct fuel-flow for each power setting.
However, during takeoff from a high-elevation airport or during
a climb, roughness or loss of power may result from over- C. Leaning with manual mixture control (without
richness. In such a case, adjust mixture control only enough to flowmeter or EGT gage)
obtain smooth operation – not for economy. Observe
instruments for temperature rise. Rough operation due to over- Carburetted engines.
rich fuel/air mixture is most likely to be encountered at altitudes
above 5,000 ft. a) Slowly move mixture control from “FULL RICH” position
toward the lean position.
Always return the mixture to full rich before increasing power b) Continue leaning until engine roughness is noticed.
settings. c) Enrich until engine runs smoothly, and power is
regained.
Operate the engine at maximum power mixture for
performance cruise powers and at best economy mixture for
economy cruise power; unless otherwise specified in the
aeroplane owner’s manual.

Detonation and pre-ignition
Detonation and Pre-Ignition are two unique conditions that can As the burn starts cylinder pressure quickly rises. If combustion
severely damage an aircraft engine. Forces and severe heat chamber parts are hotter than usual, this can cause remote
that result from the occurrence of either usually requires the pockets within the cylinder to detonate spontaneously. This can
complete teardown and repair of the engine. also occur when fuel octane is below the requirements of the
engine.
To understand the similarities, differences and causes of either
require an understanding of exactly fuel burns within the engine Causes of detonation are limited to excessive heat and low
to develop power. Anyone who has ever observed how settled octane. Excessive heat can come from improper cooling, high
fuel vapours ignite has seen how the flame front progresses compression from excessive combustion chamber deposits,
from the source of ignition smoothly to the outer edges where lean mixture, advanced timing and more. When it is limited to
flammable vapours reach a point of dilution that stops the burn. one cylinder the very likely culprit is a partially clogged fuel
This is precisely how fuel must burn within a piston engine to injector. This allows one cylinder to operate much leaner than
develop power without doing damage. Detonation refers to the the others. Intake leaks can also lean the mixture but are
condition where remote pockets within the fuel/air mixture usually noticed during low manifold pressure operation where
explode violently due to rising pressure following regular the symptoms of a leak become much more apparent.
ignition. Pre-Ignition refers to the condition where either a Detonation caused by low octane fuel is more likely to affect
mistimed spark or another source of ignition exists within the several cylinders since the contributing factor is present in all
combustion chamber, allowing the burn to start well in advance cylinders. Detonation can difficult if not impossible for a pilot to
of the normally timed spark. Pre-Ignition and detonation can detect from within the cockpit.
often overlap each other, usually from detonation damage-
causing pre-ignition. Detonation can occur for some time before severe damage
occurs, or it can very quickly progress to severe failure
Detonation depending on its severity.
Detonation (also known as knock, detonation, spark knock,
pinging or pinking) is uniquely distinguished by the fact that it Minor detonation can cause damage that in time will likely
cannot occur before the spark plug fires. When the spark progress to an increasingly severe condition. It occurs at the far
initiates burning within the cylinder, the flame front is expected reaches of the combustion chamber and usually causes the
to progress through the cylinder evenly, creating heat and even most damage at the edges of the pistons as a result.
pressure to push the piston down.

Detonation Damage caused by extreme detonation

It causes rapidly rising temperatures at the piston edges, which
can allow subsequent detonation to damage ring lands. It can
also trigger pre-ignition due to the hot spots. Once this occurs,
the damaged piston edge is exposed to severe heat and
pressure, which can cause a hole to be burned through the
corner of the piston. Leaking combustion gasses pushing
through broken ring lands also causes torching at the edge of
the piston which quickly progresses to failure of the seal
between the combustion chamber and the crankcase.
The following are typical by-products of detonation:
• excessive cylinder head temperatures;

• burning piston heads;
• burning exhaust valves (inlet valves are cooled by the
incoming fuel/air vapour);
• carbonising of the piston rings; and
• a general breakdown of lubricating oil – quantities.
The main factors that cause detonation are:
• incorrect air/fuel mixture;

• high cylinder head temperature; and
• most importantly, the anti-knock value of the fuel.
The graph shows a typical indicator diagram for a piston engine

during its compression and power strokes. Note the high
pressure-fluctuation when detonation occurs.

Typical indicator diagram

Pre-ignition
Pre-Ignition is defined as combustion that begins before it is
intended to, before the regularly timed spark. Pre-Ignition can
occur alone or as a result of detonation. Hot spots from
detonation, improper heat range spark plugs and glowing
carbon deposits from lean mixtures are common causes of pre-
ignition. Carbon deposits do not usually accumulate when the
lean mixture is chronic, but regular deposits can be quickly
heated to glowing temperature when a fuel injector suddenly
becomes partially clogged. Carbon tracks within a magneto that
allows a cylinder to get the spark from another cylinder can also
be a cause.
Most cases of pre-ignition start at or near the beginning of the

compression stroke since a combustible mixture becomes
more difficult to ignite as pressure rises. This causes severe
stress on the engine and can quickly burn a hole in the piston,
most often in the middle. Pre-ignition causes a sudden loss of
power as the affected cylinder is working against the normal
rotation of the engine. Severe heat results from compressing a
burning mixture. No power is extracted from the burn, resulting
in all heat energy being absorbed by the cylinder parts.
Damage from either detonation or pre-ignition is severe. Once

the seal between the piston and the crankcase is breached
pressurisation of the crankcase can push crankcase oil
overboard, causing additional damage from oil starvation.
Engine contamination and the severe stress imposed requires
the engine to be completely disassembled. All parts must be
assessed for contamination issues, and all stressed parts must
be appropriately NDT tested for integrity.

Normal combustion within a cylinder Pre-ignition within a cylinder

Factors affecting engine power
What we must consider first, before looking at the principles of Fuel mixture
operation, what are the factors that affect the operation of the The process by which fuel and air are mixed to the correct
reciprocating engine; they fall into the following categories: proportions when applied to the internal combustion engine for
combustion is known as carburation.
• temperature and density of air;
• Humidity; The carburettor which is fitted to a piston engine is designed to
• fuel mixture; allow air into the combustion chambers and at the same time,
• effects of altitude on fuel mixture; and allow a calibrated amount of fuel to mix with this air, creating a
• fuel grading and octane rating. vapour fuel/air mixture for combustion purposes.
Temperature and density of air Although the air/fuel vapour will burn when mixed in proportions
The engine’s power output depends on the weight of the air/fuel by weight from 8:1, to 20:1, the best results are achieved when
mixture, and that the amount of air entering the engine the ratio is about 15:1 (air/fuel by weight). Although 15:1 is the
cylinders is regulated by the inlet of the carburettor and the correct ratio, some means must be provided within the engine
density of the air. control system to change the ratio of this mixture during certain
flight conditions. Let’s take, for example, an aircraft that is
The density of the air depends on the atmospheric pressure climbing.
and temperature.
We know that at sea level, the air is dense and contains ‘x’
Since air density decreases with altitude, then the engine amount of molecules. As we climb, the air molecules become
power output will also decrease. less and density decreases. However, the carburettor is
designed to draw in the same volume of air at a set throttle
Humidity setting, regardless of altitude. This also means that the fuel
Other factors that must be considered are temperature and drawn through the carburettor jets remains the same.
humidity. The density of the air/fuel mixture will vary with
different temperatures and humidity. Therefore, as the aircraft climbs, the volume of air is the same,
the fuel flow is the same, but the density is less, causing the
High humidity affects engine power. The high level of water mixture ratio to become richer as altitude increases.
vapour in the air reduces the amount of air available for
combustion and results in an enriched mixture and reduced A rich mixture will eventually lead to a loss of power, a rough
power running engine, and a gradual decrease in RPM, especially
when a fixed pitched propeller is fitted.

An extreme over-rich condition is indicated by black smoke
coming from the exhaust pipes; unburnt carbon particles cause
this.
A weak mixture can be just as harmful to the engine. If the

air/fuel mixture is too lean, the flame rate during combustion
may be so low that combustion is still taking place when the
inlet valve is again opening. A good indication of this condition
is when popping back through the carburettor and inlet manifold
is experienced. However, this condition could also be caused
by an ignition timing misalignment.
Compression
To prevent loss of power, all openings lo the cylinder must
close and seal entirely on the compression and power strokes.
In this respect, there are three items in the proper operation of

the cylinder that must be right for maximum efficiency. First, the
piston rings must be in good condition to provide maximum
scaling during the stroke of the piston. There must be no
leakage between the piston and the walls of the combustion
chamber.
Second, the intake and exhaust valves must close tightly so

that there is no loss of compression at these points.
Third, and very important, the timing of the valves must be such
that the highest efficiency is obtained when the engine is
operating at its normal rated RPM. A failure at any of these
points results in significantly reduced engine efficiency.

Fuel metering
The induction system is the distribution and fuel metering part In establishing the detailed engine requirements regarding
of the engine. Any defect in the induction system seriously carburettor setting, the fact that the cylinder head temperature
affects engine operation. For best operation, each cylinder of varies with fuel/air ratio must be considered. This variation is
the engine must be provided with the proper fuel/air mixture, illustrated in the curve shown in the graph below-right. Note that
usually metered by the carburettor. On some fuel-injection the cylinder head temperature is lower with the auto-lean
engines, fuel is metered by the fuel injector flow divider and setting than it is with the auto-rich mixture. This is precisely the
fuel-injection nozzles. opposite common belief, but it is true. Furthermore, knowledge
of this fact can be used to advantage by flight crews.
In establishing the carburettor settings for an aircraft engine,
the design engineers run a series of curves similar to the one If during cruise, it becomes difficult to keep the cylinder head
shown. A curve is run for each of several engine speeds. If, for temperature within limits, the fuel/air mixture may be leaned out
example, the idle speed is 600 RPM, the first curve might be to get cooler operation. The desired cooling can then be
run at this speed. Another curve might be run at 700 RPM, obtained without going to auto-rich with its costly waste of fuel.
another at 800 RPM, and so on, in 100-RPM increments, up to The curve shows only the variation in cylinder head
takeoff RPM, The points of maximum power on the curves are temperature. For a given RPM, the power output of the engine
then joined to obtain the best power curve of the engine for all is less with the best-economy setting (auto-lean) than with the
speeds. best-power mixture.
The relation between fuel/air ratio and power is illustrated in the The decrease in cylinder head temperature with a leaner
graph below left. Note that, as the fuel mixture is varied from mixture holds only through the normal cruise range. At higher
lean to rich, the power output of the engine increases until it power settings, cylinder temperatures are higher with the
reaches a maximum. Beyond this point, the power output falls leaner mixtures. The reason for this reversal hinges on the
off as the mixture is further enriched. This is because the fuel cooling ability of the engine. As higher powers are approached,
mixture is now too rich to provide perfect combustion. Note that a point is reached where the airflow around the cylinders will
maximum engine power can be obtained by setting the not provide sufficient cooling. At this point, a secondary cooling
carburettor for one point on the curve. method must be used. This secondary cooling is done by
enriching the fuel/air mixture beyond the best-power point.
This best-power curve establishes the automatic rich setting of Although enriching the mixture to this extent results in a power
the carburettor. loss, both power and economy must be sacrificed for engine
cooling purposes.

Power versus fuel/air mixture Variation of head temperature with fuel/air mixture
(cruise power)

To further investigate the influence of cooling requirements on
fuel/air mixture, the effects of water injection must be
examined. The graph below right shows a fuel/air curve for a
water-injection engine. The dotted portion of the curve shows
how the fuel/ air mixture is leaned out during water injection.
This leaning is possible because water, rather than extra fuel,
is used as a cylinder coolant.
Water or, more accurately, the anti-detonant (water/alcohol)

mixture is a better coolant than extra fuel. Therefore, water
injection permits higher manifold pressures and a still further
increase in power.
In establishing the final curve for engine operation, the engine’s

ability to cool itself at various power settings is, of course, taken
into account. Sometimes the mixture must be altered for a
given installation to compensate for the effect of cowl design,
cooling airflow, or other factors on engine cooling.
The final fuel/air mixture curves take into account economy,

power, engine cooling, idling characteristics, and all other
factors which affect combustion.
The graph below right shows a typical final curve for injection-
type carburettors. Note that the fuel/air mixture at idle and at
takeoff power is the same in auto-rich and auto-lean. Beyond
idle, a gradual spread occurs as cruise power is approached.
This spread is maximum in the cruise range. The spread
decreases toward takeoff power. This spread between the two
curves in the cruise range is the basis for the cruise metering
check.

Fuel/air curve for a water-injection engine Typical fuel/air curve for injection-type carburettor

The graph below left shows a typical final curve for a float-type There are variations in mixture requirements between one
carburettor. Note that the fuel/air mixture at idle is the same in engine and another because of the fuel distribution within the
rich and in manual lean. engine and the ability of the engine to cool. Remember that a
carburettor setting must be rich enough to supply a combustible
The mixture remains the same until the low cruise range is mixture for the leanest cylinder. If fuel distribution is poor, the
reached. At this point, the curves separate and then remain overall mixture must be richer than would be required for the
parallel through the cruise and power ranges. same engine if the distribution were proper.
Note the spread between the rich and lean setting in the cruise The engine’s ability to cool depends on such factors as cylinder
range of both curves. Because of this spread, there is a design (including the design of the cooling fins), compression
decrease in power when the mixture control is moved from ratio, accessories on the front of the engine which causes
auto-rich to auto-lean with the engine operating in the cruise individual cylinders to run hot, and the design of the baffling
range. This is true because the auto-rich setting in the cruise used to deflect airflow around the cylinder. At takeoff power,
range is very near the best-power mixture ratio. Therefore, any the mixture must be rich enough to supply sufficient fuel to keep
leaning out gives a mixture that is leaner than best power. the hottest cylinder cool.
Idle mixture
The idle mixture curve, below right, shows how the mixture
changes when the idle mixture adjustment is changed. Note
that the most significant effect is at idling speeds. However,
there is some effect on the mixture at airflows above idling. The
airflow at which the idle adjustment effect cancels out varies
from minimum cruise to maximum cruise. The exact point
depends on the type of carburettor and the carburettor setting.
In general, the idle adjustment affects the fuel/air mixture up to
medium cruise on most engines having pressure-injection-type
carburettors, and up lo low cruise on engines equipped with
float-type carburettors. This means that incorrect idle mixture
adjustments can easily give faulty cruise performance as well
as poor idling.

Typical fuel/air mixture curve for float-type carburettor Idle mixture curve

The induction manifold
The induction manifold provides the means of distributing air, Any leak in the induction system affects the mixture reaching
or the fuel/air mixture, to the cylinders. Whether the manifold the cylinders. This is particularly true of a leak at the cylinder
handles a fuel/air mixture or air alone depends on the type of end of an intake pipe. At manifold pressures below atmospheric
fuel metering system used. On an engine equipped with a pressure, such a leak will lean out the mixture. This occurs
carburettor, the induction manifold distributes a fuel/air mixture because additional air is drawn in from the atmosphere at the
from the carburettor to the cylinders. On a fuel-injection engine, leaky point.
the fuel is delivered to injection nozzles, one in each cylinder,
which provide the proper spray pattern for efficient burning. The affected cylinder may overheat, fire intermittently, or even
Thus, the mixing of fuel and air takes place in the cylinders or cut out altogether.
at the inlet port to the cylinder. On a fuel-injection engine, the
induction manifold handles only air.
The induction manifold is an essential item because of the

effect it can have on the fuel/air mixture, which finally reaches
the cylinder. Fuel is introduced into the airstream by the
carburettor in a liquid form. The fuel must be vaporised in the
air to become combustible. This vaporisation takes place in the
induction manifold, which includes the internal supercharger if
one is used. Any fuel that does not vaporise will cling to the
walls of the intake pipes. This affects the effective fuel/air ratio
of the mixture which finally reaches the cylinder in vapour form.
This explains the reason for the apparently rich mixture
required to start a cold engine. In a cold engine, some of the
fuel in the airstream condenses out and clings to the walls of
the manifold. This is in addition to that fuel which never
vaporised in the first place. As the engine warms up, less fuel
is required because less fuel is condensed out of the airstream
and more of the fuel is vaporised, thus giving the cylinder the
required fuel/air mixture for regular combustion.

Induction manifold components

Operational effect of valve clearance
While considering the operational effect of valve clearance, In engines with collector rings, this inflow through the exhaust
keep in mind that all aircraft reciprocating engines of current port at low power settings consists of burned exhaust gases.
design use valve overlap. These gases are pulled back into the cylinder and mix with the
incoming fuel/air mixture. However, these exhaust gases are
The diagram below left shows the pressures at the intake and inert; they do not contain oxygen. Therefore, the fuel/air mixture
exhaust ports under two different sets of operating conditions. ratio is not affected much. With open exhaust stacks, the
In one case, the engine is operating at a manifold pressure of situation is entirely different. Here, fresh air containing oxygen
35 in.Hg. Barometric pressure (exhaust backpressure) is is pulled into the cylinders through the exhaust which leans out
29 in.Hg. This gives a pressure differential of 6 in.Hg (3 psi) the mixture.
acting in the direction indicated by the arrow.
Therefore, the carburettor must be set to deliver an excessively
During the valve overlap period, this pressure differential forces rich idle mixture so that, when this mixture is combined with the
the fuel/air mixture across the combustion chamber toward the fresh air drawn in through the exhaust port, the effective
open exhaust. This flow of fuel/air mixture forces ahead of it the mixture in the cylinder is at the desired ratio.
exhaust gases remaining in the cylinder, resulting in complete
scavenging of the combustion chamber. This, in turn, permits
complete filling of the cylinder with a fresh charge on the
following intake event. This is the situation in which valve
overlap gives increased power.
In a situation where the manifold pressure is below atmospheric

pressure, 20 in.Hg, for example, there is a pressure differential
of 9 in.Hg (4.5 psi) in the opposite direction. This causes air or
exhaust gas to be drawn into the cylinder through the exhaust
port during valve overlap.

Effect of valve overlap

At first thought, it does not appear possible that the effect of When valve clearance is less than it should be, the valve
valve overlap on fuel/air mixture is sufficient to cause concern. overlap period is lengthened. This permits a greater-than-
However, the effect of valve overlap becomes apparent when normal amount of air or exhaust gases to be drawn back into
considering idle fuel/air mixtures. These mixtures must be the cylinder at idling speeds. As a result, the idle mixture will be
enriched 20 to 30% when open stacks instead of collector rings leaned out at the cylinder. The carburettor is adjusted with the
are used on the same engine. This is shown graphically below expectation that a certain amount of air or exhaust gases will
top-left. Note the spread at idle between an open stack and an be drawn back into the cylinder at idling.
exhaust collector ring installation for otherwise identical
engines. The mixture variation decreases as the engine speed If more or less air or exhaust gases are drawn into the cylinder
or airflow are increased from idle into the cruise range. during the valve overlap period, the mixture will be too lean or
too rich.
Engine, aeroplane, and equipment manufacturers provide a
powerplant-installation that gives satisfactory performance. When valve clearances are wrong, it is unlikely that they are all
Cams are designed to give best valve operation and correct wrong in the same direction. Instead, there will be too much
overlap. But valve operation is correct only if valve clearances clearance on some cylinders and too little on others. Naturally,
are set and remain at the value recommended by the engine this gives a variation in valve overlap between cylinders. This,
manufacturer. If valve clearances are set wrong, the valve in turn, results in a variation in fuel/air ratio at idling and lower-
overlap period will be longer or shorter than the manufacturer power settings, since the carburettor delivers the same mixture
intended. The same is true if clearances get out of adjustment to all cylinders. The carburettor cannot tailor the mixture to each
during operation. cylinder to compensate for variation in valve overlap.
Where there is too much valve clearance, the valves will not The effect of variation in valve clearance and valve overlap on
open as wide or remain open as long as they should. This the fuel/air mixture between cylinders is illustrated below
reduces the overlap period. At idling speed, it will affect the bottom-right. Note how the cylinders with too little clearance run
fuel/air mixture, since a less-than-normal amount of air or rich and those with too much clearance run lean. Note also the
exhaust gases will be drawn back into the cylinder during the extreme mixture variation between cylinders. On such an
shortened overlap period. As a result, the idle mixture will tend engine, it would be impossible to set the idle adjustment to give
to be too rich. correct mixtures on all cylinders, nor can all cylinders of such
an engine be expected to produce the same power. Variations
in valve clearance of as little as 0.005" have a definite effect on
mixture distribution between cylinders.

Comparison of fuel/air mixture curves for Effect of variation in valve overlap on fuel/air
open stack and collector ring installations mixture between cylinders

Another aspect of valve clearance is its effect on volumetric When exhaust valve clearance is insufficient, the valve opens
efficiency. Considering the intake valve first, suppose valve early and closes late. It remains open longer than it should. The
clearance is greater than that specified. As the cam lobe starts early opening causes a power loss by shortening the power
to pass under the cam roller, the cam step or ramp takes up event. The pressure in the cylinder is released before all the
part of this clearance. However, it doesn’t take up all the useful expansion has worked on the piston.
clearance as it should. Therefore, the cam roller is well up on
the lobe proper before the valve starts to open. As a result, the The late closing causes the exhaust valve to remain open
valve opens later than it should. during a more substantial portion of the intake stroke than it
should. This may result in good mixture being lost through the
Similarly, the valve closes before the roller has passed from the exhaust port.
main lobe to the ramp at its end. With excessive clearance,
then, the intake valve opens late and closes early. This As mentioned before, there will probably be too little clearance
produces a throttling effect on the cylinder. The valve is not on some cylinders and too much on others whenever valve
open long enough to admit a full charge of fuel and air. This will clearances are incorrect. This means that the effect of incorrect
cut down the power output, particularly at high-power settings. clearances on volumetric efficiency will usually vary from
cylinder to cylinder. One cylinder takes in a full charge while
Insufficient intake valve clearance has the opposite effect. The another receives only a partial charge. As a result, cylinders will
clearance is taken up, and the valve starts to open while the not deliver equal power. One cylinder will backfire or run hot
cam roller is still on the cam step. The valve doesn’t close until while another performs satisfactorily.
the riser at the end of the lobe has almost entirely passed under
the roller. Therefore, the intake valve opens early, closes late, On some direct fuel injection engines, variations in valve
and stays open longer than it should. At low power, early clearance will affect only the amount of air taken into the
opening of the intake valve can cause backfiring because of the cylinders. This is true when the induction manifold handles only
hot exhaust gases backing out into the intake manifold and air. In this case, there is no appreciable effect on the distribution
igniting the mixture there. of fuel to the individual cylinders. This means that, when
clearances vary between cylinders, air charges will also vary,
Excessive exhaust valve clearance causes the exhaust valve but fuel distribution will be uniform. This faulty air distribution,
to open late and close early. This shortens the exhaust event coupled with proper fuel distribution, will cause variations in the
and causes poor scavenging. The late opening may also lead mixture ratio.
to the cylinder overheating. The hot exhaust gases are held in
the cylinder beyond the time specified for their release. In all cases, variations in valve clearance from the value
specified have the effect of changing the valve timing from that
obtained with correct clearance. This is certain to give
something less than perfect performance.

Ignition system
The next item to be considered regarding engine operation is The distributor directs the firing impulses to the various
the ignition system. Although basically simple, it is sometimes cylinders. It must be timed properly to both the engine and the
not understood clearly. An ignition system consists of four main magneto. The distributor's finger must align with the correct
parts: electrode on the distributor block at the time the magneto points
break. Any misalignment may cause the high voltage to jump
• The basic magneto. to a cylinder other than the one intended. This will cause severe
• The distributor. backfiring and general malfunctioning of the engine.
• The ignition harness.
• The spark plug. The manufacturer has selected the best compromise and
specified an alignment with the No. 1 electrode for timing.
The basic magneto is a high-voltage generating device. It must However, even with perfect distributor timing, the finger is
be adjusted to give a maximum voltage at the time the points behind on some electrodes and ahead on others. For a few
break and ignition occurs. It must also be synchronised electrodes (cylinders), the alignment is as far from perfect as it
accurately to the firing position of the engine. The magneto can safely be. A slight error in timing, added to this already
generates a series of peak voltages which are released by the imperfect alignment, may put the finger so far from the
opening of the breaker points. A distributor is necessary to electrode that the high voltage will not jump from finger to
distribute these peak voltages from the magneto to the electrode, or the high voltage may be routed to the wrong
cylinders in the proper order. The ignition harness constitutes cylinder. Therefore, the distributor must be timed perfectly. The
the insulated and shielded high-tension lines that carry the high finger must be aligned with the No. 1 electrode precisely as
voltages from the distributor to the spark plugs. prescribed in the maintenance manual for the particular engine
and aircraft.
The magnetos used on aircraft engines are capable of
developing voltages as high as 15,000 V. The voltage required Although the ignition harness is simple, it is a critical part of the
to jump the specified gap in a spark plug will usually be about ignition system. A number of things can cause failure in the
4,000 to 5,000 V maximum. The spark plugs serve as safety ignition harness. Insulation may break down on a wire inside
valves to limit the maximum voltage in the entire ignition the harness and allow the high voltage to leak through to the
system. As spark plug gaps open up as a result of erosion, the shielding (and to ground), instead of going to the spark plug.
voltage at the plug terminals increases. A higher voltage is Open circuits may result from broken wires or poor
required to jump the larger gap. This higher voltage is connections. A bare wire may be in contact with the shielding,
transmitted through the secondary circuit. The increased or two wires may be shorted together.
voltage in the circuit becomes a hazard. It is a possible source
of a breakdown in the ignition harness and can cause flashover
in the distributor.
Any severe defect in an individual lead prevents the high Propeller governor
voltage impulse from reaching the spark plug to which the lead The final item to be considered regarding engine operation is
is connected. As a result, only one spark plug in the cylinder the effect of the propeller governor on engine operation. In the
will fire. This causes the cylinder to operate on single ignition. curve shown in the graph below, note that the manifold
This is certain to result in detonation since dual ignition is pressure change with RPM is gradual until the propeller
required to prevent detonation at takeoff and during other high- governor cut-in speed is reached. Beyond this point, the
power operation. Two bad leads to the same cylinder will cause manifold pressure increases, but no change occurs in the
the cylinder to go completely dead. On engines with separate engine RPM, as the carburettor throttle is opened wider.
distributors, a faulty magneto-to-distributor lead can cut out half
the ignition system. An accurate picture of the power output of the engine can be
determined only at speeds below the propeller governor cut-in
Among the most common ignition harness defects, and the speed. The propeller governor is set to maintain a given engine
most difficult to detect, are high-voltage leaks. However, a RPM. Therefore, the relationship between engine speed and
complete harness check will reveal these and other defects. manifold pressure as an indication of power output is lost,
unless it is known that all cylinders of the engine are functioning
Although the spark plug is simple both in construction and in correctly. In fact, on a multi-engine aircraft, an engine can fail
operation, it is, nevertheless, the direct or indirect cause of a and still produce every indication that it is developing power.
great many malfunctions encountered in aircraft engines. The propeller governor will flatten out the propeller blade angle
Proper precaution begins with plug selection. Be sure to select and windmill the propeller to maintain the same engine RPM
and install the plug specified for the particular engine. One of Heat of compression within the cylinder will prevent the cylinder
the reasons a particular plug is specified is its heat range. The head temperature from falling rapidly.
heat range of the spark plug determines the temperature at
which the nose end of the plug operates. It also affects the The fuel pressure will remain constant, and the fuel flow will
ability of the spark plug to ignite mixtures that are borderline not change unless the manifold pressure is changed. On an
from the standpoint of high oil content or excessive richness or engine not equipped with a turbocharger, the manifold
leanness. pressure will remain where it was. On a turbocharged engine,
the manifold pressure will not drop below the value which the
A great many troubles attributed to spark plugs are the direct mechanical supercharger can maintain. This may be well
result of malfunctions somewhere else in the engine. Some of above atmospheric pressure, depending upon the blower ratio
these are excessively rich idle mixtures, improperly adjusted of the engine and the specific conditions existing. Thus, the
valves, and impeller oil seal leaks. pilot has difficulty in recognising that he has encountered a
sudden failure unless the engines are equipped with torque-
meters, or he notices the fluctuation in RPM at the time the
engine cuts out.
Effect of propeller governor on manifold pressure Propeller governor and
pitch change unit

Overlapping phases of engine operation
Up to this point, the individual phases of engine operation have As an example of how one phase of engine operation can be
been discussed. The relationship between the phases and their affected by other phases, consider spark plug fouling. Spark
combined effect on engine operation will now be considered. plug fouling causes malfunctioning of the ignition system, but
Combustion within the cylinder is the result of fuel metering, the fouling seldom results from a fault in the plug itself.
compression, and ignition. Since valve overlap affects fuel
metering, proper combustion in all the cylinders involves Usually, some other phase of the operation is not functioning
correct valve adjustment in addition to the other phases. When correctly, causing the plug to foul out. If excessively rich fuel/air
all conditions are correct, there is a burnable mixture. When mixtures are being burned because of either rich carburetion or
ignited, this mixture will give power impulses of the same improperly adjusted idle mixture, spark plug fouling will be
intensity from all cylinders. inevitable. Generally, these causes will result in fouled spark
plugs appearing over the entire engine, and not necessarily
The system which ignites the combustible mixture requires that confined to one or a few cylinders.
the following five conditions coincide if the necessary spark
impulse is to be delivered to the cylinder at the proper time. If the fuel/air mixture is too lean or too rich on any one cylinder
because of a loose intake pipe or improperly adjusted valves,
• The breaker points must be timed accurately to the improper operation of that cylinder will result. The cylinder will
magneto (E-gap). probably backfire. Spark plug fouling will occur continually on
• The magneto must be timed accurately to the engine. that cylinder until the defect is remedied.
• The distributor finger must be timed accurately to the
engine and the magneto. Impeller oil seal leaks, which can be detected only by removal
• The ignition harness must be in good condition with no of intake pipes, will cause spark plug fouling. Here, the fouling
tendency to flashover. is caused by excess oil being delivered to one or more
• The spark plug must be clean, have no tendency to short cylinders. Stuck or broken rings will cause oil pumping in the
out, and have the proper electrode gap. affected cylinders with consequent plug fouling and high oil
consumption. Improperly adjusted cylinder valves cause spark
If any one of these requirements is lacking or if any one phase plug fouling, hard starting, and general engine malfunctioning.
of the ignition system is maladjusted or is not functioning They may also cause valve failure as a result of high-seating
correctly, the entire ignition system can be disrupted to the velocities or the valve holding open, with subsequent valve
point that improper engine operation results. burning.

Whenever the exact cause of engine malfunctioning is not The power output of an engine is the power absorbed by the
determined and whenever the real disorder is not corrected, the propeller. Therefore, the propeller load is a measure of power
corrective measure taken will provide only temporary relief. For output. The propeller load, in turn, depends on the propeller
example, the standard “fix” for engine backfiring is to change RPM, blade angle, and air density. For a given angle and air
the carburettor. However, as a result of many tests, it is now density, the propeller load (power output) is directly
known that the usual cause of engine backfiring is an proportional to engine speed.
improperly adjusted or defective ignition system or improperly
adjusted engine valves. The basic power of an engine is related to manifold pressure,
fuel flow, and RPM Because the RPM of the engine and the
Backfiring is usually caused by one cylinder, not all the throttle opening directly control manifold pressure, the primary
cylinders. To remedy backfiring, first, locate which cylinder is engine power controls are the throttle and the RPM control. An
causing it, and then find out why that cylinder is backfiring. engine equipped with a fixed-pitch propeller has only a throttle
control. In this case, the throttle setting controls both manifold
Engine power troubleshooting pressure and engine RPM.
The need for troubleshooting is typically dictated by poor
operation of the complete powerplant. In many cases, power
settings for the type of operation where the difficulty is
encountered indicate which part of the powerplant is the
underlying cause.
The cylinders of an engine, along with the supercharger

impeller, form an air pump. Furthermore, the power developed
in the cylinders varies directly with the rate of air consumption.
Therefore, a measure of air consumption or airflow into the
engine is a measure of power input. Ignoring for the moment
such factors as humidity and exhaust back pressure, the
manifold pressure gage and the engine tachometer provides a
measure of engine air consumption. Thus, for a given RPM,
any change in power input will be reflected by a corresponding
change in manifold pressure.

With proper precautions, manifold pressure can be taken as a An example will best show the practical application of this
measure of power input, and RPM can be taken as a measure method of determining engine condition. With the propeller
of power output. However, the following factors must be control set for takeoff RPM (full low-blade angle), an engine
considered: may require 32 in.Hg of manifold pressure to turn 2,200 RPM
for the ignition check. On previous checks, this engine required
• Atmospheric pressure and the air temperature must be only 30 in.Hg of manifold pressure to turn 2,200 RPM at the
considered since they affect air density. same station (altitude) and under similar atmospheric
• These measures of power input and power output conditions. Obviously, something is wrong; a higher power
should be used only for comparing the performance of input (manifold pressure) is now required for the same power
an engine with its past performance or for comparing output (RPM). There is a good chance that one cylinder has cut
identical powerplants. out.
• With a controllable propeller, the blades must be against
their low-pitch stops, since this is the only blade position There are several standards against which engine performance
in which the blade angle is known and does not vary. can be compared. The performance of a particular engine can
Once the blades are off their low-pitch stops, the be compared with its past performance, provided adequate
propeller governor takes over and maintains a constant records are kept. Engine performance can be compared with
RPM regardless of power input or engine condition. This that of other engines on the same aircraft or aircraft having
precaution means that the propeller control must be set identical installations.
to maximum or takeoff RPM, and the checks made at
engine speeds below this setting. If a fault does exist, it may be assumed that the trouble lies in
one of the following systems:
If the engine is equipped with a torque meter, the torque meter
reading rather than the engine speed should be used as a • Ignition system.
measure of power output. • Fuel metering system.
• Induction system.
Having relative measures of power input and power output, the • Power section (valves, cylinders, etc.).
condition of an engine can be determined by comparing input • Instrumentation.
and output. This is done by comparing the manifold pressure
required to produce a given RPM with the manifold pressure If a logical approach to the problem is taken and the instrument
required to produce the same RPM at a time when the engine readings adequately utilised, the malfunctioning system can be
(or an identical powerplant) was known to be in top operating pinpointed, and the specific problem in the defective system
condition. can be singled out.

The more information available about any particular problem, Ignition system reasons for backfiring might be a cracked
the better the opportunity for rapid repair. Information that is of distributor block or a high-tension leak between two ignition
value in locating a malfunction includes: leads. Either of these conditions could cause the charge in the
cylinder to be ignited during the intake stroke. Ignition system
• Was any roughness noted? Under what conditions of troubles involving backfiring will not usually be centred in the
operation? basic magneto since a failure of the basic magneto would result
• What is the time on the engine and spark plugs? How in the engine not running, or it would run well at low speeds but
long since the last inspection? cut out at high speeds. On the other hand, the replacement of
• Was the ignition system operational check and power the magneto would correct a difficulty caused by a cracked
check healthy? distributor where the distributor is a part of the magneto.
• When did the trouble first appear?
• Was backfiring or after-firing present? If the fuel system, ignition system, and induction system are
• Was the full throttle performance normal? functioning correctly, the engine should produce the correct
BHP unless some fault exists in the basic power section.
From a different point of view, the powerplant is, in reality,
several small engines turning a common crankshaft and being
operated by two common phases: (1) fuel metering and (2)
ignition. When backfiring, low power output or other powerplant
difficulty is encountered, first find out which system (fuel
metering or ignition) is involved and then determine whether the
entire engine or only one cylinder is at fault.
For example, backfiring is usually caused by:
• valves holding open or sticking open in one or more of

the cylinders;
• lean mixture; or
• intake pipe leakage.
An error in valve adjustment, which causes individual cylinders

to receive too small a charge or one too large, even though the
mixture to the cylinders has the same fuel/air ratio.

16.3 Engine Construction

Copyright notice
Knowledge levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C conjunction with physical laws describing the subject.
Aircraft Maintenance Licence • The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches,
LEVEL 3
subject.
appropriate.

© Copyright 2020 Module 16.3 Engine Construction Issue 2 – July 2020
Knowledge
Part-66 Levels
Objective
Ref.
A B1 B3
Crankcase, crankshaft, camshafts, 16.3 1 2 2
sumps;
Accessory gearbox;
Cylinder and piston assemblies;
Connecting rods, inlet, and exhaust
manifolds;
Valve mechanisms;
Propeller reduction gearboxes

Table of Contents
General constructional arrangements _____________ 5 Pistons ______________________________________ 86
Internal arrangements __________________________ 6 General assembly and types ____________________ 86
Engine type classification _______________________ 6 Piston rings _________________________________ 88
Engine cylinder numbering _____________________ 12
External component arrangements _______________ 16 Valve mechanisms ____________________________ 94
General arrangement __________________________ 94
Crankcase ___________________________________ 20 Radial engine valve mechanism _________________ 98
In-line engines _______________________________ 20 Valves ____________________________________ 102
Radial engines ______________________________ 24 Valve temperatures __________________________ 106
Accessory gearbox____________________________ 26 Sleeve valves _______________________________ 114
Tappets ___________________________________ 122
Crankshaft ___________________________________ 32
Pushrods __________________________________ 126
Nomenclature _______________________________ 32
Journals ___________________________________ 34 Inlet and exhaust manifolds ____________________ 130
Crank pins __________________________________ 36 Propeller reduction gearboxes __________________ 134
Crankshaft arrangements ______________________ 38 Parallel spur gears ___________________________ 134
Bearings ____________________________________ 50 Epicyclic reduction gears ______________________ 134
Compound spur epicyclic ______________________ 134
Camshafts ___________________________________ 52
Gear train/epicyclic __________________________ 134
Connecting rods ______________________________ 56
Diesel engines – differences and additions _______ 142
Function ___________________________________ 56
Example: Thielert TAE 125-series _______________ 142
The plain connecting rod _______________________ 58
Crankcase _________________________________ 148
The fork and blade connecting rod _______________ 62
Crankshaft _________________________________ 150
The master and articulated rod __________________ 64
Camshaft __________________________________ 150
Cylinders ____________________________________ 66 Pistons ____________________________________ 150
General arrangement _________________________ 66 Connecting rods _____________________________ 152
Cylinder heads ______________________________ 68 V-ribbed belt _______________________________ 152
Cylinder head temperatures ____________________ 72 Cylinder head _______________________________ 154
Cylinder barrels ______________________________ 74 Gearbox ___________________________________ 156
HTCC combustion chamber ____________________ 80 Clutch and dual-mass flywheel _________________ 156
Water-cooled engine cylinder block and liners ______ 84


General constructional arrangements
Internal arrangements In-line engines
The internal arrangement of the piston engine includes a In-line engines can be divided into further categories; they are:
cylinder or cylinders which are closed at one end and open at
the other, to allow a piston to slide up and down inside the • upright in-line;
cylinder. • inverted in-line;
• inverted V;
The piston is connected to the crankshaft by a connecting rod; • upright V;
its purpose is to convert the reciprocating movement of the • flat opposed (boxer); and
piston into the rotary movement of the crankshaft. • H-type.
Located in the cylinder head, at the closed end of the piston- As the name implies, the cylinders are arranged in a row,
cylinder, are the inlet and exhaust valves. These allow the running from forward to the aft of the engine, they can be
fuel/air mixture to pass into the cylinder and the exhaust gases inverted or upright, although most types in use today are of the
to pass out. The spark plug is fitted in the cylinder head. inverted type, as this allows better forward vision for the pilot.
Another advantage afforded by the in-line type is that the frontal
A typical piston engine internal arrangement is illustrated area is limited, allowing smaller cowlings, thus reducing the
below. drag factor. With the standard in-line engine, the number of
cylinders is generally limited to six, this being the maximum
Each of the components shown will be discussed in detail in number that can be cooled efficiently by the passing airflow.
this module.
There is only one crankshaft, and in the inverted engine, it is
Engine type classification located above the cylinders.
The type classification of the engine depends on the
manufacture and also the airframe constructor’s requirements. Although classed as an in-line engine, the upright cylinder or
inverted V-engine differs from the standard in-line engine by
Piston engines are usually classified by their cylinder having the cylinders arranged on the crankcase in two rows,
arrangement, and can be divided into two main categories: forming a letter V. The main advantage of this arrangement is
• in-line engines; and that the engine is considerably shorter than the standard in-line
• radial engines. type; this is because the two sets of connecting rods can be
attached to the same position to the crankshaft pin. Therefore,
there is a significant saving in weight without a reduction in
power output.

Basic parts of an internal combustion engine

The flat opposed type (boxer twin) is the most popular of all the
in-line engines, used in light aircraft powerplants. This type of
engine has the cylinder mounted horizontally; the main
advantage of this arrangement is that it is very compact and
very flat, allowing it to be installed in small nacelles.
Most installations have an even number of cylinders helping to

reduce vibration levels. The H-type (flat-4) of the flat opposed
engine shown below is an adaptation of the standard flat
opposed engine; it gives a higher power output due to the
addition of another series of cylinders.

In-line engine arrangements

Radial engines
The radial engine arrangement has a row or rows of cylinders
arranged radially around a central crankshaft. The number of
cylinders fitted to each row is odd, usually five, seven, or nine.
As the cylinders are located evenly in a circular plane, all the
pistons are connected to a single crankshaft; this arrangement
reduces the weight of the engine by reducing the number of
moving parts, leading to large power output. Two typical radial
engine arrangements are shown below.
Some radial engines may have more than one row of cylinders,
the most popular being the two-row radial engine. The two-row
design utilises two rows of seven or nine cylinders. The
cylinders in the two-row system are staggered, thus affording
the best means of air cooling. This ensures that the front
cylinders do not mask off the airflow to the rear row of cylinders.
The radial engine, therefore, has the lowest weight to power
ratio of all the engines and is found on most sizeable piston-
engine aircraft.
Its primary disadvantage, however, is its size, producing a drag

problem. Cooling is another main problem area.
As each engine has several cylinders, some method must be

used to locate and identify a particular cylinder within a group.
This may be required for troubleshooting, defect location, or
maintenance. A standard location and direction are therefore
used by all engine manufacturers for cylinder location and
numbering purposes.

Radial engine cylinder arrangements (Pratt & Whitney Wasp)

Engine cylinder numbering
The propeller-shaft end of the engine is always known as the
front end, and the accessory gearbox the rear end, irrespective
of the engine’s location and installation. The engine is generally
viewed from the rear when numbering the cylinders; however,
some British made engines may be numbered from the front.
Because of the various cylinder arrangements, the numbering

system for in-line and radial engines differs. Consider the in-
line engines illustrated below. No. 1 cylinder is at the rear end,
with the highest cylinder number at the propeller shaft (top left).
The V-type and opposed in-line engines have two rows of
cylinders, these are left and right as viewed from the rear.
Because of the two rows, a slightly different numbering system
is used, and this is illustrated top-centre. In this case, No. 1 is
the first on the right, followed by No. 2 on the left, and again
ending up with the highest number near the propeller shaft.

Engine cylinder numbering
The radial engine numbering system adopts a different method,
again viewed from the rear, single row radial engine cylinders
are numbered clockwise, starting with No. 1 cylinder at the top.
In the double system, the same system is used except that the
No. 1 cylinder is at the top in the rear row, and No. 2 cylinder
is, therefore, the next one round (clockwise) in the front row.
This numbering system carries on right round the whole engine
(remember clockwise is as viewed from the rear).
Another way to remember the two-row radial engine numbering

system is that all odd numbers are found on the rear row and
even numbers on the front row.

Cylinder numbering

External component arrangements
The diagram below shows a breakdown of a typical in-line Also attached to the engine is some form of starter motor. In
piston engine. In this case, the crankshaft is a single piece most cases, this is an electrical motor, similar to a motor car
extending along the whole length of the engine. starter, but on some older types of engines, a cartridge starter
system may be used.
Connecting the pistons to the crankshaft is a series of
connecting rods. The primary structural support for the in-line type engine shown
is the crankcase.
The crankshaft is supported within the crankcase, which is
divided into two parts by a series of bearings. The cylinders are The structural design of the radial engine, with its cylinder
bolted directly onto the crankcase and attached to the cylinders arrangement, may have slight differences in design compared
are the inlet and exhaust manifold tubes. to that shown below; however, it still contains most of the
structural components fitted to the in-line type engine.
The camshaft, driven from the crankshaft by gear or chain
drives, ensures that the inlet and exhaust valves in each
cylinder operate at the correct time and in the correct order.
Finally, the accessory gearbox is attached to the rear of the
engine.
The following components are driven by the accessory

gearbox:
• the oil pump for the lubrication system;

• the RPM transmitter, also known as the engine
tachometer which indicates the rotational speed of the
engine;
• the electrical generator to supply electric power to the
aircraft’s electrical system;
• a magneto that supplies power to the sparking plugs in
the correct sequence, known as ignition timing;
• hydraulic pumps (if fitted); and
• fuel pumps (if mechanical).

Crankcase and external engine components

A large radial engine consists of the following components:
• nose section;
• crankcase;
• crankshaft;
• connecting rods;
• cylinders;
• supercharger (found on most radials); and
• an accessory gearbox.
Some engines may have some sort of propeller reduction

gearing housed inside the nose section.

Crankshaft and camshaft drive connection

Crankcase
In-line engines
The crankcase is considered to be the primary structural Oil transfer to the various rotating parts within the crankcase is
support for the moving parts of the engine. If we use as an accompanied by oil ports and channels drilled into the casing,
example the flatly opposed crankcase illustrated below, we can thereby reducing the number of oil pipes required, leading to
see that as well as supporting the cylinders, in this case, three reduced weight.
per side, it also contains bearing supports for the crankshaft
and camshaft. It is also divided into two halves for ease of The crankcase also serves as a support for the oil sump. This
assembly of internal components. type of oil tank/sump, also known as a wet sump arrangement,
is relatively popular in the in-line engine arrangement and is
However, specific issues must be considered in the design and similar to the method used in cars.
construction of the crankcase assembly. Strength is the most
critical feature of the crankcase. Although the crankcase is a All joints are assembled with oil seals, ensuring that there is no
balance assembly, high inertia and centrifugal forces are external oil leakage, for in the wet sump system, once the oil
created within the crankcase housing; therefore, the materials has been used for lubrication, it falls into the sump, and the
from which it is manufactured must be able to withstand these lubricated cycle starts again.
forces and prevent bending or distortion.
Crankcase breathing
The crankcase may be subjected to additional loads from the Any air leaking past the piston rings finds its way into the lower
propeller reduction gears, or by propeller rotation loads. part of the crankcase. As this area is not designed to withstand
Generally, for the lighter types of aircraft, the crankcase is high pressures (oil leaks could occur), some means must be
usually manufactured from an aluminium alloy; forged steel is provided to vent this air overboard from the crankcase.
used for crankcases that are used for high power engines. The
use of aluminium alloy ensures sufficient strength of the casing, To achieve this, a pipe is generally connected into the
while still retaining a reasonably light structure. Most crankcase, allowing air to escape to the atmosphere, thus
attachment points for components use the stud method; these equalising the pressure within the crankcase to ambient
have threaded inserts retaining the studs in the crankcase. The pressure. Usually, a wire type filter may be fitted in this tube.
threaded inserts are generally made of steel, thus ensuring a This system is known as crankcase breathing.
secure fixture to the casing.

Typical in-line engine crankcase arrangement

6-cylinder opposed engine crankcase

Crankshaft in assembled engine, with
cylinders and other components

Radial engines
The in-line engine crankcase is usually a single or a two-part As with the in-line engine, the cylinders are generally attached
assembly. The radial engine, however, may contain as many to the casing by nuts and studs. These casings also support
as seven structural parts. As you can see from the illustration the main crankshaft for the radial pistons.
below, this arrangement contains four major sub-assemblies:
Supercharger section
• the nose assembly; Most high-power radial engines have some form of a
• the power assembly; supercharger to compress the air/fuel mixture as it leaves the
• the supercharger (this may not be fitted); and carburettor. These usually are internally driven by the power
• the accessory assembly. section and are attached to the aft of the power section. The
supercharger casing is manufactured from aluminium alloy or
Nose section a magnesium alloy. It contains various exit orifices for fuel/air
The nose assembly houses the propeller support bearings, as mixture pipes to be fitted, allowing the compressed mixture to
well as the propeller reduction gearing. be ducted to the cylinders.
In most cases, the nose section is manufactured from The accessory drive casing is located at the rear end of the
aluminium alloy, affording strength with lightness. The use of casing.
aluminium alloy does tend to damp out any vibrations caused
by the propeller reduction gearing. As the nose section may
contain oil components that are required for the reduction
gearing, adequate oil sealing must be achieved between the
power and nose sections.
Attachment of the nose section to the power section is achieved

by either stud or by nuts and bolts.
Power sections
The power section could consist of up to four subsections,
depending upon the number of rows of cylinders. Because of
the extremely high loads experienced in this area, the
crankcase is typically manufactured from a steel forging or a
high strength alloy.

Six cylinder opposed engine crankcase
Radial engine crankcase and assembly arrangement

Accessory gearbox
The rear section of a piston engine is usually of cast Gear trains, containing both spur- and bevel-type gears, are
construction, and the material may be either aluminium alloy, used in the different types of engines for driving engine
which is used most widely, or magnesium, which has been components and accessories. Spur-type gears are generally
used less frequently. On some engines, it is cast in one piece used to drive the more substantial loaded accessories or those
and provided with means for mounting the accessories, such requiring the least play or backlash in the gear train. Bevel
as magnetos, carburettors, and fuel, oil, and vacuum pumps, gears permit angular location of short stub shafts leading to the
and starter, generator, etc., in the various locations required to various accessory mounting pads.
facilitate accessibility. Other adaptations cast magnesium
cover plate on which the accessory mounts are arranged.
Accessory drive shafts are mounted in suitable bronze

bushings located in the diffuser and rear sections. These shafts
extend into the rear section and are fitted with suitable gears
from which power takeoffs or drive arrangements are carried
out to the accessory mounting pads. In this manner, the various
gear ratios can be arranged to give the proper drive speed to
magneto, pump, and other accessories to obtain correct timing
or functioning.
In some cases, there is a duplication of drives, such as the

tachometer drive, to connect instruments located at separate
stations.
The accessory section provides a mounting place for the

carburettor, or master control, fuel injection pumps, engine-
driven fuel pump, tachometer generator, synchronising
generator for the engine analyser, oil filter, and oil pressure
relief valve.

Crankshaft and camshaft arrangement with accessory gearbox

The accessory assembly casing contains the necessary
bearings and bushes required to support the accessory drive
shafts of the various components that may be located on the
gearbox. It is usually manufactured from an aluminium alloy.
Drive pads are mounted for such engine subsystems as:
• the fuel pump;

• the oil pump;
• the magneto;
• the RPM tachometer;
• the electrical generators; and
• the starter motor.
Other components that may be fitted are filters and magnetic

chip detectors.
The accessory section contains the necessary drive shafts to

operate the above systems and components; it is manufactured
from either aluminium or magnesium alloy. An example of a
typical accessory section is illustrated below.

Typical radial engine accessory section

The accessory drive shaft is driven by a crankshaft gear, and
this, in turn, drives various shafts and gears that are mounted
on the rear of the engine. Driveshafts connect from these gears
to each component. By using this method, various gear ratios
can be arranged to give the proper drive speed of each
component. As well as providing mounts for the system
components listed previously, there are also mounts for the
carburettor and inlet manifold.
The location of the accessory section is most important for ease

of access during maintenance operations.

Typical gear drive arrangement

Crankshaft
The purpose of the crankshaft is to receive the axial thrust of
the pistons and to convert this thrust to rotary movement
through the connecting rod assembly. The crankshaft is usually
machined from a chrome-nickel molybdenum steel forging,
which is then nitrided to provide excellent wear characteristics
on the bearing surfaces.
Crankshafts are classified according to the number of cranks.

A shaft with one crankpin is called a single-throw crankshaft,
and one with six cranks, a six-throw crankshaft. Examples of a
single throw crankshaft and a four-throw crankshaft are
illustrated. Suitable drives at each end of the shaft transmit the
torque to the propeller, sometimes through a reduction gear,
and to the accessory drives, e.g., magnetos, oil pumps, and
fuel pump. The crankshaft is hollow to provide oilways, with the
added advantage that it also makes it lighter.
Nomenclature
Crankshafts may differ between the two engine arrangements,
but the terminology that is used is the same for both types.
Illustrated below are typical examples of an engine crankshafts

used in a 6-cylinder and a 4-cylinder in-line engine.
The crankshaft comprises three major parts:
• journals;
• crankpins; and
• cheeks or arms.

Crankshaft nomenclature

Journals
The journals are, in fact, the major supporting parts of the
crankshaft, rotating within the main bearings. These bearings
fit into location lugs within the crankcase, see the diagram
below right.
Because they support the crankshaft, they may also be known

as the main bearing journals. For a short shaft, there may be
only two bearings supporting it, one at each end. However, for
a longer shaft, a bearing may be located midway, providing
extra support and allowing even distribution of the loads carried
by the crankshaft.
In some cases, the bearing faces of the journals may be

hardened, which is treated to prevent wear from the bearing
inner race shells. The lubrication of this bearing is achieved by
oil jets within the engine lubrication system.

Typical crankshaft assembled with connecting
rods and pistons (V12)
Crankshaft mounting points

Crank pins
The crankpins are those parts of the crankshaft to which the
piston connecting rods or arms are attached. The crankpin may
also be known as the connecting rod bearing journal.
They are usually hollow in manufacture to reduce the weight of

the crankshaft, and to allow for the lubrication of the connecting
rod bearing shells, (big end shells).
The bearing shells shown are generally manufactured from

non-ferrous metals (copper-tin-bronze) and contain oil holes
and grooves that match with the oil holes in the crankpin,
allowing adequate lubrication of the crankpin surfaces.
Excessive wear of these bearing shells results in heavy
knocking noises from the crankshaft area with a subsequent
low oil pressure indication.
Crank cheeks or arms

The primary purpose of the crank cheeks or arms is to attach
and support the crankpin to the crankshaft. Extension of this
arm may facilitate the addition of balance weights when
required.

Bearing shells
Crankshaft nomenclature

Crankshaft arrangements
Crankshaft arrangements differ between in-line and radial
engine installations. However, there are different arrangements
again within these two categories.
The three principle arrangements found are:
• in-line four-throw or six-throw;

• a single throw 360° (radial engine); and
• a double throw 180° (radial engine).
In-line six-throw
The six-throw crankshaft may be found in a standard six-
cylinder in-line engine, or two six throw crankshafts may be
found in a twelve-cylinder V-type in-line engine. In the example
shown, you can see that the shaft has seven journals and six
crankpins for connecting rod attachment. The propeller is
usually attached to the shaft by a splined drive, and an
accessory gear may be found on the rear of the shaft.
Double throw
The double throw crank illustrated below right has three
journals and two crankpins. This arrangement is found in a
two-row radial engine configuration, one throw for each row of
cylinders. Again, the construction may be single-piece or two-
piece.

Typical crankshaft assembled with connecting
rods and pistons (V12)
Double throw crankshaft

Single throw
The single-throw crankshaft, found in a single-cylinder row of a
radial engine, consists of a single pin for connecting rod
attachment, and two-journal bearing support. This type of
crankshaft is used with a master connecting rod assembly, but
this arrangement will be discussed in greater detail in the next
module. The single throw arrangement may also have a two-
piece crankshaft. This allows the crank to be split on the
assembly of a single piece connecting rod. This type is
illustrated below-left, the crankpin being splined together and
secured by a bolt. Another example is illustrated below-right,
where one cheek is attached to the crankpin and secured by a
nut and bolt.

Two-piece crankshaft arrangement Radial engine single-throw crankshaft with
dynamic damper

An example of the movement of a single throw crankshaft is
shown below-bottom. Here we have a seven-cylinder single-
row radial engine, and the illustration right shows a complete
360° turn and the position of the pistons in the seven cylinders.

Double throw crankshaft
Radial engine – single throw crankshaft and piston assembly

Crankshaft balancing
Dampers or balance weights are fitted to reduce the vibrations
that are created by a rotating crankshaft. In most cases, the
dampers or weights are added by the manufacturer during
assembly. By adding balance weights to the crank cheeks or
arms, the vibrations can be reduced to an acceptable level. A
typical example of this type is illustrated.
Single throw crankshafts used for single row radial engines

may have their vibrations damped by one of the following
methods:
• counterweight; and
• dynamic balancing.
Counterweight method
The counterweight method allows for the addition of balance
weights. This is known as static balancing.

Dynamic counterweights on a crankshaft

Dynamic balancing method
Radial engine crankshafts have a single throw for each row of However, to explain the action of the damper, it is best to
cylinders, and they must have a large, heavy counterweight for consider the sequence of action shown below.
static balance. Horizontally opposed engines, on the other
hand, are built symmetrically and do not need counterweights A pendulum suspended from the crankshaft is subjected to a
for static balance. However, most of the larger ones use series of impulses from the engine; it swings from side to side
counterweights for dynamic balance, to absorb torsional in frequency with these impulses. However, if another
vibrations. pendulum is suspended below the first pendulum, it tends to
absorb the impulses and swing itself, leaving the upper
Dynamic counterweights are installed on blades that are forged pendulum stationary. This, therefore, is the basic principle of
as integral parts of the crankshaft. They are retained by pins the dynamic damper, where the pendulum weights are
with diameters smaller than the holes in the bushings through suspended in arms attached to the crankshaft.
which they fit. The small pin in the large hole allows the weight
to rock back and forth in a pendulum fashion.
The power produced by a reciprocating engine is supplied by

the pistons in a series of pushes, or pulses. When the
frequency of these pulses is the same as the resonant
frequency of the crankshaft, severe torsional vibration can
occur. Dynamic counterweights change the resonant frequency
of the crankshaft. The dynamic balancing of crankshafts is a
little more complicated. The purpose of dynamic balancing is to
allow any out of balance forces created by the rotation of the
crankshaft and power impulses to be balanced within
themselves. This ensures that any vibration is kept to an
acceptable level and can be tuned to provide the engine with a
harmonically tuned vibration frequency which is sympathetic to
the airframe.
The distance the pendulum moves depends on the vibration

frequency that corresponds to the power impulses from the
engine.

Dynamic counterweights on a crankshaft
Dynamic damping principle

Dynamic counterweight system detuning 1. Rapid throttle operation
In the piston engine, the reciprocating inertia forces (which Rapid opening or closing of the throttle can cause
increase with engine speed) are counteracted by the expansion counterweight detuning. This can occur while adjusting the
forces acting on the pistons. Therefore, the loads imposed on governors or other checks on the engine, which makes it
the engine parts are represented by the difference between the necessary to run the engine at rated takeoff speed. Also,
two forces. Thus, at high speeds where the inertia forces are detuning can occur if the power is suddenly shut off, such as
the greatest, the resultant forces are much higher with low during a simulated engine failure. To avoid detuning during a
manifold pressure that at a high manifold pressure, cylinder simulated engine failure, use the mixture control to shut down
pressure being directly proportional to manifold pressure. the engine and leave the throttle at the normal open position
When one of these two forces, the inertia force or the until the engine has slowed down through the lack of fuel. Then
expansion forces, is suddenly changed, the effect on the close the throttle to the idle position. The throttle being open
resultant forces can cause the counterweight system to allows the cylinder to fill with air, maintaining the normal
become detuned. compression forces which are sufficient to cushion the
deceleration of the engine. Another result of rapid throttle
Detuning the counterweight system of the engine can occur movement is a severe strain on supercharger gears and
when the engine operates outside of its normal range and by associated gears because of the inertia force of the high-speed
abrupt throttle inputs. When this happens, the dynamic impeller.
counterweights cannot follow the spectrum of frequencies for
which they were designed, and rapid and severe damage to the 2. High engine speed and low manifold pressure
counterweights, rollers, and bushings may result, culminating Any operating procedure involving high RPM engine speed and
in engine failure. Lycoming has estimated that a load of low manifold pressure (under 50 kPa (15" Hg)) such as might
approximately 90 tonnes is exerted on the rollers resulting in be the case in a powered-off decent, can cause detuning of the
flat spots; this causes the weights to stick, resulting in violent dynamic counterweight system. However, just prior touchdown,
vibration. during the landing sequence, it is permissible to place the
propeller governor control in the high-RPM (low-pitch) position,
An example of this is an engine that had become detuned and the throttle may be closed. At this low airspeed, there is no
following a propeller strike. Following inspection and return to increase in engine RPM.
service, the engine was flown for a further 100 hours; high-
frequency vibration caused by the detuning resulted in 3 of the
4 engine mounts failing.
Four operating conditions can cause the counterweight system

to detune; they are as follows.

3. Excessive speed and power
Any supercharged or turbocharged engine, without automatic
manifold pressure controllers, has the inherent capability of
operating at power settings beyond the capability of the engine;
this is particularly true at low altitude. See the operator’s
manual for speed and power limitations for specific engine
models. Reference the latest edition of Service Bulletin No. 369
for limits on manifold pressure and speed.
4. Propeller feathering
Avoid propeller feathering during flight. If practice feathering
must be accomplished, be sure that the throttle of the feathered
engine is set at approximate zero thrust position before the
mixture control is opened and engine operation resumed. See
the aircraft operation manual for specific feathering
instructions.

Bearings
The crankshaft is supported in the crankcase by plain bearings.
The main bearing bosses are line-bored to ensure that the
bearing seats are all in perfect alignment, and bearing inserts
are fitted into each of the seats. The inserts have a steel
backing and use a lead alloy as the bearing material. The
bearing inside diameter is then clad with a thin lead or silver
coating to provide a very low-friction surface. The inserts are
prevented from turning in their seats by tangs on one end that
fit into slots in the bearing seat. Alternatively, dowel pins
pressed into the bearing seats fit through a hole in the insert.
When the case halves are torqued together, the inserts are an
interference fit with the bore. This is done for increased heat
transfer and bearing retention.
Camshafts of horizontally opposed engines usually ride in line-

bored holes through the webs in the crankcase and do not use
any type of bearing insert or bushing. This arrangement is
satisfactory because camshafts are nearly equally loaded from
both sides when in operation. It is not unusual to find the tooling
marks still on the case bearing surfaces after one or two times
between overhaul (TBO) periods.
The bearing shells are commonly manufactured from steel with

white metal bearing (aluminium/tin) surface linings.

Bearing shells and crankcase

Camshafts
The camshaft is found generally mounted to the crankcase but The valve gear is designed so that the inlet valves share the
will only on in-line engines. The radial engine arrangement will same cam lobe, whereas the exhaust valves have dedicated
be explained later. cam lobes.
The purpose of the camshaft is to lift the inlet and exhaust

valves in the correct sequence during engine rotation to ensure
the correct firing order.
The relationship between the rotation of the camshaft and the

rotation of the crankshaft is of critical importance. Since the
valves control the flow of air/fuel mixture intake and exhaust
gases, they must be opened and closed at the appropriate time
during the stroke of the piston. For this reason, the camshaft is
connected to the crankshaft via a gear mechanism. A typical
camshaft arrangement is shown below.
The camshaft is a straight shaft that has a series of lobes at

different angles along its length. As the shaft rotates, each lobe
pushed its valve arm connecting rod, thus opening its
respective inlet or exhaust valve. The camshaft rotates at only
half the crankshaft speed.
Lubrication results from having the centre of the shaft hollow,

allowing oil to lubricate each lobe through an oil hole drilled in
the lobe surface.
The camshaft is manufactured from a chrome-nickel

molybdenum steel forging. It is initially roughed out before
being copper plated. Once the plating has been accomplished,
the bearing journals, cam lobes, and gear teeth are ground.
The camshaft is then carburised and the copper plating
removed. Finally, bearing journals are polished.

Camshaft drive by gear train
Camshaft and valve lifters
Camshaft arrangement

Causes of camshaft failures
In order of frequency: The amount of water that settles to the bottom is likely to be
more than one would expect. Also, remember that combustion
• Inactive engines – moisture in the engine causing causes acids to collect in the oil. When these are not removed
corrosion. by regular oil changes, the acids, as well as the moisture,
• High RPM starts. promote the growth of microscopic pitting, which eventually
• Cold starts without preheating. leads to excessively worn tappets and cam lobes.
• Valve action – too loose or too tight.
• Sticking valves. Another factor in the unacceptable rise of tappet spalling in
• Engine overspeed. general aviation engines may be the component that is put into
many of those engines at overhaul. There is an increasing
The lobes of the camshaft, and the tappets that they continually tendency to put reground camshafts and tappets into these
operate against, have always been subject to wear. engines, to reduce the costs of the overhaul. Although
camshafts may be reground, there is a stringent limit on the
Corrosion is a known cause of tappet and cam lobe wear. The amount of grinding which can be tolerated. Grind too much, and
engines of aircraft that are not flown regularly may be extremely the hardened surface of the cam lobe is gone. After this kind of
vulnerable to corrosion. When the film of oil drains from the grinding, the cam may look great, but it will be wearing on the
interior parts of the engine after it has been run, those parts soft metal, which was once protected by a hardened surface.
become prey to the chemical changes that are caused by Lycoming does not recommend the use of reground tappets
moisture, acids, and oxygen. Tappets from engines that have under any circumstances, but many engines overhauled in the
not been operated for long periods have been carefully field today come back to the owner with reground tappets and
examined. Under a microscope, it is not unusual to find camshaft.
microscopic pits on the face of the tappet. This is the beginning
of trouble. Starting with these very tiny pits, tiny particles of rust In some cases, at least, these items are nothing more than
also affect the cam lobes. Once started, the process is not likely good looking scrap. Because of the high percentage of
to stop until the wear reaches a point where these parts are refurbished used parts that go into many overhauls, and many
doing an unacceptable job. aeroplanes sitting for long periods without being flown, there
could be more tappet spalling today than in the past. Ask about
Some people might question the assertion that engines can the parts which are going into your overhaul. It may be less
attract unusually large amounts of moisture: brief operating expensive to pay for new parts at the time of overhaul than it is
periods, low engine oil operating temperatures and to pay for replacing worn out parts before the engine has
condensation all contribute. It might be astonishing to take an reached its expected TBO.
engine that has flown 15 to 25 hours over four to six months
and drain the oil into a clear container.

Camshaft corrosion Camshaft and lifter wear

Connecting rods
Function
The connecting rod carries the forces produced by the pistons The outside diameter of the bearing insert is approximately a
into the crankshaft. These rods must be strong and stiff enough 0.076 mm (0.003") interference fit in the cap and rod bore. This
to resist bending during the power stroke, and at the same time, fit helps to prevent the bearing from spinning in the rod, and
they must be light enough to reduce the inertia as the rod and aids with heat transfer for cooling.
piston stop, then change direction at the top and bottom of the
stroke. The connecting rod is connected to the crankpin at the High-strength nuts and bolts hold the cap onto the rod body.
big end or crankpin end. The other connection is at the piston The torque applied to the nuts on these bolts is critical because
end and is known as the small end or piston pin end. it must produce tensile stress in the bolt higher than the stress
that is applied by the hammering action the rod receives in
Connecting rods are generally made from alloy steel, but low- operation.
power output engines may have an aluminium alloy connecting
rod. A heavy connecting rod would produce high inertia forces The small end of the connecting rod has a bronze bushing
during its reciprocating motion, so, to reduce the weight of the pressed into its hole, and the bushing is reamed to the correct
connecting rod, the cross-sectional area is usually a letter H or fit for the wrist pin. The reaming must be precise to keep the
I in shape. axis of the bushing parallel to that of the large-end bearing.
During the overhaul, the lack of parallelism is measured as twist
The connecting rods are made from alloy steel forgings. They and convergence. These limits must be held to approximately
have replaceable bearing inserts in the crankshaft ends and 0.025 mm (0.001") off true over 25 mm (1"). If this tolerance is
split type bronze bushings in the piston ends. The bearing caps not held, the piston can be pinched in the cylinder, the full
on the crankshaft end of the rods are retained by two bolts surface of the bearings involved does not bear the load, and
through each cap secured by a crimp nut. the rod and piston pin work back and forth excessively. This
condition causes excessive wear and possible parts failure.
On most engines, the big end of the connecting rod is split, and
both the body of the rod and the cap have cylinder identification Connecting rods can be divided into three categories:
numbers stamped on them to prevent them being mismatched
during overhaul. Two-piece bearing inserts are installed in the • plain type, associated with in-line engines or opposed
big end and are held in place by tangs on the inserts that fit into type engines;
slots cut into the cap and body. The tangs prevent the insert • fork and blade type, as used in the V-type engines; and
from spinning inside the rod. Some connecting rods prevent the • master and articulated rod type fitted to radial engine
bearing insert spinning by a short dowel pin pressed into the cylinder arrangements.
body of the rod that fits into a hole in the insert.
Connecting rod and piston assembly
Connecting rods – small end and big end
Connecting rod nomenclature Connecting rod, crankshaft and piston assembly

The plain connecting rod
This type is associated with in-line or opposed engines. Weight code Weight
The connecting rod below has a letter ‘I’ cross-sectional shape A Light
and consists of a small end bush and a big end bush, which is B
always split into two sections known as the big end bearing
shells. A retaining cap holds the shells around the crank pin. S Service rod (STD)
The cap is either fitted to the connecting rod using nuts and D
bolts, or studs may be fitted to the connecting rod.
E Heavy
The small end bush is usually of a bronze type material and is
force-fitted into the small end of the connecting rod. Through
this bush is fitted the pin that attaches the piston to the Weights can be mixed with care. For example, an ‘A’ weight
connecting rod (the piston or gudgeon pin). The crankshaft and conrod could be installed with an ‘S’ weight, but not with a ‘D or
connecting rods are usually balanced during manufacture; E’ as this would result in vibration.
therefore, it is essential to retain an even balance, and any rods
that are removed from the crankshaft are replaced in the same Correct usage
order when reassembling after a major overhaul. Standard and light rods ‘A’ and ‘B.’
To assist you, however, you may find that the connecting rods Standard and heavy rods ‘D’ and ‘E.’
are numbered, corresponding to the cylinders to which they are
Incorrect usage
to be fitted.
Standard with a mixture of ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘D’, ‘E.’
The connecting rods are numbered on the rod and rod end to
ensure that they remain a matched pair and in the correct
running position within the engine. Lycoming produces conrods
in five different weights of categories a careful engine build
procedure is required to prevent vibration and ensure an even
engine wear characteristic.

Connecting rod assembly

Connecting rod assembly

Piston, cylinder and connecting rod assembly

The fork and blade connecting rod
This method is used in engines where the cylinders are
arranged in a V-shape. Here the fork is divided at the big end
bearing to provide space for the blade rod to the fitted and
secured as shown below left.
The forked rod has a two-piece bearing shell and associated

retaining caps attached by either bolts or studs. The blade rod
fits between the two retaining caps of the forked rod and is
retained on the shells by a single retaining cap secured by bolts
and studs.
An adaptation of this method consists of a master rod and an

offset articulated rod; the example shown below right is from a
Daimler Benz DB601. The unusual feature of this engine was
that the crankpin was fitted with three rings of roller bearings to
reduce running friction.

Connecting rods used in V-type engines
Master and offset articulated rod configuration

The master and articulated rod
This type of connecting rod arrangement, shown below left is
usually fitted to the radial engine configuration.
The master rod is fitted to a piston in one cylinder, and the other
pistons in that row are then connected to the master rod by the
articulated rods. These are attached to the master rod flange
by a series of buckle pins. These pins usually are force-fitted
on to the master rod flange to allow the articulated rods to move
during rotation of the crankshaft.
Locking plates either side of the master rod flange ensure that
the knuckle pins are retained in the flange. In this connecting
rod arrangement, only the master rod big end is fitted to the
crankpin, thus reducing the length of the crankshaft.
Big end shells usually are lubricated via the hollow crankshaft,
and the small end and knuckle pins are usually splash
lubricated from oil passages within the connecting rods.

Master and articulated rod arrangement
Master and articulated rod assembly

Cylinders
General arrangement
The portion of the engine in which the power is developed is The cylinder used in the air-cooled engine is the overhead
called the cylinder. The cylinder provides a combustion valve type. Each cylinder is an assembly of two major parts:
chamber where the burning and expansion of gases take place, cylinder head and cylinder barrel. At assembly, the cylinder
and it houses the piston and the connecting rod. Four head is expanded by heating and then screwed down on the
significant factors need to be considered in the design and cylinder barrel, which has been chilled. When the head cools,
construction of the cylinder assembly. It must: and contracts and the barrel warms up and expands; a gastight
joint results. The majority of the cylinders used are constructed
1. be strong enough to withstand the internal pressures in this manner using an aluminium head and a steel barrel.
developed during engine operation;
2. be constructed of lightweight metal to keep down engine Often, the cylinder is narrower at the top than at the bottom.
weight; This is to allow for expansion when the engine is at full working
3. have excellent heat-conducting properties for efficient temperature. The top of the cylinder generally gets hotter than
cooling; and the lower part, due to the combustion taking place at the top.
4. be comparatively easy and inexpensive to manufacture,
inspect, and maintain. The cylinder, therefore, is divided into two areas:
The cylinder head of an air-cooled engine is generally made of • the cylinder head; and
aluminium alloy because it is a good conductor of heat, and its • the cylinder barrel.
light weight reduces the overall engine weight. Cylinder heads
are forged or die-cast for greater strength. The inner shape of
a cylinder head is generally semi-spherical. The semi-spherical
shape is stronger than conventionalist design and aids in a
more rapid and thorough scavenging of the exhaust gases.

Cylinder head and barrel assembly Cylinder head and barrel and piston assembly - sectioned

Cylinder heads
The purpose of the cylinder head is to provide a place for The cylinder heads of air-cooled engines are subjected to
combustion of the fuel/air mixture and to give the cylinder more extreme temperatures; it is, therefore, necessary to provide
heat conductivity for adequate cooling. The fuel/air mixture is adequate cooling fin area and to use metals that conduct heat
ignited by the spark in the combustion chamber and rapidly. Cylinder heads of air-cooled engines are usually cast
commences burning as the piston travels toward the top dead or forged. Aluminium alloy is used in the construction for
centre (top of its travel) on the compression stroke. The ignited several reasons. It is well adapted for casting or for the
charge is rapidly expanding at this time, and pressure is machining of deep, closely spaced fins, and it is more resistant
increasing so that, as the piston travels through the top dead than most metals to the corrosive attack of tetraethyl lead in
centre position, it is driven downward on the power stroke. gasoline. The most significant improvement in air cooling has
resulted from reducing the thickness of the fins and increasing
The intake and exhaust valve ports are located in the cylinder their depth. In this way, the fin area has been increased in
head along with the spark plugs and the intake and exhaust modern engines. Cooling fins taper from 2.3 mm (0.09") at the
valve actuating mechanisms. base to 1.5 mm (0.06") at the tip end. The arrangement of these
fins increases the total cooling area of the cylinder head by as
After the cylinder head is cast, the spark plug bushings, valve much as 500%, thus affording a substantial increase in cooling
guides, rocker arm bushings, and valve seats are installed in efficiency. Because of the difference in temperature in the
the cylinder head. Spark plug openings may be fitted with various sections of the cylinder head, it is necessary to provide
bronze or steel bushings that are shrunk and screwed into the more cooling-fin area on some sections than on others. The
openings. Stainless steel Heli-Coil spark plug inserts are used exhaust valve region is the hottest part of the internal surface;
in many engines currently manufactured. Bronze or steel valve therefore, more fin area is provided around the outside of the
guides are usually shrunk or screwed into drilled openings in cylinder in this section.
the cylinder head to provide guides for the valve stems. These
are generally located at an angle to the centre line of the Cylinder heads can be manufactured in one of three basic
cylinder. The valve seats are circular rings of hardened metal shapes:
that protect the relatively soft metal of the cylinder head from
the hammering action of the valves (as they open and close) • flat;
and the exhaust gases. • peaked; and
• domed.

Cylinder head and barrel assembly – sectioned

Cylinder head

Cylinder head, barrel and valves/valve springs assembly

Cylinder head temperatures
The cylinder head temperatures on an air-cooled engine are To avoid engine damage, most general aviation aircraft take
critical to prevent damage to the head, either caused by shock the CHT off the hottest cylinder of the four-cylinder, six-cylinder
cooling or excessive temperature. or eight-cylinder power plant, determined by extensive flight
tests. Optional installations offer readings from all cylinders. In
Shock cooling is detrimental to the health of the engine; Lycoming engines, all cylinders are drilled to accommodate a
Lycoming recommends that changes to CHT should be limited CHT bayonet-type thermocouple. Minimum in-flight CHT
to 10°C (50°F) per minute. Operations that tend to induce rapid should be 65°C (150°F), and maximum in most direct-drive
engine cooling are dropping parachutists or a glider towing. normally-aspirated Lycoming engines is 260°C (500°F). Some
Typical engine problems include: of their higher-powered more complex engines have a
maximum limit of 245°C (475°F). Although these are minimum
• excessively worn rings grooves and broken rings; and maximum limits, the pilot should operate their engine at
• cracked cylinder heads; more reasonable temperatures to achieve the expected
• warped exhaust valves; overhaul life of the power plant. Engines benefit during
• bent pushrods; and continuous operation by keeping CHT below 205°C (400°F) to
• spark plug fouling. achieve the best life and wear of the power plant. In general, it
Use of excessive temperature can result in: would be normal during all-year operations, in climb and cruise
to see head temperatures in the range of 175°C to 225°C
• annealing of the cylinder head; (350°F to 435°F).
• loose valve guides;
• loose valve seats;
• cracked heads; and
• loose studs.

Cylinder arrangement Cylinder head shapes

Cylinder barrels
The cylinder barrel is machined from a high-strength chrome- The angle of the crosshatch pattern is also crucial because this
molybdenum or chrome-nickel-molybdenum steel forging. The determines the proper rate of ring rotation. If rings do not rotate,
bottom end of the cylinder barrel has a skirt machined to fit into severe cylinder wall and ring damage occur. The exact surface
the crankcase. The heavy flange just above the skirt is drilled roughness is specified in terms of micro inches RMS (root
with holes through which the mounting studs pass to attach the mean square). For example, a surface finish of
cylinder to the crankcase. The cylinder skirt allows the 0.010-0.015 mm (15-25 μ inch) RMS means that the highest
reduction of the engine width by placing a portion of the cylinder and lowest deviation from the average surface can range
stroke area inside the crankcase. For inverted cylinders, the between 0.010 mm and 0.015 mm (15 and 25 millionths of an
skirt also reduces the amount of engine oil that would otherwise inch). This is typical for a honed surface. The surface
drain down into the combustion area after the engine shutdown. roughness is measured with an instrument called a
Cooling fins are machined on the outside of the barrel for most profilometer.
of its length. The outer surface of the top of the barrel is
threaded so it can be screwed into the cylinder head. Some cylinder walls are hardened, either by chrome plating or
by a process called nitriding. Chrome-plated cylinders are
Many cylinder barrels are ground so that their diameter at the ground, so their diameter is slightly oversize, and then the
top of the bore is smaller than at the centre or bottom. The inside of the barrel is electrolytically plated with hard chromium
reason for this process, called choke-grinding, is that the to the required dimension. The traditional hard chrome, or
highest operating temperature in the cylinder is at the top, channel chrome, used on cylinder walls since the second world
where the barrel screws into the head, and when the engine is war has the characteristic of forming a spider web pattern of
hot, the upper end of the cylinder expands more than the rest. minute cracks, or channels, on its surface. When the plating is
The smaller diameter at the top causes the bore to become completed, the plating current is reversed, and some of the
straight when the cylinder is at its operating temperature. This chrome is removed. The deplating current removes chrome
provision drastically reduces upper piston and ring wear and is from the cracks at a much faster rate than it does from the
one of the primary changes responsible for extending engine crack-free areas or plateaus. The deplating is continued until
operating time between overhauls (TBO). the cracks, or channels, are about 0.0045" deep and 0.004"
wide. These channels hold enough oil to ensure adequate
The inner surface of the cylinder barrel is ground to a specified lubrication. Chrome-plated cylinders have the advantage of
dimension. Then the surface is honed with a 45° cross-hatched better heat transfer and a surface that is harder and more
finish that is specified by the engine manufacturer. The degree corrosion- and scuff-resistant than plain steel. They have the
of surface roughness is significant because it must be smooth disadvantage that the lubricating film on the surface of the
enough not to cause excessive ring wear, yet rough enough chrome is not as strong as the film that forms on plain steel
that it holds oil for lubrication and proper ring-face mating to the cylinder walls.
cylinder wall during engine break-in.
Cylinder head and barrel assembly Cylinder and head assembly

Chromed cylinders are identified by bands of orange paint An engine that has recently been overhauled is new, or has had
around the cylinder base or on some of the fins. a replacement cylinder installed, should be ‘broken-in’ using
straight mineral oils (unless turbocharged).
Nitriding is a process of case hardening in which the cylinder
barrel is heated in an atmosphere of ammonia gas. The alloying When a cylinder is new, the inner wall surface is not smooth as
elements in the steel combine with the nitrogen from the might be imagined. The objective of the break-in procedure is
ammonia to form extremely hard nitrides on the surface. to rub off any high spots, both on the cylinder wall and the
Nitriding is not a plating, and it causes a dimensional growth of piston rings so that the rings can create a tight gas seal for
0.0102 mm (0.0004") or less. It hardens the surface to a depth regular operation. This requires the piston ring to break through
of about 0.05 mm (0.002"), with the hardness decreasing the oil film and allow a certain amount of metal-to-metal contact
gradually from the surface inward. After nitriding a cylinder, it is between the components. Once this matching has occurred,
honed to give it the desired degree of surface roughness. the break-in is considered to be complete, and minimal contact
Nitrided cylinders are identified by a band of blue paint around occurs after that.
the base or by blue paint on some fins.
One drawback to nitriding is the tendency of cylinders to rust or

corrode. Nitrided cylinders must be kept covered with a film of
engine oil, and if the engine is out of service for any length of
time, the cylinder walls should be protected with a coating of
viscous preservative oil.
In more recent years, CermiChrome, CermiSteel, and CermiNil

cylinder walls have been used. All of the ‘Cermi’ processes
involve embedding ceramic particles into the cylinder wall.
These surfaces have experienced limited success.
The current edition of the ceramic (silicon carbide) impregnated

barrel surfaces, known as NiC3TM, consists of coating the inside
of the cylinder with nickel by electrolysis. Suspended in the
nickel coating are tiny silicon carbide particles. This system is
said to provide excellent wear resistance and lubrication. The
nickel base-metal provides corrosion resistance. The porous
ceramic particles act as the lubrication reservoir in place of the
crosshatching of regular steel or nitride cylinders.

Cylinder head and barrel – bolted arrangement
Cylinder liquid cooling

Colour coding (Lycoming)
• Azure blue – band around the base of the cylinder or

on the top edges of the cylinder head fins
between the pushrod tubes indicates
nitrided cylinders.
• Orange – band around the base of the cylinder or
on the top edges of the cylinder head fins
between the pushrod tubes indicates
chromed cylinders.
• Yellow – above the spark plug hole indicates long
reach spark plugs (long reach 20.6 mm
(13∕16") short reach 12.7 mm (½")).
• Green – at base of the cylinder indicates that the
barrel is 0.254 mm (0.010") oversize.
• Yellow – at the base of the cylinder indicates that
the barrel is 0.508 mm (0.020") oversize.
Black oxide on the inside of the cylinder barrels is used to

provide corrosion protection while parts are in storage

Cylinder head and barrel

HTCC combustion chamber
The ultimate objective of the aircraft engine combustion system during that time of the combustion event when the piston is at
is the best possible thermal efficiency and fuel economy, both TDC, and the effect of squish is strongest. Swirl and squish
directly influenced by the efficiency of the combustion process complement each other since swirl reaches its peak early in the
and design of the combustion chamber. Developments over the combustion process, and squish reaches its maximum strength
years have shown ‘fast burn’ combustion chamber designs to later as the piston approaches TDC. It is therefore vital that a
be capable of achieving higher net thermal efficiencies with new combustion chamber design carefully addresses chamber
lessened cyclic variation and reduced knock tendency. Design geometry, intake port velocity, swirl, squish, and spark plug
features which promote fast burn in a combustion chamber are: location if higher combustion efficiencies are to be attained.
• compact chamber design with short flame travel distance; The combustion system incorporated into the Continental
• minimum squish height (compression zone between the Voyager 200/300 engines is a compact fast burn high
flame deck and piston at TDC) turbulence combustion chamber (HTCC) which operates at an
• generation of chamber turbulence, swirl, and higher inlet 11.4:1 compression ratio. The exhaust valve is deeply
port velocity; recessed within a bathtub-shaped chamber type depression to
• spark plug location and concentration of chamber volume promote swirl and turbulence of the fuel/air mixture. The plane
around the ignition source; and of the inlet valve is located in that portion of the cylinder head,
• large surface to volume ratio in the end gas region. where the critical squish zone is created with the opposed flat
piston dome. Nominal squish height is 1.016 mm (0.040"). As
‘Squish’ is defined as the gas motion resulting from the the piston approaches TDC during the compression stroke,
compression of the gaseous mixture between that part of the reaching minimum volume in the squish zone and maximum
piston closest to the combustion chamber dome or valves at compression of the charge mixture, the high-velocity rotational
TDC. Compact chamber designs are characterised by small flow within the swirl chamber is intensified, thus contributing to
squish heights and tend to yield a more rapid flame front with a more rapid and efficient combustion process.
faster burn rates, which is a practical approach for reducing fuel
consumption and octane requirements. Higher intake port
velocities are used to promote turbulence, which consequently
improves the combustion rate. Intake swirl has also been
shown to enhance turbulence and reduce cyclic variability.
Research had indicated that while turbulence without swirl

enhances combustion, turbulence with swirl produces even
faster burning and lower cyclic variability. Squish provides a
practical approach for increasing combustion rates, especially
HTCC combustion chamber

Research into the effect of the swirl chamber aspect ratio
indicated that a minimum BSFC is obtained between 3.5 and
4.0. The aspect ratio of the HTCC swirl chamber is 3.7. Twin
spark plugs are positioned in the swirl chamber. The intake port
size and geometry were designed consistent with the swirl and
inlet port velocities required for efficient combustion.
With HTCC, the Voyager 200 and 300 engines have achieved
up to 20% better fuel economy and 10% higher horsepower as
compared to the air-cooled counterparts at 7:1 compression
ratio. Brake thermal efficiencies as high as 36% have been
attained naturally aspirated. A 39% brake thermal efficiency
has been demonstrated on the 4.9 L (300 in3) engine with
reduced exhaust backpressure simulating the effect of higher
efficiency turbochargers at altitude. Knock characteristics for
the naturally aspirated IOL-200 and IOL-300 engines with
conventional 100LL aviation gasoline are considered
satisfactory. However, the use of turbocharging, which results
in higher inlet air temperatures to the engine, may require
operational strategies such as spark retard or reduced manifold
pressure to maintain adequate knock margins.

Continental Voyager 200 liquid-cooled engine

Water-cooled engine cylinder block and liners
Each cylinder block is a single aluminium casting comprising Local distortion of each top joint face, as when subjected to
the head and the coolant jacket, ‘wet’ cylinder liners of steel are sudden increase or decrease in temperature, is reduced by
provided, having shoulders that fit against the crankcase and saw-cutting the casting laterally between each combustion
the cylinder block, respectively, at either end. space thus, allowing a certain amount of flexibility.
A coolant joint around the base of each liner is made using a The primary coolant pipe delivers to each block at its outer side
rubber ring, spring-loaded in an external groove in the liner. The towards the rear lower end. Coolant circulates through the
coolant jackets do not contact the crankcase; any leakage from block, finally leaving via three outlet holes, one at each end and
the joints is carried outside of the engine. one at the centre at the upper end, inlet side (inside) to connect
with the main outlet pipe discharging either forwards or
A joint ring of aluminium alloy is arranged between the upper rearwards according to installation requirements.
shoulder of each liner and the cylinder block. The resulting
joints are maintained using fourteen long studs which extend Each main outlet pipe is built up in two sections, having an
from the crankcase through to the tops of the blocks. The whole intermediate gland. A restriction hole at the rear pipe joint tends
reaction of these studs is taken by the cylinder liners and to reduce circulation at this end thus evening out the
ensures healthy joints at either end. temperatures throughout the block. An air vent plug is fitted at
the top side of each pipe section, front or rear, for use during
Oil leaks from the crankcase are also prevented by another filling operations.
rubber ring, pressed by the liner flange into a chamfer in the
spigot-engaging bore. The individual liners were replaceable during an engine
overhaul.
Except for the four end studs, the remaining ten pass through
stainless-steel tubes. These form oil return ways and make
coolant joints at either end. They use two rubber rings at their
upper end and one at their lower end, held in annular recesses
in the block casting and allowing for relative expansion and
slight flexibility.
The tube ends are serrated and slightly expanded at their upper
ends, the lower ends projecting slightly and extending into a
recess in the crankcase where a rubber ring forms an oil-tight
joint.

Water-cooled engine

Pistons
General assembly and types
The piston moves in the cylinder transmitting the forces from The compression ratio of an engine can easily be changed by
the burning gases to the crankshaft via the connecting rod. changing the pistons. Installing a piston whose head comes
closer to the cylinder head decreases the volume of the cylinder
As the piston moves to the bottom of the cylinder, the air/fuel when the piston is at the top of its stroke and increases the
mixture is drawn in through the inlet valve. On its upward compression ratio. The heads of many of the pistons are flat,
stroke, this mixture is compressed and ignited, the resultant and if the piston comes near enough to the cylinder head that
burning and expansion forcing the piston back down to the the valves could touch it, recesses may be cut in the piston
bottom of the cylinder, thus rotating the crankshaft. As the head to provide the needed clearance. The compression ratio
piston moves back up, the exhaust valve opens, and the piston may be increased by using domed pistons or pistons whose
pushes the exhaust gases out into the exhaust manifold. heads are in the shape of a truncated (cut off) cone.
Pistons are generally manufactured from forged aluminium
alloy and have a series of circumferential grooves cut into the
piston skirt to accommodate a series of rings that are designed
to prevent the loss of the compressed gases during operation.
Bosses within the piston assembly allow the piston to be

attached to the connecting rod small end by a piston pin, also
known as a gudgeon pin, see the diagram below right.
The piston pin can either be fully floating, being able to rotate
and slide within the piston bosses and connecting rods, or of
the stationary type, where movement is not permitted, and the
pin is locked in place.
The inside of the hollow piston has a series of fins for cooling
purposes. These fins present a sizeable cooling surface for the
lubricating oil to impinge upon and carry away some of the heat
generated within the cylinder head into the oil system.

Piston assembly and nomenclature
Piston types

Piston rings
The functions of a piston ring are to seal off the combustion A piston ring material is chosen to meet the demands set by
pressure, to distribute and control the oil, to transfer heat, and the running conditions. Furthermore, the material should be
to stabilise the piston. The piston is designed for thermal resistant to damage, even in emergency conditions. Elasticity
expansion, with the desired gap between the piston surface and corrosion resistance of the ring material is required. Any
and liner wall. The rings and the ring grooves form a labyrinth ring coating must work well with the ring and liner materials, as
seal, which isolates the combustion chamber from the well as with the lubricant. As one task of the rings is to conduct
crankcase relatively well. The position and design of the ring heat to the liner wall, good thermal conductivity is required.
pack are shown below.
Grey cast iron is used as the primary material for piston rings.
The ring face conforms to the liner wall and moves in the It is beneficial, as a dry lubrication effect of the graphite phase
groove, sealing off the route down to the crankcase. The of the material can occur under conditions of oil starvation.
sealing ability of the ring depends on several factors, like ring Furthermore, the graphite phase can act as an oil reservoir that
and liner conformability, pre-tension of the ring, and gas force supplies oil at dry starts or similar conditions of oil starvation.
distribution on the ring faces. Some of the combustion chamber
heat energy is transferred through the piston to the piston The piston has four holes located around the oil scraper ring to
boundaries, i.e., the piston skirt and rings, from which heat permit oil flow between the cylinder and the crankcase. The
transfers to the liner wall. scraper ring removes excess oil and permits oil from the
crankcase side of the piston to flow through to the cylinder wall,
Furthermore, the piston rings prevent excess lubrication oil therefore, depositing an even oil film.
from moving into the combustion chamber by scraping the oil
from the liner wall during the downstroke. The piston rings Piston rings are divided into two basic types:
support the piston and thus reduce the slapping motion of the
• compression rings; and
piston, especially during cold starts where the clearance is
• oil rings.
higher than in running conditions. The rings are generally open
at one location, at the ring gap, hence easily assembled onto
the piston.

Piston ring arrangement
Connecting rod and piston assembly
Piston rings and piston

Compression rings Oil rings
Compression rings prevent the compressed gases from leaking The oil rings can be divided into two types:
past the piston within the cylinder. The number of rings fitted to
the piston depends mainly on the design requirements of the • oil control rings; and
engine and the pressure created within the cylinder head during • oil wiper or scraper rings.
operation. In normal circumstances, there are three
compression rings located at the top of the piston skirt. The The location of the oil control ring usually is directly below the
positioning of these rings, within the piston skirt grooves, to compression rings. Its purpose is to control the oil from
each other is most important. If new rings are fitted, there will thickness on the cylinder wall. Too much oil on the wall may
be a gap at the joint. Gases can escape through this gap, and lead to excessive build-up of carbon deposits within the cylinder
if all three gaps were lined up, then there would be a continuous head, affecting the operation of the valves and leading to
gas leak past the piston. reduced efficiency of the engine.
The ring joints should be staggered around the circumference The oil wiper or scraper rings are generally located at the
of the piston, as shown in the diagram below top-left, to reduce bottom of the piston skirt, and their purpose is to regulate the
the possibility of gas leakage. amount of oil passing between the piston skirt and the wall of
the cylinder during the piston strokes.
Sideways movement of the piston rings within their grooves is
essential to allow the rings to expand against the cylinder walls, When replacing any type of piston ring, you must follow the
but too much movement or wear allow gases to escape. The manufacturer’s instructions. In some cases, fitting the piston
diagram below bottom-left illustrates how side clearance can rings in reverse can have an opposite effect to that for which
be measured. Such clearances are specified in the appropriate they were designed, and could lead to early failure of the
overhaul manual. engine.
The diagram below right shows a cross-section through a

piston wall. The top three rings are compression rings. At the
centre is the oil control ring. The bottom ring is an oil scraper
ring. On the right is an enlarged view of a keystone
compression ring.

Compression ring assembly
Piston cross-section
Ring/groove clearance check

Piston ring positions on a piston Piston ring interface with cylinder surface

Engine assembly – sectioned

Valve mechanisms
General arrangement
For a reciprocating engine to operate correctly, each valve
must open at the proper time, stay open for the required length
of time, and close at the proper time. Intake valves are opened
just before the piston reaches the top dead centre, and exhaust
valves remain open after top dead centre. At a particular
instant, therefore, both valves are open at the same time (end
of the exhaust stroke and beginning of the intake stroke). This
valve overlap permits better volumetric efficiency and lowers
the cylinder operating temperature. This timing of the valves is
controlled by the valve-operating mechanism and is referred to
as the valve timing.
The valve lift (the distance that the valve is lifted off its seat)
and the valve duration (length of time the valve is held open)
are both determined by the shape of the cam lobes. The portion
of the lobe that gently starts the valve operating mechanism
moving is called a ramp or step. The ramp is machined on each
side of the cam lobe to permit the rocker arm to be eased into
contact with the valve tip, thus reducing the shock load which
would otherwise occur. The valve operating mechanism
consists of a cam ring or camshaft equipped with lobes that
work against a cam roller or a cam follower. The cam follower
pushes a push rod and ball socket, actuating a rocker arm,
which in turn opens the valve. Springs, which slip over the stem
of the valves and are held in place by the valve-spring retaining
washer and stem key, close each valve and push the valve
mechanism in the opposite direction.

Typical in-line engine valve gear mechanism

Valve operating mechanism

Engine assembly – sectioned

Radial engine valve mechanism
The valve mechanism of a radial engine is operated by one or The cam rings used may have four or five lobes on both the
two cam rings, depending upon the number of rows of intake and the exhaust tracks. The timing of the valve events is
cylinders. In a single-row radial engine, one ring with a double determined by the spacing of these lobes and the speed and
cam track is used. One track operates the intake valves; the direction at which the cam rings are driven in relation to the
other operates the exhaust valves. The cam ring is a circular speed and direction of the crankshaft. The method of driving
piece of steel with a series of cams or lobes on the outer the cam varies on different makes of engines. The cam ring can
surface. The surface of these lobes and the space between be designed with teeth on either the inside or outside periphery.
them (which the cam rollers ride on) is called the cam track. As If the reduction gear meshes with the teeth on the outside of
the cam ring revolves, the lobes cause the cam roller to raise the ring, the cam turns in the direction of rotation of the
the tappet in the tappet guide, thereby transmitting the force crankshaft. If the ring is driven from the inside, the cam turns in
through the pushrod and rocker arm to open the valve. In a the opposite direction from the crankshaft.
single-row radial engine, the cam ring is usually located
between the propeller reduction gearing and the front end of A four-lobe cam may be used on either a seven-cylinder or
the power section. In a twin-row radial engine, a second cam nine-cylinder engine. On the seven-cylinder, it rotates with the
for the operation of the valves in the rear row is installed crankshaft, and on the nine-cylinder in the opposite direction.
between the rear end of the power section and the On the nine-cylinder engine, the spacing between cylinders is
supercharger section. 40°, and the firing order is 1-3-5-7-9-2-4-6-8. This means that
there is a space of 80° between firing impulses. The spacing
The cam ring is mounted concentrically with the crankshaft and on the four lobes of the cam ring is 90°, which is higher than
is driven by the crankshaft at a reduced rate of speed through the spacing between impulses. Therefore, to obtain proper
the cam intermediate drive gear assembly. It has two parallel relation of valve operations and firing order, it is necessary to
sets of lobes spaced around the outer periphery; one set (cam drive the cam opposite the crankshaft rotation. Using the four-
track) for the intake valves and the other for the exhaust valves. lobe cam on the seven-cylinder engine, the spacing between
the firing of the cylinders is greater than the spacing of the cam
lobes. Therefore, the cam must rotate in the same direction as
the crankshaft.

Valve-operating mechanism (radial engine)
The annular ring with contoured circumference is a radial engine’s
cam. Several of its pushrod rollers can be seen.

Valve operating mechanism – radial engine

Valves
The valves which are located in the cylinder head perform the Valves that have this metallic sodium in the stem should not be
following functions: cut into on any account, as this could cause an explosion and
personal injury.
• some allow the air/fuel mixture into the cylinder and are
known as the inlet valve; and The valves must operate in regions of extremely high
• the others allow burnt exhaust gases out of the cylinder temperatures and must be made of materials that are not
and are known as exhaust valves. affected by these temperatures. A valve stem may have
hardened surfaces to reduce the wear between stem head and
They are controlled by a valve train or gear. This mechanism is rocker, and the cylinder head seat land has a bead of hardened
discussed later. steel welded to it and ground to mate with the valve face. This
helps it to withstand the continuous hammering between the
Most aircraft engine valves are known as poppet valves and fall face and the valve seat.
mainly into the types shown below top-right, the flat,
mushroom, and the tulip type. The exhaust valve seat and face are usually ground to an angle
of 30° or 45°. Examples of correct and incorrect mating are
Due to the difference in operating temperatures, the inlet and shown below bottom-left.
exhaust valves may be manufactured from different materials,
such as: A valve is closed by two or more concentrically mounted coil
springs, coiled in opposite directions, of a high-grade steel wire
• inlet valves – chrome-nickel steel; and that is not affected by the temperatures generated in the
• exhaust valves – cobalt-chromium steel. cylinder head. Using two or more springs with different
The inlet valve is cooled by the incoming fuel/air mixture and is vibrations frequencies prevents the valve from bouncing on its
already closed and sealed as the exhaust valve is opening. seat when it closes. It does this by disrupting the natural
However, the exhaust valve seat and head are subjected to the frequency of oscillation of the single spring.
high exhaust gas temperatures. The valve and springs are held in place on the cylinder head by
Some exhaust valves, because of the heat exposure and a valve spring retainer. The retainer fits over the stem of the
subsequent distress caused by high temperatures, have hollow valve and the ends of the springs. The retainer is locked in
stems filled with metallic sodium that melts at normal working place by conical-shaped collet halves that fit into grooves
temperatures. The reciprocating action of the valve throws this located at the upper end of the valve stem. The springs push
liquid sodium from the head end along the valve stem, the retaining cap against the collets, maintaining the valve in its
dissipating the heat from the valve head through the cylinder guide.
head fins, below right.
Types of valve
Sodium cooled exhaust valve
Valve seat arrangement

Symptoms of valve sticking Recommendations to avoid valve sticking
Depending on the degree of intensity, sticking between the
• Morning sickness – where the first start of the day is valve stem and guide can severely restrict the valve’s opening
rough. The pilot may suspect oil fouling on the sparkplug and closing movements. A sticking valve condition is often
and lean the engine off to increase the cylinder head identified by an intermittent hesitation, or miss, in engine speed.
temperature, the engine may respond by running
smoothly, but it is a dissimilar thermal expansion that Valve sticking can be promoted by contaminants in the oil and
has released the valve. by combustion residues. These form deposits on the stem and
• Roughness during climb or in cruise – the pilot, may guide that interfere with the stem’s movements. If the valve
suspect water in the fuel. cannot open or close properly, incomplete combustion results.
• High magneto drop – typically a 300/400 RPM drop. This, in turn, can lead to the formation of more deposits and
• Intermittent rough idle – this can be caused by increased valve sticking.
carburettor icing at 4ºC (39°F) or below, the pilot should
select carb heat. If the engine runs smoothly, it was the The wrong grade of fuel can also contribute to valve sticking.
formation of ice; if it remains, it is likely to be a valve For example, the extensive use of fuel with lead content that is
sticking. higher than recommended can intensify the formation of lead
deposits. Lycoming warns against using any brand of
Causes of valve sticking automotive fuel in its engines.
• Dirty oil. Several procedures can be undertaken to prevent, or at least

• High cylinder temperatures (baffles and cowls have a minimise, the formation of lead, varnish, and carbon deposits,
significant effect on CHT). which are the prime reasons for valve sticking.
• Improper leaning. Make sure the engine operates with a clean air filter. If the
Too lean – resulting in a CHT, which is too high. engine is exposed to extremely dusty conditions, the time
Too rich – resulting in too much lead – the Lycoming intervals between filter maintenance should be reduced
engines were designed to run on 80L, 100LL contains accordingly. It is essential, too, that the air filter has a good seal,
four times as much lead, which leads to lead fouling. and the rest of the air-induction system has no leaks for
• Air filter – silicon created in the engine results from sand unfiltered air to enter.
ingestion.
• Incorrect overhaul procedures
• Incorrect fuel or oil used.

Valve shapes in cross-section
Valve nomenclature

Another means of minimising contaminant build-up is to keep Rapid engine cool down from low-power altitude changes, low-
the lubrication system clean. Textron Lycoming recommends a power landing approach, engine shut-down too soon after
50-hour interval oil change and filter replacement for all engines landing or ground runs should be avoided. Before engine shut-
using full-flow filtration system and 25-hour intervals for an oil down, Lycoming recommends that the engine speed should be
change and screen cleaning for pressure screen systems. maintained between 1,000 and 1,200 RPM until the operating
Refer to SB 480. temperatures have stabilised. At this time, the engine speed
should be increased to approximately 1,800 RPM for 15 to 20
If the aircraft is not flown regularly, the risk of valve sticking is seconds, then reduced to 1,000-1,200 RPM and shut-down
increased due to the build-up of moisture, acids, gums, and immediately using the mixture control.
lead sludge in the oil. Operating the engine for sustained
periods, as when flying, vaporises harmful moisture and The engine should be operated at engine speeds between
eliminates most of the other contaminants responsible for valve 1,000 and 1,200 RPM after starting and during the initial warm-
sticking. Infrequent periods of ground running that do not allow up period. Avoid prolonged closed throttle idle engine speed
the engine to reach operating temperature can also contribute operation (when possible). At engine speeds from 1,000 to
to valve sticking. On the other hand, if the engine is ground-run 1,200 RPM, the spark plug core temperatures are hot enough
for too long, overheating may become a problem. Another to activate the lead scavenging agents contained in the fuel,
drawback to prolonged ground running is that the engine which retards the formation of the lead salt deposits on the
operates on a richer mixture than when flying. During flight at spark plugs and exhaust valve stems. Avoid rapid engine
cruise power, the mixture is usually leaned, and much of its speed changes after start-up and use only the power setting
lead content vaporises. Ideally, the engine should be leaned to required to taxi.
peak exhaust gas temperature (EGT) at cruise power settings.
This produces optimum combustion and lessens contaminant Valve temperatures
build-up. The pilot’s operating handbook should be consulted The exhaust valve is the one that is prone to sticking due to
for proper leaning procedures. being exposed to high temperatures. The exhaust valve stem
is filled with powdered sodium to assist in the transfer of heat
Even in flight, an engine can overheat. For example, if the from the valve head, up through the sodium stem, and through
baffles that direct cooling air over the cylinders are deteriorated the valve guide into the cylinder head and its cooling fins.
or improperly fitted, the engine can develop hot spots. The
baffles or ducts controlling airflow to the oil cooler must also be
maintained in good condition.

Valve springs
Valves are closed by helical-coil springs. Two springs, one
inside the other, are installed over the stem of each valve. If
only one spring were used on each valve, the valve would
surge and bounce because of the natural vibration frequency
of the spring. Each spring of a pair of springs is made of round
spring steel wire of a different diameter, and the two coils differ
in pitch. Since the progressively wound springs have different
frequencies, the two springs together rapidly damp out all
spring surge vibrations during engine operation. A second
reason for the use of two (or more) valve springs on each valve
is that it reduces the possibility of failure by breakage from heat
and metal fatigue.
The valve springs are held in place by steel valve spring

retainers, which are special washers shaped to fit the valve
springs. The lower retainer seats against the cylinder head and
the upper retainer is provided with a conical recess into which
the valve keeper (keys) fit

Valve springs
Valve installation
Valve and spring components

Valve gear components and cylinder assembly

Valve train nomenclature –
pushrod arrangement
Chain driven camshaft
Overhead camshaft and valve assembly
Valve train nomenclature –

overhead camshaft arrangement

Valve, rocker and cylinder head assembly

Double overhead cam (DOHC) arrangement
(common on aero-Diesel engines)

Sleeve valves
A sleeve valve takes the form of one or more machined It was used by the Scottish company Argyll for its cars and was
sleeves. It fits between the piston and the cylinder wall in the later adopted by Bristol for its radial aircraft engines. It used a
cylinder of an internal combustion engine, where it rotates, single sleeve which rotated around a timing axle set at 90° to
slides, or both. Ports (holes) in the side of the sleeves come the cylinder axis. Mechanically simpler and more rugged, the
into alignment with the cylinder’s inlet and exhaust ports at the Burt-McCollum valve had the additional advantage of reducing
appropriate stages in the engine’s cycle. after extensive oil consumption (compared to other sleeve-valve designs),
development, saw substantial use in British aircraft engines of while retaining the combustion chambers and big, uncluttered,
the 1940s, such as the Napier Sabre, and various Bristol porting area possible in the Knight system.
engines including the Hercules and Centaurus
A small number of designs used a ‘cuff’ sleeve in the cylinder
Knight sleeve-valve engine head instead of the cylinder proper, providing a more ‘classic’
The first successful sleeve valve was patented by Charles Yale layout compared to traditional poppet valve engines. This
Knight and used twin alternating sliding sleeves. It was used in design also had the advantage of not having the piston within
some luxury automobiles, notably Willys, Daimler, Mercedes- the sleeve, although in practice, this appears to have had little
Benz, Minerva, Panhard, Peugeot, and Avions Voisin. Mors practical value. On the downside, this arrangement limited the
adopted double sleeve-valve engines made by Minerva. The size of the ports to that of the cylinder head, whereas in-cylinder
higher oil consumption was heavily outweighed by the sleeves could have much larger ports.
quietness of running and the very high mileages without
servicing. Early poppet-valve systems required
decarbonisation at very low mileages.
The Burt-McCollum sleeve valve

The Burt-McCollum sleeve valve was named for the two
inventors who applied for similar patents within a few weeks of
each other. The Burt system was an open sleeve type, driven
from the crankshaft side, while the McCollum design had a
sleeve in the head and upper part of the cylinder, and a more
complex port arrangement. The design that entered production
was more ‘Burt’ than ‘McCollum.’

Advantages/disadvantages
Advantages
The design has high volumetric efficiency due to a considerable The combustion chamber formed with the sleeve at the top of
port opening. Sleeve valve engines demonstrated better its stroke is ideal for complete, detonation-free combustion of
mechanical and thermal efficiency over engines with poppet the charge, as it does not have to contend with compromised
valve design. chamber shape and hot exhaust (poppet) valves.
The size of the ports can be readily controlled, which is No springs are involved in the sleeve valve system; therefore
essential when an engine operates over a wide RPM range. the power needed to operate the valve remains largely constant
The speed at which gas can enter and exit the cylinder is with the engine’s RPM, meaning that the system can be used
defined by the size of the duct leading to the cylinder and varies at very high speeds with no penalty for doing so. A problem with
according to the cube of the RPM. In other words, at higher high-speed engines that use poppet valves is that as engine
RPM the engine typically requires larger ports that remain open speed increases, the speed at which the valve moves also has
for a higher proportion of the cycle; this is relatively easy to to increase. This increases the loads involved due to the inertia
achieve with sleeve valves but complicated in a poppet valve of the valve; it must open quickly, be brought to a stop, reverse
system. direction to close and brought to a stop again.
Good exhaust scavenging and a controllable swirl of the inlet Large poppet valves that allow proper air-flow have
air/fuel mixture in single-sleeve designs. When the intake ports considerable mass and require a strong spring to overcome
open, the air/fuel mixture can be made to enter tangentially to their inertia when closing. At higher engine speeds, the valve
the cylinder. This helps to scavenge when exhaust/inlet timing spring may be unable to close the valve before the next
overlap is used and a wide speed range required. In contrast, opening event, failing to close completely. This effect, called
poor poppet valve exhaust scavenging can dilute the fresh valve float, can result in the valve being struck by the top of the
air/fuel mixture intake to a higher degree, being more speed rising piston. Also, camshafts, push-rods, and valve rockers
dependent (relying principally on exhaust/inlet system resonant can be eliminated in a sleeve valve design, as the sleeve valves
tuning to separate the two streams). are generally driven by a single gear powered from the
crankshaft. In an aircraft engine, this provided desirable
Greater freedom of combustion chamber design (few reductions in weight and complexity.
constraints other than the spark plug positioning) means that
fuel/air mixture swirl at top dead centre (TDC) can also be more
controlled. This gives improved ignition and flame travel which
allows at least one extra unit of compression ratio before
detonation, compared with the poppet valve engine.
Longevity, as demonstrated in early automotive applications of Continental in the United States conducted extensive research
the Knight engine. Before the advent of leaded types of in single sleeve valve engines, pointing out that they were
gasoline, poppet-valve engines typically required grinding of eventually of lower production cost and easier to produce.
the valves and valve seats after 32,000 to 48,000 km (20,000 However, their aircraft engines soon equalled the performance
to 30,000 miles) of service. Sleeve valves did not suffer from of single-sleeve-valve engines by introducing improvements
the wear and recession caused by the repetitive impact of the such as sodium-cooled poppet valves. Most of these
poppet valve against its seat. Sleeve valves were also advantages were significantly eroded as fuels improved up to
subjected to less intense heat build-up than poppet valves, and during World War II, and as sodium-cooled exhaust valves
owing to their greater area of contact with other metal surfaces. were introduced in high-output aircraft engines.
In the Knight engine, carbon build-up helped to improve the

sealing of the sleeves, the engines being said to improve with
use, in contrast to poppet valve engines, which lose
compression and power as valves, valve stems, and guides
wear. Due to the continuous motion of the sleeve (Burt-
McCollum type), the high wear points linked to inadequate
lubrication in the TDC/BDC of piston travel within the cylinder
are suppressed, so rings and cylinders lasted much longer.
The cylinder head is not required to host valves, allowing the

spark plug to be placed in the best possible location for efficient
ignition of the combustion mixture. In very large engines, where
the speed of flame propagation limits size and speed, the swirl
induced by ports can be an additional advantage.
Lower operating temperatures of all power-connected engine

parts, cylinder, and pistons. As long as the clearance between
sleeve and cylinder is adequately settled, and the lubricating oil
film is thin enough, sleeves are ‘transparent to heat.’

Sleeve valve operation

Disadvantages
Perfect, even very good, sealing is challenging to achieve. In a The high oil consumption problem associated with the Knight
poppet valve engine, the piston possesses piston rings (at least double sleeve valve was fixed with the Burt-McCollum single
three and sometimes as many as eight), which form a seal with sleeve valve, as perfected by Bristol. The models that had the
the cylinder bore. During the ‘breaking in’ period, any complex ‘junk head’ installed a non-return purging valve on it;
imperfections in one are scraped into the other, resulting in a as liquids cannot be compressed, the presence of oil in the
good fit. This type of ‘breaking in’ is not possible on a sleeve- headspace would result in problems. After adding an expander
valve engine, however, because the piston and sleeve move in ring that worked in reserve, Mike Hewland found the oil
different directions and, in some systems, even rotate in consumption of his single sleeve valve engines was half that of
relation to one another. Unlike traditional design, the a similar poppet valve engine. “In this engine, all we really have
imperfections in the piston do not always line up with the same to lubricate is the crankshaft; the rest seems to lubricate itself”
point on the sleeve. In the 1940s this was not a significant (C&D, July 1974). At the top dead centre (TDC), the single-
concern because the poppet valve stems of the time typically sleeve valve rotates in relation to the piston. This prevents
leaked appreciably more than they do today so that oil boundary lubrication problems, as piston ring ridge wear at
consumption was significant in either case. TDC and bottom dead centre (BDC) does not occur. The Bristol
Hercules time between overhauls (TBO) life was rated at
The 1922–1928 Argyll single sleeve-valve engine, the 12, a 3,000 hours, very good for an aircraft engine, but not so for
four-cylinder 1,491 cc (91 in3) unit, was attributed an oil automotive engines. Sleeve wear was located primarily in the
consumption of one gallon for 1,945 miles, and 1,000 miles per upper part, inside the ‘junk head.’
gallon of oil in the 15/30 four-cylinder 2,610 cc (159 in3). Mike
Hewland claimed in 1974 that the progress in lubricating oils, An inherent disadvantage is that the piston in its course partially
materials, and machining had solved the oil thirst problem, his obscures the ports, thus making it difficult for gases to flow
experimental 500 cc (30.5 in3) single-cylinder engines using during the crucial overlap between the intake and exhaust valve
less oil than their contemporary poppet valve ‘competitors.’ timing usual in modern engines. Mike Hewland admitted this
Some proposed an added ring in the base of the sleeve, was a problem at speeds above 10,000 RPM in his engines
between sleeve and cylinder wall. Single-sleeve-valve engines aimed at racing, but in the middle range, SSV was always
had a reputation of being much less smoky than the Daimler better than a poppet valve engine.
with engines of Knight double-sleeve engine counterparts.
A severe issue with large single-sleeve aero-engines is that
their maximum reliable rotational speed is limited to about
3,000 RPM. However, the M Hewland car engine was raced
above 10,000 RPM without issues. Improved fuel octanes,
above about 87 RON, have assisted poppet-valve engines’
power output more than to the single-sleeve engines’.
Sleeve valve closeup from a Bristol Centaurus Mark 175

The increased difficulty with oil consumption and cylinder-
assembly lubrication was reported as never having been solved
in series-produced engines. Railroad and other large single
sleeve-valve engines emit more smoke when starting; as the
engine reaches operating temperature and tolerances enter the
adequate range, smoke is significantly reduced. For two-stroke
engines, a three-way catalyst with air injection in the middle
was proposed as the best solution in an SAE Journal article
around the year 2000.
If stored horizontally, sleeves tend to become oval, producing

several types of mechanical problems. Special cabinets were
developed to store sleeves vertically to avoid this problem.
Equivalent implementations of modern variable valve timing

and variable lift are impossible due to the fixed sizes of the ports
and essentially fixed rotational speed of the sleeves. It may
theoretically be possible to alter the rotational speed through
gearing that is not linearly related to the engine speed;
however, it seems this would be impractically complex even
compared to the complexities of modern valve control systems.

Bristol Perseus cylinder sleeve

Tappets
The purpose of the tappet is to convert the rotary action of the As the camshaft lobe contacts the tappet body, it moves it to
camshaft lobe into the reciprocating action of the push rod so the left, closing the plate valve and shutting off the supply of
that the rocker arm opens the valve at the correct time. The engine oil to the plunger reservoir.
tappet is in contact with the pushrod and the camshaft.
This has now created a hydraulic lock, and further movement
A spring in the pushrod assembly keeps the tappet against the of the tappet body causes the pushrod to open the valve. As
camshaft and the rocker arm against the valve. Oil is usually the lobe passes its point of maximum deflection, the spring
ported up the pushrod to the rocker arm for lubrication extends and allows the body to contact the camshaft, again
purposes. eliminating any clearance in the valve linkage.
The system, however, has one major drawback, that being the
need to have valve clearances. A slight clearance between the
rocker arm and the valve stem must be maintained to ensure
that the valve can close fully.
The clearances are adjusted when the engine is cold, but as

the engine heats up, thermal expansion takes place. The
clearance may reduce to such a degree that the valve may be
held open by the rocker arm, causing eventual damage to the
valve seat. As clearances may differ between the inlet valves
(cold air/fuel going in) and the exhaust valves (hot gases going
out), some method must be used to ensure that the valve
clearance is always maintained within laid down limits. This is
done using hydraulic tappets.
When the valve is in the closed position, the spring holds the
plunger against the camshaft, thus eliminating any clearance in
the valve linkage. Oil is continuously fed from the lubrication
system into the plunger reservoir, through the plate valve to the
arm and also down the centre of the pushrod to the rocker arm.

Camshaft
Tappets
Camshaft and tappets
Tappet and pushrod arrangement

Solid lifters/tappets
Solid lifters or cam followers generally require the valve Hydraulic valve lifters are normally adjusted at the time of
clearance to be adjusted manually by adjusting a screw and overhaul. They are assembled dry (no lubrication), clearances
lock nut. Valve clearance is needed to assure that the valve has checked, and adjustments are usually made by using pushrods
enough clearance in the valve train to close completely. This of different lengths. A minimum and maximum valve clearance
adjustment or inspection was a continuous maintenance item are established. Any measurement between these extremes is
until hydraulic lifters were used. acceptable, but approximately halfway between is desirable.
Hydraulic valve lifters require less maintenance, are better
Hydraulic valve tappets/lifters lubricated, and operate more quietly than the screw adjustment
Some aircraft engines incorporate hydraulic tappets that type.
automatically keep the valve clearance at zero, eliminating the
necessity for any valve clearance adjustment mechanism. A
typical hydraulic tappet (zero-lash valve lifter) is shown.
When the engine valve is closed, the face of the tappet body
(cam follower) is on the base circle or back of the cam. The light
plunger spring lifts the hydraulic plunger so that its outer end
contacts the pushrod socket, exerting a light pressure against
it, thus eliminating any clearance in the valve linkage. As the
plunger moves outward, the ball check valve moves off its seat.
Oil from the supply chamber, which is directly connected with
the engine lubrication system, flows in and fills the pressure
chamber. As the camshaft rotates, the cam pushes the tappet
body and the hydraulic lifter cylinder outward. This action forces
the ball check valve onto its seat; thus, the body of oil trapped
in the pressure chamber acts as a cushion. During the interval
when the engine valve is off its seat, a predetermined leakage
occurs between plunger and cylinder bore, which compensates
for any expansion or contraction in the valve train. Immediately
after the engine valve closes, the amount of oil required to fill
the pressure chamber flows in from the supply chamber,
preparing for another cycle of operation.

Hydraulic tappet/lifter

Dry tappet clearance
It is a common misconception that if the engine is installed with 7. To check dry tappet clearance, depress the hydraulic unit
hydraulic tappets, it requires no clearance checks, as the by pressing on the pushrod end of the rocker, and
hydraulic tappet takes up the clearance; this is incorrect. Any measuring the clearance between the valve stem and
time work is done on the valve train of an engine – grinding heel of the rockers by using a feeler gauge.
valves or seats, replacing valves or valve rockers, or any other
component of the valve operating mechanism – the dry tappet Pushrods
clearance should be checked and the pushrod length adjusted The pushrod, tubular in form, transmits the lifting force from the
to ensure that the correct tappet clearance is maintained. If valve tappet to the rocker arm. A hardened-steel ball is pressed
tappet clearance is allowed to vary too far from the prescribed over or into each end of the tube. One ball end fits into the
limits, the engine will not operate properly. For example, if socket of the rocker arm. In some instances, the balls are on
clearances are too small, burned valves or compression loss the tappet and rocker arm, and the sockets are on the pushrod.
may result; and if clearances are too great, the engine will The tubular form is employed because of its lightness and
become noisy. In both cases, the engine becomes rough, and strength. It permits the engine lubricating oil under pressure to
mechanical failure may be the result. pass through the hollow rod, and the drilled ball ends to
lubricate the ball ends, rocker-arm bearing, and valve-stem
The following is a brief description of procedures to check and guide. The pushrod is enclosed in a tubular housing that
adjust the dry tappet clearance. After observing all safety extends from the crankcase to the cylinder head, referred to as
precautions, rotate the engine until the piston is on top dead pushrod tubes.
centre (TDC) of the cylinder to be checked.
1. Remove the rocker box cover and also remove rocker

shaft covers on angle head cylinders, valve rockers, thrust
washer (angle head only), pushrods, and shroud tubes.
2. Then remove the hydraulic unit from the tappet body.
3. Disassemble the hydraulic unit and flush out all oil from
the unit. Also, remove all oil from the tappet body.
4. Reassemble the hydraulic unit and install in the tappet
body.
5. Next, replace the shroud tubes using new seals.
6. Install pushrods, valve rockers, and thrust washer on
angle head cylinders only.

Adjustment of tappet clearance
Camshaft / tappet / pushrod / rocker / valve assembly

Rocker arms
The rocker arms used on horizontally opposed engines are
made of forged steel with bronze bushings, which ride on the
rocker arm shaft, pressed into them. The end in which the
pushrod rides has a socket that fits the hemispherical end of
the pushrod. A hole is drilled on exhaust arms and Continental
intake arms from this socket to the bushing to allow oil that
flows through the hollow pushrod to lubricate the bushing.
The rocker arms transmit the lifting force from the cams to the
valves. Rocker arm assemblies are supported by a plain, roller,
or ball bearing, or a combination of these, which serves as a
pivot. Generally, one end of the arm bears against the pushrod
and the other bears on the valve stem. One end of the rocker
arm is sometimes slotted to accommodate a steel roller. The
opposite end is constructed with either a threaded split clamp
and a locking bolt or a tapped hole. The arm may have an
adjusting screw for adjusting the clearance between the rocker
arm and the valve stem tip. The screw can be adjusted to the
specified clearance to make sure that the valve closes fully.
Some rocker arms are furnished with an adjuster to allow

mechanics to adjust the valve clearance when solid tappets are
used. Rocker arms with no adjusters are used in conjunction
with hydraulic tappets.

Rocker assembly
Rocker arms

Inlet and exhaust manifolds
An inlet manifold (or intake manifold, or induction manifold) is
the part of an engine that supplies the fuel/air mixture to the
cylinders.
In contrast, an exhaust manifold collects the exhaust gases

from multiple cylinders into a smaller number of pipes – often
down to one pipe.
The primary function of the intake manifold is to evenly

distribute the combustion mixture (or just air in a direct injection
engine) to each intake port in the cylinder head(s). Even
distribution is important to optimise the efficiency and
performance of the engine. It may also serve as a mount for the
carburettor, throttle body, fuel injectors and other components
of the engine.
Due to the downward movement of the pistons and the

restriction caused by the throttle valve, in a reciprocating spark
ignition piston engine, a partial vacuum (lower than
atmospheric pressure) exists in the intake manifold.
This manifold vacuum is proportional to the power being

developed by the engine during operation and is often indicated
in the cockpit for power indication.
This vacuum can also be used to draw any piston blow-by

gases from the engine’s crankcase. This is known as a positive
crankcase ventilation system, in which the gases are burned
with the fuel/air mixture.

Inlet and exhaust manifolds

Inlet manifold Exhaust manifold

Inlet manifold

Propeller reduction gearboxes
The purpose of a reduction gear is to reduce engine speed to If the annulus is free, rotation of the sun wheel causes the
a speed suitable for the efficient operation of the propeller. planet pinions to rotate about their axles within the annulus
Epicyclic (sometimes known as planetary) reduction gears are gear. With the planet pinion carrier fixed and the propeller shaft
always used on radial engines, and spur gear reduction gears attached to the annulus gear, rotation of the planet pinions
are generally used on in-line engines. However, either type causes the annulus gear and propeller to rotate in the opposite
may be fitted to horizontally opposed engines. direction to the sun wheel and at a reduced speed.
Parallel spur gears Compound spur epicyclic

This type of gear train has the advantage of being mechanically Compound epicyclic reduction gears enable a more significant
simple and, therefore, relatively cheap to manufacture. reduction in speed to be obtained without resorting to larger
components. They may be of either the fixed or free annulus
Epicyclic reduction gears type.
A gear train, consisting of a sun (driving) gear meshing with and
driving, three or more equi-spaced gears known as planet Gear train/epicyclic
pinions. These pinions are mounted on a carrier and rotate Some turboprops use a gear train or a combination of the gear
independently on their axles. Surrounding the gear train is an train and epicyclic.
internally toothed annulus gear in mesh with the planet pinions.
If the annulus is fixed, rotation of the sun wheel causes the

planet pinions to rotate about their axes within the annulus
gear; this causes the planet carrier to rotate in the same
direction as sun wheel but at a slower speed. With the propeller
shaft secured to the planet pinion carrier, a speed reduction is
obtained with the engine shaft (input shaft) and propeller shaft
(output shaft) in the same axis and rotating in the same
direction.

Planetary gear arrangement, fixed ring gear driven sun gear Planetary gear arrangement, driven ring gear fixed sun gear
Planetary gear arrangement, fixed spider

Bristol Centaurus reduction gearbox

6-cylinder horizontally opposed engine with reduction gearbox

Parallel spur gears – external and internal

An epicyclic gear

A typical epicyclic gear box

Diesel engines – differences and additions
Diesel engine construction is generally the same as a gasoline For use in aviation, Thielert developed a new engine control
engine construction. Any differences are as a result of the system, a propeller reduction gearbox including a torsion
necessity to make the engine more rugged and capable of damper (or clutch), a new engine mount system and other
withstanding the higher compression ratios which are aircraft-specific accessory parts.
necessary for the operation of Diesel engines.
Initially, Thielert purchased complete engines directly from the
This discussion uses the Thielert TAE 125 series engine as a production line of the automotive manufacturer. Later, they
typical example of the construction of a modern Diesel aero were able to obtain the parts required separately.
engine.
The TAE 125-02 engine models use a Thielert-designed
Example: Thielert TAE 125-series aluminium crankcase to avoid weight increase (the automotive
engine has a cast-iron crankcase).
The company
Thielert Aircraft Engines GmbH, based in Saxony, Germany, Some parts from the automotive baseline engine are still used.
declared insolvency on 24 April 2008. The company was then The engine’s electronic control system and gearbox, including
run by an insolvency administrator. In 2013 the company was clutch, are similar to those on the TAE 125-01 engine model.
sold to Continental Motors, Inc. Continental is owned by AVIC
International, which is, in turn, wholly owned by the On an aeroplane, propulsion is ensured by a variable-pitch
Government of the People's Republic of China. Thielert was propeller driven by a reduction gearbox. The engine and the
renamed Technify Motors GmbH. propeller pitch are fully controlled by a computerised full
authority digital engine control (FADEC), which simplifies its
These products are known by any of their manufacturers’ use. In the cockpit, the pilot inputs a power rating via a single
names; Thielert, Continental, or Technify. Throughout this power lever. FADEC, which integrates the measurements of
description, we use Thielert. various sensors, manages the quantity of fuel injected and
propeller pitch to obtain the power requested.
TAE 125 engines are in-line 4-cylinder diesel engines that were
developed based on automotive engines, with modifications to These engines are installed, according to the variants, on
lower the compression ratio. They use high-pressure direct Diamond DA40 and DA42 aeroplanes, Cessna 172,
injection (common rail fuel injection system) and are Piper PA28 and Robin DR400.
turbocharged.
Thielert obtained type certificates for two engine types:
TAE 125 and Centurion 4.

Thielert Centurion
engine and propeller
Thielert TAE-125 in Diamond DA42 aeroplane
Thielert TAE 125 series engine

General
The diagram below shows a view of the engine without
accessories. The engine shown is a 2.0 litre (125.46 in3)
turbocharged, DOHC in-line 4-cylinder, four valves per cylinder,
common rail Diesel engine with FADEC. It is operated through
single-lever power control, is equipped with a reduction
gearbox, overload clutch and a variable pitch propeller. The
engine provides a power output of 114 kW (155 hp)
The engines are based on an automobile engine design

(Mercedes A-class), which allows the aviation market to benefit
from the substantial development and tooling budgets of the
automobile industry. Issues of reliability, longevity and other
potential problems which occur during the development of any
new design have been resolved long ago. Time and effort can
then be spent on issues unique to the aviation application of
the engine, such as providing redundant systems where
applicable or tuning the engine for operation at higher altitudes
and colder temperatures.
By using a mass-production engine, the aviation industry

benefits from one produced through a state-of-the-art
manufacturing process.
How Continental Builds Diesel Engines

https://youtu.be/hH9EUlNcA4A

Thielert TAE 125 series engine components

Because of the low production numbers and the associated Because of the high compression ratios used on Diesel
tooling cost per manufactured unit, this has not been possible engines, they do not run as smoothly as gasoline
for aviation in the past. Below is a description of key engines and stop very abruptly during shut-down.
components of the basic aero Diesel engine, in comparison to Isolating the engine from the large mass of the propeller
its Mercedes A-class automotive engine, from which the reduces wear on the engine and improves comfort.
Thielert engine is derived. • On the TAE 125-series an integral vacuum pump, driven
by one of the camshafts, is installed to drive
• The manufacturer has redesigned the intake, exhaust, instrumentation.
and turbocharger systems to suit the application. • Finally, the manufacturer installs a proprietary electronic
• The crankcase of the TAE 125 is replaced with a low- engine management system. This is discussed in the
pressure sand-cast aluminium unit. following section.
• The crankshaft of the TAE 125 is replaced with a forged
unit made from SAE 4340 aircraft steel and has five In addition to being fuelled by Diesel or JET-A1, the engine
journal bearings. differs from a conventional aircraft piston engine as follows.
• The valve train consists of four valves per cylinder (two
intake and two exhaust) actuated by hydraulic rockers, • The TAE 125-series are in-line 4-cylinder engines, not
which require no adjustment during the life of the engine. horizontally opposed.
The lifters are actuated by two overhead camshafts • The engines are liquid-cooled. This has the advantage
which are driven by the crankshaft through a self- that the coolant flow can be controlled, and shock
tensioning, service-free chain. Four valves per cylinder cooling during flight conditions of high airspeed and low
improves the flow into and out of the combustion power is not a problem.
chamber, again improving efficiency and power. • They are intercooled. The intake air is cooled after the
• Pistons run in cylinders which are cast in ductile iron turbocharger to improve power and efficiency. The high
liners, plasma-coated cylinder walls, or wet liners maximum boost pressure between 2,275 and
(depending on series) for the TAE 125. The liners and 2,350 mbar and associated temperature rise of the
coatings are not serviceable. intake air make this necessary.
• The crankcase is vented to an air/oil separator, from
where oil is then scavenged back to the crankcase. The main mechanical subsystems are discussed in more detail
• The engines produce a peak output of 135-310 hp at in the following paragraphs.
3,900 RPM, so the manufacturer designed the reduction
gearbox with a gear ratio of 1.7:1 to achieve a maximum
propeller RPM of 2,300. Also, an overload clutch isolates
the engine from the propeller.

Thielert TAE 125 series engine

Crankcase
The TAE 125-01 4-cylinder in-line crankcase is a single piece,
squeeze-cast aluminium part.
The material for the crankcase is the high-strength aluminium

AISi8Cu3 and is low-pressure sand-cast followed by T7-heat
treatment (solution annealing, quenching and artificial ageing).
Because the TAE 125-series engines are liquid-cooled, the

crankcase incorporates the cylinders as well as the coolant
passages.
The photos below show an external view of the crankcase. The

TAE 125 cylinders are cast-in ductile iron liners and cannot be
replaced or serviced. Cylinder spacing is 90 mm; bore is
80 mm.
The newer TAE 125-02 has the plasma coated cylinder running
surfaces replace the cast-in iron liners. The critical aluminium
cylinder surface is coated with iron-molybdenum by plasma
spraying. The remaining coat thickness is 120 µm and provides
a reliable running surface with less wear and tear compared
with the grey cast-iron. Cylinder spacing is also 90 mm, but the
bore is enlarged to 83 mm.
The crankcase includes provisions for an internal oil pump and

a water pump that is mounted internally but driven externally.
The external drive of the water pump is also shown below. The
crankcase includes a wet oil sump and contains the oil supply
of the engine.
On the front end of the crankcase, a gearbox flange is

integrated, which also provides a clutch housing.

Steel liners in the cylinders
Aluminium crankcase
Crankcase with bed plate

Plasma coating
Crankshaft
The crankshaft of the TAE 125-01 is shown below top-left. It is
made of vacuum-remelted forged steel. The crankshaft has five
main bearings and fixed counterweights. The crankcase side is
fitted with a double layer bearing. The highly stressed cap side
is fitted with sputter bearings.
Camshaft
The camshaft arrangement of the TAE 125-01 is shown below
top-centre. It is a double overhead camshaft (DOHC)
arrangement. One camshaft operates the inlet valves; the other
operates the exhaust valves. The camshaft is driven by a chain
drive from the crankshaft.
Pistons
The pistons are cast aluminium, with cast-in steel ring carriers.
The top of the piston is domed and recessed to optimise
combustion. The bottom has a cast-in cooling duct design
where the engine oil is injected from spray cooling nozzles to
limit the maximum material temperature to 360°C at rated
power output. Special chrome rings guarantee excellent wear
resistance. The piston walls are equipped with Teflon pads to
reduce friction and improve resistance to seizing.
The photo below bottom-left shows the pistons of the TAE 125-
02.

Crankshaft (4-cylinder engine)
PTFE coating
Double overhead on piston
camshaft arrangement
Oil spray cooling nozzle
Piston detail
Connecting rods
The connecting rods are made of forged 70MnVS4 steel. The
mating surface of the two halves at the journal bearing is
improved by cracking rather than cutting the connecting rod so
that the mating surfaces are perfectly aligned at assembly.
In the case of overload, the rod tends to become shorter, but

it shows no bending tendency.
The rod length depending on engine type is 140 mm for the

TAE 125-01 and 147.85 mm for the TAE 125-02. The journal
bearing diameter is 46 mm and 50 mm. The bushing in the
small end has a diameter of 28 mm and 30 mm, respectively.
The highly stressed rod side is fitted with a sputter bearing

while the cap is fitted with a double layer bearing. The soft
surface of the cap multi-layer bearings allows the embedding
of engine oil contaminations.
The photo below bottom shows a connecting rod with bearing.
V-ribbed belt
The engine is equipped with a V-ribbed belt at the rear, which
drives the coolant pump and the alternator off a crankshaft
pulley.
The figure below top-right shows the rear (firewall) end of the
engine with the V-ribbed belt. The belt is self-tensioned by a
spring-loaded pulley. The belt has a time-between-overhaul
lifetime.

V-ribbed belt
Connecting rod

Cylinder head
The combustion chamber shape of the engine is defined mainly
by the shape of the piston. Flow into and out of the cylinder is
further improved by the orientation of the valves and the shape
of the intake and exhaust ports.
The photos below show the cylinder head with the valves
installed.
The shape of the intake port is arranged such that the intake air
enters the combustion chamber in a swirling pattern to improve
combustion efficiency. The location of the fuel injector is central
to the four valves and can also be seen below right.
The hole immediately next to the injector hole is for the glow
plugs, which are used during pre-heating. The remaining
openings in the cylinder head are coolant passageways.
On TAE 125-02 engines there are two water jackets which

reduce the temperatures in the critical areas around the
exhaust valve seats and the injector to less than 200°C.
A three-layer steel head gasket is used.

Cylinder Head
Cylinder head sectional view

Gearbox
All Diesel engines are equipped with a gearbox to reduce RPM Depending on the engine installation design into the fuselage
from the engine (typically 4,000 RPM maximum of the engine and the maximum power output, a gearbox oil cooler is
to 2,300 RPM at the propeller). The reduction ratio of the necessary to keep the gearbox oil temperature within the
gearbox is of the order of 1.7:1. limitations. All gearboxes with extended service life use a liquid-
to-liquid heat exchanger, transferring the gearbox heat into the
The figures below show the disassembled gearbox of the engine’s water-cooling system. The better-regulated
Thielert TAE 125-01 as an example. temperature of the gearbox reduces the stress to the gearbox
and allows for a quick warm-up.
The gearbox contains three gears. The gearbox housing itself
is machined aluminium or low-pressure sand-cast aluminium Clutch and dual-mass flywheel
(depending on engine type). The centre gear shaft drives the Aero Diesel engines operate at relatively high torque. The
oil pumps mounted at the front of the gearbox used to scavenge impulse produced from each of the power strokes imparts a
engine oil from the turbocharger to the oil sump and to provide high torque impulse into the gearbox and ultimately the
gearbox oil pressure to the propeller governor (CSU). propeller shaft. This causes a high level of stress and vibration
in the transmission, which is also felt by the aircraft occupants,
Lubrication of the gearbox is achieved primarily through the especially at low engine RPM.
splash oil from the gears rotating in the oil bath. However,
gearbox oil is also drawn from the gearbox through the There are two conventional methods to decouple (or “dampen”)
pump/gearbox oil pump to provide pressure to the constant these vibrations:
speed unit (CSU) that provides oil pressure to the propeller.
Return oil from the CSU pressure-relief valve provides • a clutch; and
additional lubrication to the gearbox. Two bearings are also • a dual-mass flywheel.
lubricated by pressurised oil. To reduce weight and the number
of parts the gearbox housing is equipped with an integrated
hydraulic oil gallery. External oil lines between the oil pump-
CSU and scavenge pump and oil sump are eliminated. The
reason for this installation is a pressure split in the oil gallery to
provide high pressure for propeller control and low pressure for
lubrication.

Gearbox Sectioned gearbox

Clutch
It is common on aero Diesel engines, to have a clutch installed The diagrams below illustrate the flywheel, starter gear and
between the engine and the gearbox. The purpose of the clutch crankshaft signal ring, which are integrated into the side of the
is to decouple engine vibration from the propeller during regular clutch, which is fixed to the crankshaft. An indexing pin
operation for passenger comfort and to decouple the rotating accomplishes indexing with reference to the crankshaft.
mass of the propeller from the crankshaft during start-up and Because of the gearbox and the clutch, propeller position
shutdown to limit the impact load to the crankshaft. relative to the clutch is not important.
This torque peak limitation also protects the engine from Later clutch designs
damage in case of a propeller ground strike. In this event, The newer clutch design is configured as a single dry-plate
besides a propeller repair, only a gearbox, clutch and clutch- overload unit. All components have been redesigned to
shaft inspection plus a precautionary engine shock-mount provide a longer lifetime and a safe and straightforward
exchange are necessary. installation procedure.
Older clutch designs The friction plate surface is made out of organic material
The torsional vibration damping function is accomplished by six instead of sintered metal and provides a much larger surface
sets of progressively stiffer springs installed in the vibration compared to the older clutch design.
damper module connected to the sintered-metal friction plate
(clutch plate) assembly. The torsional vibration damping inside the friction plate hub is
accomplished by four double-coil springs. The pressure cage
The friction calibration to protect the engine from torque peaks has been eliminated while the functions have been integrated
(overload) is accomplished by eight sets of Belleville pressure with the flywheel cage and outer pressure plate. The outer
springs and calibration shims installed between the clutch cage pressure plate is firmly fitted by a bayonet to the flywheel cage.
and pressure plate.
The inner pressure plate is floating inside the flywheel cage in
The accurate adjustment of the specific friction torque to an axial direction, while it is locked in a rotational direction. A
around 300 Nm (depending on engine model) is particularly single spring collar replaces all Belleville spring sets and
important as a friction torque outside of the limits may damage applies about 5,000 N pressure to the pressure-friction plate
the engine, clutch, gearbox, and propeller and can result in a set resulting in an overload friction rate of 350-450 Nm.
total power loss. It is also not allowed to clean the sinter metal
friction plate with any solvent.

Later clutch design assembly
Clutch installation
Clutch assembly
Dual-mass flywheel
More recent Diesel engine designs have incorporated a dual-
mass flywheel (DMF), in place of the clutch assembly, installed
between the engine and gearbox, as shown in the figure below.
The purpose of the dual-mass flywheel is to dampen and

isolate engine vibration from the gearbox and propeller during
regular operation. It also partly decouples the rotating mass of
the propeller from the crankshaft during start-up and shutdown
to damp the impact load to the crankshaft and therefore
relieves crankshaft, gearbox, and propeller.
As the name implies, the dual-mass flywheel splits the flywheel

mass into two parts. One flywheel continues to be driven by the
engine’s mass moment of inertia, and the other part increases
the mass moment of inertia of the gearbox. The separated
masses of the primary and secondary flywheel are linked by a
spring damping system.
Torsional movement of the masses against each other are

damped by the arc damper springs with a progressive damping
behaviour. The outer springs damp the first stage, and the inner
springs damp the second stage.
A starter gear and crankshaft signal ring are installed on the

engine side of the DMF.
Dual-mass Flywheel
https://youtu.be/DbvP5EvpUbA

Dual-mass flywheel installation
Sectional view of dual-mass flywheel
Dual-mass flywheel – as the engine speed varies, the spring-and-damping system

between the two flywheel masses isolates vibration and torque spikes

Sectioned dual-mass flywheel

16.4 Engine Fuel Systems

Copyright notice
LEVEL 3
subject.
appropriate.

© Copyright 2020 Module 16.4 Engine Fuel Systems Issue 2 – July 2020
Knowledge
Part-66 Levels
Objective
Ref.
A B1 B3
Carburettors 16.4.1 1 2 2
Types, construction and
principles of operation;
Icing and heating.
Fuel injection systems 16.4.2 1 2 2
Types, construction and
principles of operation.
Electronic engine control 16.4.3 1 2 2
Operation of engine control and
fuel metering systems including
electronic engine control
(FADEC);
Systems layout and components.

Table of Contents
16.4.1 Carburettors_______________________________ 6 16.4.2 Fuel injection systems ______________________ 68
Types, construction and principles of operation _____ 6 General ______________________________________ 68
Purpose _____________________________________ 6 Purpose ____________________________________ 68
Venturi principles______________________________ 6 Principle ____________________________________ 68
Carburettor types ____________________________ 10 The regulator ________________________________ 74
Construction ________________________________ 10 Fuel control unit ______________________________ 78
Float chamber mechanism system _______________ 12 The throttle body _____________________________ 82
Pressure balance duct (PBD) ___________________ 14
Main metering system _________________________ 16 Example system: Bendix PS pressure carburettor __ 86
Idling system ________________________________ 20 Example system: Bendix RSA injection system _____ 90
Slow running, idle and cut off ___________________ 24
Mixture control system ________________________ 26 Example system: Teledyne Continental injection
Pressure balance duct (PBD) ___________________ 28 system _____________________________________ 118
The diffuser _________________________________ 30 Aero-Diesel injection systems __________________ 142
The air bleed ________________________________ 32 Injection types - general _______________________ 142
Automatic mixture control ______________________ 35 Diesel fuel injection types _____________________ 144
Economy system _____________________________ 38 Direct injection ______________________________ 144
Power and enrichment jet ______________________ 40 Common-rail direct injection (CDI) _______________ 146
Acceleration control___________________________ 44 Example: CDI engine – Thielert TAE 125 _________ 148
Example system: Marvel-Schebler MSA MA-4-5 float type Fuel injectors _______________________________ 158
carburettor (now Precision Airmotive) _____________ 48
16.4.3 Electronic engine control __________________ 160
Icing and heating _____________________________ 56
General ____________________________________ 56 Development ________________________________ 160
Engine factors that affect Ice formation ____________ 56 EEC and FADEC _____________________________ 162
Atmospheric conditions that affect ice formation _____ 56 Description _________________________________ 162
Indications of ice formation _____________________ 58 Advantages ________________________________ 162
General practices ____________________________ 59 Disadvantages ______________________________ 164
Types of ice _________________________________ 60
Full authority digital engine control (FADEC) ______ 166
Carburettor heat _____________________________ 61
General ___________________________________ 166
Fuel icing ___________________________________ 64
System layout and components _________________ 168
Fluid de-icing system _________________________ 66
FADEC operation ____________________________ 170
General ___________________________________ 170
FADEC maps ______________________________ 172
Control loops _______________________________ 174
Redundancy _______________________________ 178
Diagnostics ________________________________ 178
Example system – PowerLink FADEC ___________ 182
General ___________________________________ 182
Low voltage harness _________________________ 184
The ECU __________________________________ 184
Electronic control units (ECUs) _________________ 188
Ignition system _____________________________ 192
FADEC fuel injection system ___________________ 194
FADEC sensor set __________________________ 197
Speed sensor assembly (SSA) _________________ 198
Cylinder head temperature (CHT) sensors ________ 200
Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) sensors _________ 200
Manifold air pressure (MAP) sensors ____________ 202
Manifold air temperature (MAT) sensors __________ 202
Fuel pressure sensors________________________ 202
Power supplies _____________________________ 206
Failsafe operating contingencies ________________ 207
Fault detection______________________________ 208

16.4.1 Carburettors
Types, construction and principles of
operation
Purpose A float carburettor accomplishes these functions with five
Used on light aircraft, they are the simplest and cheapest but systems: primary metering, idling, acceleration, mixture control,
prone to icing. It is adversely affected by flight manoeuvres. and power-enrichment, or economiser. Many of the examples
used here are the Marvel-Schebler MA4-5 carburettor used on
The primary purpose of float carburettors is to: engines in the 200-horsepower range, and the Bendix NAS-3
carburettor used on engines up to about 100 horsepower. The
• measure the amount of air entering the engine; Marvel-Schebler carburettor has both a main and a boost
• meter into this air the correct amount of atomised liquid Venturi, and the smaller Bendix carburettor has only a single
gasoline; main Venturi.
• convert the liquid gasoline into gasoline vapours and
distribute them uniformly to all cylinders; Venturi principles
• provide a constant fuel-air mixture ratio with changes in The carburettor must measure the airflow through the induction
air density and volume; system and use this measurement to regulate the amount of
• provide an overly rich mixture when the engine is fuel discharged into the airstream. The air measuring unit is the
operating at peak power to remove some of the Venturi, which makes use of a fundamental law of physics: as
excessive heat; the velocity of a gas or liquid increases, the pressure
• provide a temporarily rich mixture when the engine is decreases. As shown in the diagram below, simple Venturi is a
rapidly accelerated; and passageway or tube in which there is a narrow portion called
• provide for effective fuel metering when the engine is the throat. As the velocity of the air increases to get through the
idling. narrow portion, its pressure drops. Note that the pressure in the
throat is lower than that in any other part of the Venturi. This
pressure drop is proportional to the velocity and is, therefore, a
measure of the airflow. The basic operating principle of most
carburettors depends on the differential pressure between the
inlet and the Venturi’s throat.

Pressures and temperatures in a venturi
Marvel-Schebler MA4-5 carburettor
Configurations of carburettor
1. Side draft
2. Updraft
Venturi, throttle valve and jet
3. Downdraft

Operation
The carburettor is mounted on the engine so that air to the
cylinders passes through the barrel, the part which contains the
Venturi. The size and shape of the Venturi depend on the
requirements of the engine for which the carburettor is
designed. A carburettor or a high-powered engine may have
one large Venturi or several small ones. The air may flow either
up or down the Venturi, depending on the design of the engine
and the carburettor. Those in which the air passes downward
are known as downdraft carburettors, and those in which the
air passes upward are called updraft carburettors. Some
carburettors are made to use a side draft or horizontal air entry
into the engine induction system.
When a piston moves down on the intake stroke, air flows

through the induction system as the pressure in the cylinder is
lowered. Air rushes through the carburettor and intake manifold
to the cylinder to replace the air displaced by the piston. Due to
this low-pressure area, the higher-pressure air in the
atmosphere flows in to equalise it. As it does, the airflow must
pass through the carburettor’s Venturi. The throttle valve is
between the Venturi and the engine. A mechanical linkage
connects this valve with the throttle lever in the cockpit. Airflow
to the cylinders is regulated using the throttle which controls the
power output of the engine. More air is admitted to the engine,
and the carburettor automatically supplies enough additional
fuel to maintain the correct fuel/air ratio. This is because as the
volume of airflow increases, the velocity in the Venturi
increases, lowering the pressure and forcing more fuel into the
airstream. The throttle valve obstructs the passage of air very
little when it is parallel with the flow, in the wide-open throttle
position.

Throttle valve and main jet
Bendix NAS-3 carburettor
Venturi and throttle valve
Venturi and throttle valve

Carburettor types
The float-type carburettor, the most common of all carburettor Construction
types, has several distinct disadvantages. The effect that A float-type carburettor consists of six subsystems that control
abrupt manoeuvres have on the float action and the fact that its the quantity of fuel discharged in relation to the flow of air
fuel must be discharged at low pressure leads to incomplete delivered to the engine cylinders. These systems work together
vaporisation and difficulty in discharging fuel into some types of to provide the engine with the correct fuel flow during all engine
supercharged systems. The chief disadvantage of the float type operating ranges.
carburettor, however, is its icing tendency. Since the float
carburettor must discharge fuel at a point of low pressure, the The essential subsystems of a float-type carburettor are
discharge nozzle is located at the Venturi’s throat, and the illustrated in the diagram below. These systems are:
throttle valve must be on the engine side of the discharge
nozzle. This means that the drop in temperature due to fuel • a float chamber mechanism system;
vaporisation takes place within the Venturi. As previously • the main metering system;
• the idling system;
discussed, ice readily forms in the Venturi and on the throttle
valve. • a mixture control system;
• an accelerating system; and
A pressure-type carburettor discharges fuel into the airstream • the throttle valve.
at a pressure well above atmospheric. This results in better a
vaporisation and permits the discharge of fuel into the airstream
on the engine side of the throttle valve. With the discharge
nozzle located at this point, the drop in temperature due to fuel
vaporisation takes place after the air has passed the throttle
valve and at a point where engine heat tends to offset it. Thus,
the danger of fuel vaporisation icing is practically eliminated.
The effects of rapid manoeuvres and rough air on the pressure-
type carburettors are negligible since its fuel chambers remain
filled under all operating conditions. Pressure carburettors have
been replaced mostly by fuel injection systems and have limited
use on modem aircraft engines.

Carburettor components

Float chamber mechanism system
A float chamber is provided between the fuel supply and the
main metering system of the carburettor. The float chamber, or
bowl, serves as a reservoir for fuel in the carburettor. This
chamber provides a nearly constant level of fuel to the main
discharge nozzle, which is usually about 1∕8 below the holes in
the main discharge nozzle. The fuel level must be maintained
slightly below the discharge nozzle outlet holes to provide the
correct amount of fuel flow and to prevent fuel leakage from the
nozzle when the engine is not operating.
The level of fuel in the float chamber is kept nearly constant

using a float-operated needle valve and a seat. The needle seat
is usually made of bronze. The needle valve is constructed of
hardened steel, or it may have a synthetic rubber section which
fits the seat. With no fuel in the float chamber, the float drops
toward the bottom of the chamber and allows the needle valve
to open wide. As fuel is admitted from the supply line, the float
rises (floats in the fuel) and closes the needle valve when the
fuel reaches a predetermined level. When the engine is
running, fuel is continually drawn off the discharge nozzle, so
the needle valve finds a sensitive position where the chamber
replenishes at the same rate as the fuel is used thus keeping
the level constant.
With the fuel at the correct level (float chamber), the discharge
rate is controlled accurately by the air velocity through the
carburettor Venturi where a pressure drop at the discharge
nozzle causes fuel to flow into the intake airstream.
Atmospheric pressure on top of the fuel in the float chamber
forces the fuel out the discharge nozzle. A vent or small
opening in the top of the float chamber allows air to enter or
leave the chamber as the level of fuel rises or falls.

Float chamber and float
Float chamber carburettor (updraft)

Pressure balance duct (PBD)
In some carburettors, the float chamber is vented into the
relatively still air within the engine cowlings. The air intake inlet
is subject to changes in altitude, aircraft attitude and
temperature, all of which cause pressure variations through the
Venturi, which in turn affects the air/fuel ratio due to the
difference between float chamber and air intake pressures. A
pressure balance duct is incorporated, to overcome the
problem of varying fuel flows, which extends the float chamber
vent line to the air intake. Any changes which take place in the
air intake are immediately felt within the float chamber, thus
maintaining the correct fuel flow for the air going through the
intake.

Float chamber and float with pressure balance duct

Main metering system
The main metering system supplies fuel to the engine at all As the air flows through the Venturi, its velocity increases. This
speeds above idling and consists of: velocity increase creates a low-pressure area in the Venturi’s
throat. The fuel discharge nozzle is exposed to this low
• a Venturi; pressure. Since the float chamber vents to atmospheric
• the main metering jet; pressure, a pressure drop across the discharge nozzle is
• the main discharge nozzle; created. It is this pressure difference, or metering force, that
• a passage leading to the idling system; and causes fuel to flow from the discharge nozzle. The fuel comes
• a throttle valve out of the nozzle in a fine spray, and the tiny particles quickly
vaporise in the air.
Since the throttle valve controls the mass airflow through the
carburettor Venturi, it must be considered a significant unit in
the main metering system as well as in other carburettor
systems.
The Venturi is the heart of the main metering system. Air

flowing into the engine must pass through the Venturi. The
Venturi performs three functions:
• it proportions the fuel/air mixture;

• it decreases the pressure at the discharge nozzle; and
• it limits the airflow at full throttle.
The fuel discharge nozzle is located in the carburettor barrel so

that its open end is in the throat or narrowest part of the Venturi.
A main metering orifice, or jet, is placed in the fuel passage
between the float chamber and the discharge nozzle to limit the
fuel flow when the throttle valve is wide open. When the engine
crankshaft is revolved with the carburettor throttle open, the low
pressure created in the intake manifold acts on the air passing
through the carburettor barrel. Air flows from the air intake
through the carburettor barrel into the intake manifold because
of the pressure difference with the atmosphere. The volume of
airflow depends upon the degree of throttle opening.

Carburettors metering systems

The metering force (pressure differential) in most carburettors If the system is modified by placing a metering orifice in the
increases as the throttle opening is increased. The fuel must be bottom of the tube and air is taken in below the fuel level using
raised in the discharge nozzle to a level at which it discharges an air bleed tube, a finely divided mixture of air and liquid is
into the airstream. A pressure differential of 1.7 kPa (½" Hg) is formed in the tube, as shown in C.
required to accomplish this. When the metering force is
considerably reduced at low engine speeds, the fuel delivery In a carburettor, a small air bleed is bled into the fuel nozzle
from the discharge nozzle decreases if an air bleed (air slightly below the fuel level. The open end of the air bleed is in
metering jet) is not incorporated in the carburettor. The the space behind the Venturi wall where the air is relatively
decrease in fuel flow in relation to airflow is due to two factors: motionless and at approximately atmospheric pressure. The
low pressure at the tip of the nozzle not only draws fuel from
• the fuel tends to adhere to the walls of the discharge the float chamber but also draws air from behind the Venturi.
nozzle and break off intermittently in large drops instead Air bled into the main metering fuel system decreases the fuel
of forming a fine spray; and density and destroys surface tension. This results in better
• a part of the metering force is required to raise the fuel vaporisation and control of fuel discharge, especially at lower
level from the float chamber level to the discharge engine speeds. The throttle, or butterfly valve, is located in the
nozzle outlet. carburettor barrel near one end of the Venturi. It provides a
means of controlling engine speed or power output by
The basic principle of the air bleed can be explained by the regulating the airflow to the engine. This valve is a disk that can
simple diagram shown below top-left. In each case, the same rotate on an axis so that it can be turned to open or close the
degree of suction is applied to a vertical tube placed in the carburettor air passage.
container of liquid. As shown in A, the suction applied on the
upper end of the tube is sufficient to lift the liquid a distance of The carburettor in the diagram below bottom-right uses a single
about 40 mm (1.6") above the surface. If a small hole is made Venturi and a discharge nozzle that sprays fuel out at right
in the side of the tube above the surface of the liquid, as in B, angles to the airflow. The discharge nozzle is located in the
and suction is applied, bubbles of air enter the tube, and the throat of the Venturi at the point the air pressure is the lowest,
liquid is drawn up in a continuous series of small slugs or drops. and the float bowl is vented to the inlet ram air. There is,
Thus, air ‘bleeds’ into the tube and partially reduces the forces therefore, a difference in pressure between that in the float bowl
tending to retard the flow of liquid through the tube. However, and at the discharge nozzle. This pressure difference meters
the large opening at the bottom of the tube effectively prevents fuel from the float bowl to the discharge nozzle proportional to
any significant amount of suction from being exerted on the air the volume of air flowing into the engine.
bleed hole or vent. Similarly, an air bleed hole that is too large
in proportion to the size of the tube would reduce the suction
available to lift the liquid.

Air bleed system principle
Carburettor principle
Idling system
When the throttle is closed, there is not enough air flowing past As all the idle ports are just ceasing fuel flow, due to the
the main discharge nozzle to produce a pressure low enough increasing pressure rise, the main metering system begins to
to pull fuel from the float bowl through the main metering jet, so flow out the discharge nozzle because of the dropping Venturi
a separate metering system must be used for idling. pressure.
When the engine is idling, air that flows into the cylinders must A drilled passage, containing an idle emulsion tube, connects
pass around the edge of the butterfly valve. the idle discharge holes to an annulus, or ring, just above the
main metering jet that is filled with fuel from the float bowl. In
Airflow around the throttle butterfly valve is restricted, causing this passage, there is a perforated idle metering tube, and its
it to travel at a high velocity past the edge of the valve – this entrance contains the idle metering jet – this tube screws into
high velocity results in low pressure. an enlarged hole in the carburettor body. In the side of the tube
is a small hole that serves as the idle air-bleed. Air from the
There is a series of idle discharge holes in the throttle body upper annulus formed between the Venturi and the air bore
located where pressure is the lowest when the throttle valve is supplies air at approximately ambient pressure, to a cavity on
in the idle range. In the largest of these holes is an idle mixture the outside of the idle tube bleed opening. The bleed air enters
adjustment needle valve, and it is located where the throttle the lower annulus behind the Venturi, passes through a bleed
valve pressure is the lowest at low idle. When this valve is air-filtering screen, and then enters the upper Venturi annulus.
screwed in, flow from the largest hole is shut off, and as it is This air supply not only feeds the idle bleed in the carburettor
screwed out, an increasing amount of fuel discharges into the but also acts as the vent for the fuel bowl.
air stream. The secondary, tertiary, and at times a quad
opening, act as additional air bleeds at low idle and as When the throttle is closed, low pressure at the edge of the
additional fuel discharge ports when the throttle transitions from butterfly valve pulls fuel up through the idle metering jet. At the
low to high idle. As the throttle opens and its edge passes the same time, it pulls air from behind the Venturi through the air
secondary, and progressively the other openings, they become bleed holes in the idle metering tube. The air and fuel form an
exposed to the low pressure and transition to discharging fuel. emulsion that is pulled up to the idle discharge holes and
This additional fuel is needed because the primary idle port fuel discharged into the air going into the cylinders.
flow is decreasing as the throttle opens and additional air
passes through the induction system. The throttle edge is
moving away from the bore wall causing less squeeze on the
air rushing by and consequently a decrease in pressure drop.

Carburettors idle air bleed principle Carburettors idle system
Setting the idling conditions of an engine calls for two
adjustments: the closed position of the throttle valve adjusts the
idle speed or RPM, and the amount of fuel-air mixture
discharged determines how smoothly the engine idles.
With the engine warmed up and all systems operating correctly,

hold the throttle in a position that produces the desired idle
RPM, and adjust the idle mixture needle valve until the engine
RPM peaks. From this mixture position, enrich the mixture to
provide a 50 RPM decrease. With the throttle reset at the
desired idle speed, open it slowly to cruise. If the transition is
smooth and without hesitation, the mixture is correct, but if
there is hesitation in the transition, richen or lean the idle
mixture slightly to correct the situation.
Next, idle at the desired RPM, apply full carburettor heat, and
make sure the engine continues to idle without the tendency to
stall. When the idle mixture is set correctly, screw the idle RPM
adjustment screw in until it contacts the idle stop on the throttle
arm. Advance the throttle until the engine runs in its cruise RPM
range to clear the spark plugs of any fouling caused by the
idling, and then pull the throttle back. If the controls have been
properly adjusted, the engine should return to a smooth idle at
the speed for which it was adjusted. If it does not idle properly,
repeat the process.
A slightly over-rich idle mixture aids in the transition from idle to

main metering operation, aids with additional cooling at idle,
smooths engine idle by making the leanest cylinders rich
enough to fire consistently and compensates for cylinder
misfire due to poor exhaust scavenging at low RPM.

Marvel-Schebler MA4-5 carburettor
Typical carburettors idle adjustment

Slow running, idle and cut off
With the butterfly almost closed in the position for idle or slow
running, the amount of air passing through the Venturi is
insufficient to cause a large enough pressure drop to draw off
fuel. However, the gap between the throttle housing and the
edge of the butterfly will now create its own mini Venturi. A line
is taken from the ‘U’ tube before the main jet, and then routed
to an outlet at the edge of the butterfly valve. In this line, there
is a calibrated orifice known as the slow running jet. The flow
from this jet ceases as the throttle opens, as the mini Venturi
no longer exists.
A simple plunger-type valve, sprung loaded in the open

position, is situated in the slow running fuel supply line.
Controlled from a lever in the cockpit, it will, when operated,
overcome the spring and cut off the fuel supply to the slow
running jet, causing the engine to stop, as the mixture, now
flowing to the engine, is so weak that it can no longer support
combustion. The operation of idle cut off is only effective when
the throttle lever is also in the idle or slow running position.
The idle cut off acts as a safety device to prevent the engine
running on due to pre-ignition, which may occur when the
engine had stopped, and the ignition switched off.
The release of the idle cut off in the cockpit allows the spring to
reposition the valve to open.
An alternative design is illustrated here in the Marvel Schebler

MA4-5 carburettor the manually operated mixture control valve
is rotated to a no-flow position and this cuts the fuel to the
engine.

Slow running idling jet

Mixture control system
As altitude increases, the air becomes less dense. At an The back-suction-type mixture control system is the most
altitude of 18,000 ft, the air is only half as dense as it is at sea widely used shown in the diagram below right. In this system,
level. This means that a cubic foot of space contains only half a certain amount of Venturi low pressure acts upon the fuel in
as much air at 18,000 ft as at sea level. An engine cylinder full the float chamber so that it opposes the low pressure existing
of air at 18,000 ft contains only half as much oxygen as a at the main discharge nozzle. An atmospheric line,
cylinder full of air at sea level. incorporating an adjustable valve, opens into the float chamber.
When the valve is completely closed, pressures on the fuel in
The low-pressure area created by the Venturi is dependent the float chamber and at the discharge nozzle are almost equal,
upon air velocity rather than air density. The action of the and fuel flow reduces to maximum lean. With the valve wide
Venturi draws the same volume of fuel through the discharge open, pressure on the fuel in the float chamber is highest, and
nozzle at a high altitude as it does at a low altitude. Therefore, the fuel mixture is richest. Adjusting the valve to positions
the fuel mixture becomes richer as altitude increases. This can between these two extremes controls the mixture. The
be overcome either by a manual or an automatic mixture quadrant in the cockpit is usually marked “LEAN” near the back
control. end and “RICH” at the forward end. The extreme back position
is marked “IDLE CUT-OFF”, used when stopping the engine.
On float-type carburettors, two types of purely manual or
cockpit-controllable devices are in general use for controlling
fuel/air mixtures, the needle type and the back-suction type.
With the needle-type system, manual control is provided by a

needle valve in the base of the float chamber, illustrated in the
diagram below left. This can be raised or lowered by adjusting
a control in the cockpit. Moving the control to “RICH” opens the
needle valve wide, which permits the fuel to flow unrestricted to
the nozzle. Moving the control to “LEAN” partially closes the
valve and restricts the flow of fuel to the nozzle.

Mixture control system

Pressure balance duct (PBD)
At this time, the float chamber is vented into the relatively still
air within the engine cowlings. The air intake inlet is subject to
changes in altitude, aircraft attitude and temperature, all of
which cause pressure variations through the Venturi, which in
turn affects the air/fuel ratio due to the difference between float
chamber and air intake pressures.
A pressure balance duct is incorporated to overcome the

problem of varying fuel flows, which extends the float chamber
vent line to the air intake. Any changes which take place in the
air intake are immediately felt within the float chamber, so
maintaining the correct fuel flow for the air going through the
intake.

Pressure balance duct

The diffuser
With increased power through the cruise range, more air and
fuel is required. Opening the throttle butterfly valve allows more
air to the cylinders, and this increased airflow passing through
the Venturi causes a more significant pressure differential,
which in turn causes an increase in the fuel flow from the
discharge nozzle.
Unfortunately, the inertia flow rate characteristics of air and fuel

are different; this difference causes too much fuel to be drawn
off, so causing the mixture gradually to become over-rich
throughout the cruise range.
A diffuser is built into the discharge line between jet and nozzle
to overcome this problem; the diffuser consists of a tube with
several small holes drilled in rows just below the top of the tube.
The air tapped from the pressure balance duct is routed to the
space around the outside of the tube.
As the demand for more fuel increases the fuel level in the
discharge tube descends, establishing a lower level in the tube.
This new level exposes the first row of holes in the diffuser
above the fuel level, which allows some of the air from the
pressure balance duct to bleed through the holes to reduce the
pressure drop. This, in turn, reduces the tendency of the fuel
flow to enrich the cruise air/fuel ratio. Opening the throttle
further causes the next row of holes to be exposed to pressure
balance duct air, so allowing an increase in fuel flow while
maintaining the correct air/fuel ratio.
A secondary feature is that the air helps to emulsify the fuel

when bleeding through the diffuser, resulting in a more volatile
mixture.

Diffuser operation

The air bleed
An alternative to the diffuser is the air bleed, shown in the An air bleed serves more functions than just maintaining a
diagram below left. constant fuel-air mixture ratio above high idle. The air
introduced as bubbles into the fuel upstream of the discharge
The main jet is placed at the bottom of the discharge tube, and nozzle outlet decreases the density of the fuel and makes it
an air-bleed duct routes atmospheric or pressure-balanced easier for the low pressure to pull fuel from the nozzle. This
duct-pressure air to the lower end of the discharge tube, so decrease allows a more realistic Venturi pressure drop to
atomising the fuel. When the Venturi depression is strong, the initiate fuel flow by the time the idle system is phasing out. The
fuel is diluted similarly to that of a carburettor fitted with a fuel-air emulsion provides a large fuel surface area for rapid
diffuser. vaporisation.
Control of mixture ratios
There is a need to have control over mixture ratios for two
reasons:
• flying the aircraft with economy in mind,

• compensating for changes in the aircraft’s altitude.
Restricting the air bleed causes the mixture to become richer.

If the discharge nozzle were vented to the atmosphere with a
free air bleed, as in the diagram below top-left, the low pressure
would pull a large amount of air into the discharge nozzle. As
the airflow into the engine increases, the mixture becomes
progressively leaner.
By installing a bleed restrictor with the correct size orifice, just
enough air will be metered into the fuel to keep the fuel-air
mixture ratio constant as the amount of air flowing into the
engine changes.

The air bleed enrichment system restricts the main air
bleed when the throttle is opened 70% and above.

Mixture control at higher altitudes Mixture control economy
If the aircraft climbs with a fixed throttle setting, the pressure of When flying with a fixed throttle setting and a stable altitude,
atmospheric air entering the air intake decreases, which in turn the pilot is given a choice of a ratio of 14:1 rich cruise or 17:1
reduces the weight of charge going to the engine. Remember lean or weak cruise. The lean cruise ratio is selected by the
that the air/fuel ratio is a function of weight, i.e. fourteen pounds pilot using the mixture lever, which allows more air to the
of air to one pound of fuel at cruise. discharge tube, so reducing the pressure differential, hence the
fuel flow. This causes a small drop in engine power output, but
Although the weight of air decreases with increase in altitude, in return, there is a cooler burning of the mixture and lower
the volume of air is unaltered; it is this value air rushing through specific fuel consumption.
the Venturi that causes the pressure differential change, which
in turn decides the fuel flow, and in this case, the mixture
enriches with an increase in altitude.
Air is tapped from the pressure balance duct and is allowed to

enter the discharge tube above the diffuser via a control valve
to overcome this problem. The amount of air passing the
control valve has a direct effect on the pressure differential,
which causes a reduction in fuel flow to maintain our 14:1 ratio.
The overall effect of the weight of charge entering the cylinders
at altitude is a reduction of volumetric efficiency. Therefore,
power falls off with a fixed throttle climb to altitude.
Note that the amount of air passing the control valve is under
the direct control of the pilot using the altitude mixture control
lever.

Automatic mixture control
To relieve the pilot of the need to adjust the mixture as the The upward movement of the servo piston rotates the mixture
aircraft climbs to altitude, some carburettors are fitted with an control valve to allow more air in to reduce the pressure
automatic mixture control which senses the drop in pressure differential and hence reduce the fuel flow. As we do not want
that occurs as altitude increases and adjusts the fuel/air ratio to the servo piston to go fully up until we are at a much higher
suit the less dense air. altitude, it would lean off the mixture too much at the start of a
climb, the aneroid capsule is attached to the same linkage as
The mixture control valve is situated above the discharge tube the servo piston. As the piston moves up, so the aneroid
and diffuser, the pressure difference between the float chamber capsule assembly complete with piston valve also move up,
and the Venturi is altered by the amount of atmospheric or thus blocking off both the lines to the top and bottom of the
balance duct pressure directed to the discharge tube and servo piston, so preventing further movement of the servo
diffuser. piston. The mixture control valve is held in the position selected
to compensate for the lower atmospheric pressure.
It is just like the manually operated mixture control described
previously. However, instead of manual control, we have a As the aircraft climbs, the aneroid capsule, which is anchored
servo piston operated by engine oil in a servo unit which moves firmly to the linkage and held firmly by the servo piston,
the linkage to operate the mixture control valve. The supply of expands as the outside of the capsule is subjected to lower
pressure oil is directed to either the top or bottom of the piston atmospheric pressure. The piston valve is pushed down,
by a piston valve which in turn is controlled by an aneroid allowing the pressure oil to the underside of the servo piston,
capsule sensitive to atmospheric pressure. and oil from the top of the servo piston to escape to scavenge
as it did before. The servo piston then moves up, repositioning
Operation the mixture control valve to admit more atmospheric air to the
As the aircraft climbs and the atmospheric pressure drops, we mixture discharge tube to reduce the pressure differential, and
need less fuel to maintain the air/fuel ratio. Therefore, the therefore reduce the fuel flow.
mixture control valve needs to select more air to the top of the
fuel in the discharge tube, thus reducing the pressure drop As the servo piston moves up, the aneroid assembly attached
between the float chamber and the Venturi, so reducing the fuel to the linkage also moves up, taking the piston valve with it, so
flow rate. The drop in atmospheric pressure causes the aneroid blocking off both the oil lines and thus preventing further
capsule to expand, pushing down the piston valve; this lines up movement of the servo valve and the mixture control.
the oil pressure inlet with the underside of the piston and the
top of the piston lines up with the top return to scavenge. This operation repeats again and again as the aircraft climbs,
so it becomes continuous, progressively opening the mixture
control valve to allow more air to weaken the mixture as
atmospheric pressure progressively decreases.
When the aircraft descends, the reverse happens. The aneroid
capsule contracts causing the piston valve to rise; this allows
the pressure oil to the top of the servo piston and the oil from
below the servo piston can escape to be scavenged past the
bottom of the piston valve.
The servo piston moves down, moving the mixture control valve
to reduce the air to the discharge tube so increasing the
pressure differential, and therefore supplying more fuel to
maintain the correct air/fuel ratio. As the servo piston moves
down, it also moves the aneroid capsule assembly with the
piston valve until the lands of the piston valve block off both
lines to the servo piston. This stops further movements of the
mixture control valve until there is a change in the atmospheric
pressure, when the whole process starts all over again, either
up or down.


Economy system
With the manual mixture control, the pilot could lean the mixture The linkage between the aneroid, the servo piston and the
in the cruise range to achieve a higher fuel economy. With an mixture control valve is critical and is set by the manufacturers
automatic mixture control, the pilot is given a two-position lever to ensure that:
where he can select rich gear lean. If he selects lean, he turns
a sleeve which is usually situated around the piston valve with • the movement of the servo piston is proportional to
the holes line up with the lines to the top and bottom of the changes of atmospheric pressure; and
servo piston. By turning the sleeve through 90°, two alternative • the opening of the mixture control valve is proportional
holes positioned higher up the sleeve are now used to line up to fuel flow requirements.
with the oil supplies to the servo piston.
In this case, the piston valve has to travel further up before the
lands block the lines to the servo piston. The piston valve has
to move further up before it is stopped, in which case the
mixture control valve allows more air in, thus reducing the
pressure differential more than usual, so weakening the mixture
still further.
On selection of lean in the cockpit, the natural position of the

piston valve is reset. The system now works as before with
changes in atmospheric pressure, but the original pressure
drop that it is subjected to is lower and therefore weaker. This
economy setting of lean only works in the cruise range,
because this linkage to the pilot’s lever is arranged so that
selection of power above the cruse range automatically puts
the rich/lean selector to rich and the sleeve is rotated back to
90° to where it started.

Economy system

Power and enrichment jet
An increase in power selection above cruise reaches the best
power at an air/fuel ratio of about 12.5:1. This rich mixture
ensures that all cylinders get at least the minimum requirement
of fuel. Any further increase in power selection requires extra
amounts of fuel because the main jet, which is designed for the
cruise range, cannot supply enough to keep the air/fuel ratio
constant when the larger quantity of air is entering the engine.
Therefore, an additional jet may be fitted, known as the power
jet, as shown in the diagram below left.
It is usually operated by a cam controlled by the pilot’s throttle

power lever. If the best power ratio was maintained up to take
off, then detonation is liable to occur due to increased
pressures and temperatures in the cylinders; the power jet is
arranged so that some extra fuel is added by the power jet to
cool the mixture up to take-off.
To ensure that there is no possibility of detonation occurring at

take-off, which is the most critical time for an aircraft and its
engine, even more fuel is added for cooling, to give a ratio of
around 10:1. This extra fuel does not burn, as there is not
enough oxygen available. Instead, the fuel acts as a coolant
and results in black smoke from the exhaust, indicating a rich
mixture. This cooling fuel is supplied by yet another jet, known
as the enrichment jet. It is usually cam operated from the pilot’s
power lever similarly to that for the power jet shown in the
diagram below right.

Power jet operation Enrichment jet operation

Back suction economiser
A back-suction mixture control operates on the principle of
varying the pressure drop across the fixed main metering jet to
control the amount of fuel that flows to the main discharge
nozzle.
For rich operation, the float bowl is vented with air from the
carburettor inlet that flows behind the Venturi and through the
open disk-type mixture control valve.
At altitude, the pilot moves the mixture control toward the lean
position. This restricts the disk valve and subjects the float bowl
to slightly low pressure from the edge of the Venturi. The lower
pressure in the float bowl decreases the pressure drop across
the main metering jet, decreasing the amount of fuel that flows
through it, and leans the mixture.
Some carburettors with back-suction mixture controls have a

cut-off valve that vents the float bowl of low pressure taken from
the centre of the Venturi. This pressure is the same as that at
the main discharge nozzle, and no fuel flows through the main
metering jet when these pressures are the same.
Some float-carburetted engines, particularly helicopter

engines, incorporate an automatic mixture control (AMC). This
is an aneroid-controlled needle valve in series with the main
metering jet. As the barometric pressure decreases with
altitude, the aneroid expands, placing the needle valve closer
to its seat, thus restricting the fuel flow more than the main
metering jet.

Mixture control knob in a Robinson helicopter
Back suction economiser

Acceleration control
The acceleration system compensates for the lag in fuel flow Larger engines require a positive discharge of fuel to enrich the
acceleration upon the rapid opening of the throttle. The fuel flow mixture during the transition from the idling system to the main
in the main metering system is denser than the air in the metering system. This is because the larger Venturi openings
induction system and has less of a differential applied across it. required are less responsive in the lower RPMs.
Therefore, the fuel acceleration rate lags behind that of the
induction air resulting temporarily in a weak mixture. This is true The diagram below right shows a typical piston-type
throughout the throttle travel. acceleration pump. When the engine is idling, the throttle is
closed, the pump plunger is at the top of its stroke, and the
One of the specific areas where an accelerator system helps is pump chamber is full of fuel that was pulled in from the float
when the throttle is opened from idle to higher power settings. bowl through the pump inlet check valve. When the throttle is
Both the idle system and the main metering system require a opened, the piston is forced down. The pump inlet check valve
specific amount of airflow for their proper operation. When closes, and the fuel is pumped out through the pump discharge
advancing the throttle from its idling position to the cruise check valve and is sprayed into the air flowing into the engine
position, there is a range in which the throttle valve is open too through the Venturi. The outlet check is needed to prevent
much for the idling system to function adequately, and not induction air from being drawn into the pump during the pump’s
enough for the main metering system to be in full operation. intake stroke, and the inlet check is necessary to prevent a
This so-called flat spot causes the engine to hesitate when the significant portion of the fuel from returning to the fuel bowl
throttle is opened, but this hesitation can be eliminated by using when the pump is discharging.
an acceleration system.
The pump piston is mounted on a spring-loaded telescoping
The simplest acceleration system is an enlarged annulus, or shaft. The restriction caused by the pump discharge nozzle
groove, around the main discharge nozzle as is seen below. prevents all fuel from discharging immediately when the throttle
is opened. But the spring compresses and produces a
When the engine is idling, all fuel entering the cylinders is sustained discharge as it extends to provide the engine with a
metered through the idle system, and the acceleration well fills rich mixture until its speed builds up enough for the main
with fuel. When the throttle is suddenly opened, all fuel in the metering system to function. This arrangement also allows the
well is pulled out through the main discharge nozzle, and the pilot to open the throttle rapidly without damage to the
engine receives a momentarily rich mixture that causes acceleration linkage. The discharge valve is either weighted or
acceleration. As soon as the RPM builds up, air flows in through spring-loaded to prevent the syphoning of fuel out of the pump
the main air bleed and the fuel metering returns to normal. discharge during main metering operation. If this valve leaks, it
causes an enriching of the mixture above idle until it is
Acceleration wells are used in carburettors generally mounted compensated for with the manual mixture control system.
on engines of less than about 3.3 L (200 in3) displacement.

Acceleration control

When the throttle is opened quickly, there is an immediate When the throttle is wide open, the butterfly valve is parallel
increase of airflow into the engine, but unfortunately, the with the tube and the airflow, the obstruction caused by the
response of the fuel metering system is less quick. To valve is minimum, and the flow is at its highest. Butterfly-type
overcome this, an accelerator pump is fitted and activated by throttle valves are used to control the airflow through the fuel
linkage from the throttle control. metering system., and it offers minimum restriction. When the
throttle is closed, the valve nearly shuts off the flow of air into
The accelerator pump consists of a small chamber connected the engine, but an adjustable stop screw prevents it from
to the float chamber with a non-return valve (NRV), which completely blocking the airflow. The amount of air flowing past
allows fuel to flow from the float chamber to the accelerator the nearly closed valve determines the idle speed of the engine.
pump. A fuel line is taken from the pump to the air stream
immediately before the Venturi. The size of the Venturi limits the maximum amount of air that
can flow into the engine under wide-open throttle conditions.
At the top of the accelerator pump-chamber is a piston-type The same model of carburettor can be used on engines of
plunger held in the up position by a spring. various sizes by changing the Venturi, the main metering jet,
the main air bleed restrictor, and idle metering tube.
The accelerator pump plunger is operated by a cam, which is
actuated by the throttle linkage. Any quick movement of throttle
causes the plunger to move down, and the NRV closes under
the fuel pressure, preventing the return of the fuel to the float
chamber. The fuel is forced along the fuel line to just before the
Venturi and forced thorough the fixed orifice, thus enriching the
mixture until the fuel metering system has caught up with the
airflow. The rate of enrichment is therefore dependent upon the
speed of movement of the pilot’s throttle.
Throttle – airflow regulation

The amount of power produced by a reciprocating engine is
determined by the quantity of air and fuel entering the cylinders.
Air flowing into the engine at conditions other than full throttle
is controlled by a circular butterfly-type valve actuated by the
throttle control in the cockpit. It is a flat, disk-shaped valve used
to control the flow of fluid in a round pipe or tube. When the
butterfly valve is across the tube; the flow is shut off.


Example system: Marvel-Schebler MSA MA-4-5 float type
carburettor (now Precision Airmotive)
Idle system
With the throttle fly slightly open to permit idling, the suction or On idle, some air is drawn from the throttle barrel below the
vacuum above the throttle on the manifold side is very high. throttle fly through the secondary idle delivery opening. It
Very little air passes through the Venturi at this time, and blends with the idling mixture to the engine as the throttle is
hence, with very low suction on the main nozzle, it does not opened, coming into play progressively and blending with the
discharge fuel. This high suction beyond the throttle, however, primary idle delivery to prevent the mixture from beginning too
causes the idle system to function as the primary idle delivers lean as the throttle is opened and before the main nozzle starts
into the high suction zone above the throttle. Fuel from the fuel to feed. These carburettors are provided with a third and,
bowl passes through the mixture metering sleeve, fuel channel, possibly a fourth idle delivery in addition to the secondary idle
power jet, and into the main nozzle bore. Here it passes delivery, depending on the application to cover the broader idle
through the idle supply opening in the main nozzle, through the range.
idle fuel orifice in the idle tube, where it mixes with air which is
allowed to enter idle tube through the primary idle air vent and
secondary idle air vent.
The resultant rich emulsion of fuel and air passes upward

through the emulsion channel. It is finally drawn into the throttle
body through the primary idle delivery opening, subject to the
regulation of the idle adjusting needle, where a small amount
of air passing the throttle fly mixes with it, forming a combustible
mixture for idling the engine. The idle adjustment needle
controls the quantity of rich emulsion supplied to the throttle
barrel and therefore controls the quality of the idle mixture.
Turning the needle counter-clockwise away from its seat
richens the idle mixture to the engine and turning the needle
clockwise towards its seat leans the idle mixture.

Variations of the MA-4-5

Metering Accelerator pump
All fuel delivery on idle, and also as steady propeller speeds up The accelerator pump discharges fuel only when the throttle fly
to approximately 1,000 RPM, is from the idle system. At is moved towards the open position and provides additional fuel
approximately 1,000 RPM, the suction from the increasing to keep in step with the sudden inrush of air into the manifold
amount of air now passing through primary and secondary when the throttle is opened. Using an accelerator pump lever
Venturi causes the main nozzle to start delivering. The idle connected to the throttle shaft, the accelerator pump plunger is
system delivery diminishes due to lowered suction on the idle moved downward when the throttle is opened. This forces fuel
delivery openings, as the throttle fly is opened for increasing past the carburettor pump discharge check-valve into the
propeller speeds until at approximately 1,400 RPM the idle accelerator pump discharge tube which delivers accelerating
delivery is practically nil. Most of the fuel delivery from that point fuel through the primary Venturi into the mixing chamber of the
on to the highest speed is from the main nozzle. However, the carburettor. Upon closing the throttle, the accelerator pump
fuel feed of any full throttle operation is entirely from the main plunger moves upward, thus refilling the accelerator pump
nozzle. The idle supply opening connects the idle system and chamber by drawing fuel from the fuel bowl through the pump
main nozzle. inlet screen and pump inlet check valve. On any quick opening
of the throttle the pump follow-up spring yields and thus
The amount of fuel delivered from either the idle system or main prolongs the pump discharge sufficiently to prevent ‘slugging’
nozzle is dependent on whether the suction is higher on the idle the engine with fuel.
system or main nozzle, the suction governed by throttle valve
position and engine load. The main nozzle feeds at any speed As a precaution to prevent fuel from being drawn into the mixing
if the throttle is open sufficiently to place the engine under load, chamber when the accelerator pump is inoperative (any
which drops the manifold suction. Under such conditions of low constant throttle position), the accelerator pump discharge
manifold suction at the throttle fly, the main nozzle feeds in check valve assembly mounted in the carburettor is provided
preference to the idle system because the suction is multiplied with an accelerator pump discharge check valve loaded by a
on the main nozzle by the restriction of the Venturi. spring.

Power enrichment (economiser) system
Aircraft engines are designed to produce a maximum amount
of power consistent with their weight. But since they are not
designed to dissipate all of the heat the fuel is capable of
releasing; provisions must be made to remove some of this
heat. This is done by enriching the fuel/air mixture at full
throttle. The additional fuel absorbs this heat as it changes into
a vapour. Power enrichment systems are often called
economiser systems because they allow the engine to operate
with a relatively lean and economical mixture for all conditions
other than full power.
Mechanical air bleed enrichment system

When an increased air velocity passed through the main
Venturi, an increased pressure drop occurs which enriches the
mixture, and to prevent this enrichment, an air bleed of exact
size is used between the float bowl and the discharge nozzle.
If the size of the air bleed is increased, a lean the mixture is
produced, and if the air bleed is decreased, more fuel is pulled
from the discharge nozzle, and the mixture becomes richer.
The air for the air bleed comes from the float chamber and
passes through the air bleed metering valve. The needle for
this valve is held off of its seat by a spring and is closed by an
operating lever attached to the throttle shaft. When the throttle
is wide open, the lever closes the air bleed valve and enriches
the fuel/air mixture.

Mixture control
The mixture control consists of mixture control lever which is
attached to the mixture metering valve assembly. The mixture
metering valve assembly is provided at its lower end with
mixture metering valve, which rotates in stationary mixture
sleeve. Mixture metering sleeve is provided with a transverse
slot through which the fuel enters and fuel metering is
accomplished by the relative position between one edge of the
longitudinal flat on the mixture metering valve and one edge of
the slot in the mixture metering sleeve. When the mixture
control lever is in toward the carburettor throttle flange, a full
rich mixture is provided for take-off.
With the mixture control lever in the ‘FULL RICH’ position,

metering is controlled by the power jet, but in anything other
than ‘FULL RICH’ position, metering is accomplished by the
relative position of the respective edges of the mixture metering
sleeve and mixture metering valve as described above. To
make the mixture leaner for altitude compensation, move the
mixture control lever away from the carburettor throttle flange.
With the mixture control lever in the full lean position, (with
mixture control lever in a position farthest from the carburettor
throttle flange), no fuel is allowed to enter the nozzle and idle
system, thus providing what is known as “IDLE CUT-OFF” to
prevent accidents when working around a hot engine. This cut
off is accomplished by the fact that the angular opening
between the metering edge of the mixture metering valve and
the metering edge of the mixture metering sleeve in the “FULL
RICH” position is narrower than the total angular travel of the
mixture metering valve.

Variations of the MA-4-5 detail



Icing and heating
General A rough carburettor venturi surface is likely to increase
Induction system icing in piston engines is commonly referred carburettor icing severity.
to as carburettor icing. Although that is only one form, such
icing can occur at any time, even on warm days, particularly Water-cooled engine bodies tend to cool less quickly when
humid ones. If corrective action is not taken, the engine may power is reduced, which reduces the severity of carburettor
stop, especially at low power settings during descent, approach icing. If coolant is directed around the carburettor body, the
or during helicopter autorotation. Engine induction system icing Venturi temperature may remain above freezing
has been assessed as a likely contributory factor in several
aircraft accidents which can be hard to investigate as Atmospheric conditions that affect ice formation
unfortunately the evidence rapidly disappears. Carburettor icing is not restricted to cold weather. It occurs on
warm days if humidity is high, especially at low power settings.
Many misconceptions exist within the aviation industry about Flight tests have produced serious icing at descent power when
induction system icing, partly due to it commonly being referred the air temperature was above 25 °C, even with relative
to as “carb icing”. Some pilots believe that fuel-injected engines humidity as low as 30%. At cruise power, icing occurred at 20
are immune to induction icing, this is not so. Although the pilot °C when relative humidity was 60% or more. (Cold, clear winter
flying with a fuel-injected engine does not have the same threat days are less of a hazard than humid summer days because
of icing at the Venturi as those with a carburettor, rain, snow, cold air holds less moisture than warm air.) In areas of Europe
slush and cold temperatures may cause a blockage (impact where high humidity is common, pilots must always be on the
ice) to airflow in other parts of the induction system. alert for carburettor icing and take corrective action before the
situation becomes irretrievable. If the engine fails due to
Engine factors that affect Ice formation carburettor icing, it may not restart (even if it does, the delay
Carburettor icing is more likely when ‘Mogas’ is used because could be critical)
of its volatility and water content.
Carburettor icing can occur in clear air without any visual
Reduced power settings make engines more prone to icing. warning. The icing risk may be higher in cloud, but the pilot is
Induction temperatures are lower, and the partly closed less likely to be surprised.
butterfly can be restricted more easily by the ice build-up. This
is a particular problem if the engine is de-rated, as in many The chart shows the wide range of ambient conditions in
piston-engine helicopters and some aeroplanes. which carb icing is most likely. It shows the much higher risk
of serious icing with descent power.

Icing severity prediction chart

Aviation weather forecasts do not usually include specific Indications of ice formation
warnings of induction system icing. Pilots must, therefore, use If the aircraft has a fixed-pitch propeller, the most likely
knowledge and experience. Dewpoint readings close to the indications of carb icing are a slight drop in RPM and
temperature mean the relative humidity is high. However, the performance (airspeed and/or altitude). The pilot may
humidity reported at an aerodrome may bear little relation to automatically open the throttle slightly to compensate for a
the humidity at flying altitudes. When dewpoint information is smooth and gradual loss of RPM, and not notice the
not available, assume high humidity, particularly when: performance loss. As ice increases, rough running, vibration,
further loss of performance ensues, and ultimately the engine
• in cloud and fog; these are water droplets, and the will stop. Pilots should routinely compare the RPM gauge with
relative humidity should be assumed to be 100%; the ASI and altimeter.
• in clear air where cloud or fog may have just dispersed,
or just below the top of a haze layer; With a constant speed propeller, or in a helicopter, a reduction
• just below cloud base or between cloud layers (the in RPM would only occur after a significant power loss. The
highest liquid water content is at cloud tops); onset of icing is more insidious, but the performance reduction
• in precipitation, especially if persistent; is shown as a drop in manifold pressure.
• if the surface and low-level visibility is poor, especially in
the early morning and late evening, and particularly near In steady level flight, an exhaust gas temperature gauge, if
a large area of water; and fitted, may show a decrease in temperature before any
• when the ground is wet (even with dew), and the wind is significant decrease in engine and aircraft performance.
light.
Some induction systems are fitted with a carburettor or intake
However, the lack of such indications does not mean low temperature gauge which is easily monitored by the pilot, but
humidity. other indicators are also available.

General practices
Some engines have electric heaters which directly increase the In cruise flight, apply carburettor heat at regular intervals to
temperature of the carburettor body, encouraging ice to clear. prevent ice forming. Apply it for at the very least 15 seconds
A similar effect may be obtained in a liquid-cooled engine by (but considerably more in particular aircraft) to prevent the loss
directing the flow of coolant. of engine power, or to restore it.
On other air-cooled engines, carb icing is usually cleared by the If the hot air has dispersed ice which has caused a loss of
pilot selecting an alternative air source which supplies air which power, reselecting cold air should produce a higher RPM or
has been heated in an exhaust heat exchanger to melt the ice manifold pressure than the reading before the selection of hot
obstruction. This source by-passes the regular intake filter. air. This shows that ice has been forming but does not prove
that all the ice has melted! Carry out further checks until there
Fuel-injected engines generally have an alternate air intake is no resultant increase. Then monitor the engine instruments
within the engine cowling. This alternate air does not usually and carry out the routine checks more often. If there is no carb
pass through a heat exchanger but may be warmed by engine icing, there should be no increase in RPM or manifold pressure
heat. above the figure noted before selecting hot air.
Whenever you apply carb hot air, always select full heat; partial If you select hot air when ice is present, the situation may at
hot air should only be used if explicitly recommended in the first appear worse, because the engine runs roughly as the ice
flight manual or pilot’s operating handbook. melts and passes through it. Do not be tempted to return to cold
air. Allow the hot air time to clear the ice. This time may be over
Select carburettor body heat whenever carb icing is likely. Hot 15 seconds which feels like an exceedingly long time!
air should be selected:
Unless it is necessary, avoid using hot air continuously at high
• as a routine, check at regular intervals to prevent ice power settings. However, carburettor heat should be applied
build-up; early enough before descent to warm the intake. It should
• whenever a drop in RPM or manifold pressure, or rough remain fully applied during that descent, as the engine is more
engine running, is experienced; susceptible to carb icing at low power settings.
• when carb icing conditions are suspected; and
• when flying within the high probability ranges indicated
in the chart. However, while hot air is selected, it reduces
engine power (as does body heating to a much lesser
extent). This power loss may be critical in certain flight
phases, for example, during a go-around.

Types of ice
Three types of ice form in fuel metering devices, as illustrated Throttle ice
in the diagram below. They are: This forms when the throttle valve is at or near the closed
position. The Venturi formed between the edge of the throttle
• impact ice; valve and the throttle body causes a reduction in air pressure
• throttle ice; and and temperature, thus causing the moisture in the air to form
• evaporation ice. ice on the edge of the throttle body. The gap is now similar, and
the Venturi effect greater so yet more ice forms.
Note: Although not linked directly to the induction system
fuel icing should also be considered. Evaporation ice
Evaporation ice forms around the discharge nozzle of float
Impact ice chamber carburettors, and pressure injection carburettors and
This forms when there are low temperatures and high moisture is the most common, first to appear, and the most serious.
content in the air. The air on striking the relatively cold air intake Where the fuel joins the airstream, vaporisation of the fuel
causes ice to form similar to that formed on mainplane leading occurs. The heat required for vaporisation is taken from the
edges. It builds up the intake lip, the filter and at the first bend surrounding air and the carburettor components. This causes a
in the duct which then causes a restriction to the airflow with a drop in temperature of the moisture-laden air, and ice formation
resulting loss of power. In snow, sleet, or sub-zero cloud, ice takes place. In the float chamber carburettor, icing is highly
may build up on air intakes, filters, alternate air valves, etc. It likely because the discharge nozzle is situated in the Venturi.
may also form in the rain if either the rain or the aircraft is below Here, the temperature is already lowered by the drop in
zero °C. Impact icing can affect fuel injection systems as well pressure caused by the Venturi. In the pressure carburettor, the
as carburettors and is the main hazard for turbocharged discharge nozzle is usually situated away from the residual
engines. It is unlikely to be removed by selecting carburettor engine heat source, and evaporation icing can occur.
hot air. However, selecting hot air, or alternate air in a fuel-
injected engine, bypasses the regular intake and should allow With humidity of 60% or above, evaporation ice can form on a
the engine to run normally, although possibly at reduced power. warm day. The most likely temperature range is surprisingly
Although injection systems are less prone to ice than other +5°C to +27°C. Because the air in this range has a high
metering devices, they can suffer in particular from impact ice moisture content, coupled with the possibility of a temperature
forming in the throttle housing which can affect the impact tubes drop of 25°C at the throttle valve edge due to the Venturi effect,
and the Venturi sensing line causing engine failure. and a drop of around 27°C due to vaporisation, means that the
moisture in the air can soon turn to ice. Impact ice, which is
supercooled water, tends to form at freezing point (0°C).

Three types of ice formation
Evaporation ice
Carburettor heat
Carburettor heat (usually abbreviated to 'carb heat') is a system Again, the pilot will note this as evidence that icing conditions
used in piston-powered light aircraft engines to prevent or clear are present. However, more than one pilot, when confronted
carburettor icing. It consists of a moveable flap which draws hot with a rough running engine has mistakenly turned the
air into the engine intake. The air is drawn from the heat stove, carburettor heat back off, thereby exacerbating the situation.
a metal plate around the (very hot) exhaust manifold.
Applying carb heat as a matter of routine is built into numerous
A fixed-pitch propeller aircraft will show a decrease in engine in-flight and pre-landing checks. In long descents, carb heat
RPM, and perhaps run rough, when carburettor ice has formed. may be used continuously to prevent icing build-up; with the
However, a constant-speed propeller aircraft will show a throttle closed there is a significant pressure (and therefore
decrease in manifold pressure as power is reduced. temperature) drop in the carburettor which can cause rapid ice
build-up that could go unnoticed because engine power is not
In light aircraft, the carburettor heat is usually manually used. Also, the exhaust manifold cools considerably when
controlled by the pilot. The diversion of warm air into the intake power is removed, so if carb icing occurs, there may not be heat
reduces the available power from the engine for three reasons: sufficient to remove it. Thus, most operational checklists call for
thermodynamic efficiency is slightly reduced since it is a the routine application of carb heat whenever the throttle is
function of the difference in temperature between the incoming closed in flight.
and exhaust gases; the quantity of air available for combustion
inside the cylinders is reduced due to the lower density of the Usually, the air filter is bypassed when carb heat is used. If the
warm air; and the previously-correct ratio of fuel to air is upset air filter becomes clogged (with snow, ice, or dust debris), using
by the lower-density air, so some of the fuel does not burn and carb heat allows the engine to keep running. Because using
exits as unburned hydrocarbons. unfiltered air can cause engine wear, carb heat usage on the
ground (where dusty air is most probable) is kept to a minimum.
Thus, the application of carb heat is manifested as a reduction
in engine power, up to 15%. If ice has built up, there will then Altitude has an indirect effect on carburettor ice because there
be a gradual increase in power as the air passage is freed up are usually significant temperature differences with altitude.
by the melting ice. The amount of power regained is an Clouds contain moisture, and therefore flying through clouds
indication of the severity of ice build-up. may necessitate more frequent use of carb heat.
It must be kept in mind that the ingestion of small amounts of The intake air of an aircraft engine equipped with a
water into the engine following melting in the carburettor may supercharger is heated through compression, so the air
cause an initial period of rough running for as much as one or entering the throttle body is already warmed enough that carb
two minutes before the power increase is noted. heat is unnecessary.

Carburettors temperature indication

Fuel icing
Water held in suspension in the fuel may precipitate and freeze The warm air taken from around the engine via the alternate-
in the induction piping, especially in the elbows formed by air valve is usually from the rear of the cylinders. Most modern
bends. installations draw the hot air to the alternate-air valve via a muff
around the exhaust. See the diagram below bottom-left.
In fuel metering systems, ice prevention is the result of using
warm or hot air. In some cases, the air warmed by the engine On some aircraft, hot air from this muff is also used for cabin
is fed into the intake system, instead of cold air from ram effect. heating, so its integrity should be checked frequently because
In other systems, the air from around the engine is ducted of the danger of carbon monoxide from the exhaust gases.
through a heater muff fitted around the exhaust pipe thus
supplying hot air for ice prevention or ice dispersal. The usual
method of introducing warm or hot air to the intake is selected
using a flap or shutter valve similar to that used for selecting
filter/unfiltered air. The diagram below top-left shows a typical
intake system that may be selected COLD – FILTERED – HOT.
The alternate-air valve which allows hot or warm air into the
intake ducting is usually manually operated from the cockpit. In
some installations, it either has to be fully open or fully closed
as partial warm air may cause ice to form if the resultant
temperature is in the danger range mentioned earlier.
Some other installations allow varying degrees of hot air

induction and the alternate-air valve shutter may be selected
partially open, this only usually on systems fitted with an air
intake temperature gauge. The alternate-air valve is spring-
loaded to the closed or cold air position. If the cold air ducts are
blocked with ice, the depression felt from the induction stroke
is felt right back through the system. This causes the alternate-
air valve to open against the spring pressure independent of
cockpit selection, thus supplying air for combustion. Most pilot’s
manuals for light aircraft call for the heat control to be selected
hot for a few seconds every 15 minutes of flight.

Intake configuration for hot, cold ram and filtered air
Exhaust muff air heating
Carburettor heat system layout

Fluid de-icing system
Although not very common some aircraft are fitted with a fluid FSII is an agent that is mixed with the fuel as it is pumped into
de-icing system to supplement the hot air system previously the aircraft. The mixture of FSII must be between 0.10% and
described. The system, which is controlled from the cockpit, 0.15% by volume for the additive to work correctly, and the FSII
consists of: must be distributed evenly throughout the fuel. Simply adding
FSII after the fuel has been pumped is therefore not sufficient.
• a tank; As aircraft climbs after take-off, the temperature drops and any
• a pump; and dissolved water separates from the fuel. FSII dissolves itself in
• manual or electrical spray nozzles in the induction pipe. water preferentially over the fuel, where it then serves to
depress the freezing point of water to -43°C.
The de-ice fluid, which has an alcohol base, is used to enrich
the fluid air mixture. At high power, this is an advantage, but at Alternatively, isopropyl alcohol in amounts not to exceed 1% by
low power settings, the enrichment could make the mixture too volume can be added only to aviation fuel.
rich, so the system must be used with care.
Fuel system icing inhibitor (FSII) is an additive to aviation fuels

that prevents the formation of ice in fuel lines. FSII is sometimes
referred to by the registered, genericised trademark Prist HI-
FLASH LO-FLO.
Gasoline can contain a small amount of dissolved water that

does not appear in droplet form. As an aircraft gains altitude,
the temperature drops and the fuel’s capacity to hold water
diminishes. Dissolved water can separate and could become a
severe problem if it freezes in fuel lines or filters, blocking the
flow of fuel and shutting down an engine.

16.4.2 Fuel injection systems
General
Purpose Principle
Float carburettors have limitations that have been overcome by This carburettor measured the mass of air entering the engine
pressure carburettors: and metered the correct amount of fuel. The fuel was injected
under pressure into the centre, or eye, of the internal
• Float carburettors are susceptible to carburettor icing supercharger impeller. Some of these carburettors were fitted
because fuel is discharged into the Venturi where it with antidetonation injection systems that sprayed an alcohol-
evaporates rapidly there or at the throttle plate. Pressure water mixture into the supercharger along with the fuel. The
carburettors do not discharge their fuel in the Venturi but water evaporated and increased the density of the air flowing
rather downstream of the throttle. into the engine.
• Float carburettors are sensitive to certain manoeuvres.
Fuel can surge to the top of the float chamber and shut off Modern pressure carburettors are adapted from the pressure
the fuel flow to the engine. Pressure carburettors meter the injection carburettor but are simplified to meet the needs of
fuel by measuring the amount of air flowing into the engine smaller engines.
and spraying an appropriate amount of fuel under pressure
into this air. These carburettors can even function properly, Pressure carburettors have the same basic systems as float
inverted, for limited periods. carburettors: main metering, idling, acceleration, mixture
• Float carburettors produce an increasingly rich mixture as control, and power enrichment.
the aircraft goes up in altitude. Some pressure carburettors
are equipped with automatic mixture controls that hold the Pressure injection carburettors are distinctly different from float-
mixture ratio constant as altitude changes. Carburettors so- type carburettors as they do not incorporate a vented float
equipped become truly mass metering devices. Large, chamber or suction pickup from a discharge nozzle located in
high-powered reciprocating engines used during World the Venturi tube. Instead, they provide a pressurised fuel
War II required a fuel metering system that was superior to system that is closed from the engine fuel pump to the
the float carburettor, in that it did not ice up and did not shut discharge nozzle. The Venturi serves only to create pressure
off fuel flow to the engine during negative-G manoeuvres. differentials for controlling the quantity of fuel to the metering
Direct fuel injection was used on some engines, but the jet in proportion to airflow to the engine.
most successful and popular fuel metering system was the
Stromberg pressure injection carburettor.

Fuel injection servos

The fuel-injection system has many advantages over a When air passes through the carburettor to the engine, the
convention carburettor system. There is less danger of pressure on the right of the diaphragm is lowered because of
induction icing since the drop in temperature due to fuel the drop in pressure at the Venturi’s throat. As a result, the
vaporisation takes place in or near the cylinder. Acceleration is diaphragm moves to the right, opening the fuel valve. Pressure
also improved because of the positive action of the injection from the engine-driven pump then forces fuel through the open
system. Also, fuel injection improves fuel distribution. This valve to the discharge nozzle, where it sprays into the
reduces the overheating of individual cylinders often caused by airstream. The distance the fuel valve opens is determined by
variations in mixture due to uneven distribution. The fuel the difference between the two pressures acting on the
injection system also gives better fuel economy than a system diaphragm. This difference in pressure is proportional to the
in which the mixture to most cylinders must be richer than airflow through the carburettor. Thus, the volume of airflow
required to ensure that the cylinder with the leanest mixture determines the rate of fuel discharge.
operates properly. Fuel-injection systems vary in their details of
construction, arrangement, and operation. The pressure injection carburettor (PIC) is an assembly of the
following units:
The Bendix and Continental systems are the most common and
are discussed as examples later in this section. • a throttle body;
• an automatic mixture control;
The illustration in the diagram below represents a pressure- • a regulator unit; and
type carburettor simplified so that only the basic parts are • a fuel control unit (some are equipped with an adapter)
shown. Note the two small passages, one leading from the
carburettor air inlet to the left side of the flexible diaphragm and
the other from the Venturi’s throat to the right side of the
diaphragm.

Pressure injection carburettor (PIC)

Throttle body
The throttle body contains the throttle valves, main Venturi,
boost Venturi, and the impact tubes. All air entering the
cylinders must flow through the throttle body; therefore, it is the
air control and measuring device. The airflow is measured by
volume and weight so that the proper amount of fuel can be
added to meet the engine demands under all conditions.
As air flows through the Venturi, its velocity increases, and its
pressure decreases (Bernoulli’s principle). This low pressure is
vented to the low-pressure side of the air diaphragm,
chamber B in the regulator assembly in the diagram below.
The impact tubes sense carburettor inlet air pressure and direct
it to the automatic mixture control, which measures the air
density. From the automatic mixture control, the air is directed
to the high-pressure side of the air diaphragm (chamber A).
The pressure differential of the two chambers acting upon the
air diaphragm is known as the air metering force, which opens
the fuel poppet valve.
The throttle body controls the airflow with the throttle valves.
The throttle valves may be either rectangular or disk-shaped,
depending on the design of the carburettor. The valves are
mounted on a shaft, which is connected by linkage to the idle
valve and the throttle control in the cockpit. A throttle stop limits
the travel of the throttle valve and has an adjustment which sets
engine idle speed.

Bendix Stromberg PD12
Pressure injection carburettor throttle body
downdraft throttle body

The regulator
The regulator is a diaphragm-controlled unit divided into five Referring to the diagram below, assume that for a given airflow
chambers: through the throttle body and Venturi, a negative pressure of
1.7 kPa (1∕4 psi) is established in chamber B. This tends to
• A - impact pressure; move the diaphragm assembly and the poppet valve in a
• B - Venturi pressure; direction to open the poppet valve permitting more fuel to enter
• C - metered fuel pressure; chamber D. The pressure in chamber C is held constant at
• D - regulated fuel pressure; and 35 kPa (5 psi) (70 kPa (10 psi on some installations)) by the
• E - pump delivery pressure. discharge nozzle or impeller fuel feed valve. Therefore, the
diaphragm assembly and poppet valve move in the open
It contains two regulating diaphragms and a poppet valve direction until the pressure in chamber D is 36.2 kPa (51∕4 psi).
assembly. Chamber A is regulated air-inlet pressure from the Under these pressures, there is a balanced condition of the
air intake. Chamber B is boosted Venturi pressure. Chamber C diaphragm assembly with a pressure drop of 1.7 kPa (1∕4 psi)
contains metered fuel pressure controlled by the discharge across the jets in the fuel control unit (auto-rich or auto-le an).
nozzle or fuel feed valve. Chamber D contains unmetered fuel
pressure controlled by the opening of the poppet valve. If nozzle pressure (chamber C pressure) rises to 36.2 kPa
Chamber E is the fuel pump pressure controlled by the fuel (51∕4 psi), the diaphragm assembly balance is upset. The
pump pressure relief valve. A stem connects the poppet valve diaphragm assembly moves to open the poppet valve to
assembly to the two main control diaphragms. The purpose of establish the necessary 36.2 kPa (51∕4 psi) pressure in
the regulator unit is to regulate the fuel pressure to the inlet side chamber D. Thus, the 1.7 kPa (1∕4 psi) differential between
of the metering jets in the fuel control unit. This pressure is chamber C and chamber D is re-established. The pressure
automatically regulated according to the mass airflow to the drop across the metering jets remains the same.
engine.
If the fuel inlet pressure is increased or decreased, the fuel flow
The carburettor fuel strainer, located in the inlet to chamber E, into chamber D tends to increase or decrease with the pressure
is a fine mesh screen through which all the fuel must pass as it change causing the chamber D pressure to do likewise. This
enters chamber D. The strainer must be removed and cleaned upsets the balanced condition previously established, and the
at scheduled intervals. poppet valve and diaphragm assembly respond by moving to
increase or decrease the flow to re-establish the pressure at
the 1.7 kPa (1∕4 psi) differential.

Bendix-Stromberg carburettor regulator Pressure injection carburettor regulator

The fuel flow changes when the mixture control plates are If the vapour vent valve sticks in a closed position or the vent
moved from auto-lean to auto-rich, thereby selecting a different line from the vapour vent to the fuel tank becomes clogged, the
set of jets or cutting one or two in or out of the system. When vapour-eliminating action is stopped. This causes the vapour to
the mixture position is altered, the diaphragm and poppet valve build up within the carburettor to the extent that it passes
assembly reposition to maintain the established pressure through the metering jets with the fuel. With a given size
differential of 1.7 kPa (1∕4 psi) between chambers C and D, carburettor metering jet, the metering of vapour reduces the
maintaining the established differential across the jets. Under quantity of fuel metered. This causes the fuel/air mixture to lean
low power settings (low airflows), the difference in pressure out, usually intermittently
created by the boost Venturi is not sufficient to accomplish
consistent regulation of the fuel. Therefore, an idle spring is
incorporated in the regulator. As the poppet valve moves
toward the closed position, it contacts the idle spring. The
spring holds the poppet valve off its seat far enough to provide
more fuel than is needed for idling. The idle valve regulates this
potentially over-rich mixture. At idling speed, the idle valve
restricts the fuel flow to the proper amount. At higher speeds, it
is withdrawn from the fuel passage and has no metering effect.
Vapour vent systems are provided in these carburettors to

eliminate fuel vapour created by the fuel pump, heat in the
engine compartment, and the pressure drop across the poppet
valve. The vapour vent is located in the fuel inlet (chamber E)
or, on some models of carburettors, in both chambers D and E.
The vapour vent system operates in the following way. When

air enters the chamber in which the vapour vent is installed, the
air rises to the top of the chamber, displacing the fuel and
lowering its level. When the fuel level has reached a
predetermined position, the float (which floats in the fuel) pulls
the vapour vent valve off its seat, permitting the vapour in the
chamber to escape through the vapour vent seat, its connecting
line, and back to the fuel tank.

Pressure injection carburettor regulator

Fuel control unit
The fuel control unit is attached to the regulator assembly and
contains all metering jets and valves. The idle and power
enrichment valves, together with the mixture control plates,
select the jet combinations for the various settings (i.e., auto-
rich, auto-lean, and idle cut-off).
The purpose of the fuel control unit is to meter and control the
fuel flow to the discharge nozzle. The basic unit consists of
three jets and four valves arranged in series, parallel, and
series-parallel hook-ups. These jets and valves receive fuel
under pressure from the regulator unit and then meter the fuel
as it flows to the discharge nozzle. The manual mixture control
valve controls the fuel flow. By using proper size jets and
regulating the pressure differential across the jets, the right
amount of fuel is delivered to the discharge nozzle, giving the
desired fuel/air ratio in the various power settings. It should be
remembered that the regulator unit regulates the inlet pressure
to the jets and the discharge nozzle controls the outlet
pressure.
The jets in the basic fuel control unit are the auto-lean jet, the
auto-rich jet, and power enrichment jet. The basic fuel flow is
the fuel required to run the engine with a lean mixture and is
metered by the auto-lean jet. The auto-rich jet adds enough fuel
to the basic flow to give a slightly richer mixture than best power
mixture when the manual mixture control is in the auto-rich
position.

Bendix-Stromberg carburettor fuel control unit Fuel control unit

The four valves in the basic fuel control unit are: The regulator fill valve is a small poppet-type valve located in a
fuel passage which supplies chamber C of the regulator unit
• an idle needle valve; with metered fuel pressure. In idle cut-off, the flat portion of the
• a power enrichment valve; cam lines up with the valve stem, and a spring closes the valve.
• a regulator fill valve; and This provides a means of shutting off the fuel flow to chamber C
• a manual mixture control. and thus provides for a positive idle cut-off.
The functions of these valves are as follows. The power enrichment valve is another poppet-type valve. It is
in parallel with the auto-lean and auto-rich jets, but it is in series
The idle needle valve meters the fuel in the idle range only. It with the power enrichment jet. This valve starts to open at the
is a round, contoured needle valve, or a cylinder valve placed beginning of the power range. It is opened by the unmetered
in series with all other metering devices of the basic fuel control fuel pressure overcoming metered fuel pressure and spring
unit. The idle needle valve is connected by linkage to the tension. The power enrichment valve continues to open wider
throttle shaft so that it restricts the fuel flowing at low power during the power range until the combined flow through the
settings (idle range). valve, and the auto-rich jet exceeds that of the power
The manual mixture control is a rotary disk valve consisting of enrichment jet. At this point, the power enrichment jet takes
a round stationary disk with ports leading from the auto-lean jet, over the metering and meters fuel throughout the power range.
the auto-rich jet, and two smaller ventholes. Another rotating Carburettors equipped for water injection are modified by the
part, resembling a cloverleaf, is held against the stationary disk addition of a derichment valve and a derichment jet. The
by spring tension and rotated over the ports in that disk by the derichment valve and derichment jet are in series with each
manual mixture control lever. All ports and vents are closed in other and parallel with the power enrichment jet.
the idle cut-off position. In the autolean position, the ports from
the auto-lean jet and the two vent holes are open. The port from Auto lean
the auto-rich jet remains closed in this position. In the auto-rich Auto lean equates to the economic cruise condition of the float
position, all ports are open. The valve plate positions are chamber carburettor.
illustrated in the diagram below. The three positions of the
manual mixture control lever make it possible to select a lean Auto rich
mixture a rich mixture or to stop fuel flow entirely. The idle cut- This selection equates to the rich cruise condition in the float
off position is used for starting or stopping the engine. During chamber carburettor.
starting, fuel is supplied by the primer.

Manual mixture control valve plate positions

The carburettor controls fuel flow by varying two basic factors.
The fuel control unit, acting as a pressure-reducing valve,
determines the metering pressure in response to the metering
forces. The regulator unit, in effect, varies the size of the orifice
through which the metering pressure forces the fuel. It is a
basic law of hydraulics that the amount of fluid that passes
through an orifice varies with the size of the orifice and the
pressure drop across it. The internal automatic devices and
mixture control act together to determine the effective size of
the metering passage through which the fuel passes. The
internal devices, fixed jets, and variable power enrichment
valve are not subject to direct external control.
The throttle body

The throttle body contains the main Venturi and the boost
Venturi, as shown in the diagram below. The drop in pressure
in the main Venturi causes an acceleration of air through the
boost Venturi, thus giving a more considerable pressure drop
at the throat of the boost Venturi. A greater air metering force
is obtained, and therefore an amplified pressure drop is ducted
to chamber B of the regulator. The air throttle valve controls the
flow of air through the throttle body and is under the direct
control of the pilot’s throttle power lever.

Bendix-Stromberg PT-13G1
Pressure (injection), 3-venturi carburettor

Throttle body

An automatic mixture controller is mounted on the throttle body Adjacent to the discharge nozzle is an automatic accelerator
which controls the impact pressure ducted to chamber A of the pump; this is a simple diaphragm operated pump. The air
regulator to compensate for changes in air density. During a pressure downstream of the throttle valve varies according to
climb for example, when the atmospheric (or impact pressure) the throttle position, being lowest at idle and increasing as the
drops, an aneroid capsule expands, forcing a needle into the throttle is opened. This pressure is ducted to the rear of the
duct which is sampling impact pressure for chamber A. So, with pump diaphragm where it moves the pump to the bottom of its
a drop in air pressure, the pressure to chamber A is restricted. stroke, assisted by a spring.
The air metering force becomes less, which in turn reduces the
opening of the fuel valve of the regulator, thus reducing the At small throttle openings, the fuel discharge pressure is
regulated fuel pressure. sufficient to overcome the spring and air pressure, causing the
pump to move to the top of its stroke, thus filling the pump with
During aircraft descent, an increase in air pressure causes the a charge of fuel as the throttle is opened. This higher air
bellows to contract, withdrawing the needle, allowing the fuel pressure, plus the spring, then forces the pump to the bottom
impact pressure to chamber A to increase, to sea-level of its stroke, discharging the charge of fuel to the discharge
pressure when the valve is fully open. nozzle. This extra fuel is sufficient with the normal metered flow
to overcome any temporary weakening of the mixture.
You may have noticed that the airflow is down, whereas all
previous diagrams have shown the airflow up. This is a
manufacturer’s choice often dictated by the position of the air
intake for a particular installation; the two different applications
are known merely as ‘up-draught’ or ‘down-draught’
carburettors.
The discharge nozzle, which is mounted downstream of the

throttle valve, does not open until sufficient pressure is
available (about 34.5 kPa (5 psi)) to overcome the spring-
assisted diaphragm. Once open, it acts as a pressure regulator
to maintain approximately the same pressure with varying
degrees of opening for the various throttle settings.

Typical pressure injection carburettor – schematic layout

Example system: Bendix PS pressure
carburettor
General The same ratio of pressure drop across the jet to Venturi
In the PS series carburettor, as in the pressure-injection suction applies throughout the range. Any increase or decrease
carburettor, the regulator spring has a fixed tension, which in fuel inlet pressure tends to upset the balance in the various
tends to hold the poppet valve open during idling speeds or until chambers in the manner already described. When this occurs,
the D chamber pressure equals approximately 27.6 kPa (4 psi). the main fuel regulator diaphragm assembly repositions to
The discharge nozzle spring has a variable adjustment tailored restore the balance.
to maintain 27.6 kPa (4 psi). This maintains a pressure
condition of 27.6 kPa (4 psi) in chamber C of the discharge The mixture control, whether operated manually or
nozzle assembly and 27.6 kPa (4 psi) in chamber D. This automatically, compensates for enrichment at altitude by
produces a zero drop across the main jets at zero fuel flow. bleeding impact air pressure into chamber B, thereby
increasing the pressure (decreasing the suction) in chamber B.
At a given airflow, if the suction created by the Venturi is Increasing the pressure in chamber B tends to move the
equivalent to 115 g (1∕4 lb), the pressure decrease is transmitted diaphragm and poppet valve more toward the closed position,
to chamber B and the vent side of the discharge nozzle. Since restricting fuel flow to correspond proportionately to the
the area of the air diaphragm between chambers A and B is decrease in air density at altitude.
twice as high as that between chambers B and D, the 115 g
(1∕4 lb) decrease in pressure in chamber B moves the The idle valve and economiser jet can be combined in one
diaphragm assembly to the right to open the poppet valve. assembly. The unit is controlled manually by the movement of
the valve assembly. At low airflow positions, the tapered
Meanwhile, the decreased pressure on the vent side of the section of the valve becomes the predominant jet in the system,
discharge nozzle assembly causes a lowering of the total controlling the fuel flow for the idle range. As the valve moves
pressure from 1.8 kg to 1.7 kg (4 lb to 33∕4 lb). The higher to the cruise position, a straight section on the valve establishes
pressure of the metered fuel 1.9 kg (41∕4 pounds) results in a a fixed orifice effect which controls the cruise mixture. When
differential across the metering head of 115 g (1∕4 lb) (for the the valve is pulled full-open by the throttle valve, the jet is pulled
115 g (1∕4 lb) pressure differential created by the Venturi). entirely out of the seat, and the seat side becomes the
controlling jet. This jet is calibrated for takeoff power mixtures.

Bendix PS pressure carburettor

An airflow-controlled power enrichment valve can also be used When the mixture control lever is moved to the idle cut-off
with this carburettor. It consists of a spring-loaded, diaphragm- position, a cam on the linkage actuates a rocker arm which
operated metering valve. Refer to the diagram for a schematic moves the idle cut-off plunger inward against the release lever
view of an airflow power enrichment valve. One side of the in chamber A. The lever compresses the regulator diaphragm
diaphragm is exposed to unmetered fuel pressure and the other spring to relieve all tension on the diaphragm between
side to Venturi suction plus spring tension. When the pressure chambers A and B. This permits fuel pressure plus poppet
differential across the diaphragm establishes a force strong valve spring force to close the poppet valve, stopping the fuel
enough to compress the spring, the valve opens and supplies flow. Placing the mixture control lever in idle cut-off also
an additional amount of fuel to the metered fuel circuit in positions the mixture control needle valve off its seat and allows
addition to the fuel supplied by the main metering jet. metering suction within the carburettor to bleed off.
Accelerating pump
The accelerating pump of the Stromberg PS carburettor is a
spring-loaded diaphragm assembly located in the metered fuel
channel with the opposite side of the diaphragm vented to the
engine side of the throttle valve. With this arrangement,
opening the throttle results in a rapid decrease in suction. This
decrease in suction permits the spring to extend and move the
accelerating pump diaphragm. The diaphragm and spring
action displace the fuel in the accelerating pump and force it
out the discharge nozzle.
Vapour is eliminated from the top of the main fuel chamber D

through a bleed hole, then through a vent line back to the main
fuel tank in the aircraft.
Manual mixture control

A manual mixture control provides a means of correcting for
enrichment at altitude. It consists of a needle valve and seat
that form an adjustable bleed between chamber A and
chamber B. The valve can be adjusted to bleed off the Venturi
suction to maintain the correct fuel/air ratio as the aircraft gains
altitude.

Airflow power enrichment valve

Example system: Bendix RSA injection
system
General
The RSA fuel injection systems are designed to meter fuel in
direct ratio to the volume of air being consumed by the engine
at any given time. This is accomplished by sensing Venturi
suction and impact air pressures in the throttle body, opening
or closing the throttle valve results in a change in the volume of
air being drawn into the engine. This results in a change in the
velocity of air passing across the impact tubes and through the
Venturi. When air velocity increases, the pressure at the impact
tubes remains relatively constant depending upon the inlet duct
configuration, air figure location, etc. The pressure at the
Venturi’s throat decreases. This decrease creates a differential
(impact minus suction) which is used over the entire range of
operation of the fuel injection system as a measurement of the
volume of air consumption.

Bendix RSA injection system

All reciprocating engines operate most efficiently in a very
narrow range of air to fuel (or fuel/air) ratios. The RSA injection
system uses the measurement of air volume flow to generate a
usable force which can be used to regulate the flow of fuel to
the engine in proportion to the amount of air being consumed.
This is accomplished by channelling the impact and Venturi

suction pressures to opposite sides of a diaphragm. This
difference between these two pressures then becomes a
usable force which is equal to the area of the diaphragm
multiplied by the pressure difference.


Fuel is supplied to the engine from the aircraft fuel system. This The two opposing forces (fuel and air differentials) are equal,
system usually includes a boost pump located either in the fuel and the regulator servo valve (which is connected to both
tank or the fuel line between the tank and the engine. The diaphragms by a stem) is held at a fixed position that allows the
engine-driven fuel pump receives fuel from the aircraft system discharge of just enough metered fuel to maintain pressure
(including the boost pump) and supplies that fuel at a relatively balance. If the throttle is opened to increase power, airflow
constant pressure to the fuel injector servo inlet. The engine immediately increases. This results in an increase in the
manufacturer specifies the fuel pump pressure setting pressure differential across the air diaphragm to a theoretical
applicable to the specific fuel injector installation. The fuel value of ‘3’. The immediate result is a movement of the
injectors are calibrated at that inlet pressure setting. The regulator servo valve to the right. This increased servo valve
settings are checked to assure that metered fuel flow is not opening causes a decrease in pressure in the metered fuel
affected by changes in inlet fuel pressure caused by normal chamber and an increase in the fuel pressure differential across
boost pump “ON” or “OFF” operation. the main metering jet. When this increasing fuel differential
pressure force reaches a value of ‘3’ (equalling the air
The RSA injection system will, if correctly assembled and diaphragm force), the regulator stops moving, and the servo
calibrated, meet all performance requirements over an valve stabilises at a position which maintains the balance of
extremely wide range of inlet fuel pressures. Its heart is the pressure differentials, i.e., air and fuel, each equalling 3.
servo pressure regulator.
Fuel flow to the engine is increased to support the higher power
The easiest way to explain the operation of this regulator and level requested. The fuel diaphragm force being generated by
its relationship to the main metering jet is to describe a power the pressure drop across the main metering jet is equal to the
change which requires a fuel flow change. air diaphragm force being generated by the Venturi.
To begin this explanation, we start from a cruise condition This sequence of operation is correct for all regimes of power
where air velocity through the throttle body is generating an operation and all power changes. The regulator servo valve
impact pressure minus Venturi suction pressure differential at responds to changes in effective air diaphragm differential
the theoretical value of ‘2’. This air pressure differential ‘2’ is pressure forces. It adjusts the position of the servo valve to
exerting a force to the right. regulate unmetered to metered fuel pressure differential forces
accordingly. Fuel flow through the metering jet, and to the
Fuel flow to the engine, passing through the metering jet, engine, is a function of its size and the pressure differential
generates a fuel pressure differential (unmetered fuel minus across it. The servo valve does not meter fuel; it only controls
metered fuel pressure). This pressure differential applied pressure differential across the metering jet.
across a second (fuel) diaphragm is also creating a force with
a value of ‘2’. This value of ‘2’ is exerting a force to the left.


Flow divider
Metered fuel flow is delivered from the fuel injector servo unit accuracy of fuel distribution needed for smooth idle. As the
to the engine through a system which usually includes a flow engine is accelerated, metered fuel pressure at the flow divider
divider and a set of discharge nozzles (one nozzle per cylinder). inlet and in the nozzle lines increases. It gradually moves the
A few engine installations do not use a flow divider. On these flow divider valve open against the spring pressure until the
engines, the fuel flow is divided by either a single four-way area of the V slot opening to each nozzle is greater than the
fitting (4-cylinder engines) or tee which divides the fuel flow into area of the fuel restrictor in the nozzle. At that point,
two separate paths. Each path incorporates a three-way fitting responsibility for equal distribution of metered fuel flow is
(6-cylinder engines). assumed by the nozzles. Since metered fuel pressure (nozzle
pressure) increases in direct proportion to metered fuel flow, a
The flow divider consists of a valve, a sleeve, a diaphragm and simple pressure gauge can be used as a flow meter indicator.
a spring. The valve is spring-loaded to the closed position in If the fuel restrictor in one or more nozzles becomes partially
the sleeve. This effectively closes the path of fuel flow from the plugged by contaminant, the total exit path for metered fuel flow
fuel injector servo to the nozzles and at the same time isolates is reduced. The fuel injector servo continues to deliver the
each nozzle from all of the others at engine shut down. The two same amount of total fuel flow. Therefore, nozzle pressure
primary functions of the flow divider are: increases, indicating fuel flow increase on the flow meter
gauge.
• to assure equal distribution of metered fuel to the
nozzles at and just above idle; and The cylinder(s) having restricted nozzles run lean, and the
• to provide isolation of each nozzle from all the others for remaining cylinders are rich – the result: a rough engine
a clean engine shut down. accompanied by high fuel flow indication. The problem may be
caused partially blocked nozzle(s).
The area of the fuel discharge jet in the fuel nozzles is sized to
accommodate the maximum fuel flow required at rated When the mixture control is placed in cut off, fuel pressure to
horsepower without exceeding the regulated fuel pressure the flow divider drops to zero. The spring forces the flow divider
range capability of the servo pressure regulator. valve to the closed position and immediately interrupts the flow
of fuel to each nozzle. This breaks the path of capillary flow,
The area of the jet in the nozzle is such that metered fuel which would allow manifold suction to continue to draw fuel in
pressure at the nozzle is negligible at the low fuel flows required dribbles from one or more nozzle lines as the engine coasts
at and just above idle. Metered fuel from the injector servo down. Without the flow divider, this ‘dribbling’ of fuel into one or
enters the flow divider and is channelled to a chamber beneath more cylinders could keep the engine running for a minute or
the diaphragm. At idle, fuel pressure is only sufficient to move more.
the flow divider valve slightly open, exposing the bottom of a
V slot in the exit to each nozzle. This position provides the

Bendix RSA
injection system
servo
Bendix RSA injection system Bendix RSA injection system

flow divider and injector nozzles

Fuel flow gauge
Bendix RSA injection system flow divider

flow divider and injector nozzles

Idle valve
The idle valve is connected to the throttle linkage. It effectively
reduces the area of the main metering jet for accurate metering
of fuel in the idle range. It is externally adjustable and allows
the mechanic to properly tune the fuel injector to the engine
installation for a proper idle mixture. Idle mixture is correct
when the engine gains approximately 25 to 50 RPM from its
idle speed setting as the mixture control is placed in cut off.
Manual control of idle mixture is necessary because, at the very
low airflow through the Venturi in the idle range, the air
metering force is not sufficient to control fuel flow accurately.
On some engines, according to specific installation

requirements, an enrichment jet is added in parallel with the
main metering jet. On these installations, the sliding (rotating)
idle valve begins to uncover the enrichment Jet at a pre-set
throttle position. This parallel flow path increases the fuel/air
mixture strength to provide for ‘fuel cooling’ of the engine in the
high-power range. In simple terms, this is trading increased fuel
consumption for added engine life.

idle valve adjustment
Bendix RSA injection

system idle valve

Bendix RSA injection system servo

The illustration below shows the further operation of the manual
mixture control, constant head, constant effort springs, and
centre body seal.
The manual mixture control is a sliding valve, that can be used

by the pilot to reduce the size of the metering jet effectively.
With the servo pressure regulator functioning to maintain a
differential pressure across the metering jet in proportion to the
volume of airflow, the flow through the jet may be varied by
changing its effective size. This allows the pilot the option to
manually lean the mixture for best cruise power or best specific
fuel consumption. It also provides the means to shut off fuel
flow to the engine at engine shut down.
The constant head idle spring augments the force of the air
diaphragm in the idle and off idle range where the air pressure
differential is not sufficient to move the servo valve open. The
idle spring assures that the regulator servo valve is open
sufficiently to allow fuel being metered by the idle valve to flow
out to the flow divider. As airflow increases above idle, the air
diaphragm begins to move to the right in response to increasing
air pressure differential. It compresses the constant head idle
spring until its retainer and guide contact the diaphragm plate.
From this point onward, in terms of airflow, fuel flow, or power,
the constant head idle spring assembly is a solid member
moving with the air diaphragm and exerts no force of its own.
The constant head spring LS furnished in a selection of
strengths so the overhaul technician can adequately calibrate
the injector for idle fuel flow and the transition to servo
regulator-controlled fuel flow.

Bendix RSA injection system manual
mixture control

In most installations, the transition from idle to servo regulator-
controlled fuel flow has to be supplemented with a constant
effort spring. This spring also assists the air diaphragm to move
smoothly from the low airflow idle range to the higher power
range of operation. It is also furnished in a selection of
strengths to be utilised by the overhaul technician for proper
calibration of the unit.
The fuel section of the servo pressure regulator is separated

from the air section by a centre body seal assembly. In 1979, a
product improvement was made to the seal changing the
design from a rubber diaphragm to bellows type. This bellows
seal, as shown in the illustration top right, is presently used in
all current production and newly overhauled-type fuel injectors.
Leakage through the centre body seal causes extremely rich

operation and poor cut off. The presence of raw fuel out the
impact tubes may indicate possible seal leakage. Failure of this
seal requires repair in an overhaul shop. It cannot be replaced
in the field.

Bendix RSA injection
system servo regulator

Injector nozzles
Several different nozzles are manufactured to suit the specific A net decrease in metered fuel pressure results and shows up
installation requirement for the engine. Normally aspirated, on the flow meter as a lower fuel flow indication. The result is
which requires the simple nozzle assembly with the air bleed rough idle with low fuel flow indication and higher than regular
screen and shroud pressed in place, or the configuration of the RPM rise when going into cut-off.
shroud assembly to accept the supercharger air pressure
signal to the nozzle. The engine will also have inferior cut off, tending to continue
chugging for several seconds following the movement of the
All nozzles are of the air bleed type. This means that the fuel is mixture control to cut off.
discharged inside the nozzle body into a chamber which is
vented to either atmospheric air pressure or supercharger air
pressure (injector top deck pressure).
The nozzle is mounted into the intake valve plenum of the

cylinder head. Its exit is always exposed to manifold pressure,
which on a normally aspirated engine is always less than
atmospheric. This results in air being drawn in through the air
bleed and mixed with fuel in the fuel/air chamber to provide for
fuel atomisation. This is particularly important to the idle and
low power ranges where manifold pressure is weakest and
bleed air intake is greatest.
A plugged air bleed in this range allows the exit of the fuel
restrictor to be exposed to manifold suction, which effectively
increases the pressure differential across the restrictor and
causes an increase in fuel flow through that nozzle.
Since this nozzle is now, in effect, stealing fuel from the other
nozzles (injector servo output flow remains the same) this
cylinder runs rich, and the other cylinders are correspondingly
lean.

The illustration below shows the function and operation of the An engine pumps air based on volume, not weight. This volume
automatic mixture control (AMC). It also expands the is determined by the engine displacement, i.e., I0-540 cubic
description of the manual mixture control and idle valves. The inches per complete four-stroke cycle (intake, compression,
mixture control is shown in the full rich position and the idle power, exhaust for all six cylinders). So, an I0-540 at
valve fully open as it would be at cruise power or above. In the 2,500 RPM would be consuming (pumping):
cutaway, the two rotating valve assemblies are spring-loaded
together back to back with an O-ring seal in between. Fuel 540 × (2,500/2) = 675,000 in3 per minute
flows through the mixture control valve, through the idle valve 675,000/1,728 = 390 ft3 per minute
and out to the regulator servo valve. The inlet strainer is located
underneath the fuel inlet fitting and is installed spring end first, 390 × 0.0765 = 30 pounds per minute.
so the open end is mated to the inlet fitting. If the screen 30 × 60 (min) = 1,800 pph airflow.
becomes blocked by contaminant material, inlet pressure
forces it away from the fitting, compressing the spring to allow This would be equivalent to cruise power at sea level. A fuel/air
fuel to bypass the screen if necessary. This screen filter is a ratio of 0.08 would result in:
mandatory 100% replacement item at overhaul. There is no
approved method of cleaning this screen for reuse. 1,800 × 0.08 = 150 pph fuel flow.
The AMC adjusts fuel/air ratio to compensate for the decreased As the aircraft climbs to altitude, the specific weight of air
air density as the aircraft climbs to altitude. Fuel/air ratio is decreases from 0.0765 pounds per cubic foot until, at 15,000 ft,
expressed in pounds per hour of fuel and air, respectively. The air only weighs 0.0432 pounds per cubic foot. The engine at
fuel injector meters fuel on a pounds per hour basis, referenced 2,500 RPM would still be consuming 390 ft3 per minute,
to the volume of airflow, which, converted to velocity passing resulting in:
through the Venturi produces the air metering signal previously
discussed. (390 × 0.0432) × 60 = 1,020 pph airflow.
This 1,020 pph airflow produces the same air metering signal
across the Venturi that 1,800 pph did at sea level. This air
metering signal maintains the 150 pph fuel flow which would
result in:
150/1020 = 0.147 fuel/air ratio.

Bendix RSA injection system automatic mixture control

Without an AMC, it would be necessary for the pilot to
continually lean the mixture manually to maintain the desired
0.08 fuel/air ratio. The AMC works independently of, and in
parallel with, the manual mixture control by providing a variable
orifice between the two air pressure signals (impact and
suction) to modify the air metering signal force.
The AMC assembly consists of a contoured needle that is

moved in and out of an orifice by a bellows assembly. This
bellows assembly reacts to changes in air pressure and
temperature, increasing in length as pressure altitude
increases. At ground level, the needle is positioned in the AMC
orifice so that the orifice is closed, or nearly closed, to allow the
maximum impact pressure to the impact pressure side of the
air diaphragm.
When the aircraft increases altitude, the AMC bellows

elongates with air pressure decrease, and the needle is moved
into its orifice. This increases the orifice opening between
impact air and Venturi suction and allows impact air to bleed
into the Venturi suction channel. This reduces the air metering
force across the air diaphragm.
The needle is contoured such that regardless of altitude (or air

density) the correct air metering signal is established across the
air diaphragm to maintain a relatively constant fuel/air ratio as
air density changes with altitude.
The above description applies to the externally mounted AMC,

which is used on the RSA-5ABI and the RS-l0FBl – and shown
below right.


Current production fuel injectors use a bullet-type AMC which
is mounted in the bore of the throttle body. The outer diameter
of this unit is contoured to perform the function of the Venturi.
The function performed, and the principle of operation is the
same as the externally mounted unit. The primary differences
are:
• The bellows assembly is exposed to Venturi suction

rather than impact pressure.
• As the needle is moved into its orifice, impact air
pressure to the servo regulator is restricted, thus
causing a reduction of the air metering force across the
air diaphragm precisely as described above.
On fuel injectors with the bullet-type Venturi which do not use

an AMC, the bellows and needle assembly are not used, and
the interconnecting channelling between impact air and Venturi
suction is blocked off.


Bendix RSA injection system automatic mixture control bellow

Example system: Teledyne Continental
injection system
General
The Continental®, or CMG, fuel injection system and the RSA
system are both continuous-flow injection systems that do the
same job, but they accomplish it in different ways. The RSA
system measures the volume of air flowing into the engine to
determine the amount of fuel to mix with it.
The CMG system uses the engine RPM to determine the

amount of fuel to send to the injector nozzles. It has four basic
components: the engine-driven injector pump, the fuel-air
control unit, the fuel manifold valve, and the nozzles.
The CMG system consists of:
• the fuel Injector pump assembly;

• the fuel/air control unit;
• the fuel manifold valve; and
• the injection discharge nozzles.

Teledyne Continental Injection System

Teledyne Continental Injection System
Teledyne Continental Injection System components
The fuel injector pump assembly
The fuel pump is perhaps the most critical and complex part of A small fuel line is taken from the pump delivery to the top of
the system. This is a vane-type constant-displacement pump the swirl chamber where there is a Venturi in the line, one side
with some unique features that allow it to accomplish these of which is open to the swirl chamber. As the fuel passes
functions. through the Venturi, the air is drawn in from the swirl chamber
and is then passed back to the fuel tank. This ensures that the
• Provides fuel flow that increases with engine speed. This pump gets neat fuel only.
increase in output is modified to furnish enough fuel
when the pump turns at idling speed, yet not move too A bypass from the pump delivery is routed back to the inlet side
much fuel when it turns at takeoff speed. of the swirl chamber. In this bypass, there is a fixed ‘orifice’
• Removes vapours from the fuel and sends them to one which now makes the pump delivery pressure proportional to
of the fuel tanks. engine speed instead of just flow as was the case before the
• Incorporates a bypass valve that allows fuel from the bypass was added. The size of the orifice determines the
auxiliary pump to flow to the engine for starting and for unmetered fuel pressure for any given speed; a smaller orifice
operation if the engine-driven pump malfunctions. would give a higher output pressure and vice versa.
• Provides a regulated low pressure when the engine is
idling. The system described works well at speeds from cruise to full
• Provides a regulated high pressure when the engine is power, but at low speed and at idle the fuel flow is low, and the
operating at high speed. fixed orifice does not provide enough restriction to maintain a
constant output pressure. Therefore, a spring-loaded relief
The pump is an engine-driven, positive displacement vane-type valve is fitted in the bypass line between the fixed orifice and
pump which accepts the fuel under fuel tank booster pump the swirl chamber. This adjustable relief valve provides the
pressure and increases the fuel flow with a rise in engine required restriction for low idle speed and therefore the pump
speed. The fuel enters the pump assembly via a swirl chamber output pressure. As the engine speed increases the fuel
which acts to remove any air from the fuel. The diagram below pressure takes the relief valve entirely off its seat, and the
is a simplified illustration showing the swirl chamber position. pressure is then determined only by the fixed orifice.
As the fuel tends to follow the helical swirl pattern, the air
bubbles rise to the top of the chamber and are then vented to
the fuel tank. The fuel from the swirl chamber enters the
positive displacement vane-type pump and is then pumped to
the fuel/air control unit.

Injector pump – normally aspirated Injector pump – turbo-charged

A simple plate type non-return valve (NRV) is fitted in the
bottom of this swirl chamber, the line from the NRV joins the
fuel pump delivery line to the fuel/air control unit. The NRV
allows fuel under tank booster pump pressure to bypass the
fuel pump to provide fuel for starting or may also be used in the
event of main fuel pump failure. When the engine has started,
the fuel pump delivery pressure closes the NRV.
Many CMG fuel injection systems are used on engines

equipped with turbochargers. Turbocharged engines present a
unique problem to their fuel metering systems. When the
throttle is opened, fuel flow to the engine increases
immediately. Exhaust gases drive the turbocharger, and its
speed increase lags considerably behind that of the engine.
Since the engine receives its increased fuel before the airflow
increases, in a turbocharged engine, the mixture becomes
overly rich until the turbocharger comes up to speed. To
prevent this momentary over-enrichment, the fuel pumps
installed on turbocharged engines use a bellows, or aneroid,
evacuated to approximately 95 kPa (28" Hg), to control the size
of the metering orifice. This bellow is mounted in a
compartment inside the pump where it senses the upper-deck,
or turbocharger discharge, pressure. When the throttle is
opened, the fuel pump turns faster and discharges only a slight
increase in fuel flow. Before the turbocharger increases in
speed, the upper-deck pressure is low, and the aneroid is
expanded, which leaves the size of the return orifice
unrestricted so that the pump output does not increase
significantly. As the turbocharger speed increases, the upper-
deck air pressure increases, and the aneroid compresses,
decreasing the size of the orifice in the return line and
increasing the pump output to match the rising induction
airflow.

Complete fuel pump arrangement

The fuel/air control unit
Fuel flows from the fuel injector pump into the fuel portion of The throttle fuel valve is a metering valve that covers the
the fuel-air control unit and the manifold valve. Air flows from metering orifice outlet. When the throttle is wide open, the outlet
the inlet air filter through the air portion of the fuel-air control is uncovered, and the main metering orifice does the metering.
unit into the intake manifold. When the throttle is closed, the valve allows only enough of the
outlet to be uncovered to meter the correct amount of fuel for
Float carburettors, pressure carburettors, and the RSA fuel idling. The linkage between the throttle air valve and the fuel
injection systems all have Venturis in the air passage to the valve is adjusted to control the idling fuel-air mixture.
cylinders to measure the amount of air flowing into the engine.
However, the CMG system does not use a Venturi. The air
passage is a smooth tube whose diameter allows it to supply
an adequate amount of air into the cylinders during maximum
power conditions. The throttle air valve is a circular butterfly
valve across this tube that controls the amount of air entering
the engine. An adjustable linkage connects the throttle air valve
with the throttle fuel valve. An adjustable stop determines the
amount the air valve remains open when the throttle is pulled
back to the idling position. This determines the idle RPM.
The fuel control unit consists of a strainer in the fuel inlet, a

mixture control valve, a metering plug containing the main
metering orifice (jet), a throttle valve, a metered fuel outlet
connected to the manifold valve, and a return fuel outlet that
returns fuel to the inlet side of the pump.
The mixture control is a variable selector valve. When the

mixture control is in the “FULL RICH” position; the selector
valve sends all fuel to the throttle. When it is in the “IDLE CUT
OFF” position, it sends all fuel back to the inlet side of the pump.
When it is in any position between these two extremes, some
fuel goes to the throttle valve and some returns to the pump
thus modulating unmetered fuel pressure to the metering jet.

Teledyne Continental Injection System – fuel/air control unit

Teledyne Continental Injection System – fuel/air control unit

Teledyne Continental Injection System – adjustments

Fuel manifold valve
This valve is similar to, and provides the same function as, the
flow divider in the Bendix RSA system, and is shown in the
diagram below.
The valve is attached to a spring-loaded diaphragm, the top

being vented to atmosphere. The fuel enters the valve body just
below the diaphragm. The fuel pressure under the diaphragm
lifts the valve allowing the fuel to enter the valve through the
upper side ducts to the central ventricle duct, where the
pressure overcomes a spring-loaded ball valve to pass the fuel
to the outlet ports in the valve body and thence to the injection
nozzles.
The spring-loaded valve ensures a positive cut off the fuel to

the injector nozzles on engine shut down. A fuel pressure
gauge line is tapped off the fuel line entering the manifold fuel
valve to give a fuel pressure indication in the cockpit.

Teledyne injection system

Teledyne Continental injection system – fuel manifold

Teledyne Continental Injection System – fuel manifold

The injection discharge nozzle
The nozzles are similar to those previously described for the
Bendix system. A nozzle is shown in the diagram below.
The fuel enters the nozzle body through a duct and passes to
a calibrated orifice. Next, it mixes with the air, which enters
through apertures in the side of the nozzle body through a filter
screen. A metal shield protects the screen. The fuel/air mixture
then passes to the injector outlet where it joins the manifold
airflow immediately before the inlet valve.

Teledyne Continental Injection System – injector nozzle

Supercharged and turbocharged engines
Super or turbocharging causes a few problems for aircraft fuel
systems. Acceleration may result in over fuelling due to turbo
lag; in this case, the fuel flow increases before the turbo has
built up sufficient air pressure to increase the airflow.
This is overcome by replacing the fixed orifice in the fuel pump

assembly with a variable orifice operated by an aneroid
capsule, as shown in the diagram. The evacuated bellows are
subjected to turbo discharge pressure which only moves a
needle valve in an orifice to close the orifice, thus increasing
pressure and therefore the fuel flow when there is sufficient
airflow to maintain the correct air/fuel ratio for a given throttle
selection.
The other problem relates to the use of nozzles. With

turbocharged engines the manifold air pressure is often higher
than atmospheric pressure and, in this case, the pressurised
air would tend to blow the fuel out of the nozzle air bleed
entrance. To overcome this, the nozzle is shrouded and
pressurised either from turbo discharge pressure or from ram
air.

Typical naturally aspirated fuel system schematic (with fuel control unit)

Typical turbo charged fuel system schematic
Typical naturally aspirated fuel system schematic (fuel pump with integral mixture control)

Typical turbocharged fuel system schematic (fuel pump with integral mixture control)

Teledyne Continental injection system – components

Aero-Diesel injection systems
Due to the operating nature of the Diesel engine, that being of Direct injection is a newer technology. It differs from port
compressing only air during the compression stroke, the pre- injection in that the fuel injector delivers fuel directly into the
mixing of air and fuel in a carburettor is not an option for Diesel cylinder chamber, rather than through the intake valve. This is
engines. necessary on Diesel engines since the lower ignition
temperature would cause pre-ignition if the air/fuel mixture is
An aero Diesel engine does not use a carburettor of any type, compressed during the compression stroke.
nor does it use a throttle. Some automotive Diesel engines do
incorporate a throttle, but this is to make shutdown of the By injecting the Diesel fuel directly into the cylinder, it can be
engine more of a smooth process and to create a suction in the timed precisely with the optimum position of the piston before
induction manifold for more effective engine braking. Neither of top dead centre (BTDC) as the fuel ignites as soon as it is
these features is necessary on an aero Diesel engine. injected.
Injection types - general The precision required of the timing of the fuel injection
Injection systems fall into two categories, defined by where the necessitates an electronic control system. It is for this reason
fuel is injected. These are: that modern aero Diesel engines are FADEC controlled.
• port injection; and

• direct injection.
Port injection is when the fuel injector is located just before the
intake valve. As the intake valve opens, the injector sprays in
fuel that combines with the incoming air before this mixture
rushes into the cylinder. As there is an injector for each cylinder,
an equal amount of fuel is delivered to each piston. The piston
and cylinder then induct the mixed air and fuel and compress
the mixture. This is the operational principle of the gasoline
engines as previously discussed.

Port injection Direct injection
Direct fuel injection

Diesel fuel injection types
As all Diesel engines are fuel injected. There are two types of The purpose of the fuel injection pump is to deliver an exactly
fuel injection systems used on aero Diesel engines. They are: meted amount of fuel under high pressure at the right time to
the injector. The system is a direct injection type. The injector
• the direct injection system injects the fuel directly into the combustion chamber or in some
• the Common-rail direct injection (CDI) system cases a pre-chamber which is connected to the cylinder, unlike
those fitted in a gasoline engine which inject the fuel into the
Although both types are ‘direct injection’ in the definition intake manifold just before the inlet valve.
previously stated, the direct fuel injection system described
here is so-called because it has no electronic control system. The injection system which delivers fuel to a diesel engine
The fuel is injected directly from the fuel pump. operates at a much higher pressure than a gasoline injection
system; it can be as high as 17,400 psi for a direct injection
Direct injection system (and up to 23,500 psi for the Common-rail systems)
This type of system was used on older Diesel engines (up to compared to 35 – 90 psi for most gasoline fuel injection
and including aero-Diesels used in the second world war). The systems.
system is inefficient and therefore is now used only on light duty
Diesel engines (e.g. small agricultural machinery). It is Another function of the fuel injection pump is to regulate the
therefore discussed here only briefly as a preamble to the timing of the fuel pulses. The timing of the fuel pulses is
Common-rail fuel injection system. adjusted in response to engine RPM.
The system uses an engine-driven ‘in-line’ pump to distribute Because the low-pressure fuel pump (which pulls the fuel from
fuel to the injectors. The injectors are situated in each cylinder the tank to the input of the high-pressure pump), is driven by
head. the engine, at higher engine RPM its fuel pressure output is
higher. These fuel pressure changes are used to either
The injectors are mechanically operated and have spring- advance or retard the fuel injection timing.
loaded poppet valves, so they pop open and spray fuel in the
cylinder when the fuel line pressure exceeds a specific limit, Inside the pump mechanism, there is also a cold start device
typically 4500 psi. Electronic controls on later model injection which advances the idle timing manually. A mechanical RPM
pumps regulate injection timing, fuel mixture and idle speed. governor also fitted to the fuel injection pump limits the
maximum speed of the engine. A magnetically operated valve
or solenoid opens and shuts off the fuel channel between the
feed pump and the metering pump

Diesel direct injection system
Diesel Engines and Common-rail

https://youtu.be/lVAdJlZr8_k
Diesel Common-rail Injection Facts 1

https://youtu.be/cIkMtnd3LGQ
Diesel Common-rail Injection Facts 2 Fuel Injector

https://youtu.be/7qlVrjxtoY0

Common-rail direct injection (CDI)
The Common-rail injection is state-of-the-art in Diesel injection The term common-rail refers to the single fuel feed line from
technology. Simply put, it is a high-pressure reservoir of fuel which the individual feeds for each injector is taken, on the
which feeds the injectors. The maximum pressure in the common-rail direct injection (CDI) engine.
reservoir is typically 1,600 bar (23,200 psi) but can be
controlled through a valve. The extremely high pressure In the CDI engine, the pressure, which remains permanently
assures better vaporisation of the fuel and a better burn. available in the fuel line, is built up independently of the
injection sequence, in a high-pressure pump with a pressure
Because fuel is available at any desired pressure, the injection regulator and inlet metering valve.
duration can also be controlled for a given injected volume.
Even multiple injector pulses for a single cycle are possible. The common-rail, which contains a pressurised reserve of fuel,
The system improves the capability to fine-tune the engine, acts as an accumulator, distributing the fuel to the injectors at
which results in a more efficient, cleaner burn and an engine a constant pressure of up to 1,600 bar.
which produces more power. With this system, the engine fuel
supply is not dependent on the engine rotational speed. The fuel injectors inject precise amounts of fuel into the
combustion chamber, as required. An electronic driver unit
System components: controls each injector’s opening and closing. This procedure is
regulated by the electronic engine management, which
• A high-pressure pump – with a pressure regulator and separately and precisely controls the injection timing, rail
an inlet metering valve pressure, and the amount of fuel injected for each cylinder.
• A rail, or fuel feed (the ‘Common-rail’) – which contains
a pressurised reserve of fuel The EEC does this by using data obtained from continuous
• Injectors – which inject precise amounts of fuel into the monitoring of the operating conditions of the engine. Sensor
combustion chamber as required. The injectors can be data from the camshaft and crankshaft provide the foundation
either solenoid-operated valves or operated by piezo- of the EEC to adapt the injection pressure precisely to demand.
crystal. In some circumstances, they can be activated up
to 25 times a second. Fuel ‘pressure generation’ and fuel ‘injection’ are managed
• A full authority digital engine control (FADEC) – It independently of each other. This factor is an important
precisely controls the flow and timing of the injectors as advantage of common-rail injection over conventional fuel
well as the rail pressure, while continuously monitoring injection systems.
the operating conditions of the engine. The electronic
control system is an essential element of the operation
of the modern common-rail system.

Diesel common-rail direct injection (CDI) system

Example: CDI engine – Thielert TAE 125
The fuel system installation of the TAE 125 series engines is Depending on the installation, a thermostat-controlled, heated
quite similar to that of a conventional gasoline engine with a filter module may be used where the warm returning fuel heats
few modifications. Depending on the installation, the fuel the filter before returning to the tank. Also, an electric fuel boost
passes from one of the two fuel tanks or both fuel tanks through pump in front of the feeder pump for take-off and landing is
the fuel selector and an auxiliary electric fuel pump to the fuel used in some installations.
filter module.
The TAE 125 engine is equipped with high pressure, common-

rail fuel injection system. Details of the fuel supply depend on
the individual installation. Below is a schematic of a typical fuel
system. The fuel passes from the tank through a fuel filter
module to the feed pump where fuel pressure is increased to
3.5 bar before continuing to a high-pressure pump where fuel
pressure is increased up to 1,350 bar at maximum power.
The fuel filter differs in that hot return fuel from the engine is
used to preheat cold fuel because of the unique characteristics
of Diesel. This is done until the fuel temperature reaches 60°C.
The fuel then passes through a feed pump where fuel pressure
is increased to 3.5 bar to a high-pressure pump where fuel
pressure is increased to 1,350 bar. Pressurisation causes fuel
temperature to rise to approximately 70°C. From this pump, fuel
flows to the high-pressure rail where it feeds the injectors.
Unused fuel is returned through the fuel filter and fuel selector
to the tank in use. The returning hot fuel ensures a higher
temperature of the fuel in the tank. The diagram below shows
a schematic of the fuel system.

Diesel Common-rail fuel system pictorial

Diesel Common-rail fuel system schematic

Aero-Diesel engine and fuel system components – Thielert TAE-125

Fuel feed pump (low-pressure pump)
The fuel feed pump (also known as ‘low-pressure pump’) is a
gear-type pump and driven by one of the camshafts (electrically
driven on some installations). The fuel pressure of the pump is
adjusted to 3.5 bar absolute by an adjusting screw.
The diagram below shows the low-pressure fuel pump. The

driveshaft coupling to the camshaft as well as the fuel supply
and exit is visible.
The fuel enters through feed inlet A, fills the tooth gaps, and is
thus conveyed, in the direction of the green arrows, towards
discharge outlet B. Suction is created by the void caused when
the teeth uncouple.

Fuel feed pump
High-pressure (HP) pump
The high-pressure fuel pump supplies fuel to the common-rail.
Typical rail pressure is between 380 bar at idle speed and

1,350 bar at maximum RPM. The actual fuel pressure
regulation by the FADEC is discussed later.
The pump relies on lubrication from the fuel to function. To

operate this pump on Jet fuel with lower lubrication
characteristics compared to Diesel fuel, all surfaces of internal
parts are coated with a special PTFE surface. Without this
special treatment, the HP pump will be the first component to
fail if the engine is operated using jet fuel, due to the lower
lubricity of jet fuel compared to Diesel fuel.
The diagrams below show an external view of the pump as well

as a schematic.
This is a three-radial piston-type pump, lubricated by fuel. It is

driven by the engine using an eccentric camshaft. A triangular
cam (ring cam on the scheme below, also called polygon)
comes into contact with the eccentric section via a bush. In
normal operation, each flat side of the polygon is in contact with
a piston: it is the camshaft’s eccentricity that generates polygon
movement and therefore compression of the pistons one by
one.
The second camshaft drives the high-pressure fuel pump.

High pressure pump High pressure pump operation

Common-rail fuel pressure regulation
The common-rail is a high-pressure fuel reservoir that supplies By varying the fuel pressure, the injection duration can be
fuel to the injectors. varied for a given desired fuel injection volume per cycle,
allowing for better combustion at lower RPM.
The figure below depicts the common-rail with pressure control
valve and pressure sensor as well as high-pressure fuel feed The common rail has these two components, which, along with
and injector fuel lines. the EEC, regulate the pressure in the rail at a constant level.
Fuel enters the common-rail directly from the high-pressure • Pressure control valve
pump. The high-pressure accumulator is common to all The pressure control valve sets the correct pressure in
cylinders. The rail volume is permanently filled with pressurised the rail. It is a solenoid-operated valve actuated by the
fuel. The compressibility of the fuel resulting from the high FADEC.
pressure is utilised to achieve the accumulator effect. This
causes a practically constant rail pressure even when fuel • Rail pressure sensor
leaves the rail for injection. The rail pressure sensor measures the instantaneous
pressure in the rail and generates an output signal for
The sensor and the pressure control valve are fitted at either the FADEC.
end of the common-rail. The actual fuel pressure in the rail (and
therefore to the injectors) is measured by the rail pressure
sensor. The FADEC interprets the rail pressure, compares it to
a target value, and adjusts the rail pressure control valve to
reach the correct pressure. Return fuel flows back to the fuel
tank.
Fuel is supplied to the injectors through the injector supply

ports. Excess fuel from the injectors (not depicted) is also
connected to the return line. The fuel pressure supplied to the
injectors is varied continuously.
A higher fuel pressure ensures better vaporisation and

therefore better combustion, as well as shorter injection
duration, allowing delivery of the desired fuel volume at the
optimal time.

Diesel Common-rail, and fuel Injectors
Diesel common-rail with pressure control valve and pressure sensor

Fuel injectors
The fuel injectors are solenoid-actuated or piezo-electric units. How a Common-rail Diesel Injector Works and Common
The figure below shows a schematic of a solenoid-actuated fuel Failure Points - Engineered Diesel
injector. Fuel enters the fuel injector and passes into the https://youtu.be/NUvWnOd5lFw
chamber (1) where the needle prevents it from entering the
combustion chamber. At the same time, fuel enters a chamber
(2) through an orifice (1) to equalise the extremely high-
pressure acting on the plunger, which is held closed by spring
tension.
The FADEC supplies an electronic control signal to the injector

solenoid via the connector, which activates the coil, and opens
the orifice (2). Fuel now escapes, allowing the plunger to open
and fuel to enter the combustion chamber.
The fuel that was trapped in chamber (1) is now passed into
the fuel return line.
Because of the nature of the operation of the fuel injector, there

is a high volume of return of fuel flow from each injector. For
example, at maximum power, when the engine burns
approximately 29 l/hr (99 kW, 135 hp engine), the return fuel
flow volume is approximately 82 l/hr.
The heat generated by the pressurisation at maximum power

is approximately 1.2 kW and is returned to the tank.
The fuel system must be designed to accommodate these flow

rates.
The injectors are not line-serviceable and are replaced as a

unit.

Diesel fuel injector
Diesel fuel injector sectioned

16.4.3 Electronic engine control
Development
A full authority digital engine (or electronics) control (FADEC) In the 1970s, NASA and Pratt and Whitney experimented with
is a system consisting of a digital computer, called an electronic the first experimental FADEC, first flown on an F-111 fitted with
engine controller (EEC) or engine control unit (ECU), and its a highly modified Pratt & Whitney TF30 left engine.
related accessories that control all aspects of aircraft engine
performance. FADECs have been produced for both piston The experiments led to the Pratt & Whitney F100 and the Pratt
engines and jet engines. & Whitney PW2000 being the first military and civil engines,
respectively, fitted with FADEC, and later the Pratt & Whitney
The goal of any engine control system is to allow the engine to PW4000 as the first commercial dual FADEC engine. The first
perform at maximum efficiency for a given condition. Originally, FADEC in service was developed for the Harrier II Pegasus
engine control systems consisted of simple mechanical engine by Dowty and Smiths Industries Controls.
linkages connected physically to the engine. By moving these
levers, the pilot could control fuel flow, power output, and many The development of EEC or FADEC for piston engines lagged
other engine parameters. behind that of gas turbine engines considerably. Introduced in
1988, the Porsche Mooney PFM was launched. The PFM was
Following mechanical means of engine control came the powered by a six-cylinder, air-cooled engine with automotive-
introduction of analogue electronic engine control. Analogue style electronic ignition, fuel injection, auto leaning, automatic
electronic control varies an electrical signal to communicate the cooling control a single power lever. Only 41 PFMs were sold
desired engine settings. The system was an evident
improvement over mechanical control but had its drawbacks, The late 1990’s saw companies Lycoming and Continental
including common electronic noise interference and reliability developing electronic control systems and some other
issues. Full authority analogue control was used in the 1960s companies providing FADECs or related systems of their own.
and introduced as a component of the Rolls-Royce/Snecma However, sales of such systems were still very low. The major
Olympus 593 engine of the supersonic transport aircraft problem has been the additional cost of the FADEC systems,
Concorde. However, the more critical inlet control was digital increasing the price of a light aircraft, such as the Cessna 182,
on the production aircraft. by 20,000 USD, in what is a very price-sensitive market.
Following analogue electronic control, the next step was to Only in recent years has the cost of a FADEC controlled engine
digital electronic control systems. been acceptable compared to the cost-benefit, and such
engines are now the norm for new aircraft.

Porsche PFM 3200 Engine
Based on the power plant used in the iconic Porsche 911 sports car, the six-cylinder Porsche PFM 3200 emerged in the 1980s as a
smoother, simpler and more reliable alternative to traditional general aviation piston engines. The PFM appeared in a handful of
aeroplanes but debuted in only one production aeroplane: the Mooney PFM, of which a few dozen were produced. With the PFM,
which relied on a dual electronic ignition system, the need to manipulate mixture and prop revolutions per minute settings in flight
disappeared, and in its place came a single power lever that ensured the engine operated at its most efficient setting without any
extra work by the pilot. Its pitfalls — heavier weight, lack of increased performance and faulty gearbox — held the engine back from
further prominence.

EEC and FADEC
Description FADEC not only provides for efficient engine operation, but it
The first electronic fuel control systems had a mechanical also allows the manufacturer to program engine limitations and
backup which would take over the fuel control function in the receive engine health and maintenance reports. For example,
event of its failure. These were generally called electronic to avoid exceeding a specific engine temperature, the FADEC
engine control (EEC). Further development of the EEC was the can be programmed to take the necessary measures without
full authority digital engine control (FADEC). pilot intervention automatically.
Actual FADEC has no form of manual override available, Advantages

placing full authority over the operating parameters of the
engine in the hands of the computer. If a total FADEC failure • Better fuel efficiency
occurs, the engine fails. • Safer as the multiple channel FADEC computer provides
redundancy in case of failure
If the engine is controlled digitally and electronically but allows • Care-free engine handling, with single-lever control (no
for manual override, it is considered an EEC or ECU solely. An mixture lever, no propeller lever)
EEC, though a component of a FADEC, is not by itself FADEC. • Provides semi-automatic engine starting
When standing alone, the EEC makes all of the decisions until • Can provide engine long-term health monitoring and
the pilot wishes to intervene. diagnostics
• Reduces the number of parameters to be monitored by
FADEC works by receiving multiple input variables of the the pilot
current flight condition, including air density, throttle lever • Due to the high number of parameters monitored, the
position, engine temperatures, engine pressures, and many FADEC makes possible ‘fault-tolerant systems’ (where
other parameters. The inputs are received by the EEC and a system can operate within required reliability and
analysed up to 70 times per second. Engine operating safety limitation with specific fault configurations)
parameters are computed from this data and applied as • Saves weight
appropriate. FADEC also controls engine starting and cooling
(if liquid-cooled). The FADEC’s primary purpose is to provide
optimum engine efficiency for a given flight condition.

A typical EEC (or ECU)
Lycoming’s iE2 Integrated Electronic Engine

Fuel injection (no carburettor) Disadvantages
With this system, the carburettor is eliminated. This is a
significant advantage as the chance for carburettor icing is then • Full authority digital engine controls have no form of
eliminated. manual override available, placing full authority over the
operating parameters of the engine in the hands of the
No vapour lock computer.
Due to the high-pressure fuel system, vapour lock is a non- ⎯ If a total FADEC failure occurs, the engine fails.
event. Even hot starting a fuel-injected engine is no problem at ⎯ Upon total FADEC failure, pilots have no manual
all, the higher fuel pressure removes any air pockets in the fuel controls for engine restart, throttle, or other
lines. functions.
Fuel savings ⎯ Single point of failure risk can be mitigated with
With a FADEC the engine receives the right amount of fuel per redundant FADECs (assuming that the failure is
cylinder, and the spark plugs are ignited at the right time a random hardware failure and not the result of a
regarding RPM, throttle setting, ambient temperature and design or manufacturing error, which may cause
pressure. This results in fuel savings up to 15%, and easier identical failures in all identical redundant
starting and smoother running engine. components).
• High system development and validation effort
Diagnostics
FADEC analyses many engine parameters electronically,
many times per second. It can, therefore, store a trend of all
parameters in non-volatile memory. This can then be
downloaded after a flight, especially after a problem occurred
during the flight, and using proprietary software; trend analysis
can be performed and viewed graphically. The technician is
thus provided with a powerful diagnostic tool.
Single lever control

The fully electronic system allows the pilot to control all engine
parameters through a single lever. The pilot simply selects the
power level with the load lever, and the FADEC regulates all
parameters, including propeller pitch, accordingly.

Teledyne Continental FADEC for aircraft
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uE9ZCgA1XTU
Lycoming's IE2 Electronic Engine

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GTNoBlW7d1c
Inside a typical dual channel EEC (or ECU)

Full authority digital engine control
(FADEC)
General
The fuel/air mixture in the combustion chamber needs to be If the aircraft primary electrical system suffers total failure, the
ignited at the right moment to ensure efficient combustion and FADEC battery can supply the EEC for approximately 2 hours.
power generation by the engine. This is the job of the ignition
system, be that the old fashion magneto or a modern fully Cockpit controls are added, extra switches for a fuel pump,
electronic microprocessor-controlled FADEC system. For primary and secondary FADEC power supply and fuses to
safety reasons, the ignition system does not rely on the aircraft protect these systems. There is no mixture control as the
electrical system. It is dual, where each system operates one FADEC controls the fuel mixture injection and timing.
of the two spark plugs in each cylinder.
The engine control unit (ECU) uses a 3D memory map to
Magneto ignition suffers from several problems which have control the injector for the right amount of fuel and considers
long been resolved with vacuum, RPM and mechanical ignition different ambient circumstances as outside air temperature
advancing combined with memory-mapped microprocessor- (OAT) and air pressure (density) concerning RPM and throttle
controlled FADEC systems or sophisticated electronic setting and regulates this several times per second. Mixture
ignitions. control is automatic as the ECU senses barometric pressure
and compensates the amount of fuel injected.
FADEC comes to good use in combination with a fuel injection
system, and only then are the advantages available. The ignition timing of the spark plugs (spark advance) is also
regulated depending on RPM, throttle setting for every load on
FADEC is a memory-mapped microprocessor-controlled the engine. This variable igniting timing results in quicker
ignition with sensors measuring MAP, CHT, EGT, RPM, engine starts and smoother operation under variable loads.
atmospheric and oil pressure. It controls fuel injection and
ignition timing to optimise the power produced by the engine Starting a FADEC engine consists only of pressing the start
thoroughly. button, and it runs, no more choking, priming and endless
battery-draining starts. The ECU takes all variables into
These systems add considerable complexity and additional account and retards ignition and regulates fuel per cylinder for
wiring to the original electrical system as they need (among smooth starts, just like a modern car.
other things) separate backup power supply from a second
battery. This secondary battery must be kept fully charged
during flight through a particular Schottky diode (low voltage
drop type) and be monitored for charging.
Example hardwired dual-input device thrust-lever angle RVDT
Load selector lever and potentiometers A and B
Power lever moves a potentiometer or

rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT) Thielert (Diesel engine) ECU

System layout and components
Dual-channel In that condition, the channels automatically switch. The

The FADEC system is fully redundant built around two health’s of each channel is further continually monitored, and if
independent control channels. Dual Input, dual outputs and the health of Channel B subsequently falls below that of
automatic switching from one channel to the other eliminate Channel A, the channels revert to Channel A being the active
any dormant failure. channel. The pilot also has a cockpit switch and can switch the
channels manually if desired.
Channel selection
The ECU always selects the ‘healthiest’ channel as the Active Dual inputs
channel based on a fault priority list. The fault priority list All command inputs to the FADEC system are duplicated.
contains critical faults such as processor, memory or power
failures. During engine run status, each channel within the ECU The parameters are exchanged between the two control
determines whether to be in the active state or standby state channels via the cross-channel data link to increase the fault-
every 30 milliseconds based on a comparison of its health and tolerant design
the health of the cross-channel. Either channel can become
active if its health is better than the cross-channel’s health; Hardwired inputs
likewise, it becomes standby if its health is not as good as the Information exchanged between aircraft computers, and the
cross-channel. If the two channels have an equal health status, ECU is transmitted over digital data buses. Also; signals are
the channels alternate between active/standby status on each hardwired directly from the aircraft where a computer is not
engine shutdown and the standby channel becomes the active used.
channel on the next start. Dual outputs
Channel transfer All the ECU outputs are duplicated, but only the channel in
Assuming the opposite channel is of equal or greater health, control supplies the engine control signals to the various
channel Active/Standby transfer generally occurs after the receptors such as torque motors, actuators or solenoids.
engine has been and subsequently shutdown. Fail-safe control
However, there are some differences between system designs. If a standby channel is faulty and the channel in control is
The system used on the Thielert Diesel engine, for example, unable to ensure one engine function, this control is moved to
the Channel A is always the active channel, unless its health a fail-safe position.
falls below that of Channel B.

FADEC dual-channel architecture

FADEC operation
General
The diagram below shows the FADEC overview. The unit takes
inputs from sensors, including the load selected by the pilot
(throttle position), adjusts for variables such as air temperature,
engine temperature and barometric pressure, to control fuel
injection (quantity and timing), propeller pitch, and boost.
Engine control is accomplished through engine control “maps”
(or databases).

FADEC system general – inputs and outputs

FADEC maps
The figure below shows a FADEC ‘map’ or database which
controls manifold pressure. During development, a target boost
pressure for various operating conditions is established. The
map shows the desired manifold pressure based on engine
RPM and barometric pressure. The desired manifold pressure
is then adjusted for air temperature and coolant temperature
and continuously compared to the actual manifold pressure.
Other engine parameters, such as fuel injection, volume and

timing as well as propeller control, are controlled similarly.
All functions are duplicated if one system fails. FADEC

monitors engine health continuously and displays it in the
cockpit. FADEC systems are also used for engineer
troubleshooting by plugging into a laptop and downloading
information to identify problems.

A typical FADEC map – several FADEC unit internal – two identical circuit
FADEC databases (maps), many boards provide redundant dual-channel
3-dimensional, are stored in functionality; ECU-A and ECU-B.
non-volatile memory within the
Only one channel is in control at any time.
FADEC unit. The FADEC adjusts
Switch over occurs when the health of the
fuel quantity and injection timing in
active channel reduces below that of the
accordance with the maps
standby channel.
The health is continuously monitored and
determined in accordance with a hierarchy
of the relative importance of the many The FADEC sensor input plugs
sensors and inputs and circuitry. and control output plugs

Control loops The tables below list the functions of the control loops as well
Examples of the main control loops commonly used are listed as the primary input values, what the target values are adjusted
below (this is for a diesel engine): for; the actual output compared to the desired output to form a
closed-loop system, as well as the actuator the system
• Boost control controls.
• Fuel injection control, which consists of;
⎯ fuel injection timing; Boost control
⎯ fuel injection duration (volume); and Function Control manifold pressure by regulating
⎯ idle control circuit the wastegate
• Fuel-injection rail-pressure control
Primary Input Power lever position
• Propeller control
• Glow plug control (Diesel engines only) Adjusted for Barometric pressure, RPM
Three of the five loops are closed-loop systems, meaning they Feedback Actual manifold pressure
monitor the actual output of the system and correct it to the Controls Turbocharger wastegate valve
desired value.
The figure below shows a closed-loop system. Based on a Fuel injection control
given input value, the mapping (FADEC software) determines
Function To deliver the appropriate amount of fuel
a target value. An adjustment for environmental conditions is
at the appropriate time into the
added to the target value and fed to a controller. The resulting
combustion chamber
output is compared to the initial target value, and an offset is
established, which is added to the target value. Primary Input Power lever position, RPM
Boost control, propeller control and rail pressure control are Adjusted for Manifold pressure, barometric pressure,
closed-loop systems. At idle, the fuel injection loop is a closed- air temperature, coolant temperature, fuel
loop system as well since the engine establishes a target RPM rail pressure
and compares it to actual RPM. Feedback Actual RPM (only during idle). Feedback
is not possible during regular operation
During regular operation, injection is not a closed-loop, since because of pilot input
the pilot selects the load.
Controls Time and duration of fuel injector cycles
Glow plug control is an open-loop system.

Closed loop system

Fuel injection pressure control
Function Regulate fuel rail pressure to allow varying These tables are simplified representations of the control
injection duration for constant injection systems and are intended mainly to show the interaction of
volume various parameters and illustrate the importance of the
numerous sensors and actuators.
Primary Input RPM/fuel volume
Adjusted for No adjustment Sensors, actuators and the wiring loom
The inputs and outputs of the FADEC are shown below.
Feedback Actual fuel rail pressure
Typically, two manifold pressure sensors and the two
Controls Fuel-rail pressure-regulator valve
barometric pressure sensors are installed in the ECU itself. The
two load sensors (potentiometers or RVDTs) are installed in the
throttle quadrant to measure the position of the load lever.
Propeller control
Function Control propeller and engine speeds by The sensors and actuators all connect to the FADEC via the
varying the angle of attack of the propeller harness. The harness is purpose-designed to fit with the correct
blade length to each sensor and actuator and is equipped with quick-
Primary Input Power lever position release connections to facilitate service.
Adjusted for No adjustment Because of the importance of proper FADEC operation, special
care is also taken for protection against EM interference and
Feedback Actual RPM
lightning strikes. The entire loom is shielded and is grounded at
Controls Propeller oil pressure valve each termination.
Glow plug control (Diesel engine only)

Function To control glow plugs before and during
the initial start
Primary Input Coolant temperature
Adjusted for No adjustment
Feedback No feedback
Controls Glow plug relay

FADEC system general – inputs and outputs

Redundancy
To ensure redundancy of the system, FADEC consists of two engine. The resulting health levels vary based on the
separate, redundant ECUs. Both ECUs are supplied with importance of the lost sensor. Thus, a crank sensor, which is
manifold pressure and barometric pressure sensors and are necessary for the system to determine injection timing, is much
connected by a board which houses the switching relays and more severe than a lost oil temperature sensor.
to which the wiring harness is connected. Both ECUs are
operational at all times, but only one is active. Both ECUs Diagnostics
monitor their condition and calculate their health level The FADEC also has several methods of storing and logging
continuously. If the health of one ECU is not 100 per cent, the data. These include:
system switches to the other ECU automatically, the “CHECK
ENGINE” light is illuminated, and an entry into the event log is • event log – snap-shot data is captured whenever an
made. The event log is simply a file that stores the date, time, abnormal event occurs and is stored in non-volatile
duration and nature of the error. The “CHECK ENGINE” light memory inside the FADEC; and
• onboard logger – the capability to connect a laptop
will continue to be illuminated until it is reset at an authorised
service centre. If necessary, the pilot can switch from one ECU directly to the system and log data continuously.
to the other via a cockpit switch. The user can see at a glance which parameters have shown
The default health level for the ECUs is 9. Each parameter has unacceptable values when using such computer software tools,
an associated operational limit. Operating outside these and whether the values were high, low or sensor failures.
limitations results in a reduction in the health level. The graph below shows an analysis of data downloaded from
Operating outside of these limits has no direct effect on the the onboard logger. The logger writes values of previously
operation of the engine. The health level is reduced, and the selected channels and erases the oldest data first. This allows
“CHECK ENGINE” light is illuminated to warn the pilot of an following the trends of those selected channels for the most
abnormal condition. The system continues to adjust all recent hours of flight.
parameters to the measured values. As in any other engine, The diagnostic and event log functions are viewed at every
operating outside these limits is a reason for concern because service. The data from the onboard logger is only of interest in
they imply questionable health. particular circumstances, where investigating a specific
At a predefined signal level from a sensor, the system assumes problem or reconstruction of a failure is of interest. None of
that instead of an actual condition, the sensor has failed. The these functions is used during daily operation.
table below shows input values at which the ECU assumes a
sensor failure. In this case, the system substitutes a default
value for the lost sensor and attempts to continue running the
INPUT → Replacement Health
value level if a
sensor
fails
Speed/RPM → 0 RPM 1
Load (throttle → 100 % 1
setting)
Manifold pressure → 1800 mbar 5
Battery voltage → 12 V 5
Coolant → 60 °C 5
temperature
Oil temperature → 50 °C 8
Air temperature → 35 °C 5
Fuel temperature → 30 °C 8
Oil pressure → 0.0 bar 8
Barro pressure → 1013 mbar 8
(altitude)
Rail pressure → 1250 bar 5
Gearbox pressure → 50 °C 8
Tachogenerator → 2.5 V -
voltage (engine
speed)
Propeller → 1 bar 5 Data analysis from onboard logger
governor
pressure
FADEC sensor fail conditions

Diagnostic data
Continental CD-300 (Diesel) with FADEC
Example system – PowerLink FADEC
General
PowerLink™ FADEC is a solid-state digital electronic ignition PowerLink includes the following components:
and electronic fuel injection system developed by Teledyne
Continental Motors. It has only one moving part that consists of • low voltage harness;
the opening and closing of the fuel injector. • cabin harness;
• best power/best economy switch;
PowerLink continuously monitors and controls ignition, timing, • electronic control units (ECUs);
and fuel mixture/delivery/injection and spark ignition as an • health status annunciator (HSA) (panel installed in the
integrated control system. PowerLink monitors engine cockpit);
operating conditions (crankshaft speed, top dead centre • electronic ignition system (high voltage harness);
position, the induction manifold pressure, and the induction air • electronic sequential port fuel injection system;
temperature) and then automatically adjusts the fuel-to-air ratio • fuel flow transducer;
mixture and ignition timing accordingly for any given power • PowerLink engine sensor array;
setting to attain optimum engine performance. As a result, • speed sensor assembly (SSA);
engines equipped with PowerLink neither require magnetos nor • cylinder head temperature (CHT) sensor;
manual mixture control. • exhaust gas temperature (EGT) sensors;
• manifold air pressure (MAP) sensor;
This microprocessor-based system controls ignition timing for • manifold air temperature (MAT) sensor; and
engine starting and varies timing with respect to engine speed • fuel pressure sensors
and manifold pressure.
PowerLink provides control in both specified operating

conditions and fault conditions. The system is designed to
prevent adverse changes in power or thrust. In the event of loss
of primary aircraft-supplied electrical power, the engine controls
continue to operate using a secondary power source.
As a control device, the system performs self-diagnostics to

determine overall system status. It conveys this information to
the pilot by various indicators on the health status annunciator
(HSA) panel.

PowerLink 4-cylinder installation

Low voltage harness The ECU
The low voltage harness shown below connects all essential The ECU is at the heart of the system in providing both ignition
components of the FADEC system. This harness acts as a and fuel injection control to operate the engine with the
signal transfer bus interconnecting the electronic control units maximum efficiency realisable. Each ECU contains two
(ECUs) with aircraft power sources, the ignition switch, speed microprocessors (which we refer to as a computer) that control
sensor assembly (SSA), health status annunciator (HSA), two cylinders. Each computer controls its own assigned
temperature and pressure sensors. The fuel injector coils and cylinder and is capable of providing redundant control for the
all sensors, except the SSA and fuel pressure and manifold other computer’s cylinder.
pressure sensors, are hardwired to the low voltage harness.
The computer continuously monitors the engine speed, and
This harness transmits sensor inputs to the ECUs through a 50- timing pulses developed from the camshaft gear as they are
pin connector. The harness connects to the engine mounted detected by the speed sensor assembly (SSA). Knowing the
pressure sensors via cannon plug connectors. The 25-pin exact engine speed and the timing sequence of the engine, the
connectors connect the harness to the speed-sensor signal- computers monitor the manifold air pressure and manifold air
conditioning unit. temperature to calculate air density and determine the mass
airflow into the cylinder during the intake stroke. The computers
The low voltage harness attaches to the cabin harness by calculate the per cent of engine power based on engine RPM
firewall-mounted bulkhead fittings or connectors. Information and manifold air pressure. From this information, the computer
from the ECUs is conveyed to the HSA and the cockpit- can then determine the fuel required for the combustion cycle
mounted data port through the same cabin harness/bulkhead for either best power or best economy mode of operation. The
connector assembly. The bulkhead connectors also supply the computer will then precisely time the injection event and the
aircraft electrical power required to run the system. duration of the injector ‘on’ time for the correct fuel to air ratio.
The computer then sets the spark ignition event and ignition
timing again based on the per cent of the power calculation.
Exhaust gas temperature is measured after the burn to verify
the fuel to air ratio calculations were correct for that combustion
event. This process is repeated by each computer for its own
assigned cylinder on every combustion/power cycle.
The computers can also vary the amount of fuel to control the
fuel-to-air ratio for each cylinder to control both cylinder head
temperature (CHT) and exhaust gas temperature (EGT).

PowerLink system components

Typical 6-cylinder engine electrical control
and Low Voltage Harness

Electronic control units (ECUs)
An electronic control unit (ECU) is assigned to a pair of engine • speed sensor which monitors engine speed and crank
cylinders. On six-cylinder engines, there are three ECUs position
required, one unit for every pair of cylinders. • fuel pressure sensors
• manifold pressure sensors
The ECUs control the fuel mixture and spark timing for • manifold air temperature (MAT) sensors
respective engine cylinders; electronic control unit 1 controls • cylinder head temperature (CHT) sensors
opposing cylinders 1 and 2; electronic control unit 2 controls • exhaust gas temperature sensors
cylinders 3 and 4, and electronic control unit 3 (if equipped)
controls cylinders 5 and 6. All critical sensors are dually redundant with one sensor from
each type pair connected to control channels in different ECUs.
Each ECU is divided into upper and lower portions. The lower Synthetic software default values are also used in the unlikely
portion contains an electronic circuit board; the upper portion event that both sensors of a redundant pair fail.
houses the ignition coils. The electronic circuit board contains
two, independent microprocessor controllers which serve as The control channel continuously monitors changes in engine
control channels. During engine operation, one control channel speed, manifold pressure, manifold temperature, fuel pressure
is assigned to operate a single-engine cylinder. Therefore, one based on sensor input relative to operating conditions to
ECU can control two engine cylinders, one control channel per determine how much fuel to inject into the intake port of the
cylinder. cylinder. Fuel injection timing is based on engine speed and
crankshaft position.
The control channels are independent, and there are no shared
electronic components between the control channel pair within The control channel uses this input to precisely trim the fuel-to-
one ECU. They also operate on independent and separate air ratios independently for its cylinder’s next combustion event.
power supplies. However, if one control channel fails, the other A solenoid-type electronic fuel injector (one per cylinder) injects
control channel in the pair within the same ECU is capable of the required fuel quantity into each cylinder intake port
operating both its assigned cylinder and the other opposing upstream of the intake valve at the appropriate time.
engine cylinder as backup control for fuel injection and ignition
timing. The fuel injector solenoid on the fuel injector is driven directly
by the associated control channel. The control channel
Each control channel on the ECU monitors the current actuates the fuel injector by commanding the solenoid-
operating conditions and operates its cylinder to attain engine controlled fuel injector valve “ON” or “OFF”.
operation within specified parameters. The following sensors
transmit inputs to the control channels across the low voltage
harness:

Electronic control unit (ECU)

The control channel calculates the duration of actual fuel For example, if EGT Sensor input to the ECU indicates that a
injection based upon a volumetric map of the engine’s fuel mixture needs to be either leaned or enriched, the control
breathing characteristics. The map is the baseline mixture for channel operates its assigned cylinder to adjust the fuel mixture
the cylinder at any normal engine condition. for the cylinder. The required fuel quantity is injected into each
cylinder intake port at the appropriate time, with respect to
The control channel compensates this mixture in response to crank position, by the cylinder’s solenoid-controlled fuel
variations in the following: injector. The injector’s control coil is driven directly by the
associated control channel.
• intake manifold pressure;
• intake air temperature; The CHT and EGT sensor input help the control channels
• fuel pressure; determine combustion efficiency.
• cylinder head temperature;
• exhaust gas temperature; Each channel controls its assigned cylinder in a manner that
• system voltage; yields optimum performance for the current operating
• engine speed (RPM); and conditions to prevent exceeding normal operating parameters.
• throttle setting The fuel mixture may be enriched or leaned, and ignition timing
may be retarded to minimise the extent of limit excursion for the
The control channel calculates the air density within the intake given parameter.
chamber of its cylinder. PowerLink contains a volumetric map
of the engine’s breathing characteristics as it applies to engine In this respect, a FADEC-controlled engine is different from a
speed and air density to allow PowerLink to precisely match non-FADEC engine in that an individual cylinder can be leaned
fuel delivery on demand. PowerLink also compensates for or enriched by its control channel without affecting the other
changes in altitude by monitoring the intake manifold pressure. cylinders.
Based on these calculations and other relevant input, the

control channel adjusts the fuel mixture and ignition timing as
needed for its assigned cylinder as required. PowerLink
monitors combustion efficiency and the exhaust gas
temperature (EGT) using EGT Sensors. PowerLink uses this
input to precisely trim the fuel-to-air ratios independently for
each cylinder.


Ignition system
The ignition system consists of the high voltage coils atop the For both spark plugs in a given cylinder to fire on the
ECU, the high voltage harness and spark plugs. Since there compression stroke, both control channels must fire their coil
are two spark plugs per cylinder on all engines, a six-cylinder pack. Each coil pack has a spark plug from each of the two
engine has 12 leads and 12 spark plugs. cylinders controlled by that coil pack’s ECU unit.
One end of each lead on the high voltage harness attaches to The ignition spark is timed to the engine’s crank position. The
a spark plug, and the other end of the lead wire attaches to the timing is variable throughout the engine’s operating range and
spark towers on each electronic control unit. The spark tower is dependent upon the engine load conditions. The spark
pair is connected to opposite ends of one of the ECU’s coil energy is also varied with respect to engine load.
packs. Two coil packs are located in the upper portion of the
ECU. Each coil pack generates a high voltage pulse for two Note: Engine ignition timing is established by the electronic
spark plug towers. One tower fires a positive polarity pulse and control units and cannot be manually adjusted.
the other of the same coil fires a negative polarity pulse.
Each ECU controls the ignition spark for two engine cylinders.
The control channel within each ECU commands one of the two
coil packs to control the ignition spark for the engine cylinders.
The figure below illustrates this scenario.
The high voltage harness carries energy from the ECU spark
towers to the spark plugs on the engine.
PowerLink employs a waste spark ignition system. In this type

of ignition, each cylinder’s spark plugs are fired twice per
engine cycle – once on the compression stroke and again on
the exhaust stroke. The control channel in an ECU emits a high
voltage pulse through the high voltage harness to fire its top
spark plug on the compression stroke and the bottom spark
plug on the exhaust stroke for the opposite cylinder.
Electronic control unit 1 fires the top and bottom spark plugs for
cylinders 1 & 2; electronic control unit 2 fires the top & bottom
spark plugs for cylinders 3 & 4, and electronic control unit 3 fires
the top and bottom spark plugs for cylinders 5 & 6.
Ignition control schematic diagram

FADEC fuel injection system
The FADEC fuel injection system is comprised of: The internal components of the fuel injector consist of a pintle
valve and a spring. The solenoid creates an electromagnetic
• an engine-driven fuel pump; field to lift the pintle valve and open the path for fuel to flow.
• a fuel distribution block; The solenoid coil fits over the pintle valve body and is held in
• solenoid-controlled fuel injectors; place with two jam nuts that thread onto the valve body. When
• 20-micron & 10-micron filters; electrical current ceases to flow through the solenoid, the
• an engine-mounted fuel filter; spring force closes the pintle valve and shuts off the flow of fuel
• a fuel bypass solenoid; and from the fuel injector. The valve design and injector end form a
• a fuel flow transducer. self-atomising feed for the fuel.
The positive displacement style fuel pump is directly driven at
the same speed as the crankshaft. Therefore, fuel pressure
varies directly with engine speed. Fuel pressure is continuously
monitored by the ECUs using dual redundant fuel pressure
sensors mounted on the fuel distribution block.
Fuel is metered to the cylinders under control of the respective

electronic control unit (ECU). The ECU monitors changes in air
density and engine speed to determine how much fuel is
injected into the intake port of the cylinder.
The fuel distribution block distributes fuel to each of the fuel

injector nozzles.
PowerLink controls the fuel supplied to each cylinder using

solenoid-actuated sequential port fuel injectors. A fuel injector
assembly is located in each cylinder head, one fuel injector per
cylinder. The fuel injector is threaded on both ends and the
outlet screws into the tapped fuel injector boss in the cylinder
head.
The fuel injector assembly is made up of two parts: the control

coil and the injector, as shown below.

Fuel injector parts
Fuel injection system Fuel injector

PowerLink continuously measures the fuel pressure at the fuel At the appropriate crank rotation angle, the control channel fires
injector inlets under all engine operating conditions using dual its injector for the required injection duration to deliver the
fuel pressure sensors mounted on the fuel distribution block. appropriate amount of fuel for the combustion event.
With this input, the ECUs control the amount of fuel flow to each
cylinder by controlling the duration of time that the solenoid When PowerLink detects the need for more fuel to be injected
control valve on the fuel injector remains open, allowing fuel to to a given cylinder, the solenoids are held on (open) for a longer
flow through the fuel injector into the intake port. The two duration permitting more fuel to flow into that given cylinder.
control channels within a given ECU directly regulate the The amount of time the injector is held in the on state
amount of fuel delivered to each channel’s assigned cylinder determines how much fuel is delivered to the cylinder.
via the fuel injector assemblies. The ECU monitors changes in
air density and engine speed to determine how much fuel to Note that fuel is injected through each fuel injector for a cylinder
inject into the intake port of the cylinder. as needed as determined by the control channel assigned to
that cylinder.
The control channel in the ECUs of PowerLink controls fuel flow
through the fuel injector by switching electrical current on and
off to the control coil of the fuel injector assembly. When the
current is on, fuel flows through the injector. The amount of time
the injector is held in the on state determines how much fuel is
delivered to the cylinder. In the on state, the solenoid coil
creates an electromagnetic field that lifts the pintle valve
opening the path for fuel to flow. The on time for a given
injection event is referred to as the ‘injection duration.’ The
control channel receives information from PowerLink sensors
and uses this information to determine the appropriate injection
duration for the next air intake cycle.
In the off state, electrical current ceases to flow through the

solenoid, and the spring force closes the pintle valve which
shuts off flow from the fuel injector.
Each control channel independently varies its cylinder’s

injection duration depending on current engine operating
conditions.

FADEC sensor set
The FADEC sensor set includes all sensors used by PowerLink For PowerLink to operate at optimum performance, all sensors
to monitor engine performance. The FADEC Sensor Set Table must be operational.
below lists the sensors and corresponding control channels
(abbreviated ‘CC’) for six-cylinder engines.
Each control channel performs diagnostic checks on itself and

the sensors it utilises. If a fault with one of the sensors is
detected, an HSA lamp is illuminated.
A laptop computer with the TCM FADEC Diagnostics Software

Tool installed can be used to communicate with each control
channel to determine specific information regarding detected
sensor faults to be obtained. Refer to Chapter 4,
Troubleshooting for details on using this diagnostic software
tool.
Speed sensor assembly (SSA)
The speed sensor assembly (SSA) provides PowerLink with pulse to the electronic control units (ECUs) to determine engine
information about the engine’s crank position and engine speed and crank/cam position.
speed.
The signal conditioner filters both the electrical power supplied
The SSA consists of two separate parts: a signal conditioner to and the signals generated by the speed sensor array. The
and a (Hall effect) speed sensor array. Looking from the rear of conditioned signals are passed on to the ECUs, where they are
the engine, the signal conditioner is mounted on the right-hand used to coordinate ignition and fuel injection timing.
side (1-3-5 side) magneto drive pad, and the speed sensor
array is mounted on the interior bottom of the oil sump.
Two sealed electrical circular connectors, installed in the oil

sump walls, one on each side, conduct signals from the speed
sensor array to the signal conditioner. A pair of cables
extending from the signal conditioner mate with the sump-
mounted connectors.
The speed sensor detects the camshaft position. The speed

sensor array consists of six sensors that detect the speed and
position of the camshaft gear. The six sensors are paired into
three sets, each having a speed target sensor (for reading the
outer track of 12 drilled holes on the camshaft gear and a cam
target sensor (for reading the inner track of the camshaft gear).
The SSA sensor pairs detect the outer track of targets in the
camshaft gear as it rotates past the sensor array generating a
signal pulse train that is proportional to engine speed. The
sensor sets also detect the top-dead-centre target on the inner
track of the camshaft gear generating the cam pulse.
This pulse is timed with the piston in cylinder 1 reaching top-

dead-centre (TDC) on the compression stroke.
When the SSA detects an open hole on the outer track of drilled
holes, the SSA creates and sends a corresponding electrical
Speed sensor signal conditioner assembly
Speed sensor array

Camshaft gear
Cylinder head temperature (CHT) sensors Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) sensors
Each cylinder is equipped with a Cylinder Head Temperature Each cylinder’s exhaust port is outfitted with an EGT sensor.
(CHT) Sensor to monitor and help maintain the temperature of The EGT sensor emits a temperature signal to the
the cylinder within specified operating parameters. corresponding control channel (in the assigned ECU) which
monitors and controls that engine cylinder. The ECU uses this
The CHT sensor is mounted on each engine cylinder via a signal to control the fuel-to-air ratio. The signal is conveyed to
bayonet-style adapter which threads into the cylinder head. A the control channel via the low voltage harness. The EGT
spring-loaded locking ring on the sensor reinforces this sensors are hardwired to the low voltage harness.
attachment. The CHT Sensor is hardwired to the low voltage
harness. Each EGT Sensor is independent and operates for a respective
engine cylinder.
The CHT sensor emits a temperature signal to the
corresponding control channel (in the assigned ECU) which The sensing element in the EGT sensor is a K-type
monitors and controls the engine cylinder. The ECU uses this thermocouple. Two conductors made of dissimilar metals are
signal to control the cylinder head temperature. The signal is fused to form the sensing element. The sensing element
conveyed to the control channel via the low voltage harness. generates a small voltage in proportion to the temperature to
which it is exposed. By measuring the voltage produced by the
Each CHT sensor is independent and operates for a respective sensing element, an accurate determination can be made of
engine cylinder. temperature at the EGT sensor tip.
The sensing element in the CHT sensor is a thermistor. This The EGT sensors are attached to the exhaust system using a
type of device changes resistance with temperature in a linear worm screw clamp.
and repeatable manner. Measuring the resistance of the sensor
alloys enables an accurate determination to be made of the
temperature at the sensor tip.

EGT and CHT sensors

Manifold air pressure (MAP) sensors
PowerLink utilises two MAP sensors for measuring the engine’s
induction air pressure (manifold air pressure). These sensors
are self-contained, non-serviceable units that are thread-
mounted into tapped bosses on the intake plenum on top of the
engine.
The low voltage harness uses removable, circular connectors

to interface with the MAP sensors.
Manifold air temperature (MAT) sensors

PowerLink utilises two MAT sensors for measuring the intake
manifold air temperature. These sensors are mounted in the
intake plenum using compression fittings – the fitting body
threads into bosses on the intake plenum manifold. The
sensors are hardwired to the low voltage harness.
The sensing element in the MAT sensor is a thermistor, similar

to the CHT sensor.
Fuel pressure sensors

PowerLink utilises two sensors for measuring the engine’s fuel
pressure. The fuel pressure sensors are self-contained, non-
serviceable units that are thread mounted into the fuel
distribution block on top of the engine aft of the intake plenum.
The low voltage harness uses removable, circular connectors

to interface with the fuel pressure sensors.

MAP sensors
Fuel pressure sensors

MAT sensors

PowerLink FADEC system installed in aircraft

Power supplies Electrical power supply summary table
PowerLink is electrically powered and is supplied current by the
aircraft’s primary electrical buss and a secondary power source Configuration Description
(SPS). The SPS may be:
Dual alternators & dual PowerLink can operate indefinitely on the
batteries* primary power source alternator and also
• a dedicated backup battery can operator indefinitely on the SPS
• a second alternator-battery (either installed on the because it too has an alternator
single-engine or the alternator installed on the other
engine in a twin-engine installation) Single alternator & PowerLink can operate indefinitely on the
• a dedicated, self-exciting backup generator battery plus a dedicated power source having the alternator;
backup battery PowerLink must be capable of operating on
The electrical power supply summary table below describes the the backup battery for at least 1 hour.
various electrical system configurations that can be used with The backup battery is solely dedicated for
PowerLink to comply with the redundant power requirement. this purpose and is not used to supply any
other loads or for cranking.
Note: This configuration requires use with a
battery condition monitor. The HSA prevents
the main aircraft bus from drawing on the
backup battery.
The HSA provides an indication when the
backup battery is low (EBAT FL). If the
backup battery voltage is low or if the
ECU(s) is/are operating on the backup
battery, the PPWR FL annunciator
illuminates on the HSA.
Single alternator & single The self-excited dedicated generator allows

battery plus a dedicated continued operation of PowerLink while the
backup generator primary power is interrupted for diagnostics.
*An electrical power system having two electrical busses each supplied
by a separate and independent alternator and battery complies with the
requirement for two separate power sources

The SPS is used to supply power to PowerLink independently Power switchover is instantaneous and automatic. There is
from the aircraft’s primary bus. now switchover relay or mechanical breaker. There is no
interrupted power period to the FADEC system when
If the SPS is a battery, it is continuously charged by the transitioning from one source to another as long as both
aircraft’s primary power bus. The charging current supplied to sources are above the minimum voltage level and have
the SPS battery is monitored by the HSA, and the charging sufficient current capacity to run the FADEC system. The
circuit is protected by a breaker labelled “SPSC” which means FADEC will draw 5.2 amperes total at 2,700 RPM and will
secondary power source charge. decrease its current draw to approximately 1.9 amperes at idle
speed. These current values do not include the operation of the
Electrical power to PowerLink is controlled from the cockpit by electric fuel pump.
two separate, independent switches used to interrupt the
primary power and secondary power. The cabin harness Failsafe operating contingencies
through the bulkhead connectors to the low voltage harness PowerLink is functionally redundant:
conducts primary/secondary power. Information from the
electronic control units (ECUs) is conveyed to the HSA, and the • If a control channel incurs a fault, the other control
cockpit mounted data port through the same cabin channel within the same ECU is capable of operating its
harness/bulkhead connector assembly. assigned cylinder as well as the cylinder experiencing
the fault condition.
The two power supply circuits are isolated from each other, and • All critical sensors are redundant with one sensor from
each has a separate set of breakers and power switch. The each pair connected to channels in different ECUs.
primary power switch and breaker set to control the primary Synthetic software default values are also used. This
power supply to the FADEC system; the secondary power arrangement supports the functional redundancy of the
switch and the breaker set to control the secondary power FADEC system.
supply to the FADEC system.
Two breakers protect the SSA and HSA power supply circuits,
one breaker being assigned to each of the two power supplies.
The pilot starts, enables, and stops PowerLink using a

conventional aircraft-style ignition switch.

Fault detection
The fault detection function is a total self-checking system • Processor faults. A processor fault should be remedied
intended to inform the pilot when the conditions of the various by replacing the applicable ECU.
components of the system require diagnostic attention.
Each of the sensors and other analogue input signals is tested

and enunciated for low range values, high range values and
noisy signal operation. The low range CHT sensor check
(misfiring cylinder check) is not performed below 2,000 RPM
for the cylinders to be allowed to warm up properly before take-
off and to prevent false alarms.
The FADEC system detects and annunciates the following.
• The occurrence of excessive CHT and EGT values. Both

conditions may indicate an engine condition requiring
maintenance.
• A fuel pump transistor-driver faulted condition. This fault
precludes automatic operation of the electric boost
pump and should be investigated.
• An in-range fuel pressure fault. If the fuel pressure
sensor has failed within the upper and lower electrical
limits, a fault is enunciated. This fault may also be
enunciated due to a reduction in the fuel pressure from
the nominal-operating curve of pressure versus the
engine curve. The fuel system should be investigated for
clogged filters, degraded or maladjusted fuel pump, and
leaks.
• Improper speed signal faults. This fault is indicative of a
speed sensor or low voltage harness failure.
• A misfiring cylinder. A misfiring cylinder fault is
enunciated when CHT falls below 800°F and should be
investigated.

PowerLink diagnostics
PowerLink control panel

16.5 Starting and Ignition Systems

Copyright notice
LEVEL 3
subject.
appropriate.

© Copyright 2020 Module 16.5 Starting and Ignition Systems Issue 2 – July 2020
Knowledge
Part-66 Levels
Objective
Ref.
A B1 B3
Starting systems, pre-heat systems; 16.5 1 2 2
Magneto types, construction and
principles of operation;
Ignition harnesses, spark plugs;
Low- and high-tension systems

Table of Contents
High tension ignition system _____________________ 6 Auxiliary ignition systems ______________________ 74
General _____________________________________ 6
The primary or low tension (LT) circuit _____________ 6 Low-tension ignition systems ___________________ 82
The secondary or high tension (HT) circuit __________ 6 Ignition timing ________________________________ 84
Ignition harness _______________________________ 8 General ____________________________________ 84
Operation of the combined circuits _______________ 14 Engine speed ________________________________ 86
Magnetos ____________________________________ 16 Manifold pressure ____________________________ 86
Magneto operation ___________________________ 16 Mixture strength ______________________________ 86
Impulse coupling spark retard ___________________ 26 Automatic timing control________________________ 86
Lag-angle-retarded breaker magnetos ____________ 28 Magneto timing (Bendix) _______________________ 86
Ignition switches _____________________________ 30 The ‘E’ (efficiency) gap ________________________ 88
The contact breaker (CB) ______________________ 32 Timing marks ________________________________ 92
The distributor _______________________________ 34 Timing magneto to engine ______________________ 92
Magneto venting _____________________________ 34 The magneto synchroniser _____________________ 96
Magneto speeds _____________________________ 36 Eastern Technology E25 timing indicator___________ 98
The four-pole magnet _________________________ 38 Aero-Diesel engine glow plugs _________________ 100
The dual magneto ____________________________ 38
The rotating armature magneto __________________ 38 Starting systems _____________________________ 102
Magneto mounting and drives ___________________ 40 Types of starter _____________________________ 102
Manual cranking inertia starter __________________ 102
Ignition harnesses ____________________________ 44 Electrical inertia starters_______________________ 104
Construction ________________________________ 44 Direct cranking starters _______________________ 106
Testing ____________________________________ 44 Solenoid or pre-engaged ______________________ 106
Spark plugs __________________________________ 50 Electric starter circuit _________________________ 106
Construction ________________________________ 50 Basic starter description_______________________ 108
The heat range of the spark plug ________________ 52 Bendix drive ________________________________ 112
Inspection and servicing of sparking plugs _________ 56 Starter relay ________________________________ 114
Spark plug inspection _________________________ 56 Bonding/earthing straps _______________________ 114
Damage from excessive temperatures ____________ 64 Troubleshooting and maintenance _______________ 116
Other spark plug problems _____________________ 64 Brush maintenance __________________________ 116
Ground checking _____________________________ 72
Pre-heat systems ____________________________ 120
General ___________________________________ 120
Installed preheaters__________________________ 122
Portable preheaters__________________________ 122

High tension ignition system
General The primary or low tension (LT) circuit
The majority of ignition systems employ on piston engines are A typical primary circuit is shown in the diagram below left.
of the high tension (HT) type, so named because they are
designed to produce a very high voltage output from a low One end of the primary winding is earthed, and the other end
voltage input. These HT systems are classified into battery has three components connected in parallel to it before they
(coil) ignition and magneto ignition, but aero engines with few too are earthed. These are:
exceptions employ magnetos.
• The contact breaker (CB). An engine operated switch
The component common to both systems is a transformer, which breaks the current flow in the primary circuit when
sometimes referred to as an induction coil or armature. This it is at its highest.
device uses the principle of electromagnetic induction to • The capacitor (condenser) aids the rapid collapse of the
produce the very high voltage spark needed to jump the gap of primary’s magnetic field. It also reduces arcing at and
a spark plug. burning of, the CB points when they are opened and the
current tries to continue to flow across the gap.
Before discussing the application of armatures, we should • The pilot operated switch. They are known as the
recall some basic electromagnetic principles. ignition, magneto or mag switch. When this switch is
closed or “OFF”, the primary circuit is completely
• A current flowing in a conductor generates a magnetic earthed, and opening of the circuit – the magneto is
field around that conductor. The strength of the field ‘dead’.
depending on the strength of the current.
• Moving a conductor across the lines of force in a Unlike most other electrical switches, these operate in the
magnetic field induces a voltage in that conductor. If the opposite sense. When the contacts are closed, the switch is off.
conductor is part of a closed circuit, a current will flow.
• A change of magnetism acting on a coil of wire will The secondary or high tension (HT) circuit
induce a current in that wire. The strength of the current The diagram below right shows the HT circuit superimposed on
depends on: the LT circuit. The HT circuit consists of a secondary winding,
⎯ the strength of the magnetic field; a distributor and sparking plugs.
⎯ the rate of change of magnetism; and
⎯ the number of turns of wire in the coil.

Primary circuit
Magneto – cylinder harness connections

The conductor (core) is made from several twisted strands of The advantage of such an assembly, are:
either ‘tinned copper’ or, as is the current practice, ‘stainless
steel’. Its diameter is small because it carries a very low current. • servicing is quicker;
The large diameter of the cable arises from the thickness of its • all leads are attached to the engine as one unit;
insulation material plus a sturdy outer material or braided metal • other engine components are most accessible;
sleeving for additional protection against abrasion and other • the leads have greater protection from damage;
hazards. • they are protected from moisture and deterioration;
• there is a saving in weight; and
The individual leads are routed between the distributor and the • positive screening.
sparking plug via support grommets, clips, and sometimes
additional protective shielding. The ends of the leads are fitted Screening (shielding)
with metal connectors to suit the distributor and plugs, During regular operation of the ignition system, the variations
respectively. Also, each end has an identifying sleeve which is in HT current flow and the arcing in the distributor and spark
an essential aid to maintenance. plugs, produce unwanted magnetic fields. These can result in
serious interference with radio and other equipment.
Ignition harness
On many engines, and not necessarily on the larger ones, the The rigid conduit may be of made from ‘brass’, ‘aluminium alloy’
ignition leads from one magneto are enclosed for most of their or ‘corrosive resistant steel’. The flexible conduits and the metal
length in a rigid metal conduit. This is contoured to suit the protection of single leads are made from close mesh, braided,
engine layout, radial or in-line as in the diagram below left, and tinned copper or tinned phosphor bronze.
has at one end, or somewhere along its length, a large diameter
flexible conduit. It terminates in an end fitting which enables all The harness, as well as protecting the HT leads, serves
leads’ ends to be secured in their right sockets on the another important purpose. The materials of the harness are all
distributor. electronically conducting and are grounded to the engine and
airframe. By conducting the unwanted magnetic lines of force
Adjacent to each of the plugs associated with the magnet, to earth, the ignition harness cuts down electrical interference
smaller flexible conduits are led from outlets in the rigid conduit with radio and other electrically sensitive systems in the aircraft.
and terminate in metal plug connectors. We now have an
ignition harness assembly which is secured to the engine by When the radio and other systems are protected in this manner
bolts or studs passing through lugs which are brazed or welded the ignition harness is said to be a shield. Without this shielding
to the rigid conduit. or screening, radio communication would become virtually
impossible.

Magneto, harness and spark plugs
Typical ignition harness

The screening components are in good electrical connection. Visual inspection
They are earthed between spark plug body and cylinder head, There always precedes the testing of any component or
the magneto mounting and the engine case and, in some system. For our purpose, we shall consider an installation
cases, by bonding strips connected between the rigid conduit harness and the items we would look for during the visual
and the engine in addition to its primary fasteners. inspection would include:
The use of separate HT leads requires every lead to have its • loose cables, sleeves, and connectors at distributor
own braided metal sleeve over the whole length and, on large block and sparking plugs;
engines, the total weight of the screening material is high. • the insecurity of attachment bolts and screws;
• perishing of insulation – indicated by hardening and
Because of the routing of the leads, the braiding is more cracking;
vulnerable to damage during operation and maintenance. This • damage to metal braiding, rigid conduit, plug and
can result in ‘leaks’ in the screening. distributor connectors; and
• oil soakage, which is indicated by swollen and softened
Low tension (LT) or switch leads insulation. (This is generally more relevant to separate
The construction of these items is similar to that of the HT unscreened leads.)
leads. However, because they carry a low voltage of higher
current, the cable core is often larger in diameter and the The electrical tests – which follow the visual inspection – would
insulation thinner. For screening and protection, they have an require the plug leads and distributor block to be disconnected.
outer covering of metal braid. Suitable connectors couple the This allows completing the harness check by examining:
ends to the ignition switch and the magneto contact breaker.
• the plug nut for freedom of rotation deformation and
Servicing and testing of ignition leads and harnesses thread damage, and the plug terminal components for a
There are particular servicing and testing procedures which are good condition; and
common to all ignition systems. They are carried out as • the distributor block for cracks and signs of tracking; and
scheduled servicing at intervals recommended by the • the security and effectiveness of the lead connections to
manufacturer and/or specified by the aviation authority under the block.
which the aircraft is flown. In the case of an ignition fault, some
of these inspections and tests are employed during the process
of rectification. They fall broadly under these headings:
• visual inspection;
• continuity testing; and
• insulation testing.

Ignition system installed

Dual magneto, harness and spark plugs

How the Airplane Ignition System Works
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fTTAHbV7rcw
Magnetos | 60 Second Flight Training

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2YuKx2Pv7aU
Magneto Tutorial
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9JnI8oN4h8I
ATPL Training / Piston Engines #15 Ignition Systems

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_dyDU8unkqw
Aviation Maintenance Aircraft Ignition Systems Part 2

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1u 2-jMvFww8
Possibly no sound on some computers
How to install Magnetos to an Aircraft Engine

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0l96NU8afPM
Check the Timing on aircraft Magnetos

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4m8IFYpo-W8
Magneto to Engine Timing

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xpWyRcUHtXs
How to Service Aircraft Spark Plugs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1gJc6R08AIE
Fouled Spark Plugs - Maintenance Mondays - MzeroA Flight

Training
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AmAAq1Yf6qQ
SPCT100A Spark Plug Cleaner Tester Demo Video

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pbs7sSWow64

Operation of the combined circuits
The secondary winding has one end connected to the primary
coil and, thus, when the CB points are closed, direct to earth.
The other end connects to a distributor. This component,
usually an integral part of the magneto, directs the HT pulses
to each cylinder in turn in the correct firing order.
With the CB points closed and a current flowing in the primary

circuit, the opening of the points causes the magnetic field to
collapse inwards to the centre of the armature. The lines of
force move across the secondary winding and induce a voltage
in that circuit. Because the CB points are open and have thus
broken the connection to the earth, the secondary circuit is
completed through the primary/secondary junction, the primary
coil; and then to earth.

Combined circuits

Magnetos
Magneto operation
The magneto is an entirely self-contained ignition generating Every magneto has a rotating component for varying the
device. Typically, two magnetos are installed on each aircraft magnetic flux flowing through the armature. The type of
engine for redundancy. When the aircraft engine crankshaft magneto takes its names from the form of its rotating member.
rotates, gears located in the engine accessory case turn the
magneto rotor shaft containing permanent magnets. With the • Rotating armature - in which the armature rotates in the
rotating shaft, a magnetic field is produced that is transformed field between the poles of a stationary horseshoe
into high tension current through primary and secondary coil magnet. The contact breaker and capacitor are fixed to
windings. The high-tension current is distributed to the the armature and also revolve. This type had certain
appropriate cylinder through a distributor block assembly and disadvantages.
ignition cables. • Rotating magnet - in which a permanent magnet
rotates between extensions of the armature core known
A two-lobe cam and two-pole rotating magnet assembly are as pole pieces. All of the other components are
used to generate magnetic flux and trigger the high-tension stationery. This is now the most widely used type of
spark energy. Four-cylinder magnetos are driven at engine magneto.
speed and produce four sparks through 720° of crankshaft
rotation. Six-cylinder magnetos are driven at one and a half A basic two-pole magnet is used here to describe the operation
times engine speed and produce six sparks through 720° of of the magneto.
engine crankshaft rotation. Slick magnetos are constant timing
ignition devices once the engine has started. The magneto is Refer to the diagram below right and assume that the magnet
typically timed to fire at an advance timing position for a is rotating clockwise.
maximum power of the aircraft engine. The magnet is fully aligned with the pole pieces (sometimes
A typical Slick magneto used on the majority of light horizontally called the ‘full register position’), and there is maximum flux flow
opposed engines produces over 25,000 V at normal speed. from the north pole through the armature core to the south pole,
Although simple in outward appearance and construction, the and the magnetic field around the armature is at a maximum.
magneto is a complicated electromechanical device. The size The magnet has now turned through 90° (to the ‘neutral
and shape of the rotating magnet head assembly, magnet position’), the lines of force are short-circuited through the pole
material selection, pole lamination design, ignition coil design pieces, and the armature magnetic field is zero.
and capacitor design are all equally important in determining
the efficiency of the device. Electrically, the magneto is a
balanced LRC circuit.
Slick impulse magneto
Magneto internal components

As the magnet rotates through the neutral position, its poles
begin to align with the pole pieces, and flux flow commences
through the core but in the opposite direction – a flux reversal
has taken place. The core flux increases as the magnet turns
until, at the next full register position, it again is at a maximum.
A further 180° of rotation produces two flux reversals for one

revolution of the magnet. These flux reversals are significant
because it is at this point in the operation that the maximum
primary current is going to be achieved.
As the magnet revolves, the core flux changes, as does the

magnetic field around the primary winding. It is not the
magnitude of the flux, but the rate at which it changes that
determines the voltage induced in the primary winding. The
maximum rate of exchange occurs when the magnet’s neutral
position is just passed – the point where flux reversal occurs.
This is where the primary current is at its highest and is the
instant when the CB points are opened to break the circuit, thus
causing the magnetic field to collapse across the secondary
winding.
The voltage induced in the secondary depends on:
• the strength of the field created by the primary current

which in turn depends on the strength of the magnet;
• the speed of rotation; and
• the number of turn in the primary winding.

Magneto internal components

Lag angle-impulse coupled magnetos
The impulse coupling is a mechanical device which is installed
between the engine drive and the magneto proper on the
majority of rotary magneto installations. Its primary function is
to intensify the ignition spark at a relatively low rotative speed
of the magneto to assist in engine starting. The construction of
the coupling also provides the means of automatically retarding
the ignition spark during the starting period. This reduces the
possibility of damage to the engine or injury to the operator due
to engine backfire. The impulse coupling retards the magneto
ignition timing until the engine crankshaft is at its proper
position for starting. The lag angle, noted on the magneto data
plate, is the impulse coupling’s retard angle measured in
degrees. After engine start, the impulse coupling disengages
and returns the magneto to normal engine timing.
The majority of impulse couplings use the pivoted pawl design,

where each pawl is securely fastened to a hub plate, its
movement being confined to a turning action in an arc about its
pivot point.

Magneto coil and magnet
Pivoted pawl impulse coupling
Impulse coupling operation Twin pawl coupling operation
The impulse coupling functions as a mechanical reservoir to A twin-pawl coupling is used to produce two impulse sparks per
store energy which is available at a low rate during the engine revolution of the magneto rotor. Since these pawls are placed
starting period. Then, when the point is reached in the engine symmetrically on the coupling hub plate, each 180° of rotation
cycle where the ignition of the fuel mixture should occur, all the brings a pawl into position to engage the stop pin. With only
accumulated energy is instantly released to the magneto slight changes, the twin pawl can be arranged to produce four
resulting in a strong spark. Since the point at which the energy sparks per revolution. In such a case two stops instead of using
is released can be controlled in the construction of the coupling, just one and are located 180° apart. The pawls are spring-
it is possible to provide an automatic retard of the ignition spark loaded to make them independent of the gravity operation and
during the starting period. to speed up their action. A stiffer drive spring is provided to
compensate for the shorter wind up period.
The impulse coupling consists of a shell and a hub, connected
by a strong spring. One half of the coupling (the shell) is fitted The pivoted pawls operate automatically as a result of the two
to a drive member on the engine drive shaft, while the other half natural forces of gravity and centrifugal. At slow speeds the
(the hub) is keyed to the magneto rotor shaft. In operation at gravity force dominates the pawl action, holding the pawl in
slow speeds, a pawl on the magneto half of the coupling such a position as to force it to engage with the stop pin. With
engages a stop pin mounted on the magneto frame which acts increased rotative speed, there is a corresponding increase in
to prevent further movement of the rotor. In contrast, the engine the centrifugal force acting on the pawl, this force gradually
half of the coupling continues to rotate. The relative change in overcoming the fundamental gravity forces and thus becoming
position winds up the connecting spring. When the point is dominant in the pawl action. Centrifugal force acts to prevent
reached where the ignition spark is desired, the pawl is the pawl from engaging the stop pin.
released, and the drive spring permitted to snap the magneto
rotor forward at high speed through its firing position. As the If the magneto is to be installed in an attitude where the gravity
speed of the engine picks up, the centrifugal force acting on the force cannot operate the pawls during the starting period, to
pawls withdraws them to a position where they no longer cause the necessary engagement action, small wire springs
engage the coupling stop pins, the impulse coupling then acting are attached to the pawls to act opposite the centrifugal force.
as a solid drive member. They are of such strength as to replace the gravity force
entirely.

Sequence of operations of impulse coupling for 90° spark magneto
Sequence of operations of impulse coupling for 180° spark magneto
Spring loaded coupling pawls

Impulse coupling drive springs
Two types of impulse coupling drive springs are used in current
designs. The most widely used is the torsion-type spring, which
resembles the mainspring of a clock. When the coupling is
assembled, this spring is given initial tension of approximately
one or two turns, the impulse action providing additional
tension. In the compression-type spring, the coil spring must be
compressed to assemble it into the shell, and additional
compression takes place during the impulse action.
The strength of the impulse coupling drive spring varies the

amount of windup permitted by the coupling design and
application. A long wind up can be secured with a single pawl
coupling where engagement only occurs once per revolution. A
very short windup is obtained in the case of an impulse coupling
which is subject to four impulse actions per revolution.

Torsion-type drive spring Compression-type drive spring

Impulse coupling spark retard
The impulse coupling acts to intensify the starting spark, and at In the third step (c) the drive spring of the coupling functions to
the same time automatically retard this spark to the extent that snap the hub of the coupling together with the magneto rotor
it occurs at the approximate top dead centre of the compression through its windup angle A, the magneto rotor passes through
stroke of the engine piston. the entire spark angle C, including the edge gap distance.
Since the speed of this action is determined by the strength of
In distinguishing the ignition spark positions, the retarded the drive spring, a powerful ignition spark can be produced
starting spark is usually termed the impulse spark, while the during the starting period of the engine.
usual running spark is often called the advance spark.
As the engine speeds up after starting, the impulse action of
To analyse the method by which the normal spark of the the coupling ceases, since the pawls no longer engage the stop
magneto is automatically retarded while the coupling functions, pin. In the next figure, the coupling is shown as it operates at
the angular relationship between the coupling and the magneto speeds higher than those permitting impulse action. Since the
rotor must be carefully observed. pawls do not engage the stop pin, no drive spring windup
occurs, and the coupling acts as a solid drive member, the
In the diagram below left, the action of the impulse is illustrated magneto rotor turns at the same rate as the coupling shell.
in terms of the angles involved in its operation. The first step Consequently, the magneto rotor passes through its spark
(a) occurs when the coupling pawl engages the stop pin, at position, as indicated by the edge gap distance, when the
which point the magneto rotor is prevented from further rotation coupling drive lugs are at angle E before the horizontal
while the coupling shell continues to turn through angle A. centreline is reached. This angle E is the amount the ignition
During this period the mechanical energy supplied to the spark has advanced in the change from impulse spark to
magneto is stored in the coupling through the windup of the running spark. Conversely, it is the angular degrees the running
drive spring. spark is retarded during the impulse action and is commonly
The second step (b) of the impulse action occurs just as the referred to as the lag angle of the coupling.
windup period of the drive spring is completed and the pawl The angle E of an impulse coupling is determined by the
kick-off projection on the shell functions to release the pawl location of the keyway in the hub; the lag angle can be
from the stop pin. The angle D shown on the coupling end of increased or decreased within limits by moving the keyway
the assembly indicates the mechanical lag from the instant the when making the hub.
pawl kick-off strikes the pawl to the instant the drive lugs of the
shell reach the horizontal centreline. Note that in both steps (a)
and (b) the magneto rotor is held stationary in a position
preceding its spark point by an angle C which includes the edge
gap distance.

Relationship of impulse coupling to magneto during impulse action Angular relationship at normal running speed

Lag-angle-retarded breaker magnetos
The retard breaker assembly is an electrical device powered by
the aircraft battery, used to aid in starting the engine. At low
cranking speed, the retard breaker retards the magneto ignition
timing until the engine crankshaft is at its proper position for
starting. The lag angle, noted on the magneto data plate, is the
retard breaker’s retard angle measured in degrees. When the
engine starter disengages, the retard breaker assembly is also
disengaged, and the magneto returns to normal engine timing.

Flux change
Magneto operation

Ignition switches
The type of switch used varies with the manufacturer and the When the switches are in any position but “OFF”, the magnetos
numbers of engines on the aircraft, and they are prominently are ‘live’. They are also dangerous, especially for some time
mounted on the instrument panel in a position convenient for after engine shut down when the engine is warm, and fuel
the engine operator. vapours may be present. This is why a propeller is never moved
by hand until a physical check is made of the magneto switch
Generally, for one engine, they take the form of either two positions.
separate toggle switches in one housing or a single rotary
switch. The toggle switches may be identified “L” and “R” for
the ignition systems they control but, unlike other electrical
switches, are “ON” when the toggle is up.
Besides controlling their associated ignition systems, they are

used during system checks when starting and running the
engine.
Modern aeroplane engines are required to have a dual ignition

system - that is, two separate magnetos to supply the electric
current to the two spark plugs contained in each cylinder. One
magneto system supplies the current to one set of plugs; the
second magneto system supplies the current to the other set of
plugs. For that reason, the ignition switch has four positions:
• “OFF”;
• “L”;
• “R”; and
• “BOTH”
With the switch in the “L” or “R” position, only one magneto is
supplying current, and only one set of spark plugs in each
cylinder is firing. With the switch in the “BOTH” position, both
magnetos are supplying current, and both spark plugs are
firing.

Ignition switches

The contact breaker (CB)
This assembly, which is the most highly stressed of the ignition The maker specifies the size of this gap and provides for its
system, consists of a pair of contacts mounted on a base plate. adjustment using the assembly’s base plate adjustment
One is fixed and earthed (grounded) to the magneto body. screws.
The other is moveable, insulated from the magneto. It is There are two types of CB, as shown in the diagram below,
connected to the primary winding by the leaf spring which holds bottom-left. The pivoted type (a) is widely used on all piston
the contacts together. engines and is found on aero engines. The pivotless type (b) is
common to magnetos of American origin. In both types, an
The points are tipped with platinum to resist pitting, burning and oiled felt pad is employed to lubricate the surface of the cam.
the mechanical hammering of continuous fast operation.
The differences between the types lie in the applications of the
A cam is keyed to the magnet shaft and has two lobes because, leaf spring and the non-metallic block.
with two flux reversals per revolution, it needs two CB points
separations. The CB assembly is mounted adjacent to the cam On the pivoted CB it is fitted in the rocker arm and is often called
to enable the lobes as they rotate to contact a non-metallic the ‘fibre heel’. In the pivotless type, it is employed as a cam
block positioned so that it separates the points against the follower, frequently with its own spring.
pressure of the leaf spring. This separation occurs just after the
neutral position of the magnet. In a 6-cylinder engine rotating at 3,000 RPM, the CB has to
operate 9,000 times a minute or 150 times a second. The
Further rotation of the cam allows the points to close. This resulting stress on the spring and the points’ faces is very high.
occurs in the approximate full register position of the magnet
and from there until the next cam lobe comes round, the block
is clear of the cam profile.
The points need to be closed for as long as possible during the

cam’s rotation after contact has been made to ensure sufficient
time for the primary current to build up. This period is measured
in degrees of cam rotation and is often identified as the ‘dwell
angle’. Two factors govern this period. One is the profile of the
cam, which is the manufacturer’s responsibility. The other is the
gap between the points when full separation has taken place –
adjusted by the maintenance technician.

Contact breakers
Contact breaker components

The distributor
This assembly comprises two items, the rotor and the block, brush through the rotor arm, jumps the small gap and reaches
both of which are made of non-conducting material. Set within earth via the HT lead and spark-plug gap.
the rotor is a metal conducting path from the centre to a
projecting metal lug, sometimes called the brush. Moulded Magneto venting
around the block and standing proud in a common plane, are The magneto and its components cannot be hermetically
as many equally spaced metal segments as there are cylinders sealed for internal cleanliness because they are subjected to
in the engine. When assembled, the lug of the rotor brush lies temperature and pressure changes in flight; hence they
in the same plane as the segments, and when rotated, it passes become prone to the effects of condensation. If the interior of
but does not touch, each of these segments in turn. Each of the the magneto becomes wet, there is the possibility that the high
segments is connected to a socket on the outside of the block. voltage current arcing across the rotor/block gap could be
It is from these that the HT is fed by cables to the spark plugs. misdirected to another segment or the magneto case. This is
‘flashover’ and often leaves a fine carbon track as the spark
With the magneto functioning, the rotor, during one revolution, evaporates the moisture and burns dirt particles lying on the
distributes a spark to every cylinder of the engine. During that non-conducting surface of the distributor. The carbon track
time, the crankshaft of a 4-cylinder engine has had to complete remains as a continuous cause of misfiring and power loss.
two revolutions. Because the distributor drive comes from the
crankshaft, the rotor always rotates at half the engine speed. The typical arcing which takes place across the distributor
components results in unavoidable erosion of their surfaces. In
The distributor components of a simple 2-pole magneto are the presence of moisture, arcing also produces corrosive gases
shown in the diagram below. The rotor arm is secured to the which attack the metal and leave high resistance deposits.
centre of a gear wheel which meshes with another gear
mounted in the magnet’s shaft. The ratio of these gears is All magnetos are vented and drained to reduce these effects.
chosen so that whatever the speed of the magnet shaft with The venting has to consider the possibility of inflammable
respect to the engine, the rotor turns at half engine speed. This vapours being present in the confines of the engine cowling.
is why the rotor gear wheel is often called ‘the half-speed Protection from fire due to magneto sparking is achieved by
wheel’. covering the vents with fine mesh gauze discs. These allow air
through the magneto and at the same time act as flame traps
In the centre of the rotor arm is a spring-loaded carbon brush. on the Davy lamp principle.
This is in contact with a broad leaf spring on the armature to
which the secondary winding is connected. Whenever a voltage
is induced in the secondary, the rotor brush is opposite one of
the segments in the block with a small 0.2 mm (0.008") gap
between them. The secondary current flows via the carbon
Simple two-pole magneto

Magneto speeds
Every cylinder of a four-stroke engine requires a spark for every In practical terms, this means that a two sparks/rev magneto is
two revolutions of the crankshaft. The higher the number of suitable only for engines of up to 6 cylinders because with a
cylinders, the faster the magneto must revolve. Considering the greater number of cylinders the magnetorotational speeds are
two-pole magnet magneto (two sparks per revolution), we see too high.
how and why there are speed limitations on its use.
If we assume a 6-cylinder engine take-off speed of 3,200 RPM,
Consider this example formula: the magneto would be rotating at 4,800. Higher speeds would
be both mechanically and electrically too stressful.
# of cylinders
Magneto speed = × engine speed
Sparks per rev To cater for larger engines, we need a magneto capable of
providing more sparks per revolution. How this is achieved is
the subject of the next section.
Our magneto on a four-cylinder engine would need to be driven
at:
4
= x engine speed
2×2
= 1 × engine speed
for a six-cylinder engine:
6
= × engine speed
2×2
= 1.5 × engine speed
If we consider both these engines running at a speed of say

2,400 RPM, their magneto speeds respectively would be 2,400
and 3,600 RPM.

Dual magnetos and harness

The four-pole magnet The rotating armature magneto
A four-pole magnet is shown in the diagram below top-left. This type of magneto is one you could well meet on older
aircraft. It has the armature conductors revolving in the static
A cylindrical magnet and a pair of two-fingered pole pieces are field of a horseshoe magnet as opposed to the stationary
clamped together on a non-magnetic steel shaft. The polarities conductors and varying field of the rotating magnet type.
of the magnet are transferred to the pole pieces so that the pole Although a widely used and trusted component, it has certain
fingers alternate north and south every 90°. The terms ‘full disadvantages and limitations. It is illustrated in the diagram
register’ and ‘neutral’ still apply to the magnet positions relative below bottom-left.
to the pole pieces, but they now occur at 45° intervals. We now
have four flux reversals (sparks) for one revolution of the • It produces two sparks/revolution and cannot be altered;
magnet assembly and, correspondingly, we require four lobes hence it is only suitable for small engines.
on the cam. • The windings, capacitor and CB all revolve and are
therefore affected by centrifugal forces.
If you now apply the magneto speed formula, you can confirm • The HT is picked up from a slip ring on the rotor by a
that for engines larger than six cylinders, the magneto speeds carbon brush and transferred to the distributor via a
are much more practical. For even larger engines, a pair of four- second brush.
fingered pole pieces are employed to produce eight sparks per
revolution. Apart from its basic generating difference, the operation and
maintenance of an ignition system employing this type of
Note that a four-pole magnet would be of little use on a small magneto are the same as for the rotating magnet type.
engine as it would turn at half the speed of our two-pole magnet
and thus reduce the strength of both the primary field and the
sparks at the plugs.
The dual magneto

You may meet the dual magneto type on some installations. It
is sometimes called a duplex magneto.
It incorporates two magnetos in one housing by having one

rotating magnet and cam common to two sets of coils and
contact breakers. On large engines, the two distributors are
mounted on the engine separate from the magneto, each with
its own drive. For small engines, the magneto casing houses
the two distributors as well, and their respective outlet sockets
are placed one on each side of the casing.
Four-pole magneto
Dual magneto
Rotating armature magneto Ignition system

Magneto mounting and drives
Magnetos are situated at the rear of the engine either flange- Refer to the diagram (a) and note that the magnetos rotate in
or platform-mounted with their position and method of drive opposite directions as a result of the shared drive. Because the
being dependent on the engine type. A layout which is common maximum rate of change of flux occurs just after the magnet’s
to horizontally opposed engines is shown in the diagram below. neutral position and the internal settings of the magneto must
The magnetos are coupled to a shared drive shaft which is accommodate this, the magnetos must be identified left and
supported by bearings in the engine casing, with suitable right. This might not be relevant to the diagram (b) because the
gearing from the crankshaft ensuring correct magneto speeds. gear train could result in both magnetos turning in the same
direction.
Each side of the casing has a machined face (or pad) and the
magnetos each have a flange with curved slots 180° apart. The There are specific ways of assisting a magneto to provide a
magneto is fitted with the slots engaging two studs in the pad strong spark for starting, and quite often it is applied to only one
and secured by nuts and some locking device. magneto of the pair. This difference could apply to both (a) and
(b) so that even if both magnetos rotated in the same direction,
The magnetos on a radial engine could be found fitted as in as in (b), they would still have to be identified L and R.
diagram (b). They are platform mounted, and the drives are part
of the gear train which powers all the accessories fitted to the
casing.
Each of the illustrations shows a coupling fitted to transmit the

drive to the magneto shaft. On a flange mounted magneto, the
coupling is of a simple splined or serrated type. However, for a
platform-mounted magneto, the coupling must transmit drive
and be flexible to allow for small misalignments between
magneto and drive shafts. It must also be capable of the same
fine angular adjustment that the slotted flange magneto allows.
To meet the running engine’s ignition requirements, both

magnetos on the engine are the same. Practically, however,
some differences exist between them.

Mountings and drives



Ignition harnesses
Construction
These consist of an insulated single-core cable capable of Resistance measurement is usually performed with a test
carrying over 12,000 volts. Construction varies with the voltage that is very much higher than the standard voltage of
manufacturer and age of the design but is generally as in the the circuit being tested. If the resistance value is high on the
diagram below left. test, it follows that there can be little risk of failure under normal
working conditions.
Testing
In its simplest form, an insulation resistance tester consists of
Continuity test a source of constant high voltage and a protected sensitive
Solid electrical contact (continuity) is essential throughout any meter to indicate the current flowing when these two are
conductor or circuit and its connections, to ensure minimum connected with the circuit under test. This current usually is
resistance to current flow. Any resistance due to poor contact very small – microamps or a few milliamps. Now, because of
(and conductor damage) may be detected with the aid of a the constant voltage, the resistance of the circuit has a direct
battery and lamp connected in series with the conductor. relationship with the current flowing (Ohm’s law), so the
manufacturer calibrates the meter scale in megohms. This
For general maintenance purposes, the battery and lamp makes for more accurate determination of circuit condition.
(typically 4.5 volts and 0.4 amps) are housed in a protective
casing with a press button, terminals, and two leads for The voltage source of insulation-resistance testers is
connection to the conductor. It’s called a lamp and battery, commonly a hand-operated generator. The steady output
continuity tester, or it could be part of a magneto synchroniser. voltage obtainable depends on the make and type of tester and
can be typically 250, 500, or 1,000 volts. This covers most test
The test procedure requirements. Regardless of the make, they are often called a
Join the two lead ends, press the button and check the Megger from a long-standing trading name. The diagram below
brilliance of the lamp. This is a functional and battery check. right illustrates such a tester.
Insulation testing For an ignition HT circuit, which can have a working load of over
The insulation efficiency of all electrical equipment is checked 7,000 volts, more specialised equipment is required; 12,000
at regular intervals by measuring the resistance of the volts or more depending on the engine manufacturer’s test
insulation to the passage of current. Because this resistance is requirements. This may be obtained either from a hand-
affected by the voltage applied to the insulator, a sufficiently operated generator or from the electrical mains in conjunction
high voltage would cause the insulator to break down. This is with transformers.
the basis on which the testing is carried out.

Ignition cable construction Typical megger

An often-used item of equipment is known as the HT ignition This type of HT tester was designed for a minimum acceptable
tester. It supplies 12,000 volts from a hand generator when it is reading of 2 megohms, which is relatively common in HT lead
rotated at 300 RPM. The meter is calibrated in megohms and testing. If the needle has settled in the red sector, the lead is
often is divided into green and red sectors with the colour notionally unacceptable. However, before any decisions are
change at the 2 megohm point on the scale. made, all the plug leads should be tested in cylinder number
order and a note made of the reading for each lead. The test is
A safety push-button is included in the circuit to protect the then repeated for each lead and the two sets of readings
meter movement. Two test leads, approximately two meters compared. It is standard practice to take at least two readings
long, made from HT cable and identified “EARTH” and “HT”, in any test procedure.
complete the equipment.
Ideally, insulation resistance would be at infinity. However, the
The test procedure high-test voltages, the age and usage of the harness, and the
We are assuming that our continuity test was satisfactory and pressure of moisture all tend to reduce the resistance of the
that the plug leads and distributor block are still disconnected. insulation; hence the apparent low pass of 2 megohms.
The HT tester just described is on a firm base close to the Because an engine manufacturer could require specific test
harness assembly. equipment and/or a different minimum resistance for their HT
components, the relevant manual must always be checked
• Starting with No. 1 cylinder, connect the tester’s HT lead before the test is begun.
to the core of the plug and lead to be tested and the earth
lead to the metal harness. This basic insulation resistance is entirely satisfactory when
• Rotate the generator handle slowly and check for applied to separate HT leads. When these are under test, any
sparking, which may be seen or heard, or hunting of the lead which is consistently below limits must be changed per the
meter needle. Any of these usually indicate insulation manufacturer’s instructions, and, after changing, is tested for
breakdown but first, check for the closeness of the HT continuity and insulation. The replacement lead may be
lead connection to the earth. supplied as an assembly ready for fitting, or it may have to be
• If there are no such indications, continue slow handle made up from a length of cable and end fittings.
rotation and depress the button. If the meter needle
swings hard over or hunts violently, a short circuit or If one or two leads are below the minimum resistance, they
intermittent breakdown is the cause. must be renewed. This is a more difficult task because they
• If the needle shows neither of these signs, increase have to be withdrawn from the conduit after a new lead length
handle speed gradually to maximum, with the button still has been soldered to the old. Check the manual for the
depressed, and note the reading. procedure and detailed information on the assembly of end
fittings. Of course, the two tests are required on completion.

Individual cable assembly
HT ignition tester

If, during harness and lead testing, a large number of readings
are below limits, don’t condemn the leads immediately, check
that:
• the procedure was carried out correctly;

• the harness/leads were not subjected to excessive
humidity. If so, remove it/them to a dry environment, or
connect up, run the engine, and test again;
• the tester is serviceable, (try it on known serviceable and
unserviceable equipment); and
• there were no significant running defects reported before
the inspection.
If after these checks more than two leads are still below the
limits, change the harness.
• Connect one tester lead to the cable core and the other
to the braid.
• Make sure that the magneto switch is “ON”. If it were
“OFF”, we would have a dead short across the tester’s
output leads because the switch contacts would be
closed.
• Turn the handle slowly at first to check for shorting or
insulation breakdown, then increase to the
recommended maximum and note the needle position
on the scale. The acceptable minimum is 10 megohms.
Because of the potential for faulty switches or leads to cause a

complete cut-off in an ignition system, the inspection and
testing must be conducted with great care.

Magneto harness HT leads

Spark plugs
Construction
There are many shapes and sizes of aero-engine spark plug, Central electrode
and they are all of similar construction. A typical modern plug This is designed to allow for thermal expansion. It conducts the
is illustrated in the diagram below left. HT pulse from the contact inside the sleeve to the plug nose.
The lower end is often of a nickel alloy. Sometimes it
Plug body incorporates a resistor to help reduce electrode erosion and
This is made from high tensile steel, sometimes plated to resist ignition interference spikes.
corrosion and with a standard hexagon to accept a standard
socket or plug spanner. Ceramic insulator
This is secured and sealed into the body during manufacture.
Body thread It supports and insulates the central electrode. It is extended at
This is a close tolerance thread which fits into the cylinder head. the outer end to insulate the plug lead from the surrounding
The diameter is expressed in millimetres, e.g. 12 mm, 14 mm metal sleeve. Ceramics are very brittle heat resisting materials.
or 18 mm.
A detail not apparent in the diagram is the ‘reach’ of the plug.
Sealing washer This is the distance from the underside of the sealing washer
This ensures a gas-tight fit for the thread and is often made of to the plug nose. It ensures that the electrodes are in the best
copper. position for igniting the mixture within the combustion chamber.
Screen Some older types of plug are classified as ‘detachable’. That is,
This an extension of the body which completes the screening the screen sleeve is removable from the body for cleaning
of the HT lead. purposes. The sleeve insulation material could be mica or a
ceramic.
Connector thread
This accepts the sleeve nut which secures the HT lead to the
plug.
Earth electrode
One or more project towards the centre electrode from the plug
nose. They may be of nickel alloy but more likely of platinum or
iridium.

Spark plug construction Typical types of electrode construction

The heat range of the spark plug
The heat range of a spark plug is the principal factor governing Fundamentally, an engine which runs hot requires a relatively
aircraft performance under various service conditions. The term cold spark plug, whereas an engine which runs cool requires a
‘heat range’ refers to the classification of spark plugs according relatively hot spark plug. If a hot spark plug is installed in an
to their ability to transfer heat from the firing end of the spark engine which runs hot, the spark plug tip overheats and causes
plug to the cylinder head. pre-ignition. If a cold spark plug is installed in an engine which
runs cool, the tip of the spark plug collects unburned carbon,
Spark plugs have been classified as ‘hot’, ‘normal’ and ‘cold’. causing fouling of the plug.
However, these terms may be misleading because the heat
range varies through many degrees of temperature from The principal factors governing the heat range of aircraft spark
extremely hot to extremely cold. Thus, the words hot, cold or plugs are:
normal do not necessarily tell the whole story.
• the distance between the copper sleeve around the
Since the insulator is designed to be the hottest part of the insulator and the insulator tip;
spark plug, its temperature can be related to the pre-ignition • the thermal conductivity of the insulating material;
and fouling regions. Pre-ignition is likely to occur if surface • the thermal conductivity of the electrode;
areas in the combustion chamber exceed critical limits or if the • the rate of heat transfer between the electrode and the
spark-plug core nose-temperature exceeds 900°C (1,630°F). insulator;
However, fouling or short-circuiting of the plug due to carbon • the shape of the insulator tip;
deposits is likely if the insulator tip temperature drops below • the distance between the insulator tip and the shell; and
approximately 430°C (800°F). Thus, spark plugs must operate • the type of outside gasket used.
between fairly well-defined temperature limits. So, plugs must
be supplied in various heat ranges to meet the requirement of
different engines under a variety of operating conditions.
From the engineering standpoint, each plug must be designed

to offer the broadest possible operating range. This means that
a given type of spark plug should operate as hot as possible at
slow speeds and light load and as cool as possible at cruising
and takeoff power. Plug performance, therefore, depends on
the operating temperature of the insulator nose, with the most
desirable temperature range falling between 540 and 680°C
(1,000 and 1,250°F).

Spark plug heat rage
Hot-type and cold-type plugs

Spark plug types
Short- and long-reach plugs

Note long-reach are identified by yellow paint on
Lycoming cylinder heads
Spark plug reach

All these factors vary with the manufacturer of the plug and its Spark plug inspection
application, so only the type of spark plug approved for an
engine may be fitted. The engine manual specifies the plug and Insulator tip deposits
its identification always appears on the plug body. The firing end of the spark plug should be inspected for the
colour of the deposits, cracked insulator tips and gap size. The
The total number of plugs on an engine is generally known as electrodes should be inspected for signs of foreign object
a ‘set’, and those associated with one magneto are frequently damage and the massive type also for copper run-out.
called a ‘half set’.
The standard colour of the deposits usually is brownish grey
The servicing of plugs is always carried out strictly following the with some slight electrode wear. These plugs may be cleaned,
manufacturer’s instructions. Assuming no unscheduled regapped and reinstalled. A new engine seat gasket should be
removals, the set has a life of a specific number of flying hours used.
– a period which usually coincides with a point in the engine’s
maintenance cycle. They would then be removed for servicing Carbon fouling
in an adequately equipped plug bay. A fully serviced and Dry, fluffy black deposits show carbon fouling. This indicates a
certified set is fitted to the engine, and their functioning checked rich fuel/air mixture, excessive ground idling, mixture too rich at
when the engine is run. idle or cruise, or faulty carburettor adjustment. The heat range
of the plug is also too cold to burn off combustion deposits.
Inspection and servicing of sparking plugs Typical fuel-related causes to look for are over-rich fuel mixture,
What follows are the details of plug maintenance as applicable excessive idle or excessive operation at closed-throttle idle.
to a non-detachable plug. There are seven stages, and they Other causes might be improper idle mixture setting or
must be carried out in the correct sequence. improper (too cold) spark plug application. Ignition-related
causes of carbon fouling include improper magneto timing, a
• Inspection failing lead or failed spark plug.
• De-greasing
• Cleaning
• Second inspection
• Spark gap setting
• Testing
• Storage

Oil fouling Lead fouling
Oil fouling deposits appear as wet, black carbon deposits on Under normal conditions, the lead oxobromide deposits from
the firing end. Oil fouling deposits are conductive at all the tetraethyl-lead (TEL) of high-octane aviation fuels form an
temperatures and cause plug misfiring under all power even, fluffy coating ranging from light tan to light brown. A
conditions. It is not uncommon to find this condition in a mild darkening of these colours near the core tip indicates adverse
form on lower plugs of some horizontally opposed engine temperature conditions. Maldistribution of the TEL causes
models or in lower cylinders of radial engines. It may be caused severe lead fouling, which appears as hard cinder-like globules
by oil draining by the piston rings and collecting in the of lead on the firing end, and in time gradually fill the firing end
combustion chamber during extended engine shut-down cavity.
periods. Such mild conditions can usually be cleared up by
cycling the engine with slow increases of power until misfiring Although mild lead deposits are always present to some
stops. Oily deposits on the top plugs may indicate damaged degree, highly leaded fuels, reduced fuel vaporisation,
pistons, worn or broken piston rings, worn valve guides, operating the engine too cold and spark plugs not suited for the
sticking valves or faulty ignition supply. This same condition in particular operation are the usual causes of severe lead fouling.
a new or newly overhauled engine may simply indicate that Extremely fouled plugs should be replaced and the cause of
piston rings have not yet correctly seated. the fouling corrected. Severely fouled spark plugs, like those
shown here, operate colder, causing misfires, and also misfire
at higher power because of the conductive nature of the
deposits at elevated temperatures.

Bridged electrode Worn electrodes
A deposit of conductive material between centre and ground Electrical and gas corrosion wear spark plug electrodes. Under
electrodes that shorts out the spark plug. The gap may be normal conditions, this wear occurs slowly and should be
bridged by ice crystals that form while trying to start, by carbon expected. Severe electrode erosion and necking of fine wire
particles, by lead globules, by metallic particles or by ingesting ground electrodes indicate abnormal engine operation. Fuel
silica through the air intake. When metallic fusion bridges the metering, magneto timing and proper heat range should be
electrodes, the plugs must be replaced, but other deposits may checked. Spark plug cleaning and rotation at scheduled
simply be removed, and the plugs returned to service. The intervals is usually adequate care until spark plug gap
cause of deposits that short out spark plugs requires corrective approaches recommended maximum. Spark plugs with worn
action. electrodes require more voltage for ignition and should be
discarded when electrodes have worn to half their original size.

Cracked core nose
Regular engine operation cycles thermal shock to the core Engine parts such as the piston, cylinder head and connecting
nose, and insulator materials and designs are chosen to avoid rod may suffer severe damage. When detonation has occurred,
core nose cracks from such thermal shock. However, the cylinder must be examined with a borescope and may
occasional abnormal engine operation may exceed even the require replacement. Corrective action is imperative.
built-in safety factors, resulting in infrequent core nose
cracking. The typical cracked core nose condition shown may In such cases, the cylinders should be inspected with the aid of
be caused by improper cleaning or gapping procedures and by a borescope. It may be desirable to replace the cylinder,
detonation. especially if backfiring was reported by the flight crew. The
reason for this precautionary action is that if the engine was
Copper run out is caused by very high temperatures associated operated under some detonation conditions, but not to the
with detonation or pre-ignition. It occurs when high extent that it caused a complete piston failure, the piston rings
temperatures perforate or burn away the end of the nickel could be broken. A piston failure requiring a complete engine
centre electrode sheath and expose the copper core. Melted change may show up at a later date.
copper then runs onto the tip surface and forms globules or a
fused mass across the electrode gap. The engine must be
inspected and the plugs replaced with new ones.
A hot spot in the cylinder may cause pre-ignition which can

always be detected by a sudden rise in cylinder head
temperature or by rough engine operation. When plugs are
removed after a period of pre-ignition, they will have burned or
blistered insulator tips and severely eroded electrodes.
Detonation is the sudden and violent combustion of a portion of

the unburned fuel ahead of the flame front occurs partway
through the burning cycle when the remaining unburned fuel
suddenly reaches its critical temperature and ignites
spontaneously. There is severe heat and pressure shock within
the combustion chamber that causes spark plugs to have
broken or cracked insulator tips along with damage to the
electrodes and lower insulator seal.

Damage from excessive temperatures
Overheating of the spark plug barrel, sometimes caused by lead in the assembly may solve the problem, or it may be
damaged cylinder baffles or missing cooling air blast tubes, necessary to replace the assembly to correct the defect.
may seriously deteriorate the ignition leads. Any overheating of
the spark plug barrel by a defective baffle or exhaust gas De-greasing
leakage at the exhaust pipe mounting flange can generate Using an approved solvent but without total immersion. It is not
temperatures in the insulator tip sufficient to cause pre-ignition the same as cleaning.
and piston distress.
Cleaning
Other spark plug problems Can only be carried out on a grease-free plug, and it is confined
The cure for threads that are stripped, crossed or badly nicked to the nose. There are three methods, each requiring
is the replacement of the spark plug with a new one. Dirty specialised equipment:
threads in the engine may cause the spark plug to seize before
• sandblasting;
it is seated. Dirty threads also cause poor contact between the
• chemical cleaning; and
spark plug, spark plug gasket and the engine seat. This results
• vibratory cleaning.
in reduced heat transfer and causes excessive overheating of
the spark plug. This condition can be corrected by making sure The choice of technique depends on the manufacturer’s
that threads are clean, and by observing the torque recommendation.
specifications when installing new plugs. It is helpful to use anti-
seize compound or plain engine oil on spark plug threads After this procedure, the nose interior is checked, and the
starting two full threads from the electrode. Do not use a sleeve insulator cleaned.
graphite-based compound.
Spark plug cleaning
Connector-well flashover is caused by an electrical path along During operation of an aircraft engine, lead and carbon
the surface of the insulator, from contact cap to shield. It occurs deposits form on the ceramic core, the electrodes, and the
when the voltage required to arc across the electrode gap inside of the spark plug shell. These deposits are most readily
exceeds the voltage required to track over the surface of the removed by an abrasive blasting machine specially designed
insulator. This condition is caused by a too-wide electrode gap, for cleaning spark plugs
oil, moisture, salt track or other conductive deposit on the
terminal well surface or lead-in assembly. When flashover Second inspection
occurs, combustion chamber residues quickly coat the insulator This is for the defects noted in the initial inspection and
tip and electrodes so that the condition may be interpreted as specifically for electrode looseness and erosion. Any defects or
oil or gas fouling. If the ceramic of the plug is not broken, the excessive erosion cause the plug to be rejected.
plug may be cleaned and reused. Thorough cleaning of the
Champion spark plug cleaner and tester

Spark gap setting
The gap must be measured and compared with the figure There is a relationship between the size of a spark gap, the
specified in the manual before the plug is subjected to an voltage applied to it and the air pressure surrounding the gap.
electrical test. Depending on the electrode configuration, the At constant pressure, the voltage required to jump a spark gap
gap is measured with either a feeler gauge or a wire go/no go must be increased if the gap is widened. If the pressure is
gauge. Except for radial electrodes, the gap is carefully increased around the gap, then, to maintain correct sparking
adjusted on the earth electrode only until it is within limits. In again, the voltage must be increased – because the electrical
service, plug gaps always tend to get larger, so the practice is resistance of air increases with pressure.
to aim for the bottom limit and thus keep the gap within limits
for longer running time. If a radial electrode’s gap is greater The available voltage from the tester has a high maximum
than the upper limit, the gap is rejected because the gap cannot value. In the first part of the test – at atmospheric pressure –
be reduced. the voltage required to give steady sparking is comparatively
low (not all the available energy is being used) and the
Testing insulation is not thoroughly tested. When the gap is under
All plugs must pass an insulation test before being cleared for pressure, however, the insulation has the maximum voltage
service. The test, which is different from the employed for HT applied across it, and any insulation defects become evident.
leads, is carried out on one of the types of spark plug tester The majority of plugs have a very similar gap size, and the test
which are available. pressure quoted earlier is satisfactory for the test. Any gaps
which differ much from this would require a different chamber
The plug is screwed fully into a small pressure chamber and a pressure to get the same test benefit from the fixed HT output.
voltage – higher than the maximum output of a magneto – is For example, a larger gap equals lower pressure.
applied to the centre electrodes. If the plug insulation is sound
a constant stream of sparks traverses the plug gap. Irregular In one type of tester, the plug aperture is at the bottom of the
sparking would increase faulty insulation. The small chamber pressure chamber. This enables a second test to be carried out
is then pressurised with air at 550 kN/m2 (80 psi) and HT re- – mainly on detachable plugs – the gas leakage test. A
applied. Sparking should again be continuous if the plug is to container of white spirits is placed under the plug so that the
pass its test. Some manufacturers might specify a different body/screen joint is immersed. A pressure of 700 kN/m2
chamber pressure because of the effect of their particular (100 psi) is applied to the chamber, and any leakage shows as
electrode gap. This last sentence and the test procedure itself bubbles in the fluid; this would cause rejection of the plug.
require some explanation.

Spark gap setting
Storage
If any of the original set of plugs were rejected during servicing, • With an appropriate spanner and torque wrench, tighten
they must be replaced with satisfactory plugs of the same type. the plug to the loading specified in the manual. To
The whole set is then protected from corrosion and may be ensure that no side loads are placed on the plug, support
stored for a short time, in a cupboard which is heated to avoid the spanner end of the wrench.
condensation. • When all plugs are fitted, clean the lead ends and their
nut threads and ensure that the screen is still clean. With
Long term storage or transit requires the plugs to be packed led end pressed into the plug, fit the nut to the sleeve
individually with an identification label in clear plastic tubes from and tighten with fingers only – this soon detects any
which the air is evacuated before sealing. They are packed in cross-threading. Ensure the lead elbow does not twist
a sturdy box with identification and certified serviceable labels when a properly fitting spanner is used for the final
on the outside. tightening.
• Tighten with fingers only – this soon detects any cross-
Plug fitting threading. Ensure the lead elbow does not twist when a
This is a regular maintenance operation which, like plug properly fitting spanner is used for the final tightening.
removal is only carried out on a cool engine. This avoids
damage to plugs or cylinder head inserts which could occur if Further considerations:
these components were hot. • Fitting a plug to a hot engine results in torque loading
altering as the engine cools.
Pre-fitting tasks • Over-torqueing a plug can cause plug or insert damage.
• Clean inhibitor from the nose, wipe screen insulator, dry
• Under-tightening a plug can result in loose plugs, gas
the plug and check the gap. leakage, and engine inefficiency.
• Ensure a serviceable and correct type of sealing washer
• A plug dropped onto a hard surface must not be fitted,
is fitted. even if the visual examination shows no defects. Return
• Apply anti-seize compound (e.g. graphite grease) lightly
it for proper inspection – the insulator could be cracked.
to body threats, avoiding electrodes and washer face. • Never use open-ended spanners for plug removal or
Avoid contamination before fitting. fitting.
• Ensure cylinder head thread is clean.
• In the rare event that the plug has to be changed and no
When fitting torque wrench is available, a properly fitting socket or
• Screw plug into cylinder head by hand until washer box spanner is used. For balanced leverage, a tommy
contacts the head face. If this is not possible, confirm the bar is required, of a length dependent on the plug size.
cleanliness of the insert thread.

Spark plug torqueing and correct HT lead fitting

Plug rotation (every 50 hours)
Excessive electrode erosion is caused by magneto constant-
polarity firing and capacitance after firing. Constant polarity
occurs with even-numbered cylinder magnetos. One plug fires
with positive polarity, causing excessive ground electrode
wear, while the next plug fires negatively, which causes
excessive centre electrode wear. The wear takes place on the
surface from which the current leaves. Capacitance after firing
wear is caused by the stored energy in the ignition lead
unloading after normal timed ignition.
To equalise this wear, keep the spark plugs in engine sets,

placing them in trays identified by cylinder locations. After the
plugs have been serviced, rotate the plugs as illustrated below
to correct the polarity wear condition. Capacitance wear is
corrected by swopping long leads for short leads.

Spark plug erosion and rotation

Ground checking
A ground run is essential before the majority of engine When the minimum operating temperatures of oil and cylinder
maintenance may be certified as having been adequately head are reached, the procedure is as follows:
carried out. Details of the ground running procedures and
precautions appropriate to an engine are found in the • The throttle is steadily opened to the maximum, and
maintenance manual, and these must always be observed. when the engine RPM has stabilised, it is noted.
Because engines vary in these requirements, the following • One magneto is switched “OFF”, the RPM will decrease,
describes a standard procedure, which applies to an un- and when stabilised, the drop is noted, and the switch
supercharged engine with a fixed-pitch propeller. By adhering returned to “ON”.
to the sequence of operations, the functioning of newly installed • When the RPM is again stable, the same procedure is
plugs is thoroughly checked as well as the associated ignition followed for the other magneto.
components.
Operating on one magneto causes a loss in power and RPM.
The first check is made after the engine has been started and The manufacturer sets a limit on the amount of drop in RPM
is warming up at the recommended RPM. which is acceptable. If the results of the check are outside these
limits, an investigation is called for. Sometimes an excessive
• Switch one magneto “OFF”. The engine should continue drop may be cleared by a further engine running. If this is
running but with a small drop in RPM. Switch magneto unsuccessful one or more plugs may be suspect, and because
“ON”. it is challenging to identify a particular faulty plug, the half set
• Switch the other magneto “OFF”, and the effect should would need to be changed and the engine rerun.
be the same as for the first magneto. Switch magneto
“ON”. Further investigation is called for if the magneto drop persists.
• Switch both magnetos “OFF” briefly, then back “ON”. Perhaps it is an engine and not an ignition fault which is the
The engine should cut dead then pick up. Never leaves cause. The condition of removed plugs can often provide clues
the switches “OFF” for too long. It causes an to the fault, even after a short ground run.
accumulation of unburnt mixture which could explode
dangerously when the magnetos are eventually
switched “ON”.
Having checked both the magnetos are operating and can be

earthed, and the switches are functioning satisfactorily, next
carry out what is known as a magneto check. This ensures that
the sparking plugs function under the high pressure and
temperature conditions of full-throttle operation.
Magneto drop test

Auxiliary ignition systems
The magneto is a generator driven by the engine producing a The spring then unwinds rapidly and flicks the magneto round
high voltage current that provides the spark at the plugs. fast enough to produce a spark, which is so far retarded that
there is no danger of a kick-back form the propeller. As the
The correct operation of the magneto relies upon engine engine speeds increases, centrifugal forces hold the balanced
rotational speed. The magneto produces a strong spark at pawls out of engagement and only engage again on engine
regular engine speeds but during engine starting operations the shut down.
engines in not turning over fast enough to produce the
necessary strong spark for ignition. This problem is overcome Booster coils
by the use of auxiliary ignition systems. Booster coils can be divided into two categories:
There are two types of auxiliary ignition system. They are: • high tension coils; and
• low tension coils.
• impulse starters for low power engines; and
• booster coils for high power engines. High tension (HT) coil
A high-tension booster coil consists of an entirely separate
Impulse starters induction coil with its primary windings energised from the
Impulse starters are associated with low powered engines that aircraft battery, or ground power unit when the circuit is made
are usually started by hand. The unit is a spring-loaded by pressing the booster coil switch, or engine starter switch.
coupling through which the engine drives a magneto. The
coupling is divided into halves, and it is driven by the engine The diagram below shows that an armature and an electrically
through a strong spiral spring to the magneto half of the operated switch are also part of the booster coil. The armature,
coupling. as in the magneto, has a soft iron core on which are wound
primary and secondary windings. The electrically operated
As the engine is turned to start, the magneto turns with the switch controls the primary circuit. The moveable contact of the
engine until just before its contact breaker-points are about to switch is secured to a leaf spring which tends to hold the
open. At this point, a pawl falls against a stop on the magneto contacts closed. The hook of a flexible steel plate, upon which
endplate and prevents further magneto rotation. As the engine is mounted a soft iron pad, is caught under the leaf spring.
continues to turn the spiral spring winds up until, just after TDC,
a cam on the engine coupling releases the pawl.

Booster coil circuit

The primary contacts are normally closed so that when the Low tension (LT) coil
primary circuit is energised from the external power, the iron The low-tension booster coil is supplied with current from the
core becomes magnetised. The magnetised core immediately aircraft system when the booster coil or starter switch is
attracts the iron pad, causing the hook to open the contact pressed. The system is similar to the high-tension system, but
points and break the primary circuit. This causes the magnetic the separate starter brush on the magneto is not required. A
field to collapse across the secondary winding. A high-tension typical example of a low-tension booster coil circuit is illustrated
electrical impulse is produced as a result and is fed to the in the diagram below.
trailing brush of the engine magneto distributor rotor. In this
state the armature losses its magnetism thus allowing the leaf The primary contacts are normally closed so that, when the
spring to close the contact points. As the contact points close, primary circuit is energised from the external power, the iron
the primary circuit is again energised, and the cycle is repeated core becomes magnetised, attracts the iron pad, and breaks
and continues to be repeated until the external power is the circuit. The resultant collapse of the magnetic field induces
switched off. Thus, an endless stream of high-tension impulses a voltage into the secondary winding that charges the second
is fed to the distributor of the main magneto and on to the spark capacitor. The movement made by the iron pad and leaf spring
plugs. A capacitor is fitted across the contact points to reduce when breaking the primary circuit also closes the secondary
arcing at the points. contacts. The energy in the secondary capacitor then
discharges into the primary circuit of the magneto. This primary
The unit is designed to supply a continual stream of high- current flow causes a high-tension voltage to be induced into
tension electrical pulses, each capable of producing a spark at the secondary windings of the magneto, and a spark is
the spark plug. These impulses are directed to the cylinders in produced at the spark plug.
the correct firing order through the additional trailing brush on
the engine magneto distributor rotor.

Dual magneto

Bendix ignition system


Shower of sparks
The shower of sparks, or SOS method for starting, was The FAA-PMA approved SlickSTART™ magneto booster
originally used on the Ford Model T and later on some aircraft system integrates solid-state electronics with conventional
engines. Shower of spark systems consist of two magnetos, but ignition hardware to deliver optimum spark energy for improved
the left mag has two sets of points—one in the normal advance engine starting under all operating conditions. It delivers up to
position, and the other in a retarded position. A vibrator switch 340% more spark energy during start than conventional
(think of an old doorbell buzzer that creates a rapid firing impulse coupled or retard breaker systems. This added energy
sequence of sparks to the coil) is usually mounted on the enables the magnetos to fire partially fouled spark plugs, ignite
firewall, taking the advance points out of the loop, while less than optimum fuel mixtures, improve hot engine restarts,
activating the retarded points. Rather than one spark from an and improve starting performance during extremely cold
impulse coupling, there are nine to 12 sparks per sequence, weather operations.
providing much more opportunity for the spark to fire. These
systems were on several Beechcraft and earlier Mooney By creating an extended, powerful voltage for low-speed
models and are still in service. starting, SlickSTART™ increases the length of the starter
sequence while also increasing the electrical energy that gets
The problem with these systems is that the technology to the spark plug by up to 340 times that of an impulse-coupled
available back then only allowed the vibrator to increase the spark. Moreover, there is inherent drag in any engine; the larger
voltage per spark a moderate amount. While an engine can run and more powerful often being the most difficult to start. This
well on less than a 10 kV spark from a magneto, impulse drag presents inertia that needs to be overcome to get things
coupling increases this voltage by 4.8 kV, but there’s still only turning. Cold temps, fuel problems and cold oil are all common
one spark at the retarded position. Shower of spark systems problems. But if there are fuel and air, then all that is needed is
create a much longer spark sequence. heat, or in this case a spark, to create fire. Getting enough of a
highly charged spark to the spark plug is vital.
Champion SlickSTART™
The SlickSTART™ was developed in 1997 by Unison The SlickSTART™ is a single module that attaches to the
Industries and is now owned by Champion Aerospace. A aircraft firewall, measuring roughly130 mm (5") tall and 90 mm
variety of factors can cause an engine to be difficult to start. (3.5") wide. The device generates a shower of sparks
Improper priming (either too much or too little fuel), frosted electronically by using a capacitive discharge to store energy
spark plugs, fouled spark plugs and sometimes merely the and shoot it to the magneto when the starter is engaged.
nature of the engine can make starting a chore. Champion calls it a firestorm of electricity and indeed it is, as
the intensity of the spark is measured in kilojoules.
Now that you understand how the shower of sparks works,
think of the SlickSTART™ device as a more modern,
computerised approach to the SOS concept.
SlickSTART™ booster

Low-tension ignition systems
Low-tension is a type of magneto ignition system designed for The low-tension system virtually eliminates flashover in both
aircraft piston engines that operate at high altitude. the distributor and the harness because the air gaps within the
distributor have been eliminated by the use of a brush-type
High-tension ignition systems have undergone many distributor, and high-voltage is present only in short leads
refinements and improvements in design. This includes new between the transformer and spark plug. Although a certain
electronic systems that control more than just providing ignition amount of electrical leakage is characteristic of all ignition
to the cylinders. High-tension voltage presents certain systems, it is more pronounced on radio-shielded installations
problems with carrying the high-voltage from the magneto because the metal conduit is at ground potential and close to
internally and externally to the spark plugs. In the early years, the ignition wires throughout their entire length. In low-tension
it was difficult to provide insulators that could contain high systems, however, this leakage is reduced considerably
voltage, especially at high altitudes, when the air pressures because the current throughout most of the system is
were reduced. Another requirement of high-tension systems transmitted at a low-voltage potential.
was that all weather and radio-equipped aircraft have ignition
wires enclosed in shielding to prevent radio noise due to high- Although the leads between the transformer coils and the spark
voltages. Many aircraft were turbo supercharged and operated plugs of a low-tension ignition system are short, they are high-
at increased high altitudes. The low pressure at these altitudes tension, high-voltage conductors and are subject to the same
would allow the high-voltage to leak out even more. Low- failures that occur in high-tension systems.
tension ignition systems were developed to address these
problems. Low-tension ignition systems have limited use in modern
aircraft because of the excellent materials and shielding
Electronically, the low-tension system is different from the high- available to construct high-tension ignition leads and the added
tension system. In the low-tension system, low-voltage is cost of a coil for each spark plug with the low-tension system.
generated in the magneto and flows to the primary winding of
a transformer coil located near the spark plug. There, the Low-tension ignition systems are not popular today because
voltage is increased to high by transformer action and most aircraft that fly at high altitudes are turbine powered.
conducted to the spark plug by very short high-tension leads.

Ignition timing
General
Ignition timing is used to determine the correct position of the ignition timing produces the maximum output from the engine.
piston for ignition of the fuel/air mixture. Ignition of the fuel/air Examples of ignition timing marks are illustrated below.
gases takes place just before top dead centre (TDC). As the
flame spreads through the combustion chamber, the intense There are various methods of checking ignition timing.
heat raises the pressure within the cylinder to a peak value Sophisticated equipment is available, in the form of electronic
which is reached about 10° past TDC. This pressure forces the timing indicators, mechanical indicators, etc. A simple method
piston down. This is known as the power stroke of the four- in use is the light timing system which shows the exact instant
stroke cycle. It is, therefore, most important that the spark plug when the contact breakers open.
delivers the spark at the right moment of the cycle.
A lamp and battery may be used to give a visual indication. The
If peak pressure is reached before the point of ignition, very primary side of the contact breaker points is disconnected or
little torque is produced, and heavy loads are placed upon the otherwise insulated, and the two leads from the lamp and batter
crankshaft bearings, because of the acute angle of the crank are then connected to either side of the breaker points so that
web. If peak pressure is reached after this point, not only has the contact breaker forms a switch in the lamp and battery
gas pressure been lost, because of the increase in volume circuit. With the contacts closed, the lamp lights and, at the
above the piston, but the actual working stroke (power) has moment of opening, the light goes out. This type of test gives
been reduced. not only a visual indication but an audible indication as well (the
contacts click as they open).
Most engines have timing reference marks incorporated into
the engine crankcase to help ensure that ignition takes place at The magneto and distributor can be finely adjusted to ensure
the correct time. These reference marks can be in the form of that the contact breakers are just opening at the correct time
a notched arrow, or plain line. The rotating crankshaft, or when the reference marks on the engine and crankshaft align.
propeller flange, has a corresponding mark, indicating TDC and
also a mark indicating the correct position of the piston When considering ignition timing, other factors must be
(normally No. 1 piston) for ignition to occur. considered, they are:
• engine speed;
When the two reference marks are aligned, this is known as
ignition timing and can be expressed as x degrees before TDC. • manifold pressure; and
The actual position before TDC is determined by the • mixture strength.
manufacturer, after many rigorous tests to ensure that the

Lycoming timing marks
Ignition timing marks

Engine speed The automatic timing adjuster operates the ignition timing
The faster an engine runs, the greater is the arc of crankpin changes as a function of engine RPM. The driven member is
travel during the time taken for the charge to burn. Therefore, keyed to the magneto driving shaft, and the driving flange is
with an increase in engine speed, the timing needs to be secured to studs in the driving member. Two driving dogs
progressively advanced. With a reduction in engine speed, the formed on the gear face of the driving flange transmit the drive
timing should be retarded. from the engine.
Manifold pressure The automatic advance of ignition timing is obtained through

The higher the pressure of a gas, the faster it burns. Thus, the two weighted arms inserted between the driving and driven
cylinder charge of an engine running at high boost burns members. The arms are pivoted on the driving member and,
quicker than a charge at low manifold pressure. To stop this when the engine speed is increased, they move outwards
peak pressure position moving as manifold pressure is under centrifugal force. This movement is governed by a roller
increased, the ignition timing should be progressively retarded. attached to each arm, each roller following the profile of a cam
riveted to the driven member.
Mixture strength
A correct mixture burns faster than either a weak or a rich Thus, outward movement of the arms causes the driven
mixture. Any variation from the correct mixture strength member to rotate relative to the driving member, advancing the
requires an advancement of ignition timing. timing. Reduction in speed lowers the centrifugal force, and
outward movement of the arms is opposed by compression
There is, however, a tendency for these factors to cancel out springs. The roller moves down the profile of the cam retarding
(e.g. high engine speed generally means high manifold the ignition.
pressure and rich mixture), but the cancellation is not exact. On
the low powered engine, the gain from making slight This is a simple but effective method of controlling the ignition
adjustments to the ignition timing during engine running is timing; it automatically advances and retards the ignition timing.
usually too small to be considered. On the larger engines,
however, where the gain can be approachable, ignition timing Magneto timing (Bendix)
may be varied to suit all these conditions, and this variation can the magneto must be carefully timed to the engine while fitting
be achieved by an automatic timing adjuster. to ensure a spark occurs at the spark plug at the exact number
of degrees before T.D.C. stipulated by the manufacturer.
Automatic timing control
An example of an automatic timing adjuster is illustrated in the Before fitting, the magneto must be internally timed ensure it
diagram below. gives maximum efficiency so giving the most energetic spark
possible.

Dual magneto

The ‘E’ (efficiency) gap Setting the ‘E’ gap
This is the angular distance between neutral and the points A scale, pointer and Magneto Synchroniser are required for this
opening. The flux change in a rotating magneto does not occur operation.
at the neutral point, as it would if rotated slowly by hand. This
is because the poles of the electromagnet, created by the The cover must be removed from the contact breaker points
current flow in the primary windings, oppose the motion that and the plastic plug removed from the timing window to expose
causes the initial current flow, (Lenz’s Law). Because the poles the driving gear.
are of opposite polarity, they attract and draw the flux lines of
the rotating magnet the long route through the coil, creating • Rotate the magneto in the normal direction of rotation
significant stress. This stress is relieved at some 10° after the until the red chamfered tooth is in the centre of the timing
neutral point by the opening of the contact breaker. This causes hole. Turn magneto backwards slightly until the neutral
a tremendous flux change from collapse to the full register in (magnetic lock) point is felt, see below.
the opposite direction. This, in turn, induces a very high voltage • The scale should be attached to the screw holes of the
into the secondary windings of the coil which discharge across contact breaker cover and the pointer attached to the
the spark plug electrodes. cam screw. Set the pointer to zero on the scale.
• Connect the magneto synchroniser to the magneto,
The contact breaker points are a mechanical earthing switch positive lead (red) to points terminal and negative lead
operated by a cam on the engine-driven magneto shaft. (black) to the magneto body.
• Switch on the synchroniser and carefully rotate the
magneto in the right direction until synchroniser light
comes on.

Timing marks positions

• Read off the number of degrees indicated by the pointer;
this should be within limits laid down in the service
manual, see the diagram below-top.
• If the angle is incorrect, loosen the screws holding the
points and with the pointer held at the prescribed ‘E’ gap
setting, move the points until the light just comes up.
Tighten screws and recheck.
• Turn the magneto until the points are fully open and
check the gap with feeler gauges, 0.3 mm to 0.6 mm
(0.012" to 0.024") typical. If not within limits, change the
adjustment enough to bring it in. Then recheck ‘E’ gap
to make sure this is still within its tolerance, see the
diagram below-bottom.
• On retard breaker magnetos, turn the magneto back to
the point of main breaker opening.
• Reposition pointer at zero degrees.
• Turn magneto in the normal direction until the pointer is
over the required number of degrees (as marked in the
centre of breaker compartment).
• Connect timing light across retard breaker and adjust
contacts to open at this point.
• Turn magneto in the normal direction until the cam
follower is on the high point of cam and measure gap.
• If the gap is not 0.3 mm to 0.6 mm (0.012" to 0.024")
readjust breaker and verify that contacts open at the
retard angle. A tolerance of +2°/-0° is allowed.
• Replace breaker assembly if both ‘E’ gap and points gap
tolerance cannot be obtained.

Setting the ‘E’ gap
Checking point clearance

Timing marks
Most aircraft reciprocating engines have timing reference Top dead centre, on the other hand, is the point at which the
marks built into them. The actual number of degrees may be piston is positioned the maximum distance from the centre of
found on the engine data plate mounted on the engine case. In the crankshaft journal. It is also in the centre of the ‘no travel
most cases, the number is in the region of 25° before the top zone’. This places the piston in a position at which a straight
dead centre, and both magnetos have the same timing with few line can be drawn through the centre of the crankshaft journal,
exceptions such as the TCM C-85. On direct drive engines (no the crankpin, and the piston pin. It is the point from which all
propeller reduction gear), the timing mark is on the edge of the other piston and crankshaft positions are referenced. Placing
propeller-mounting flange on the crank. The TC (top centre) the piston in this position by turning the crankshaft can be
mark on the flange aligns with the top crankcase split line on accomplished in any one of several ways
most Lycoming engines. On Continental engines, the TC mark
on the propeller flange aligns with the lower crankcase split line. Remove one spark plug form number one cylinder and place a
These marks, when properly positioned, indicate that the thumb over the spark plug hole. Rotate the engine in the normal
number-one piston in the number-one cylinder is at top dead direction of rotation until the compression stroke is reached.
centre. Other marks on the flange indicate degrees before or Continue turning until the spark advance timing marks are
after top dead centre. Some engines have the timing marks on aligned as illustrated in the diagram below.
the alternator pulley that correspond to marks on the accessory
housing. Other engines have the timing marks on the Set the magneto
crankshaft or some crankshaft drive gear and can be viewed Rotate the magneto drive shaft in the normal direction of
by removing a plug from the crankcase. rotation until the red chamfered tooth is in the centre of the
timing hole. Turn the magneto backwards slightly until the
Timing magneto to engine neutral point is felt.
Set the engine to TDC Ensure that the gear does not rotate from this position. Fit
Any given piston position is referenced to TDC. This piston gasket and install the magneto to the engine. Secure with
position is not to be confused with the hazily defined position washers and nuts, finger tight. Connect the synchroniser,
called top centre (TC). A piston in top centre has little value positive lead to points terminal, and negative lead to a clean
from a timing standpoint because the crankshaft position may unpainted of the engine. Switch on.
vary from one to five degrees in this piston position. In other Rotate the magneto on its mounting flange to a point where the
words, the piston is at the top of its travel and is in its ‘no-travel’ light comes on, then slowly turn it in the opposite direction until
zone. This occurs between the time the crankshaft and the light goes out. Rotate the magneto back slowly in the
connecting rod stop pushing the piston upward and continues normal direction of rotation until the light just comes on. Tighten
until the crankshaft has swung the lower end of the connecting nuts to the specified torque.
rod into a position where the piston is now pulled downward.
Synchronisation
Turn the engine back to about 30° before TDC to avoid picking
up impulse coupling. Couple the synchroniser to both
magnetos and switch on.
Slowly turn the engine in the normal direction of rotation and

check that the timing lights come on exactly together and that
the timing marks are in alignment. If the timing is incorrect,
reposition magneto/s and check again. Refit cover over contact
breaker and plastic plug to timing pole.

The magneto synchroniser
The aircraft magneto timing light model E50 is the industry
standard. Designed specifically for the internal timing and
synchronisation of aircraft magnetos, the E50 safely absorbs
the current from the magneto’s impulse coupling. So, there is
no danger of engine firing while adjustments are being made.
The E50 timing light takes all the guesswork out of the magneto
timing process. It is quick and easy to use; attach the three clips
to the magnetos and adjust them until the E50’s two blinking
lights are synchronised and the buzzer changes in pitch.

Time-Rite piston indicator

Eastern Technology E25 timing indicator
1) Remove all top spark plugs. Install a piston stop into the
No 1 cylinder top spark-plug hole.
2) Install timing disc indicator on the aircraft propeller
spinner or hub using elastic bands.
3) Turn the propeller slowly in the direction of rotation until
piston lightly touches the piston stop.
4) Rotate the disc of the timing indicator until TDC mark is
under the point of the weighted pendulum pointer.
5) Slowly turn propeller in the opposite direction until the
piston again lightly touches the piston stop. Observe
reading on the disc under the pointer and rotate the disc
to exactly half of the number of degrees towards the
TDC mark.
6) Remove the piston stop from the cylinder and find the
compression stroke of the No 1 cylinder by placing a
finger over the spark plug hole and rotating the propeller
until compression is felt, continue rotation until the
pointer is under TDC. You have now found TDC on the
compression stroke.
7) To check the magneto timing or to time the magnetos to
the engine move the propeller in the opposite direction
of rotation past the specified magneto timing setting and
then back in the direction of rotation until the desired
setting before TDC is under the pointer (this removes the
factor of gear backlash).
8) The breaker points should just be starting to open at this
setting. Breaker points should be checked with a
synchroniser

Eastern Technology E25 timing indicator

Aero-Diesel engine glow plugs
Diesel engines do not require an ignition system because the The glow plugs are on the longest during cold weather starts
engine uses high cylinder compression to cause a spontaneous versus a warm engine start, which has the shortest glow cycle.
combustion of the air/fuel mixture. No spark is required as it is Once the engine is running, the glow plugs are extinguished
in a gasoline engine to ignite the fuel charge. This is one of the and do not come back on until the next engine start.
significant advantages of the Diesel engine compared to a
gasoline engine, in terms of weight saving, maintenance Bosch Glow Plugs
complexity and safety. https://youtu.be/9hIbT8-rS7E
A glow plug is located in each cylinder to preheat all surfaces There are two types of glow plug in use.
of the cylinder and the initial cold air charge at the start. This
• Metal-type
promotes the combustion required for starting and for the
• Ceramic-type
engine to continue to run. Hence, fuel injection is necessary to
control the timing and the duration of the fuel pulse. When the Metal-type glow plugs have their heating coils mounted in a
engine is cold-soaked, the engine block can act as a heat sink, heat resistant alloy tube.
pulling enough heat from the compressed air in the cylinder to
prevent the engine from starting. Cold engine starting is the Ceramic-type glow plugs, which have been employed in Diesel
only time the glow plugs may be required during an engine run engines since 1985, have their heater elements contained in a
cycle. ceramic material, which is silicon nitride. Ceramic-type glow
plugs have greater heat resistance and durability.
The glow plugs are similar to spark plugs, but instead of having
an electrode in the tip, they have a heating element. They look Actuation of the glow plugs is automatic and is displayed by an
like a long pencil. When turned on, they begin to ‘glow’ similar annunciator light on the instrument panel. Current draw per
to the way a toaster works. It is on for only long enough to glow plug is approximately 15 Amp at 12V (or 7.5 Amp at 24V).
preheat the cylinder before engine start, and for several
seconds after start to ensure proper engine start and run. Some glow plug types receive a pulse width modulated control
signal from a Glow Plug Control unit (GPC), as determined by
The FADEC system determines the total time that the glow the FADEC.
plugs are energised by analysing the coolant temperature and
air temperature inputs. This time ranges from zero to 40
seconds for prestart and may remain energised for up to 50
seconds after start.

Glow plug
construction
Location of glow-plug in the

cylinder head
Ceramic-type and metal-type glow plugs Glow plug and glow plug control unit (used on the Thielert TAE 125)

Starting systems
The starter’s purpose is to provide the aircraft engine rotational Hand Starting inertial starter Stearman
force allowing ignition and sustained engine running speed. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z5ZkHhy4m34
The starter motor must develop a high cranking torque during
the period when the starting switch is closed. The starter motor How It Works ... Aircraft Starter
is designed to engage its pinion with the engine starter ring https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tjDAjo8CtSU
gear at the beginning of the start cycle and then disengage
when the ignition switch is released.
Types of starter
Piston engine starters can be divided into two types:
• inertia starters; and

• direct cranking electrical starters.
Manual cranking inertia starter

Although the inertia type starter is relatively old in design, it was
very effective. It has been mainly superseded by direct
electrical starters. However, there are still a few types of aircraft
with inertia systems.
The diagram below-top shows a typical example of this type.
The electrical motor drives the flywheel via a centrifugal clutch.

While the flywheel is being turned by the electric motor, the
hand crank connection also turns. When hand cranking, the
centrifugal clutch is disengaged from the flywheel and allows
cranking to continue without affecting the electrical motor.
The cranking handle receptacle is normally found on the engine

cowling together with the engaging lever pull rod.

Inertia starter
Inertia starter hand crank
Inertia starter hand crank Cable engage

Electrical inertia starters
This type of starter uses the same principle as the manual
cranking inertia starter; however, in this case, an electrical
motor has replaced the crank handle, although the manual
engagement operation is retained. The flywheel is accelerated
up to speed by the electrical motor, and engagement to the
crank of the engine is similar to the method shown below-top.
Combination inertia starters

Another type of inertia starter is a combination of both electrical
and manual types, and sometimes known as the combination
hand and electrical starter.
Manual engagement
As illustrated in the diagram below-bottom, you can see that
this method of engagement is similar to the manual inertia type,
in respect of its being operated by a hand cable. By pulling the
cable, the engaging lever moves the clutch. The starter ring
gear and the drive pinion are stationary, thus allowing smooth
meshing of the gears. Once the gears fully mesh, a further
movement of the engaging lever energises a switch on the
electric motor causing the motor, through the motor gear, the
drive pinion and the starter gear ring, to rotate the engine.
Once the engine has fired, the overrunning clutch disengages

the pinion drive from the electric motor and as the engaging
lever is released the drive pinion is disengaged from the starter
gear ring by the action of the return spring. Correct adjustment
of the engaging lever and cable is essential. The drive pinion
must be engaged with the starter gear ring before the electrical
motor rotates. An adjusting screw for switch operation is
provided on the engaging lever assembly.

Inertia starter circuit

Direct cranking starters
Most current small reciprocating engines employ the direct Once engaged, the plunger in the solenoid bridges the motor
cranking method of engine starting. This system comprises two contacts and power is directed to the electric motor, which then
components: turns the starter ring via the drive pinion.
• the electric motor; and Both of the two methods so far mentioned are usually found on
• the gear section. light aircraft with relatively small reciprocating engines.
The significant difference from the inertia system is that the Larger type engines require a slightly different type of starter
direct cranking method eliminates the need for a flywheel arrangement, although this is still a direct cranking method, the
assembly; this is because the engine is cranked directly by the type used for this purpose is the Bendix drive starter.
electrical motor.
Electric starter circuit
Although an electric motor is used on all occasions, the method A simple engine starter circuit is shown in the diagram below
of starter engagement can vary from one starter to another. The top-right. As you can see, the main components within this
three primary methods of engagement are: system are:
• manual; • a battery switch;

• solenoid or pre-engaged; and • a starter switch;
• Bendix drive. • a starter relay; and
• an electrical starter.
We will look at each in turn and see how starter engagement is
affected. If we look at the source of electrical power, we can see that this
originated from either an external ground power plug or an
Solenoid or pre-engaged aircraft battery. The source of ground power can either be a
A pre-engaged starter is shown in the diagram below top-left, series of separate batteries or a ground power unit (GPU); the
the method of operation is similar to that for the manual source of ground power is connected to the DC busbar of the
method, but in place of the hand-operated engaging lever, an aircraft to prevent using the aircraft battery. However, at this
electric solenoid operating the engaging lever is fitted. point, power is only supplied to the DC busbar and down to the
starter relay.
Turning the engage start switch to ‘on’ energises the solenoid,
which then pulls the engaging lever to the left. Because this
lever is pivoted about its centre, it causes the drive pinion to
move to the right to engage the starter gear ring.

Inertia starter hand crank

Basic starter description
The starter motor must develop a high cranking torque during As the armature turns, the drive pack pinion extends and
the period when the starting switch is closed. The starter motor meshes with the engine starter ring gear via the
is designed to engage its pinion with the engine starter ring electromagnetic coil. The ball clutch torque limiter holds the
gear at the beginning of the start cycle and then disengage pinion for start loads but allows slippage should an engine ‘kick-
when the ignition switch is released. This is accomplished back’ occur, preventing damage to the ring gear or starter
through the use of the starter drive pack which contains a
control circuit, solenoid coil, torque limiting clutch assembly, When the engine achieves a start and the starter switch is
and a return spring. released, the pinion gear de-meshes from the starter ring gear
via a return spring in the drive pack.
The gear-reduction starter motor consists of six major
components: The drive pack assembly consists of the torque-limiting clutch
assembly, solenoid assembly and the pinion gear. The drive
• the starter drive pack, assembly mounts within the drive housing. The driveshaft
• the gear reduction assembly, passes through the drive assembly and engages via helical
• the drive housing, splines.
• the armature,
• the magnet housing assembly, and The gear reduction assembly consists of the drive shaft,
• the commutator assembly. planetary gears, metal gear track, and retaining cover. It
provides a reduction from the high-speed low-torque motor to
The drive pack consists of the pinion gear, torque limiting the low-speed high-torque drive shaft. The drive shaft transmits
clutch, solenoid coil, and return spring. torque to the drive assembly via helical splines.
When the starting circuit is energised, the battery current is The drive end housing encloses the drive mechanism and
applied to the starter terminal. Current flows through the contains the needle bearing in which the drive shaft rotates.
brushes to the commutator through the armature windings to (The drive end housing assembly includes the intermediate
ground. Permanent magnets are used to create a strong housing.)
magnetic field. The magnetic force created begins to turn the
armature. Current is then supplied to the drive pack (engage The armature consists of a laminated soft-iron core assembled
and hold coil). on the armature shaft, a commutator and the windings. These
are wound in slots in the core and connected to the
commutator. The commutator is made up of several copper
segments insulated from each other and the armature shaft.
The armature shaft extends into the reduction-gear assembly
and is supported on each end by bushings.
Starter motor
Starter motor components
Starter motor circuit diagram

The magnet housing assembly includes the frame which Starter Models Skytech E-DRIVE series
physically supports the other components of the motor and the Weight: 4.20 kg (9.25 lbs)
permanent magnets. The permanent magnets supply the
magnetic field required for producing rotary motion They are fitted with a lightweight, 4-pole permanent magnet
drive motor.
The commutator assembly contains one of the armature shaft
bushings and the brush holder assembly, which contains the Gear reduction at 3.6 to 1.
brushes. Each brush is a one-piece composite matrix with
integral shunts. They are spring-loaded and ride on the They have a maximum duty cycle – 10% continuous
armature commutator as it rotates 30 seconds on 20 seconds rest (continuous) 10 sec on
20 seconds rest for 20 starts (intermittent).
Starter duty cycle requirements
The starter cranks the engine for starting while the battery Operating temperature range -44°C to +68°C (-45°f to +155°f)
supplies the power. The engine does not always start on the Operating Speed (max motor output under load) 3,100 RPM.
first attempt, resulting in significant heat generated in starter Max drive amperage (70 amps under load) 80 – 125 amps @
components. This requires a limitation to the number of start 150 RPM while starting (12.0 V- 24.0 V).
cycles which can be made before a cooling-down period must
be applied, referred to as the duty cycle. Operating input (minimum & maximum under load) (12.0 V) –
9.0 V to 14.5 V, (24.0 V).18.0 V to 29.0 V.
1) The engine must be grounded to the aircraft.
2) Engage starter for 10 seconds of power (start),
20 seconds cool down (rest) for up to 20 starts then
10 minutes cool down before next start attempt.
3) Do not apply power to starter unless installed on the
engine. Do not free run as this may cause internal
damage to the starter

Bendix drive
With this type of starter, the method of engagement is Whenever any of the above defects are experienced, the
automatic, utilising a drive known as a Bendix drive. The starting motor should be removed immediately, and the Bendix
armature shaft turns when electrical power is applied to the Drive cleaned and lubricated. Oil should never be used,
starter motor. Because of its inertia, the pinion is thrown along because the oil in that location collects dust and dirt, becoming
the helical splined drive shaft until it engages with the starter gummy and causing the Bendix drive to stick.
ring and turns the engine see the diagram below.
In most cases, it is necessary to partially disassemble the
On start-up, the engine rotates faster than the starter pinion, so starting motor to service the Bendix drive. The latter should be
the ring gear moves the pinion back along the shaft (along the removed from the motor shaft to ensure thorough cleaning and
helical splines) and disengages the drive pinion from the starter lubricating. Clean the area in front of the Bendix drive pinion
gear ring. The anti-drift spring ensures that the drive pinion is before removing the drive from the shaft.
kept away from the rotating starter gear ring when the engine
is running and the starter de-energised. The drive spring Do not use carburettor cleaner or any solvents that could
transmits torque from the starter motor to the drive during the damage the rubber block inside the Bendix drive. Use only
starting sequence. clean petroleum-based cleaners such as kerosene or Varsol.
Many starters manufactured by Prestolite and Electro Systems Thoroughly clean the Bendix drive to remove all dirt and
are in use with Lycoming engines. The location of the starting contamination from the screw shaft threads and control nut. If
motor on many aircraft engines subjects the Bendix drive of the the drive is exceptionally dirty, the drive pinion cup can be
starter to contamination from dust, dirt and moisture because removed to ensure a thorough cleaning job. Do not attempt to
the drive housing is open, and the engine continuously remove the control nut. Finally lubricate with silicone spray
circulates air around the starting motor. (Crown Industrial 8034).
Typical indications of a dirty Bendix drive are: The starter will not rotate until the starter relay is closed on the
receipt of an electrical signal from the starter switch.
• sluggish operation – operator has to make several
attempts before the starting motor cranks the engine;
• noisy operation – a grinding noise when the starter is
energised; and
• failure to engage.

Bendix drive operation
Electric starter motor with Bendix drive
Bendix drive
Starter relay Bonding/earthing straps
The main electrical cables that lead from the batter to the starter Up to this point, we have discussed the simple circuit in terms
are heavy-duty and can carry a current flow in some cases over of starter rotation. However, we all know that in most cases the
300 amps, depending on the starting torque of the engine. It airframe is used as a negative return in a typical electrical
would be impractical to take these heavy cables into the cockpit system. For the starter to operate effectively, it must be bonded
to the starter switch, as this would add weight to the system to the aircraft structure. This is achieved by the use of an earth
and create a significant circuit voltage drop. or bonding strap. We can see this illustrated below-right.
By using a starter relay, only lightly loaded cables need to be In practice, bonding leads are kept to a minimum; this is
routed into the starter switch. The cables still receive a DC generally achieved by connecting the leads from the body of
supply but operate a remote relay that closes the contacts on the starter to an adjacent point on the airframe. The bolts that
the heavy-duty cables, thus allowing power directly from the DC attach the starter to the engine are not considered to be an
bus to the starter. adequate bond.
Illustrated below left is a typical example of a starter relay. Here Selection of the correct material for earth straps is essential;
we can see a low current control circuit energising a solenoid the use of an innocent material could lead to localised corrosion
coil that pulls down a moveable contractor, thus closing the due to electrolytic action at the earth joint. The most common
contacts on the high-power circuit allowing power through to type of earth strap in use is made of aluminium alloy, although
the starter. Once the starting cycle has been completed, the copper can be used to earth arts made of stainless steel,
low current circuit is switched off, and the now de-energised copper, brass or bronze.
coil, assisted by the spring, allows the contractors to open, thus
preventing current flowing into the starter. To ensure effective low resistance connections are made, non-
conducting surfaces, paint and anodising films should be
However, experience has shown that relay contactors have removed before the connection of the earthing strap. High
been known to jam in the closed position. This has led to minor resistances at earthing points generates poor starting qualities
fires, overheating of starter cables, and burning out of starter in the starter system, resulting in the overheating of cables and
motors. To overcome this problem, Aviation Authorities starter motors.
recommend some other means of disabling the starter circuit in
the event of a relay being jammed in the closed position. It must be noted, however, that surfaces that have been
reduced to bare metal must have some form of protective
This usually takes the form of: coating applied after the earth joint has been made. This is
typically achieved by the use of a blue colour paint that covers
• either a manually operated starter isolation switch in the affected area but also acts as an earthing point identifier.
series with the starter relay contacts; or
• providing two starter relays in series.
Starter relay
Starter relay circuit Bonding/earthing strap

Troubleshooting and maintenance
This information must be regarded as general in presentation Dirty commutators can be cleaned carefully with a very fine
and does not reflect any particular type of engine. Reference grade of sandpaper or stone, taking great care not to damage
should always be made to the aircraft maintenance manual for the insulation on the commutator. The best action, however, is
the inspection and maintenance of engine starter systems. to send the motor to an overhaul agency for a complete
overhaul to be carried out.
Failure of the starter system to operate correctly can be
attributed to any of the following: Brush maintenance
Sparking of brushes reduces the effect of brush area in contact
• electric power source, i.e. battery condition; with the commutator bars quickly. The degree of such sparking
• starter control switch; should be determined. Excessive wear warrants a detailed
• starter relay; inspection.
• electrical wiring circuit; or
• starter motor – mechanical or electrical failure or poor The following information pertains to brush seating, brush
earthing strap. pressure, high-mica condition, and brush wear.
We consider each in turn and see how the system can be Manufacturers usually recommend the following procedures to
tested, and remedial action carried out. seat brushes which do not make good contact with
commutators.
The battery must be fully charged to ensure proper rotation of
the starter motor when using the starter relay is indicative of a The brush should be lifted sufficiently to permit the insertion of
low voltage battery. A slow turning starter also indicates a low a strip of No. 000, or finer, sandpaper under the brush, rough
charged battery. The apparent remedy for this situation is to side out as in the diagram below.
replace the battery, if the aircraft has the facility, to connect an
external electrical supply. Pull sandpaper in the direction of armature rotation, being
careful to keep the ends of the sandpaper as close to the slip
Where the starter control switch, starter solenoid and electrical ring or commutator surface as possible to a sold rounding the
circuit are concerned, any investigation into the integrity of edges of the brush. When pulling the sandpaper back to the
these components and wiring should be carried out by a starting point, the brush should be raised, so it does not ride on
qualified engineer. If all the components and the circuits prove the sandpaper. The brush should be sanded only in the
to be satisfactory, then the fault is likely in the starter motor direction of rotation.
itself.
The most common fault in electrical starters is that of worn

brushes or dirty commuters within the starter motor.
Commutator and brushes (removed)
Seating brushes with sandpaper

After the generator has run for a short period, brushes should The purpose of the pigtail is to conduct the current, rather than
be inspected to make sure that pieces of sand have not subjecting the brush spring to currents which would alter its
become embedded in the brush and are collecting copper. spring action by overheating. The pigtails also eliminate any
possible sparking to the brush guides caused by the movement
Under no circumstances should emery cloth or similar of the brushes within the holder, thus minimising side wear of
abrasives be used for seating brushes (or smoothing the brush.
commutators), since they contain conductive materials which
cause arcing between brushes and commutator bars. Carbon dust resulting from brush sanding should be thoroughly
cleaned from all parts of the generators after a sanding
Excessive pressure causes rapid wear of brushes. Too little operation. Such carbon dust has been the cause of several
pressure, however, allows ‘bouncing’ of the brushes, resulting serious fires as well as costly damage to the generator.
in burned and pitted surfaces.
Operation over extended periods often results in the mica
A carbon-graphite or light metallised brush should exert a insulation between commutator bars protruding almost to the
pressure of 1½ to 2½ psi on the commutator. The pressure surface of the bars. This condition is called ‘high mica’ and
recommended by the manufacturer should be checked with the interferes with the contact of the brushes to the commutator.
use of a spring scale graduated in ounces. Brush spring tension
is usually adjusted between 32 to 36 ounces; however, the Whenever this condition exists, or if the armature has been
tension may differ slightly for each specific motor. turned on a lathe, carefully undercut the mica insulation to a
depth equal to the width of the mica, or approximately 0.5 mm
When a spring scale is used, the measurement of the pressure (0.020").
which a brush exerts on the commutator is read directly on the
scale. The scale is applied at the point of contact between the Each brush should be a specified length to work properly. If a
spring arm and the top of the brush, with the brush installed in brush is too short, the contact it makes with the commutator will
the guide. The scale is drawn up until the arm just lifts off the be faulty, which can also reduce the spring force holding the
brush surface. At this instant, the force on the scale should be brush in place. Most manufacturers specify the amount of wear
read. permissible from a new brush length. When a brush has worn
to the minimum length permissible, it must be replaced.
Flexible low-resistance pigtails are provided on most heavy
current-carrying brushes, and their connections should be
securely made and checked at frequent intervals
The pigtails should never be permitted to alter or restrict the

free movement of the brush.

Brush wear indicator
Section of a commutator
Commutator and brushes (removed) Brushes and pigtails

Pre-heat systems
General
Preheating is required whenever the engine has been exposed Preheating is about far more than just oil temperature. Proper
to temperatures at or below -7°C (20°F) (wind chill factor) for preheating involves heating the entire engine so that all critical
two hours or more. engine parts can be brought into the ‘safe’ temperature range.
In an ideal world, you would heat the entire aircraft to reduce
In extremely low temperatures, oil congeals, battery capacity is wear in everything from pulleys to gear components, avionics
lowered, and the starter can be overworked. Improper cold to gyroscopic instruments.
weather starting can result in abnormal engine wear, reduced
performance, shortened time between overhauls, or failure for Preheating can have a considerable impact on the longevity of
the engine to operate correctly. an aircraft engine. At a minimum, try to get the entire engine
above 5°C (40°F) to provide the best environment for its long-
Failure to properly preheat a cold-soaked engine may result in term health. And, if you have an option to get some heat into
oil congealing within the engine, oil hoses, and oil cooler with the cabin to warm the avionics and gyros before they spool up,
subsequent loss of oil flow, possible internal damage to the even better.
engine, and subsequent engine failure.
Superficial application of preheat to a cold-soaked engine can

cause damage to the engine. An inadequate application of
preheating may warm the engine enough to permit starting but
not de-congeal oil in the sump, lines, cooler, filter throughout.
Congealed oil in these areas requires considerable preheat.
The engine may start and appear to run satisfactorily but can
be damaged from lack of lubrication due to the congealed oil
blocking proper oil flow through the engine. The amount of
damage varies and may not become evident for many hours.
However, the engine may be severely damaged and may fail
shortly following application of high power. Proper procedures
require a thorough application of preheat to all parts of the
engine.

Electrical heater elements
bonded to the oil sump
Electrical forced hot air pre-heat system
Forced hot air directed into the Fuel powered forced hot air pre-heat system
engine compartment and the cockpit

Installed preheaters
The most common preheaters are built-in, electric preheating Leaving the preheater on for extended periods is controversial,
systems. Basic preheaters consist of a small electric pad that mainly due to the potential for increased corrosion. Different
is bonded to the oil sump. However, more extensive preheating situations dictate different recommendations. Above all, regular
systems are available; these include heating elements for other flying of the aircraft, frequent oil changes, and the use of anti-
parts of the engine, including the case and cylinders. A variety corrosion additives has the most significant impact on reducing
of component options to heat the different parts of the engine the exposure to corrosion.
are used, including heated intake tube bolts and valve cover
bolts. Some systems use heated bands that wrap around the There are a variety of remote-controlled switches available now
base of each cylinder. With either system, a well-insulated cowl (that work via the internet) that make it easier than ever to get
cover is strongly recommended to ensure that the entire engine the aircraft heated before the pilot even venture out to the
compartment is kept warm. airport.
The main problem with the sump-only preheating systems is Portable preheaters
that they do not always address the critical clearance issues. If no electricity is available at the tie-down location, or if you
The oil may be warm, but if the cylinders are cold, you can still want to avoid the cost of an installed system, there are portable,
have expansion issues and excessive wear at start-up. Also, forced hot-air preheating systems available. This is the most
heating just the oil sump for long periods can do more damage common form of rapid engine heating used by private operators
than good. The problem lies in condensation. and flight schools.
Condensation occurs anytime warm, moist air flows over a These systems usually require both electricity and propane to
surface colder than the dewpoint. In the case of electric oil create a powerful flow of hot air into the engine compartment.
sump heaters, the warm air above the oil can condense on the The air is either blown into the bottom of the cowl at the exhaust
cold parts of the engine, such as the cylinders and camshaft. opening or through the front of the cowl at the air inlets.
Since water is a key ingredient for corrosion, leaving only an oil
sump heater plugged in for extended periods can lead to One manufacturer makes a portable preheater that requires
premature cylinder and camshaft wear. only fuel and accepts a wide range (100LL, Jet-A, Kerosene).
With either solution, the key is to provide enough time to get
However, if a complete engine heating system is used in the entire engine up to a reasonable temperature before
conjunction with an insulated cover, corrosion concerns can be attempting a start.
largely eliminated.

Electrical built-in pre-heat system kit
– crankcase heater pads
Electrical built-in pre-heat system
components – cylinder head heater bands Electrical built-in pre-heat
system kit – heater pads
Portable forced-air
pre-heat system

Electrical built-in pre-heat system components – cylinder head heater bands

16.6 Induction, Exhaust and Cooling Systems

Copyright notice
LEVEL 3
subject.
appropriate.

© Copyright 2020 Module 16.6 Induction, Exhaust and Cooling Systems Issue 2 – July 2020
Knowledge
Part-66 Levels
Objective
Ref.
A B1 B3
Construction and operation of 16.6 1 2 2
induction systems including
alternate air systems;
Exhaust systems, engine cooling
systems – air and liquid.

Table of Contents
Induction systems _____________________________ 6
Intercooler ___________________________________ 6
Intakes _____________________________________ 6
Filters _____________________________________ 12
Alternate air systems__________________________ 14
The induction manifold ________________________ 16
Updraft and downdraft induction systems __________ 18
Induction priming systems______________________ 24
Induction system examination ___________________ 26
Exhaust systems _____________________________ 28
General ____________________________________ 28
Radial engine exhausts systems _________________ 30
Inline engine exhausts systems _________________ 32
Horizontally opposed engine exhausts systems _____ 34
Cooling systems ______________________________ 40
General ____________________________________ 40
Air-cooling radial engines ______________________ 42
Townend ring cowl ___________________________ 48
The NACA cowl ______________________________ 50
Gill ring ____________________________________ 50
Air-cooling inline and horizontally opposed engines __ 54
Augmenters _________________________________ 62
Liquid-cooled engines _________________________ 66
Example system: Continental Voyager ____________ 70
Advantages of liquid cooling ____________________ 72
Liquid cooling system layout ____________________ 76
Short-circuit _________________________________ 82
Cabin-heat circuit ____________________________ 82
Liquid-coolant system components _______________ 84


Induction systems
Aircraft engines are air-breathing, and there must be sufficient The reverse of these conditions apply with supercharged
air-flow into the engine to provide the oxygen needed to mix engines since a positive pressure exists at all times in the
with the hydrocarbon fuel so it can release its energy. The air induction manifold, and the increased pressure of air imparts
must enter the engine clean and cool so that its’ density is high, sufficient heat to vaporise the mixture. In many instances, the
yet not cold enough for ice to form in the induction system. The compressed mixture may require cooling, and an intercooler
induction system consists of the air intake up to the does this.
carburettor/injector and the induction manifold, and from there
to the cylinders. Intercooler
The supercharger compresses the air charge, which results in
The purpose of an induction system is to direct the correct it becoming hot. To increase engine performance by increasing
air/fuel mixture into the cylinders, via the atmosphere and the air density, it is passed through an intercooler which may
carburettor, either by positive pressure from the engine-driven be part of the engine cooling system or may be independent of
supercharger/turbo-supercharger or by the depression caused it, with an engine-driven circulating pump, a header tank and a
by the descending piston during the induction stroke. The coolant radiator of its own.
induction system generally is similar in both types except for
the introduction of the actual supercharger. Intakes
Having briefly described the problems of design encountered in
The main problem on a non-supercharged engine is to obtain normally aspirated and supercharged engines, the start point
an equal charge in each cylinder. The design of the manifold of any induction system is the air intake assembly. The air
becomes critical, as does the design of the inlet valves. The intake scoop itself provides air for purposes other than an air
relative cross-sectional area of the inlet valves and the manifold feed to the carburettor/injector.
passages affect the mixture flow. So, the whole efficiency of the
engine depends on them, as all the cylinders are the same
swept volume and require the same charge. Another problem
is the efficiency of the gasoline globules in suspension in the
mixture stream; these tend to stick to the walls of the passages.
This problem is reduced by imparting swirl or turbulence to the
mixture, or by heating the passages as some engines do by
passing the induction pipe through the hot engine oil sump.

Atmospheric conditions at altitude give lower air temperatures
than at ground level, and the effects of ice on the air intake and
carburettor are serious, both as regards restriction of the air
intake (thus affecting the whole induction system) and the
mechanical jamming of the throttle valves. To prevent this, ice
guards, and provision for drawing pre-heated air from the
engine nacelle, are used in the air intake. The pilot can control
the alternative hot or cold conditions at the intake using
shutters, either manually or by electro/pneumatic rams, some
of which are operated automatically. Also fitted in the air intake
is an air filter. The air filter removes all dust and grit from the air
before passing through the induction system.
In some cases, the air duct on one side of the filter supplies
cold air to the engine accessories such as the alternator or the
oil cooler, and the other duct goes to the heat exchanger for the
cabin air conditioning system.
Two main types of air intake are used on piston engines,

namely ram air-type and NACA-type.

The ram intake
The ram air-type consists of a scoop projecting into the air-flow,
which has the advantage of raising the air density to the
carburettor with increasing airspeed of the aircraft. This
recovers some of the power loss due to increasing altitude.
Unfortunately, this type of air intake is prone to icing and also
generates an appreciable amount of drag. The icing problem
can be overcome easily enough, but the drag problem tends to
waste a large proportion of any power gained by the ram air
effect. For these reasons, the ram air intake is not used on fast
aircraft, and the NACA type of intake was developed to
supersede it.

Ram air intake used on light aircraft
Ram air cowling intake on light aircraft

The NACA intake
The NACA air intake is mounted flush with the aircraft’s skin
and therefore imposes no drag penalty on the aircraft. It
consists of an ogee-shaped opening which develops into a
divergent duct which slows down the air-flow and at the same
time increases the air density. In some instances, an electrical
anti-icing heater element is built into the leading edge. Although
the NACA intake was developed for high-speed aircraft with
their shock-wave problems, it is becoming increasingly popular
on medium- and low-speed aircraft solely for its zero-drag
property. Prior submerged inlet experiments showed weak
pressure recovery due to the slow-moving boundary layer
entering the inlet. This design is believed to work because the
combination of the gentle ramp angle and the curvature profile
of the walls creates counter-rotating vortices which deflect the
boundary layer away from the inlet and draws in the faster-
moving air while avoiding the form drag and flow separation
that can occur with protruding scoop designs

NACA intake on a Cirrus SR22

Filters
The propeller stirs up a considerable amount of dust and grit on
the ground, and the pumping action of the pistons causes the
carburettor or fuel injection system to draw in large amounts of
this contaminated air. Sand and dust storms can fill the air with
sharp-edged particles up to an altitude of 10,000 to 15,000 ft.
Effective filters must be used to trap all of it before it can enter
the engine, to prevent the abrasive action of dust from causing
excessive wear. Dust and grit could also collect in the
carburettor and upset the air/fuel mixture by clogging air and
fuel passages.
Despite the resultant loss of the ram effect, the majority of air
intakes now incorporate an air filter at the air intake entrance to
remove particles of dust and dirt. These, if allowed into the
engine, can restrict pressure and flow sampling orifices so
upsetting the fuel/air ratio of the fuel metering devices.
Air filters vary in their composition:

• dry paper elements similar to some cars;
• paper elements impregnated with phenolic resin;
• polyurethane foam impregnated with glycol; and
• on older engines, an oiled fibre material glued to a wire
mesh frame.
All filters should be cleaned or replaced at prescribed intervals.

Whether one is cleanable or must be replaced depends upon
the engine and the environment in which it is working, so
adhered to the servicing manual. Some filters can be washed
in detergent and dried, others washed in fuel and then oiled.
Some can only be tapped to remove loose dirt while others can
be cleaned by blowing compressed air in a direction against
normal flow. Refer to your maintenance manual for the correct
cleaning procedure for your filter.
Air filters

Alternate air systems
Some installations achieve the best of both worlds in that the
intake is modified to give two entrances to the intake duct, a
straight-through entrance to take advantage of ram effect and
above or below it another entrance containing a filter. If the
intake or filter becomes obstructed by ice or other causes, the
pilot must manually select alternate air (“ALT AIR”) to “ON”
(lever down) to bypass the filter and allow induction air to be
taken from inside the engine cowling. Some aircraft have an
alternate air source which is provided automatically. In most
cases, a simple suction operated, spring-loaded alternative air
flap is incorporated in the air-filter box structure, and this
automatically opens in the event of the main air intake orifice
becoming blocked. As the filter becomes restricted the suction
pressure in the intake increases until the sprung loaded door
opens permitting unfiltered air to enter the engine.
In extreme cases, an alternate air intake is built into the top

cowling so that a flap valve may select ram or filtered air, the
alternate intake having a dust trap filter fitted. With the alternate
intake selected, air heavily laden with dirt has to turn through
90° to enter the intake and the dust and dirt particles, being
heavier, tend to go straight on past, the filter then removes the
remainder of the particles from the air stream.

Provision for filtered and unfiltered air
Manually operated alternate air selection Piper Seneca

The induction manifold
The induction manifold takes the air or fuel/air mixture to the It is crucial to identify and rectify induction leaks as they have
actual cylinders; air in the case of an injection system, fuel/air an adverse effect on the mixture and cylinder head
mixture in the case of a carburettor. With carburettors, the temperature. As cylinder head temperature is only provided
fuel/air distribution has always been a problem mainly due to from a master cylinder, the pilot does not have any indication
the varying lengths of the induction tubes. This is the reason that there is a change in the CHT of an individual cylinder.
why the mixture must be richer than the ideal so that each
cylinder is assured of at least a rich enough mixture to prevent
detonation. The induction manifold must have no leaks as this
adversely affects the fuel/air ratio.
Normally-aspirated engines have a lower than atmospheric air

pressure in the induction tube. Air is sucked inwards resulting
in a lean mixture; this potentially results in increased CHT
possibly resulting in valves sticking, mag drops and rough
operation.
Turbocharged engines run rich due to the induction system

being above atmospheric pressure, resulting in a loss of
pressure in the induction system. However, the fuel metering
system (injection) still delivers the same amount of fuel. The
likely effect is lead fouling, rough running and pre-ignition.
Some induction manifolds are routed through the oil sump,

where the heat from the sump oil assists in vaporisation of the
mixture and helps to cool the oil. On some continental 6
cylinder horizontally opposed engines the manifold is divided to
supply three cylinders from each branch, and a balance pipe is
fitted across the front of the engine to ensure equal pressure in
each branch. Yet another factor is that on some engines the
induction pipes are turned to an engine, i.e. length and
diameter. In this case, extra care must be taken if an induction
pipe replacement becomes necessary.

Induction system Lycoming IO-540

Updraft and downdraft induction systems
Updraft system Downdraft system

The updraft induction system utilises an intake manifold with an The balanced induction system shown in the above figure
air distribution system mounted below the engine cylinders. It provides optimum air-flow to each of the individual cylinders
consists of two runners and a balance crossover tube. It carries across a broad operation rpm range. With balanced air-flow
induction air to the individual cylinder intake ports. and precisely metered fuel injected into the cylinders, a much
smoother and efficient running engine can be achieved. This is
The cylinder intake ports are cast into the cylinder head due primarily to better-matched fuel to air ratios in all of the
assembly. Air from the manifold is carried into the intake ports, cylinders.
mixed with fuel from the injector nozzles where it enters the
cylinder as a combustible mixture when the intake valve opens. The cylinder intake ports are cast into the cylinder head
assembly. Air from the manifold is carried into the intake ports,
Engine components through which intake air flows following the mixed with fuel from the injector nozzles where it enters the
aircraft air inlet filter/alternate air door are the throttle assembly cylinder as a combustible mixture when the intake valve opens.
and manifold, through the induction tubes and into the cylinder
intake ports. Air flows through these components in the order The intake ports of the crossflow cylinder head design are
listed. located on top of the cylinder head while the exhaust ports are
located below. This cylinder design is used in conjunction with
The intake manifold is an air distribution system mounted below a balanced induction system mounted above the engine. This
the engine cylinders. It consists of two runners and a balance design permits the top-mounted downdraft induction of the type
tube. It carries induction air to the individual cylinder intake shown in the figure above.
ports.
The separate induction risers for each individual cylinder
The balance crossover tube is designed to reduce pressure permits not only a balance of air-flow to optimise the breathing
imbalances between the left and right-side induction runners. in each of the cylinders, but also serves to isolate any shock
These potential imbalances can occur due to the air waves waves of air that would tend to migrate between cylinders in the
accelerating and reflecting in the runners as the individual earlier runner induction design.
cylinders run through their respective intake sequences.
The cylinder intake ports are cast into the cylinder head
assembly. Air from the manifold is carried into the intake ports,
mixed with fuel from the injector nozzles where it enters the
cylinder as a combustible mixture when the intake valve opens.

Bottom view of engine with induction manifold installed

Top view – downdraft balanced induction

Downdraft balanced induction components

Top view – turbocharged engine – downdraft balanced induction with intercoolers
Top view – turbocharged engine – downdraft balanced induction with intercoolers – components

Induction priming systems
Some engines are furnished with a fuel priming system, to
reduce the time for initial engine starting, where fuel is
introduced directly into the induction manifold or induction port
on the cylinder head. This obviates the need to vaporise the
charge through the carburettor. As a sufficient quantity of air is
always contained in the induction system for the initial cylinder
charge, a spray of fuel from an external source is mixed with
this air. A magneto or booster coil is then operated, and the
engine is rotated sufficiently by the starter motor to compress a
charge in whichever cylinder or cylinders are on the
compression stroke. The high-tension current is fed through the
regular magneto distributor to the correct cylinder, and the
engine starts. Priming is continued until the carburettor can
supply the correct mixture. The amount of priming required
under varying temperature conditions is given in the
appropriate engine publication.

Operation of engine primer in cockpit
Fuel system schematic – with engine primer
Engine primer on firewall

Induction system examination
1) Check the air filter for cleanliness, normal operation and Improper or inadequate maintenance of the air induction
the absence of gaps or leaks in the filtering element. components of the aircraft engine installation can and often
Check the air filter seal for potential bypass circuits from does result in the engine breathing unfiltered air. Unfiltered air
the filter. Correct or replace, as necessary. contains particulates which are abrasive to the engine;
2) Verify the integrity of the airbox by examining for especially to the cylinder walls and ring faces. Induction system
alternate air circuits that can bypass the filtering system. maintenance that emphasises properly sealed filters, alternate
Any holes or bypass circuits found behind the filtering air doors, and air ducts can prevent much of that damage.
element should be repaired as required. Induction system deficiencies can often be detected through oil
3) Verify the operation of the alternate air door and the analysis which identifies the contamination.
integrity of the seal when in the closed position. Verify
the door operating mechanism for security when in the
closed location. Replace or repair as necessary.
4) If the operator conducts regular oil analyses, use the
silicon content of the most recent analysis and the
overall silicon trend to assess the possibility of induction
system leaks, or pilot operational issues, such as
extensive use of carburettor heat or alternate air during
ground operation.
5) Identify induction system inspection requirements for the
specific aircraft in service and comply with all
requirements for inspection and maintenance of the
induction system.

Induction system bolted to cylinder heads

Exhaust systems
General
An exhaust system is briefly a means of leading the high The factors influencing the design of an exhaust system are as
temperature, noxious engine exhaust gases safely away from follows.
the aircraft so that they pose no hazard to the airframe or
occupants of the aircraft. It can also be a means of obtaining a • The metal or material in contact with the hot exhaust
slight gain in propulsion from 40% of fuel energy customarily gases must be capable of withstanding temperatures up
lost to exhaust. An exhaust system designed to provide this to 800°C (1,475°F), without losing its strength. Also, it
gain is called an ‘ejector-type exhaust system,’ i.e. the mass of should be non-corrodible. Means must also be provided
exhaust gases is ejected rearwards at a high velocity thus for cooling the system by allowing air to blow over it.
giving a resultant push reaction forward on the aircraft. • The system must be designed with expansion joints to
Increased performance can also be provided on turbocharged counteract expansion and contraction, thereby
engines; here the exhaust gases must be collected to drive the alleviating stresses in the metal.
turbine compressor of the turbo. Although the collector system • The shape and size of an exhaust system must be
raises the backpressure of the exhaust system, the gain in arranged so that the gas can get away quickly, thus
horsepower from turbo-supercharging more than offsets the avoiding excessive backpressure. Sharp bends and
loss in horsepower resulting from increased backpressure. rapid changes in pipe section must be avoided. Those
parts of the exhaust system projecting through the
As the exhaust gas temperature varies with the fuel/air mixture, engine cowling must be shaped to offer a minimum of air
it is standard that the exhausts have a simple thermocouple resistance (drag).
probe inserted into one or more exhausts. This probe provides
cockpit indication of the exhaust gas temperature (EGT) to the Exhausts can generally be divided into two categories, those
pilot as an aid to leaning. used for inline engines and those used for radial engines.
The main difficulty when designing exhaust systems is to make

them withstand the heat from exhaust gases and the expansion
and the contraction of the material from which they are
constructed.

Exhaust system on a radial engine

Radial engine exhausts systems
This engine usually requires a main collector pipe of ring
formation into which branches deliver the exhaust gases from
the cylinders. The collector has one or two main outlets which
carry the gases back clear of the aircraft structure. The main
collector ring and branches are housed inside the cooling lines
so as not to present any external projections which would upset
the smooth air-flow. A well-known example of this is the Bristol
exhaust system which was designed to form the nose portion
of the main engine cowling.
Other radial engines have their exhaust system behind the

engine. For cooling purposes, it is enclosed in a muff or isolated
from the rear of the engine by a trough; the air is fed in from the
front of the engine.
Each of these two systems has advantages over the other. In

essence, one provides a saving in complication and space and
helps to keep the accessories cool. The other assists cylinder
cooling since the air passing to the cylinders is not pre-heated
by passing in the vicinity of the exhaust pipe.

Radial engine exhaust system and cowling

Inline engine exhausts systems
Engines with inline cylinders of one or more banks usually Because of the continual change in temperature of the exhaust
enable a more straightforward design of the exhaust system to pipes, coupled with the corrosive nature of the gases, the
be incorporated. The simplest method is to have short stub- inspection of the exhaust system must be done at regular
pipes from each cylinder, but this can be extremely noisy and intervals. Special inspections of the systems that contain a
can blind the pilot when flying at night due to the flames exiting. heating muff arrangement are essential to ensure that flight
A more usual design is one in which short pipes from each crews and passengers do not suffer from the effects of carbon
cylinder are fed into a standard pipe or manifold with a single monoxide poisoning caused by leaking heater muffs.
outlet; the manifold and branch pipes are enclosed in a duct
inside the nacelle. For cooling purposes, air is forced through
the duct from a scoop cylinder block in the front and is
evacuated in a backwards direction at inner the rear. A small
amount of propulsive energy is obtained in this natural way
owing to the heat energy absorbed by the air, causing it to work
as a jet backwards. This propulsive energy may counter-
balance to some extent the drag on the aircraft caused by the
cooling air being forced through the duct.
With the inline arrangement, the exhaust pipes are typically

bolted directly onto the cylinders and join up to form an exhaust
manifold.
However, when installed on light aircraft, the hot exhaust gas

may form part of the aircraft heating system. Ambient air is
ducted into a heater type muff arrangement and allowed to
circulate the internal exhaust pipe. The action of the hot
exhaust pipe warms this ambient air and allows the heated
ambient air through to the aircraft. The exhaust gases are then
ducted overboard.

Hawker Hurricane with stub exhausts

Horizontally opposed engine exhausts systems
The typical collector exhaust system components of a
horizontally, opposed engine are shown in a side view. The
exhaust system in this installation consists of a down-stack
from each cylinder, an exhaust collector tube on each side of
the engine, and an exhaust ejector (tailpipe) assembly
protruding aft and down from each side of the firewall. The
down-stacks are connected to the cylinders with high-
temperature locknuts and secured to the exhaust collector tube
by ring clamps. A cabin heater exhaust shroud is installed
around each collector tube; this muffler can also be used on
engines installed with a carburettor to reduce the risk of
carburettor ice by making provision for carb heat.

Typical In-line engine exhaust systems for a horizontally opposed engine

In-line engine exhaust system with heater muff

In-line engine exhaust system with heater muff

Exhaust and induction system on an engine with a turbocharger

Turbo-supercharged system

Cooling systems
General
Excessive heat is always undesirable in both reciprocating One gallon of AVGAS has enough heat value to boil 75 gallons
engines. If means were not available for its control or of water; thus, it is easy to see that an engine that burns
elimination, significant damage or complete engine failure 4 gallons of fuel per minute releases a tremendous amount of
would occur. Although the vast majority of reciprocating heat.
engines are air-cooled, some diesel liquid-cooled engines are
being made available for light aircraft. About a quarter of the heat released is changed into useful
power. The remainder of the heat must be dissipated so that it
An internal combustion engine is a heat machine that converts is not destructive to the engine. In a typical aircraft powerplant,
chemical energy in the fuel into mechanical energy at the half of the heat goes out with the exhaust, and the engine
crankshaft. It does not do this without some loss of energy, absorbs the other half. Circulating oil picks up part of this
however, and even the most efficient aircraft engines may soaked-in heat and transfers it to the airstream through the oil
waste 60 to 70% of the original energy in the fuel. Unless most cooler. The engine cooling system takes care of the rest.
of this waste heat is rapidly removed, the cylinders may Cooling is a matter of transferring the excess heat from the
become hot enough to cause complete engine failure. cylinders to the air. However, there is more to such a job than
Excessive heat is undesirable in the engine for three principal just placing the cylinders in the airstream. A cylinder is provided
reasons. with cooling fins which can increase the original surface area
by approximately 500%; such an arrangement increases the
1) It affects the behaviour of the combustion of the fuel/air heat transfer by radiation. If too much of the cooling fin area is
charge. broken off, the cylinder cannot cool properly, and a hotspot
2) It weakens and shortens the life of engine parts. develops. Therefore, cylinders are generally replaced if a
3) It impairs lubrication. specified number of square inches of fins are missing.
If the temperature inside the engine cylinder is too high, the You should recall from Module 16.3 that the construction of the
fuel-air mixture is pre-heated, and combustion occurs before standard air-cooled cylinder was manufactured with an
the desired time. Since premature combustion causes aluminium cylinder head with an extensive area of fins and a
detonation, knocking, and other undesirable conditions, there steel cylinder bore with a small area of fins. It should be noted
must be a way to eliminate heat before it causes damage. that the greatest fin area is provided in the hottest part of the
engine. Throughout engine operation, the pilot is closely
monitoring the cylinder head temperature display (CHT) to
prevent engine damage.

A thermocouple is generally located on the cylinder head to
provide the pilot with CHT indications.
The aircraft manufactures carefully design the engine cowls

and baffles to ensure adequate, even air-flow over all of the
cylinders, however achieving equal cooling to all cylinders is
nearly impossible, and some cylinders run hotter than others.
For example, most aircraft fitted with a horizontally opposed
engine have front cylinders that run cool due to the large
amount of RAM air they receive. The rearmost cylinder is
usually the hottest as the air warms up as it travels rearwards
and decreases in pressure.
All piston engines are cooled by transferring excess heat to the

surrounding air. In air-cooled engines, this heat transfer is
direct from the cylinders to the air. Therefore, it is necessary to
provide thin metal fins on the cylinders of an air-cooled engine
to have an increased surface for sufficient heat transfer. Most
reciprocating aircraft engines are air-cooled although a few
high-powered engines use an efficient liquid-cooling system. In
liquid-cooled engines, the heat is transferred from the cylinders
to the coolant, which is then sent through tubing and cooled
within a radiator placed in the airstream, the coolant radiator
must be large enough to cool the liquid efficiently. The main
problem with liquid cooling is the added weight of coolant, heat
exchanger (radiator), and tubing to connect the components.
Liquid-cooled engines do allow high power to be obtained from
the engine safely.

Air-cooling radial engines
The early engines were velocity cooled and the radial engine
cylinder arrangement, where all cylinders are exposed to the
air-flow, is particularly suited to this type of cooling. The
photograph below shows a typical example of this type of
cooling. These engines had little if any baffling and cooling was
entirely dependent on the velocity of air flowing over the
cylinders. The propeller accomplished cooling on the ground,
and in flight, forward motion provided the necessary air-flow.
Velocity cooling left something to be desired in that it did not
provide uniform air-flow around the entire cylinder assembly.
This deficiency is illustrated in the diagram. Notice the
turbulence and lack of air-flow contact on the rear side of the
cylinder, which is typical of velocity cooling. As the compression
ratios were often little more than 5:1 and maximum engine
speed rarely above 2,000 RPM this did not pose a significant
problem on these early engines. As the engine performance
increased, so too did the compression ratios and the number of
rows of cylinders.

Velocity cooling (1922 Ryan PT 20)
Airflow pattern around and engine cylinder with velocity cooling

As the performance of single row radial systems increased,
they had a series of baffles located between the cylinders.
These force the oncoming cooling air into the deflectors which
supplied it to the cooler rear of the cylinder, see the diagram
below left. This ensured that the maximum benefit is achieved
from the cooling air-flow.
When radial engines were produced with multiple rows of

cylinders cooling became more critical as the cylinders in the
second row would tend to run hotter due to them being
screened from the ram air-flow by the first row. To overcome
this problem the designers utilised baffles and deflectors, these
were installed to guide the oncoming air around the cylinders
ensuring they were all impinged by sufficient air-flow.

Even cooling airflow is achieved using baffles.
Baffles and deflectors fitted to a single row radial engine
Baffles and deflectors fitted to a double row

radial engine (Bristol Centaurus)
As the engine performance and compression ratios went up,
but so did the amount of dissipated heat that had to be removed
from the engine. The RPM increased, and this too brought
increased cooling requirements. The point was reached where
aircraft engines could no longer be adequately cooled by the
velocity method. Cowlings were placed around the engines,
and baffles were installed between the cylinders. Now the
cooling air could be directed around the entire area of the
cylinder. Thus, pressure cooling was born, and the results were
superior as well as uniform engine cooling, as shown below.
The engine cowls are usually of aerofoil section which reduces

drag and to improve the cooling of the engine. The two types
are generally used are known as the Townend ring or a NACA
cowl, and they both serve to direct the air-flow over the cylinder
heads. As a refinement, and to provide the pilot with some
control of the cylinder head temperatures, gill rings are fitted
around the rear of the engine; the angle of opening, adjusted
from the cockpit, regulates the air-flow over the cylinders.

Early form of pressure cooling incorporating an NACA cowling

Townend ring cowl
The Townend ring is a narrow-chord cowling ring fitted around
the cylinders of an aircraft radial engine to reduce drag and to
improve cooling. The Townend ring was introduced in 1929. It
caused a reduction in the drag of radial engines and was widely
used in high-speed designs of 1930-1935 before the long-chord
NACA cowling came into general use. Despite suggestions of
it exploiting the Meredith effect, low airspeeds, low-temperature
differences and small mass flows make that unlikely,
particularly when combined with the lack of flow control as the
air exits the cowling. Although superior to earlier cowlings, and
uncowled engines in terms of drag and cooling, above
217 knots (402 km/h, 250 mph) the NACA cowling was more
efficient and soon replaced it in general use. The exhaust
system was often incorporated into the design of the Townend
ring, thus reducing exhaust system drag as well as the profile
drag of the engine. This integral exhaust can be seen on the
Fairey Swordfish illustrated below.

Townend ring is a complete hollow section which is used as an exhaust collector (Fairey Swordfish)

The NACA cowl Gill ring
The NACA cowling is a type of aerodynamic fairing used to A gill ring is a small flap located at the rear of the cowling for a
streamline radial engines for use on aeroplanes and developed reciprocating engine. Opening the cowl flap increases the
by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics in 1927. It amount of cooling air flowing through the engine by decreasing
was a significant advance in aerodynamic drag reduction and the pressure at the point the air leaves the engine
paid for its development and installation costs many times over compartment.
due to the gains in fuel efficiency that it enabled. The cowling
enhanced speed through drag reduction while delivering
improved engine cooling.
The cowling constitutes a symmetric, circular aerofoil, in

contrast to the planar aerofoil of wings. It directs cool air to flow
through the engine where it is routed across the engine’s
hottest parts, that is, the cylinders and heads. Furthermore,
turbulence after the air passes the free-standing cylinders is
significantly reduced. The sum of all these effects reduces drag
by as much as 60%. The test conclusions resulted in almost
every radial-engine aircraft being equipped with this cowling,
starting in 1932.
It is long-chord ring cowling whose trailing edge fairs smoothly

into the fuselage or engine nacelle. NACA cowlings are used
on the vast majority of modern radial engine installations. The
cooling air rams into the open front of the cowling and exits
through an annular slot at the rear. This slot is often covered
with adjustable cowl flaps to control the amount of cooling air
allowed to flow through the engine. The aerofoil shape of the
cowling produces a forward aerodynamic force that more than
compensates for the cooling drag of the engine.

NACA cowl with gill ring and eductor system (Douglas DC3/AC47 Dakota)

Gill ring Gill type cowl flaps

Gill type cowl flaps
Gill type cowl flaps

Air-cooling inline and horizontally opposed engines
Most of the early 4-cylinder, horizontally opposed engines were The diagram below top-left illustrates a typical air-flow pattern
velocity cooled like the radial engines. However, as these around a modern engine installation. When the aircraft is flying,
engines increased in size and power, they too had to be air enters the cowling and is slowed in the plenum formed by
pressure cooled. As the engine power and aircraft performance the cowling, engine, baffles and seals. The effect creates a
improved, the engine cowlings became streamlined, and as a static, or higher-pressure area, above the engine. Since gasses
consequence, the space inside the cowl decreased. The proper move from high pressure to low pressure, the air then flows
cooling of engines in aircraft now became a precise science. down through the cylinders and cross the oil cooler to the low-
pressure areas below and behind the engine. The air exits the
The amount of heat energy that must be removed by the cowling through cowl flaps or other flaring openings, carrying
cooling air is approximately equal to the horsepower that is away excess heat. If the baffles are broken or misshapen, the
driving the propeller. This is why the failure of the cooling deformity can reduce the volume of air passing. Some, or all of
baffles can lead to rapid and significant deterioration of the the air, is rammed in on just one side of the cylinders and
cylinder and other engine components. guided through the cooling fins by baffles. It is then sucked out
by the slipstream cylinders, meaning less than expected
The baffling installed on the engines of today is the result of cooling for the cylinders or the oil cooler. Seals can create
considerable study. Special wrap around baffles now guide the similar problems.
cooling air entirely around the cylinder heads and barrels. Other
baffles channel cooling air into oil radiators and cooling ducts
for various accessories. Rubber seals are provided along the
cowling edges of the baffling. These seals are critical since they
provide the necessary airtight seal between the baffling and the
cowling. Therefore, every baffle and its seal must be in its
proper position, and good working condition, otherwise
adequate cooling be achieved. It is important to understand that
to control the air-flow from the propeller, and ram air there has
to be a pressure differential inside the cowling, on most
applications this pressure differential is around 100-150 mm
(4-6") of water pressure.

Cowl flap

Cowl flap operation

Cowl flap

If the seals are not in good condition or are not correctly
adjusted, air can ‘bleed up’ and reduce the static pressure,
slowing the flow of cooling air and increasing engine
temperatures. Higher engine temperatures can foreshadow
trouble to come. If the cooling air is not adequately contained
and directed, hot spots which promote a lead or carbon build-
up on the valve guides can occur, potentially leading to valve
sticking problems during start-up. A stuck valve most of the
time ends up bending a pushrod and causing an oil leak but
can also cause a substantial reduction in engine power and
costly damage to the crankcase. Other problems with
insufficient cooling include overheating the spark plug barrels,
which deteriorates ignition leads and boosts temperatures in
the insulator tip high enough to cause pre-ignition and piston
distress. Adequate air-flow is particularly important during hot
weather to provide proper cooling of the oil cooler; oil that runs
too hot breaks down and causes more friction inside the
engine. While the first step in diagnosing abnormal engine
temperatures in normal operations is making sure the
temperature gauge is providing accurate readings, the next
step is to check all the seals for fit and condition. If the seals
aren’t soft and pliable, replace them.
One way to observe how well the seals are performing their
stop-gap function is to remove the cowling and look at the
residues left where the cowling and seals rub together, having
one continuous line of smudge means the seal is doing its job.
If there are breaks in the line, which might show up as an
unmarked area where the air was rushing through the gap, that
could mean leaks and lower static pressure above the engine.
Inspect the cowl flaps or flaring openings at the rear of the
cowling for excessive leakage, indicated by discolouration.

Cooling loss due to gaps in the baffle seals
Airflow without baffles
Engine seals

Cooling airflow pattern around a typical modern engine installation

Tightly cowled engine Engine baffles and seals

Augmenters
Some aircraft use augmenters to provide air-flow. Each nacelle
has two pairs of tubes running from the engine compartment to
nacelle. The exhaust collectors feed exhaust gas augmenter
tubes. The exhaust gas mixes with air that has passed over the
engine and heats it to form a high temperature, low pressure,
jet-like exhaust. This low-pressure area in the augmenters
draws additional cooling air over entering the outer shells of the
augmenters is heated through contact with the augmenter
tubes but is not contaminated with exhaust gases. The heated
air from the shell goes to the cabin heating, defrosting, and anti-
icing system.
Augmenters use exhaust gas velocity to cause air flow over the
engine so that cooling is not entirely dependent on propeller
wash. Vanes installed in the augmenters control the volume of
air. These vanes are usually left in the trail position to permit
maximum flow. They can be closed to increase the heat for
cabin or anti-icing use or to prevent the engine cooling too
much during descent from altitude. In addition to augmenters,
some aircraft have residual heat doors or flaps that are used
mainly to let the retained heat escape after engine shutdown.
The nacelle flaps can be opened for cooling than that provided
by the augmenters. A modified form of the previously described
augmenter cooling system is used on some light aircraft.
Augmenter systems are not used much on modern aircraft.

Augmenter operation

As shown in the diagram below, the engine is pressure cooled
by air taken in through two openings in the nose cowling, one
on each side of the propeller spinner. A pressure chamber is
sealed off on the top side of the engine with baffles
appropriately directing the flow of cooling air to all parts of the
engine compartment. Warm air is drawn from the lower part of
the engine compartment by the pumping action of the exhaust
gases through the exhaust ejectors. This type of cooling system
eliminates the use of controllable cowl flaps and assures
adequate engine cooling at all operating speeds.

Augmenter operation

Liquid-cooled engines
Although air cooling is the best method with respect to A simple system consists of the following:
simplicity and cost, it may be, however, that it is not the most
efficient method, especially if the cylinders are of the inline 1) The header (or expansion) tank. This tank, positioned
arrangement. With this arrangement, although not exclusive to at the top of the system, stores the reserve of coolant
inline engines, liquid cooling may be preferred to air cooling. and provides a head of coolant to the pump.
2) The water pump. This is usually a centrifugal type pump
Most modern Diesel engines are liquid-cooled. Diesel and but does not produce a pressure; it is fitted to increase
JET-A fuel has more energy (BTU) per gallon than has AVGAS the speed of the coolant flow through the system and so
and generates more heat than a typical gasoline aircraft to reduce the quantity of coolant required.
engine, so additional cooling is necessary. 3) The coolant passages through the engine. While the
main passages are centred around the combustion
Water is an outstandingly good cooling medium, with extremely chambers and valves; it is sometimes found that the hot
high ability to transfer heat. Its only real shortcoming is that it coolant is directed to jackets fitted to the induction pipe
boils at 100°C at sea level and even lower temperatures at and supercharger casings. This auxiliary flow assists in
higher altitudes. It is possible to push up the boiling vaporising the fuel/air mixture. The coolant flow through
temperature by keeping the entire cooling circuit under the engine is arranged to follow the normal course of the
pressure. Many of the final types of high-power liquid-cooled thermal current, i.e. from the base of the cylinders to the
engines a mixture used of water plus about 30-60% ethylene cylinder head.
glycol, the latter being simply an antifreeze additive, as in cars. 4) The radiator. The radiator is positioned in the slipstream
At a pressure of 40 lb/in2, such a mixture could circulate at of the propeller and dissipates heat from the coolant into
130°C. the air. Shutters are positioned in front of the radiator;
when the coolant temperature falls below an efficient
In a liquid-cooled engine, the temperature is controlled by figure, the shutters are closed, either automatically or
circulating a cooling fluid around the space between the manually, to deflect the air-flow around the radiator.
cylinder jackets and the cylinder walls, and through passages 5) The thermostat. This is a thermostatically operated
cored in the cylinder head. Water passages are designed to bypass valve which affects the coolant flow through the
ensure a calibrated feed to all parts of the engine, so reducing radiator and limits the minimum coolant temperatures
the possibility of hot spots forming. while the engine is running.

Liquid cooling system layout

Liquid cooling system layout

After coolant
A simple liquid cooling system as found on the Rotax 912/914 engine.

Example system: Continental Voyager
The Voyager 200 is a 4-cylinder liquid-cooled 3.27 l (200 in3) In the Voyager design, a new design cast aluminium cylinder
engine with a 103.12 mm (4.06″) bore capable of producing head with an integral water jacket is assembled onto the
82.0 kW (110 BHP) at 2,750 RPM with a high turbulence HTCC cylinder barrel using the conventional threaded interference fit.
combustion chamber at 11.4:1 compression ratio for minimum The steel barrel is similar to its air-cooled counterpart except
fuel consumption. This engine has already made aviation the cooling fins are deleted, cooling of the lower barrel is
history by powering the Voyager aircraft on the historic record- accomplished by a high flowrate piston oil jet.
breaking non-refuelled, nonstop flight around the world in late
1986. A 6-cylinder 4.92 l (300 in3) version utilises the same Parts such as rocker covers, rocker arms, valve springs,
cylinder assembly and is capable of being rated at 126-142 kW connecting rods, and piston pins remain common to the air-
(170-190 BHP) at 2,700-3,000 RPM. cooled engine. A parallel flow coolant circuit supplies coolant to
each cylinder using a tubular manifold; connectors utilised at
Both engines are capable of providing a 0.375 BSFC across a the inter cylinder joints provide for relative motion and thermal
broad operating range with minimal heat loss to coolant and oil. growth.
A brake thermal efficiency as high as 36% has been attained at
lean cruise with specific heat loss to coolant and oil limited to This unique design concept offers an economical, lightweight,
only 16% of available fuel energy at best power mixture. A and effective means of providing a liquid-cooled aircraft engine
0.345 BSFC has been demonstrated on the 4.92 l (300 in3) for general aviation. The ease of maintenance is not
engine under conditions simulating advanced turbocharging compromised; disassembly of the entire engine is not required
techniques at high altitude. to perform maintenance on a single cylinder. The bottom end
of the engine is relatively unchanged.
Unlike conventional automotive engines where the cylinders
are formed as an integral part of a single block-type crankcase
structure, air-cooled horizontally opposed aircraft engines have
utilised separate cylinders attached to the crankcase with
threaded fasteners. Early in continentals design study, the
decision was made to pursue a liquid-cooled concept which
would allow utilisation of the bottom end, common to the
existing production air-cooled line. It was not considered
economically practical to design a completely new engine.

Continental Voyager 200 liquid-cooled engine

Advantages of liquid cooling
The lightweight approach to liquid cooling the power section in Liquid cooling allows the engine to be rated at best power
combination with the efficient weight effective brazed mixture since the cylinder assembly is designed to cool
aluminium plate/fin-type heat exchangers now available are adequately under these conditions with proper sizing of the
significant factors in allowing the liquid-cooled engine concept liquid to air heat exchanger. The Voyager 200 and 300 are
described here to provide an efficient weight competitive option rated at a 0.425 BSFC, representing a 25% reduction in take-
to the conventional air-cooled engine. The high compression off and climb BSFC. Rating at best power mixture equates to a
ratio, high turbulence combustion chamber (HTCC) lower manifold pressure and reduced peak cylinder firing
supplements the attractiveness of the Voyager 200 and 300, by pressure on turbocharged engines which assists in improved
providing improved thermal efficiency with substantial fuel durability. Liquid cooling also offers the potential for increased
savings. power output and improved detonation margin. The cooler
combustion chamber provides improved knock resistance and
The success of the high compression-ratio high-turbulence allows an increase in compression ratio. Higher boost levels
combustion chamber in the Voyager 200 and 300 engines is a are feasible for turbocharged engines.
classic example of the advantages offered with liquid cooling.
By itself, liquid cooling does not necessarily provide improved The conventional air-cooled engine is well known for its cooling
fuel consumption; however, as demonstrated in this program, it anomalies. It is not uncommon to encounter a large spread in
can serve as the tool which allows engine refinements cylinder head temperature (CHT) among the cylinders. Non-
previously not possible with air cooling. Past attempts at uniform cooling air-flow distribution within the nacelle and the
incorporating HTCC into an air-cooled general aviation engine leakage associated with inter-cylinder and perimeter baffles are
were not as successful, mainly due to the higher cylinder head contributing factors. Also, due to the nature of the air-cooled
metal temperatures. This earlier work had indicated that cylinder design, it is usually difficult to achieve uniform cooling
substantial improvements in cylinder cooling would be required around the circumference of the head and barrel using the
for acceptable HTCC operation. Liquid cooling became the typical sheet metal baffles. Furthermore, the cylinder head
solution to this problem. metal temps may run 10-38°C (50-100°F) hotter than
obtainable on a liquid-cooled design.
A further reduction in SFC is made possible during take-off and
climb operation. Most air-cooled engines are rated at a mixture
strength richer than best power mixture to provide a fuel cooling
effect during the low-speed take-off and climb. It is not
uncommon to encounter a 0.700 BSFC on the larger air-cooled,
turbocharged engines. The typical turbocharged air-cooled
engine would overheat at the best power fuel/air ratio during
take-off and climb.
Air cooled cylinder Liquid cooled cylinder
Liquid cool cylinder

Air cool cylinder Liquid cool cylinder
Comparison of liquid-cooled and air-cooled cylinders

Liquid cooling provides substantial improvements in cylinder In a typical air-cooled aircraft engine installation, the cooling air
cooling with more uniform temperature distributions in both the leakage around the perimeter and inter-cylinder baffles may
head and barrel areas. These temperature characteristics yield approach 40% of the cooling air-flow required for a new tightly
less distortion of the cylinder walls and better material strengths baffled engine. The leakage around a properly installed single
which result in lower wear rate and longer engine life. heat exchanger should be negligible. Fundamentally, a well-
Uniformity of the temperatures around the circumference of the designed heat exchanger is a far more efficient heat transfer
cylinder barrel is improved sufficiently to allow a reduced device than the conventional air-cooled engine.
piston-to-cylinder running clearance as compared to the air-
cooled equivalent. Inherent with the basic concept of liquid With the more uniform cylinder cooling, cooler combustion
cooling, the uniformity of cooling among the various cylinders chamber temperatures, absence of cooling anomalies, and
on a given engine is now more finitely controlled and not better wear characteristics, significant improvements in engine
subject to the variables which trouble the air-cooled engines. durability are now attainable. It is projected that these
The spread in individual cylinder head temperatures is reduced improvements result in a more reliable, highly efficient engine
to approximately 5°C (40°F) or less. With liquid cooling, the with longer TBO and reduced operating/maintenance costs.
engine manufacturer can effectively maintain control of engine Also, performance and operational advantages such as
cooling over its life span. reduced SFC, increased power output, better detonation
margins, higher tolerance to operational abuse, less severe
Significant reductions in cooling drag are also possible with the cooling transients, and reduced cooling drag, contribute to
liquid-cooled engine. Comparative analysis indicates that a providing an advanced aircraft engine concept capable of
30%-50% reduction in cooling air mass flow is possible for the meeting the challenges of future general aviation requirements.
higher output engines using a well-designed and adequately
installed liquid to air heat exchanger. The lower cooling drag Continental concluded from results of the Voyager engine
yields higher aircraft flight speeds or reduced fuel consumption technology demonstration program have demonstrated the
for fixed flight speed. For example, a 50% reduction in cooling feasibility and advantages of this unique liquid-cooled aircraft
air-flow equates to a 2-3% increase in speed or optionally a engine concept. The basic design concept, performance,
7-10% decrease in brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) cooling and durability characteristics have been validated by a
and kW required, assuming cooling drag at 15-20% of total comprehensive test and development program which has
aircraft drag. accumulated well over 5,500 hours test time to date. It is
concluded that liquid cooling offers definite advantages over air
cooling in the areas of durability and performance. Other
advantages, such as lower operating costs and operational
improvements, are more subjective and can only be
substantiated with the service experience.

Large radiator used by the liquid cooled EPS Diesel engine
Thielert Centurion liquid cooled Diesel engine

These advantages and benefits are summarised as follows. Liquid cooling system layout
The Voyager 200 and 300 utilise a common liquid-cooled
• More uniform cylinder cooling cylinder assembly with a coolant jacket formed as an integral
• Cooler combustion chamber metal temperatures part of the cast aluminium cylinder head. This coolant jacket
• Absence of cooling air-flow anomalies encircles the combustion chamber area and the outer end of
• Better cylinder wear characteristics the barrel. Unique to the design concept, the coolant jacket
• Improved durability extends down along a portion of the cylinder length as
• Reduced fuel consumption illustrated below, terminating at a position adjacent to the
• Increased power output bottom of the piston skirt when at TDC. This leaves the lower
• Better detonation margin length of the barrel free of the coolant jacket, thereby resulting
• Significant reduction in cooling drag in a lightweight but effective cooling system.
• Longer life and TBO
• Precise cooling control over engine life A coolant passageway, having an inlet and outlet port is formed
• Higher tolerance to operational abuse within the cylinder head. An engine-driven pump supplies
• Less severe cooling transients coolant under pressure via an external manifold to a flanged
inlet port located on the lower side of each head. Upon entering
the head, the coolant is first directed through a central passage
to the critical valve bridge area with a portion bypassed
immediately around the exhaust port. The intake port is left free
of direct cooling along with a small section of the exhaust port.
Transfer passages direct the flow around the spark plug ports
and valve seat areas, then into the barrel cooling jacket to a
flanged outlet port located on top vertical. The coolant is then
collected in a manifold and directed to a ram air-cooled heat
exchanger.

Continental liquid-cooled cylinder assembly

As an integral feature of this system, the lower length of the
cylinder barrel is not enclosed by the jacket. Instead, it is cooled
by the spray of an oil nozzle directed at the underside of the
piston dome. This oil jet is the primary cooling mechanism for
the piston and the lower barrel section. Piston oil jets are not
uncommon on an air-cooled aircraft engine; however, a
proportionally higher oil flow rate is used to cool the lower barrel
indirectly. The diagram below top shows a schematic
representing piston and cylinder heat balance. Heat is
transferred by conduction from the cylinder wall via piston rings
and the oil film to the cooled piston. Also, a lesser amount of
heat is conducted through the cylinder wall to the crankcase,
which is subsequently oil-cooled.

Piston/cylinder heat balance
Liquid-cooled aero-engines

Most liquid cooling systems utilise a series coolant flow circuit. The coolant flow sequence is:
Typical of these systems, coolant enters the block and flows
first around the base of each cylinder before being directed to 1) Coolant tank to the radiator (via thermostat and pressure
the cylinder head area. This approach tends to over cool the relief valve).
cooler bottom end, and under cool the hotter head area with 2) Radiator to the coolant pump.
the cylinder heads increasing in temperature along the flow 3) Pump to the coolant manifold.
path as the coolant temperature rises. In a cooling system 4) Coolant manifold distributes to the individual cylinders.
where the flow is first directed through the head area before 5) Return coolant manifold to tank.
circulating the cylinder barrel section, a more uniform cylinder
assembly temperature profile is possible. Also, a parallel
coolant circuit can provide a more uniform cylinder to cylinder
temperature distribution since each cylinder receives
essentially the same coolant temperature.
The cooling system on the Voyager 200 and 300 engines is

arranged so that the coolant flows in parallel through the
cylinders. By using a parallel system rather than series the
pressure drop through the engine is minimised, this loss being
1-2 psi. Pump power demand is reduced in comparison to a
series flow system.
Engine coolant is a 60/40 mixture of ethylene glycol and

distilled or de-ionised water. With the 120°C (250°F) maximum
allowable coolant inlet temperature, a 206.8 kPa (30 psia)
minimum pressure must be maintained at the coolant pump
inlet to prevent boiling and cavitation.

Continental TSIO-520-J liquid cooling system - Cessna 414

Coolant enters the engine, driven by the coolant pump.
Depending on coolant temperature, it passes through the
bypass circuit directly back to the engine, or through the
radiator where cools before returning to the engine.
Short-circuit
Water passes from the pump through the engine to cool the
engine and then to a thermostat. Depending on coolant
temperature, coolant bypasses the radiator and goes directly
back to the pump or is allowed to flow through a radiator. The
thermostat is wholly closed at (typically) 84°C and completely
open at (typically) 94°C. This ensures that the engine heats up
quickly without overheating and prevents the engine from
shock cooling.
Cabin-heat circuit
There is an additional cabin heating circuit which allows hot
coolant to flow through a heat exchanger to provide hot cabin
air. This circuit is always open, and cabin temperature can be
controlled via an air flap from inside the cockpit.
The cabin heating circuit is always open and aids in cooling.

The layout of the radiator and heater circuit, as well as the
selection of the heat exchanger, are defined via the installation
for each aircraft model.

Operation of the thermostat and short-circuit
Liquid coolant circuit with cabin heating

Liquid-coolant system components
Heat exchanger
The heat exchanger (or ‘radiator’) is constructed of a pair of
metal expansion chambers, linked by a core with many narrow
passageways, giving a high surface area relative to volume.
This core is usually made of stacked layers of metal sheet,

pressed to form channels and soldered or brazed together. For
many years, radiators were made from brass or copper cores
soldered to brass headers. Modern radiators have aluminium
cores.
The radiator is linked to the engine by rubber hoses.
On some engines, the expansion chambers are replaced with

an external coolant reservoir (or ‘header tank’, or ‘expansion
tank’). The expansion tank is installed at the highest point of
the system and ensures the proper coolant level.
A pressure relief cap is installed on the heat exchanger (or

expansion tank if fitted).

Heat exchanger operations

Thermostat Cabin heat exchanger
The cooling system is controlled by a wax element thermostat, A small heat exchanger supplies cabin heat. Engine coolant
as shown below. The thermostat begins to open at 84°C passes through the heater core and heats the incoming air. The
(typically) and is completely open at 94°C (typically). As the coolant flow through the heater core is always open; cabin heat
thermostat opens, it progressively switches from the short is controlled by directing air-flow into the cabin or out of the
circuit to the external circuit. The heating circuit is always cowl. The exact configuration of the heating system depends
active. on the aircraft installation.
Coolant pump
The coolant pump is an impeller unit internal to the engine and
is driven by the V-ribbed belt at the rear of the engine. The
figure below shows the coolant pump installed in the
crankcase. The volume flow rate of the coolant pump under
normal operating conditions is 90-100 l/min on the 4-cylinder
engine.
Coolant reservoir/expansion tank

The coolant reservoir (expansion tank) allows the coolant to
expand when warm or allows the cooling system to draw
additional coolant as needed.
A pressure relief valve on top of the expansion tank relieves the

pressure exceeding 1.8 bar. The higher pressure, when hot,
increases the boiling point of the coolant and prevent boiling
and cavitation.
The coolant reservoir also contains a low coolant level sensor

which sends a signal to the warning lamp “Water level” on the
instrument panel if the coolant is low.
In most installations, a silicate pouch inside of the coolant

reservoir is required to help building-up an aluminium-silicate
layer for corrosion protection of the aluminium block and
cylinder head.

Coolant pump and temperature sensor
(Thielert TAE 125 aero-Diesel)
Coolant thermostat
Coolant reservoir
Coolant pump and temperature sensor
(Thielert TAE 125 aero-Diesel)

Wax element thermostat Wax element thermostat operation

16.7 Supercharging and Turbocharging

Copyright notice
LEVEL 3
subject.
appropriate.

© Copyright 2020 Module 16.7 Supercharging and Turbocharging Issue 2 – July 2020
Knowledge
Part-66 Levels
Objective
Ref.
A B1 B3
Principles and purpose of 16.7 1 2 2
supercharging and its effects on
engine parameters;
Construction and operation of
supercharging/turbocharging
systems;
Systems terminology;
Control systems;
System protection

Table of Contents
Introduction ___________________________________ 6 Turbochargers ________________________________ 38
Normally aspirated engines______________________ 6 General ____________________________________ 38
Supercharged engines _________________________ 8 The wastegate _______________________________ 40
Turbocharged engines _________________________ 8
The wastegate actuator ________________________ 40
Turbocharger advantages ______________________ 10 Intercooler __________________________________ 40
Turbocharger disadvantages ___________________ 10 Construction _________________________________ 46
Supercharger advantages ______________________ 10 Operation ___________________________________ 52
Supercharger disadvantages ___________________ 10 Operating characteristics _______________________ 52
Superchargers _______________________________ 12 The absolute pressure controller _________________ 54
Altitude effects ______________________________ 12 The variable pressure controller _________________ 56
The two-speed supercharger ___________________ 16 The dual unit control system ____________________ 58
The two-stage supercharger ____________________ 18 The density controller__________________________ 58
Types of supercharger ________________________ 22 The sloped controller __________________________ 60
The centrifugal supercharger ___________________ 24 The differential pressure controller _______________ 60
Boost and manifold air pressure _________________ 26 The triple unit control system ____________________ 64
System layout _______________________________ 28 Glossary of supercharger and turbocharger terms __ 66
Power from supercharging _____________________ 28
Manifold pressure control ______________________ 32
Variable datum control ________________________ 34
Boost reversal _______________________________ 34
Supercharger drives __________________________ 34
The centrifugal friction clutch ___________________ 36


Introduction
Engines can be categorised into two types depending on their
induction method:
• normally aspirated engines; and

• supercharged/turbocharged engines.
Normally aspirated engines

A normally aspirated (or ‘naturally’ aspirated) engine relies
upon the carburettor inlet to suck air into the carburettor where
the correct mixing of the fuel and create a combustible vapour.
However, we know from previous reading, that the power

developed by an engine depends upon the weight (density) of
the air/fuel mixture in the cylinders at a given time and setting.
As each piston descends during the four-stroke cycle, a

negative pressure is created within the cylinder, so the weight
of air entering the cylinder depends on the air pressure within
the inlet manifold.
In a normally aspirated aircraft engine, inlet manifold air

pressure is governed by the pressure at altitude, and also by
the amount that the throttle is opened. So, with a constant
throttle opening as an aircraft climbs, there is a reduction in inlet
atmospheric pressure, leading to a reduction in inlet
atmospheric pressure, leading to a reduction in power. To
prevent this loss of power as the aircraft climbs, it is necessary
to supply more air to the manifold; this is achieved by
supercharging.

Normally aspirated engine Turbocharged engine

Supercharged engines
A supercharger is a mechanically driven, forced induction To increase power for takeoff and initial climb and to maintain
device that is utilised in a piston engine to enable it to produce power during high altitude operations, the manifold pressure
more power. Its purpose and function are similar to a (inlet) must be raised artificially; and the supercharger does
turbocharger. The principal difference is that it is mechanically this. However, it must be remembered that too much pressure
driven by a direct connection to the engine. In contrast, a created in the cylinders may lead to detonation, so correct
turbocharger is turbine-driven using engine exhaust gas flow. operating procedures must be maintained at all times.
In a normally aspirated piston engine, intake gases are drawn Turbocharged engines
into the cylinder by the reduced pressure created by the A turbocharger is a turbine-driven, forced-induction device that
downward stroke of the piston. The mass of air drawn into the is utilised in a piston engine to enable it to produce more power.
cylinder, in part, limits the power production of the engine. A
supercharger is an engine-driven mechanical device which In a normally aspirated piston engine, intake gases are drawn
powers a compressor. This compressor draws in ambient air, into the cylinder by the reduced pressure created by the
compresses it and then feeds it into the engine intake resulting downward stroke of the piston. The mass of air drawn into the
in a greater mass of air and, proportionally, a greater amount cylinder, in part, limits the power production of the engine. A
of fuel entering the cylinders on the intake stroke. The turbocharger recovers waste energy from the engine exhaust
additional air and fuel result in a significant increase in the stream and uses it to power a turbine which in turn drives a
power production of the engine compared to a normally compressor. This compressor draws in ambient air,
aspirated version of the same engine. Although it takes a compresses it and then feeds it into the engine intake resulting
significant amount of engine power to drive the supercharger, in a greater mass of air and, proportionally, a greater amount
the power increase due to the effect of the supercharger more of fuel entering the cylinders on the intake stroke. This increase
than compensates for that loss. in air and fuel results in the turbocharged engine being more
powerful and efficient than its naturally aspirated counterpart.
The supercharger is an engine-driven fan that is usually
situated between the inlet manifold and the carburettor. The
compressor section can be either driven by the exhaust system
via a turbine or be directly driven by the engine crankshaft
through a series of gears. An example of the exhaust-driven
system is illustrated in the diagram below right.

Supercharged engine schematic Turbocharged engine schematic

Turbocharger advantages Supercharger disadvantages
Turbochargers are more efficient than superchargers because Superchargers are inefficient because they require quite a bit
turbos use waste air that’s already exiting through the exhaust of engine power to turn. That makes superchargers less fuel-
pipe. Though they don’t run entirely ‘free of charge’; it does take efficient than turbos. And finally, because they use a system of
energy for the engine exhaust to turn the turbine. pulleys and gears to turn, more parts can break.
But in comparison to a supercharger, turbos use less fuel, and

they typically have less total weight than a supercharger.
Finally, most turbochargers provide a better total increase in
horsepower than superchargers, because their speed can be
changed by adjusting the wastegate (which is sometimes an
automatic function).
Turbocharger disadvantages
Most turbochargers suffer from lag. Because it takes a second
or two for exhaust gas to spin up the turbine, there is a delay
from when you throttle up your engine, to the time the turbine
achieves its desired speed and output. Next, turbos provide
little to no benefit at idle and low power settings. And finally,
turbos can suffer from a power surge. This happens when you
rapidly reduce power, and air pressure quickly builds in the
intake manifold, causing a temporary flow reversal and
vibration. Surge isn’t as much of a problem with modern turbos
as it used to be, but it’s something that you need to watch out
for, especially if you’re flying older turbocharged aircraft.
Supercharger advantages
Superchargers have no lag, they boost an engine at low RPM,
they run at cooler temperatures than turbos, and they’re
relatively cheap in comparison to turbos which can be
expensive.

Turbocharger unit Supercharger unit

Superchargers
Altitude effects
Superchargers are a natural addition to aircraft piston engines The pilot controls the output of the supercharger with the
that are intended for operation at high altitudes. As an aircraft throttle and indirectly via the propeller governor control. Since
climbs to a higher altitude, air pressure and air density the size of the supercharger is chosen to produce a given
decrease. The output of a piston engine drops due to the amount of pressure at high altitude, the supercharger is
reduction in mass of air that can be drawn into the engine. For oversized for low altitude. The pilot must be careful with the
example, the air density at 9,100 m (30,000 ft) is 1⁄3 of that at throttle and watch the manifold pressure gauge to avoid over-
sea level; thus only 1⁄3 of the amount of air can be drawn into boosting at low altitude. As the aircraft climbs and the air
the cylinder, with enough oxygen to provide efficient density drops, the pilot must continuously open the throttle in
combustion for only a third as much fuel. So, at 9,100 m small increments to maintain full power. The altitude at which
(30,000 ft), only 1⁄3 of the fuel burnt at sea level can be burnt. the throttle reaches full open and the engine is still producing
An advantage of the decreased air density is that the airframe full rated power is known as the critical altitude. Above the
experiences only about 1⁄3 of the aerodynamic drag. Also, there critical altitude, engine power output starts to drop as the
is decreased back pressure on the exhaust gases. On the other aircraft continues to climb.
hand, more energy is consumed holding an aeroplane up with
less air in which to generate lift.
A supercharger can be thought of either as artificially increasing

the density of the air by compressing it or as forcing more air
than usual into the cylinder every time the piston moves down.
A supercharger compresses the air back to sea-level-

equivalent pressures, or even much higher, to make the engine
produce just as much power at cruise altitude as it does at sea
level. With the reduced aerodynamic drag at high altitude and
the engine still producing rated power, a supercharged
aeroplane can fly much faster at altitude than a naturally
aspirated one.

Effect of altitude with a sea-level supercharger
Atmospheric properties as a function of altitude

Single-stage, single-speed superchargers are found on many The impeller blades form their own divergent duct with which
high-powered radial engines and use an air intake that faces starts to convert speed into pressure energy. With air entering
forward so the induction system can take full advantage of the the impeller at right-angles to the direction of the rotation,
ram air. Intake air passes through ducts to a carburettor, where buffeting occurs; some inlet blades are curved to overcome
fuel is metered in proportion to the airflow. The fuel/air charge this. Some impellers are shrouded to reduce the friction
is then ducted to the supercharger, or blower impeller, which between the air and the rotation blades. The diagram below
accelerates the fuel/air mixture outward. Once accelerated, the shows two types of impeller.
fuel/air mixture passes through a diffuser, where air velocity is
traded for pressure energy. After compression, the resulting On many supercharged engines, the fuel is added to the
high-pressure fuel/air mixture is directed to the cylinders. airstream at the eye of the impeller. This has two advantages;
the fuel helps to cool the air, and the air assists in the
Some of the large radial engines developed during the second vaporisation of the fuel.
world war have a single-stage, two-speed supercharger. With
this type of supercharger, a single impeller may be operated at The impeller and diffuser assembly is situated after the throttle
two speeds. The low impeller speed is often referred to as the valve and before the induction manifold.
low-blower setting, while the high impeller speed is called the
high-blower setting. On engines equipped with a two-speed The impeller is driven by the engine crankshaft through the
supercharger, a lever or switch in the flight deck activates an gearing to increase its speed. To give you an idea, if the
oil-operated clutch that switches from one speed to the other. supercharger has a pressure ratio of 2 to 1 and it is driven at
six times engine speed, then it is reasonable to expect sea-
Under normal operations, takeoff is made with the level power to be maintained, up to around 1,500 m (5,000 ft).
supercharger in the low-blower position. In this mode, the
engine performs as a ground-boosted engine, and the power
output decreases as the aircraft gains altitude. However, once
the aircraft reaches a specified altitude, a power reduction is
made, and the supercharger control is switched to the high-
blower position. The throttle is then reset to the desired
manifold pressure. An engine equipped with this type of
supercharger is called an altitude engine.

Single-sided impeller Fully-shrouded impeller
Impeller types

The two-speed supercharger
If the engine is required to give sea-level power up to 3,000 m
(10,000 ft) where the air density is only 75% of that at sea level,
the supercharger has to be driven at 12 times engine speed
and use about 200 BHP. By way of contrast, only 15 kW
(20 BHP) is required to maintain the pressure up to 1,500 m
(5,000 ft). Some superchargers can be driven at two different
speeds, e.g. 6 times and 12 times engine speed; the 6 times
speed up to 1,500 m (5,000 ft) using only 15 kW (20 BHP), and
the 12 times speed up to 3,000 m (10,000 ft) using 150 kW
(200 BHP) approximately. The changeover may be made using
a selector lever operated by the pilot or automatically by an
aneroid capsule. The two speeds are sometimes referred to as
M and S gear.
The M gear is for medium supercharging up to around 1,500 m

(5,000 ft) and the S gear for supercharging up to 3,000 m
(10,000 ft). This change over is affected by a clutch mechanism
in the drive from the crankshaft.
Changing from M to S gear at exactly 1,500 m (5,000 ft) is not

ideal as the extra BHP loss causes a loss of power at the
propeller shaft. The best time to engage S gear is when the
manifold air pressure (MAP) drops 13.7 or 20.7 kPa
(2 or 3 psi/5 to 6 inHg).

Comparison of normally aspirated engine with a two-speed supercharged engine
Brake horsepower vs. density altitude

The two-stage supercharger
For very high altitude flying some larger engines are fitted with
two-stage superchargers which are in effect two superchargers
in series. The first stage or first impeller raises the air pressure
or fuel/air mixture pressure, and this pressurised gas is then
fed into the eye of the second stage and then to the induction
manifold.

The Rolls-Royce Merlin, a supercharged aircraft engine from World War II.
The supercharger is at the rear of the engine at left

Allison V1710 two-stage supercharger

Two stage supercharger schematic

Types of supercharger
There are three types of superchargers used in aero engines:
• the centrifugal-type;
• the roots type; and
• the vane type.
The centrifugal supercharger

A centrifugal supercharger is a specialised type of
supercharger that makes use of centrifugal force to push
additional air into an engine. Increased airflow into an engine
allows the engine to burn more fuel, which results in increased
power output of the engine. Centrifugal superchargers are
generally attached to the engine via a belt-drive or gear-drive
from the engine’s crankshaft.
The Roots supercharger

The two double-lobed impellers rotate in opposite directions
and increase the flow of air into the cylinder, thus increasing
the volumetric efficiency. As the supercharger is engine driven,
it increases speed with increases in engine speed. It is
reasonably efficient but heavy and suffers from lubrication
problems.
The vane supercharger

The vane-type supercharger increases airflow by the paddle
action of the vanes; it is suitable for some engine but not as
efficient as the other two types.

Types of supercharger

The centrifugal supercharger
The centrifugal-type is the one in common use today. The air Unfortunately, too substantial a rise in temperature has an
enters the eye or centre of the impeller. It is thrown out by adverse effect. It results in a decrease in the density of the air,
centrifugal force which increases its speed into a diffuser or so defeating the object of the supercharger. The probability of
volute casing, where the kinetic energy is converted into detonation taking place in the cylinder is also higher.
pressure by the divergent ducts formed by the vanes of the
diffuser. Detonation occurs when the temperature generated by the
compression stroke reaches a self-igniting temperature.
The impeller, which is driven through gearing by the crankshaft Instead of a flame rate of about 18.3 m/second (60 ft/second) it
at several times engine speed, is a centrifugal type. The air leaps to 300 m/second (1,000 ft/second) and becomes in effect
enters the centre of the impeller and is flung outwards by an explosion; causing damage to pistons, cylinder walls, con
centrifugal force. It then enters the diffuser, which is a casing rods and bearings. So, on some engines, there is a need to
around the impeller periphery. In this casing, there are fixed cool the mixture before it enters the cylinders.
vanes which are so arranged that they form divergent ducts as
shown below. Dependent upon the size of the supercharger and its speed
relative to engine speed, the supercharger can achieve
A divergent duct acts opposite to a Venturi; as air passes into compression ratios of between 1.5:1 and 3:1. As an example,
the broader section of the duct, there is a decrease in speed assume that we have a centrifugal-type supercharger driven at
and an increase in pressure. The temperature of the air also six times engine speed, giving us a compression ratio of 2:1.
increases. The pressurised air is now fed into the induction That means the supercharger doubles whatever pressure is fed
manifold. into it so that the pressure in the induction manifold is doubled.
This sort of arrangement allows sea-level power to be
The impeller is usually one-sided, and the clearances between maintained up to about 1,500 m (5,000 ft). The induction
it and adjacent casings are kept to a minimum to avoid pressure manifold pressure is sampled and fed to a gauge in the cockpit
losses from the tip into the crankcase and to prevent lubricating to allow the pilot to monitor his/her engine power.
oil being drawn into the eye of the impeller.
In all cases the extra air is ducted via the induction manifold to
the cylinders, the pressure rise being partially due to the
resistance to flow provided by the piston in the cylinder. Where
there is a pressure rise, there is also a rise in temperature.
Initially, the temperature rise is a good thing as it assists in the
vaporisation of the fuel.

Diffuser and impeller
assembly
Diffuser and impeller assembly
Single-sided impeller Fully-shrouded impeller
Impeller types

Boost and manifold air pressure
There are two alternative gauges, a boost gauge which is This boost, the maximum the engine can stand for any length
calibrated in psi with 0 being atmospheric at sea level and the of time is known as the rated boost (sometimes referred to as
pointer being able to move above (+) or below (–) and 0 climbing boost) and would be limited to about 1 hour’s duration.
settings. The other gauge is a manifold air pressure (MAP)
gauge. The MAP gauge is calibrated in inches of mercury from It follows that a means of controlling boost at sea level is
absolute zero. As normal atmospheric is approximately 30" of needed; this is achieved by closing the throttle butterfly, thus
mercury (30 inHg), the MAP gauge reads 30 when the boost reducing the pressure going into the supercharger. If we require
gauge reads 0. The calibrations on the gauge are 2 inHg. For +4 psi boost, we calculated above that this is equivalent to
1 psi, so a boost of +4 psi gives a MAP reading of 18.7 psi (14.7 psi atmospheric +4 psi boost). Our 2:1
30 + (4 × 2) = 38 inHg. supercharger must, therefore, have an inlet pressure of half
18.7 – 9.35 psi to produce 18.7 psi at its outlet. The throttle
Boost at sea level atmosphere it is 0, if it is above sea level lever in the cockpit must be positioned to give +4 psi boost.
atmosphere it is positive (+), if it is below sea level atmosphere Hence, the throttle valve is only partially open, and we know
it is negative (–). that this position must allow only 9.35 psi into the supercharger.
The pilot does not need to know the details. All they have to do
With the aid of the supercharger, we can increase the is open the throttle lever until +4 psi is indicated on the boost
volumetric efficiency of an engine, i.e. a greater charge can be gauge.
forced into the cylinders during each cycle than is possible
without the supercharger which means that we can increase Assume that the engine power is set at +4 psi boost and the
the power of an engine at sea level. Also, we can maintain sea- pilot elects to climb to altitude. As the aircraft climbs, so the
level conditions by suing supercharged power at altitude. atmospheric pressure drops, to say 13.7 psi. If the throttle lever
is left in the same position, then the boost starts to fall because
Taking the example mentioned earlier whereby the the throttle valve was set to partially open to give 9.35 psi when
supercharger doubles the air pressure fed into it, it follows that the atmospheric pressure was 14.7 psi. The throttle must be
if a sea-level atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psi is fed in, then opened progressively as altitude increases to maintain 9.35 psi
14.7 × 2 = 29.4 psi is delivered. This would show on the boost into the supercharger, to give a continual +4 psi boost indicated
gauge as +14.7 psi boost. Remember that an atmospheric on the boost gauge.
pressure of 14.7 psi is zero boost.
Eventually, height is reached when the throttle valve is fully
Unfortunately, most engines are not built robustly enough to open; somewhere around 1,500 m (5,000 ft). This is known as
withstand the temperatures and pressures that a +14-psi boost rated altitude and is also the full-throttle height for rated boost,
would generate, however, as an example, most engines may in this case, +4 psi boost, i.e. the throttle valve is fully open.
well be able to accept +4 psi boost.

The aircraft climbs above this height, but the power starts to
drop off, in the same way as a normally-aspired engine with no
supercharger loses power as it climbs from sea level.
Reads pressure relative to Reads absolute pressure above

standard sea level atmospheric zero atmospheric pressure which
pressure which is marked as zero. is marked as zero.

System layout
An intercooler cools the gas from the first stage of A means of controlling the supercharger outlet pressure is
supercharging before passing to the second-stage needed. This control is achieved by reducing the inlet pressure,
supercharger impeller. by closing the throttle butterfly valve, causing a pressure drop
across the throttle valve. This pressure drop gives the required
The intercooler has a coolant system which is independent of pressure into the supercharger to obtain the desired pressure
the main engine coolant system. The system is usually filled out.
with a mixture of ethylene glycol and water. It consists of a
radiator in the air stream which cools the coolant and a radiator The maximum pressure the engine can withstand for any length
in a casing through which the first stage supercharged air of time is known as its rated boost. A higher boost setting may
passes. be used for takeoff, known as takeoff boost, which may be used
for about five minutes in an emergency. Consider an engine
Two-stage supercharging may be achieved by the use of a with a supercharge with a pressure ratio of 2:1 and a rated
turbocharger for the first stage then the intercooler to the boost of +4 psi. The actual pressure in the induction manifold
carburettor and then to the main supercharger impeller is 18.7 psi; that is atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psi, plus the
described earlier. rated boost of 4 psi. As the supercharger doubles any pressure
fed in, to get 18.7 psi out 9.35 psi must be supplied.
Power from supercharging
Supercharging increases the pressure in the induction The pressure at sea level is 14.7 psi which, if delivered to the
manifold; this increases the power of the engine in two ways: supercharger, would result in 29.4 psi in the induction manifold,
a boost of 14.7 psi, which is far more than the engine can
• it increases the weight of the charge delivered to the withstand. To reduce the supercharger inlet pressure, the
cylinder on each induction stroke – giving more fuel and throttle butterfly valve is closed to a smaller opening, thus
more oxygen to burn it in; and providing a significant pressure drop across the valve. When
• it increases the actual compression pressure; this the throttle is closed sufficiently to give 9.35 psi supercharger
means that the MEP (mean effective pressure) is great, inlet pressure, there is a reading of +4 psi on the boost gauge.
thus giving more power.
As the aircraft climbs, the weight of a given volume of air

decreases. The supercharger makes up for this deficiency by
increasing the volume of the lighter air going into the induction
manifold. If the supercharger is designed to give maximum
power as the aircraft climbs to a certain maximum altitude,
below this altitude the supercharger could deliver more
pressure than the engine can stand.
Supercharger system layout

During a climb to altitude, the atmospheric pressure decreases, Unexpectedly, there is a rise in power from a supercharged
and if the throttle is left in the same position, the boost starts to engine up to rated altitude due to three factors:
fall as air at a lower pressure is entering the supercharger.
• there is a drop in temperature of the air as altitude is
The throttle valve must be opened at a few degrees until the increased thus giving a greater weight of charge;
+4 psi is re-established on the boost gauge, to restore the • there is an increase in volumetric efficiency due to better
supercharger inlet pressure to 9.35 psi. The higher the aircraft scavenging of the exhaust because there is less
goes, the further must the throttle valve be progressively resistance from the reduced atmospheric pressure.
opened to maintain the 4-psi boost as the atmospheric Thus, a greater charge may be induced; and
pressure decreases. • there is the ram effect of the aircraft’s forward movement
giving a greater mass flow of air into the intake.
Eventually, the aircraft reaches a height where the throttle valve
is fully open, known as its rated altitude. Above this height, the
engine power drops off in the same way as a normally aspirated
engine power drops off above sea level.
The power selected does not have to be rated power. The pilot
may, for example, select +2 psi boost, which means that the
inlet pressure going into supercharger will be 8.35 psi at sea
level. The throttle valve still has to be progressively opened as
the aircraft climbs, until it is fully open. This point is known as
full throttle height for that particular power selection. The full-
throttle height for +2 psi boost is higher than that for rated
+4 psi boost as the induction pressure required is only 16.7 psi,
compared with 18.7 psi.

Manifold pressure control
Manifold pressure control is fitted to some systems. This control With rated power selected, if the aircraft climbs, then the
will automatically partially close the throttle butterfly valve if the supercharger outlet pressure falls, causing the capsule to
manifold or boost pressure rises above the rated value. If the expand. The piston valve moves down, allowing pressure oil to
servo piston moves down, it causes a deflection in the linkage the underside of the servo piston, which moves up; thus, the
to the throttle valve; this causes the throttle valve to close capsule contracts to seal off both ducts to the servo piston. This
slightly irrespective of the throttle lever position in the cockpit. operation is repeated as the aircraft climbs and becomes a
continual process until the throttle valve is fully open. This point
Engine oil pressure is routed to the top or bottom of the servo is known as full throttle height for rated boost, or rated altitude.
piston through a piston valve attached to an aneroid capsule.
The outside of the capsule is subjected to supercharger- Although rated power is the maximum power allowed for any
delivery low pressure, and the capsule expands. The operating length of time, e.g. about an hour, a higher power may be used
rod is moved down, thus allowing the pressure oil to the for takeoff, and in an emergency.
underside of the piston. Oil from the top of the servo piston can
escape back to the engine as the servo piston moves up to the As an example, an engine may have a rated power (boost) of
top of the servo unit. As the throttle lever is advanced (note the +4 psi and a maximum takeoff or emergency of +8 psi boost;
operating rod is joined to allow for normal throttle movement) takeoff power is usually limited to 5 minutes. As the manifold
the supercharger delivery pressure (MAP or boost) increases. pressure control prevents rated boost being exceeded, a
The capsule progressively contracts, moving the piston valve means of overriding the control is necessary. This is usually
up until at rated boost both ducts to the servo piston are closed. achieved by a graduated bleed-off of supercharger delivery
The piston is now held firm in a hydraulic lock. pressure from around the aneroid capsule. At full throttle, the
bleed off is opened by the throttle linkage, so the capsule is not
If the throttle lever is advanced further, then the supercharger subjected to full supercharger delivery pressure, and it does not
delivery pressure rises above rated boost. The capsule control the throttle to the rated power.
contracts further, allowing pressure oil to the top of the piston.
The servo piston moves down, causing a deflection in the This fixed datum system (rated boost) does not affect power
linkage to partially close the throttle valve. selections below rated power. If the pilot elects to climb or
descend at any power setting below rated, then constant
The supercharger delivery pressure now falls, and the capsule adjustments of the throttle lever are necessary to maintain the
expands causing the piston valve to move down until, at rated selected power.
boost, both ducts to the servo piston and the compressor
delivery are closed to maintain rated boost.

A further disadvantage is that there is lost motion of the throttle
lever above rated boost when the control is in operation; this is
greatest at sea level and decreases with altitude. It also means
throttle lever-operated enrichment devices in the carburettor
are inoperative, and only a carburettor with pressure-controlled
enrichment devices may be used.
These shortcomings may be overcome by the use of a variable

datum control.
Supercharger control system

Variable datum control
The variable datum control controls the supercharger outlet The pilot now advances the throttle to obtain +3 psi boost. The
pressure or manifold pressure at any pressure (power) selected cam moves the aneroid and piston valve assembly down, thus
by the throttle lever. The diagram below shows a variable re-establishing the datum at which the controller operates.
datum control unit.
As the throttle lever is closed the cam relieves the pressure on
In this case, the aneroid capsule and piston valve assembly is the aneroid assembly, and the spring returns the assembly to
repositioned by a cam operated by the throttle linkage so that a lower datum. Thus, the variable datum control controls the
a new datum is established for each throttle position. Thus, the manifold pressure or boost pressure to whatever is selected by
boost pressure is determined by the throttle lever position, and the operation of the throttle lever without any lost movement
the variable datum control maintains that boost setting with and without the need to adjust the throttle for changes in
changes in altitude and forward speed. altitude up to full throttle height.
Consider a situation where the pilot has selected 0 psi boost, Boost reversal
and 0 psi boost has been obtained. The piston valve is in the There is, however, one problem when the engine is in the idle
neutral position. The pilot now advances the throttle lever to or slow running range. When the cylinder valves are in the
select +2 psi boost. The cam attached to the throttle linkage valve overlap condition, if the induction pressure is low and the
rotates, causing the capsule and the piston valve to move down outside pressure is relatively high, then the exhaust gases flow
a certain amount, and pressure oil raises the servo piston. in the wrong direction, i.e. from the exhaust to the induction
manifold. There is now a rise of pressure in the induction
As soon as +2 psi boost is obtained the pressure around the manifold; this causes the aneroid capsule to close the throttle,
capsule is 16.7 psi, which is sufficient to contract the capsule and acceleration of the engine is prevented. To overcome this
to the neutral position. If the pressure rises above +2 psi boost, problem, the cam is so shaped that in the idle range the throttle
the capsule contracts, allowing oil to the top throttle valve. lever has direct control over the throttle valve and the variable
Supercharger inlet and outlet pressures are reduced. This datum control is inoperative.
reduction of outlet pressure is felt on the capsule, which returns
the piston valve to the neutral position. Supercharger drives
A supercharger is usually driven by a splined drive from the
If the supercharger outlet pressure fails, say due to an increase crankshaft through a gear train to increase its speed relative to
in altitude, then the capsule expands. The piston valve lowers, engine speed. The gear train may incorporate some form of
and pressure oil goes to the underside of the servo, which spring drive or a centrifugal friction clutch or a combination of
opens the throttle valve until the +2-psi boost is restored. The the two.
piston valve then returns to the neutral position.

Variable datum control unit

Spring drive The centrifugal friction clutch
A spring drive may be a driveshaft designed to twist and absorb Fitted to relieve excessive loading on the driving gears caused
the shocks, or a more complex spring drive unit fitted to by sudden engine acceleration and deceleration, it also
overcome the effects of power pulses from the engine. reduces the load on the engine during start-up.
The diagram below shows an example of a spring drive unit. It consists of a driven inner member with several wedge-
The unit is splined on to a drive shaft from the crankshaft. The shaped fingers extending from it. Between each of these
inner member has several fingers extending from it, and the fingers are similar wedge-shaped pieces which are free to
outer member also has the same number of fingers extending move radially.
inwards and located in the slots of the inner member. Two steel
blocks are contoured to fit between each pair of the drive’s The outer member, which has driven gears machined on to its
fingers and have extension pieces which locate in the centre of periphery, is not directly driven by the inner member. On start-
the spring. The outer member has driving gears on its up and low rotational speed, the inner member rotates taking
periphery. the free wedge pieces with it. The outer member does not
move, and therefore the supercharger does not rotate.
A sudden increase of rotational speed by the inner driving
member causes the springs to contract, the inner member still With an increase of rotational speed by the inner member,
drives the outer member, but the springs absorb the initial kick. centrifugal force causes the free wedges to be flung out until
When the kick load is relieved, the springs re-start themselves. they contact the inner surface of the outer member causing the
A sudden decrease in rotational speed causes the outer supercharger to rotate.
member fingers to contract the springs, thus relieving the
torsional shock load. Thus, the spring drive damps out torsional During sudden deceleration, the inertia in the supercharger
fluctuations of the drive to the supercharger. going at about 6 times engine speed tries to turn the engine.
However, the free wedges move towards the centre, and then
the engine slows down, leaving the supercharger un-driven to
slow down of its own accord.
On acceleration, if the load is too high, the free wedges slip on

their friction drive to the outer member and only drive the
supercharger as engine speed increases.
Thus, the centrifugal clutch relieves excessive loading on the

supercharger driving gear train during acceleration and
deceleration.

Spring drive unit

Turbochargers
General
Turbochargers are divided into two groups: One side of the ‘Y’ pipe going direct to atmosphere the other
side going through the turbine. A selection flap known as the
• Altitude turbochargers – which are designed to wastegate is fitted in the line to the atmosphere.
maintain sea-level air pressure to a given altitude, the
engine requires no strengthening as it is only ever The wastegate determines which route the exhaust gases take,
subjected to sea level air pressure (14.7 psi). i.e. to the atmosphere or the turbine. This wastegate can be
• Ground boosted turbochargers – designed to give an selected partially open or closed so that the amount of exhaust
induction pressure higher than sea level air pressure at gas passing through the turbine can be controlled to all or
all attitudes. Engines with ground boosted turbochargers nothing, or anywhere between. The movement of the
have to be strengthened or be already strong enough to wastegate is affected by a linkage from an actuator, which is a
withstand the higher stresses resulting from higher piston and spring assembly.
combustion pressures.
The turbocharger is an externally driven form of the

supercharger and is not driven mechanically by the engine.
Mounted in the induction system is a small centrifugal type
impeller which increases the airflow to the cylinders, thus
providing a greater charge and increasing the volumetric
efficiency; thus, the engine develops more power. The impeller
is mounted on a common shaft with a small turbine which is
located in the exhaust system. As the exhaust gases flow
through the turbine, the turbine rotates the joint shaft and thus
the impeller.
As engine speed increases, so the exhaust gas flow increases,

which speeds up the turbine. In turn, this drives the impeller
causing an increase in the airflow to the cylinder. The speed of
the turbine is controlled by controlling the exhaust flow. The
exhaust system is divided by a ‘Y’ section pipe.

Turbocharger system schematic

The wastegate
For various reasons, the turbocharger does not need to run at The pressure to the piston is varied by bleeding off the
full power all the time the engine is running. A method of operating pressure oil back to the engine sump. The amount
controlling the turbocharger is affected using a wastegate. The bled back to the engine is determined using a controller. There
exhaust manifold is divided by use of a ‘Y’ shaped pipe. In one are various types of controller employed.
leg of the ‘Y’ pipe, the gases go through the turbine and operate
the turbocharger; the other leg of the ‘Y’ pipe goes directly to In its simplest form, some turbochargers have an absolute
the atmosphere, and in this leg, there is fitted a flap-type valve pressure controller which is designed to limit the maximum
known as the wastegate. pressure from the turbocharger outlet.
With the wastegate open all exhaust gases pass to the Intercooler
atmosphere without going through the turbine, whereas with As you compress air, it heats up. This is one of the most
the wastegate closed all exhaust gases pass through the significant disadvantages for any turbocharger. Aircraft engines
turbine. At any intermediate position of the wastegate, a relative already operate at hot temperatures, and hot intake air makes
proportion of the exhaust gases pass through both the turbine them even worse. Many turbochargers use something called
and the wastegate. an intercooler to overcome the problem.
The wastegate actuator An intercooler is a mini air-conditioner that is placed between

The wastegate is set between shut and open by linkage from the turbocharger and the engine. As the hot air moves from the
the wastegate actuator. The actuator consists of a piston and turbo to the engine, it passes through the intercooler, and the
rod connected to the operating linkage, a spring above the temperature drops significantly. The cooler air makes the
piston loads the linkage to the wastegate open position, that is, engine run more smoothly.
no turbo operation.
The wastegate is closed by engine oil under pressure from the

engine lubrication system passing through a restrictor to the
underside of the actuator piston. This pressure oil forces the
actuator piston to move to overcome the spring pressure, thus
closing the wastegate and bringing the turbo into operation.
The amount the wastegate closes is dependent upon the
pressure of oil to the underside of the piston.

Turbocharger system schematic - layout and operation

Operation of a waste gate

Engine with turbocharger and intercooler

Wastegate and wastegate actuator

Wastegate and wastegate actuator

Construction
A turbocharger consists of a compressor wheel and an exhaust
gas turbine wheel, coupled together by a solid shaft. It is used
to boost the intake air pressure of an internal combustion
engine. The exhaust gas turbine extracts energy from the
exhaust gas and uses it to drive the compressor. In most
applications, both the compressor and turbine wheel are of the
radial flow type. The flow of gases through a typical
turbocharger with a radial flow compressor and turbine wheels
is shown below.
Centre-housing
The turbine-compressor common shaft is supported by a
bearing system in the centre housing (bearing housing) located
between the compressor and turbine.
The centre housing is commonly aluminium alloy. Seals help

keep oil from passing through to the compressor and turbine.
Turbocharger rotors specifically have unique characteristics

due to the dynamics of having a heavy turbine and compressor
wheel located at the overhang ends of the rotor. The majority
of turbocharger rotors are supported within a couple of floating-
ring oil film bearings. In general, these bearings provide the
damping necessary to support the high gyroscopic moments of
the impeller wheels.

Turbocharger bearing assembly
Turbocharger bearing assembly

Turbocharger bearing assembly detail
Turbocharger internal components

Turbocharger internal – sectional view


Turbocharger during engine operation

Operation
Turbocharger compressors are generally centrifugal Choke line
compressors consisting of three essential components: The maximum centrifugal compressor volume flow rate is
compressor wheel, diffuser, and housing. With the rotational normally limited by the cross-section at the compressor inlet.
speed of the wheel, air is drawn in axially, accelerated to high When the flow at the wheel inlet reaches sonic velocity, no
velocity and then expelled in a radial direction. further flow rate increase is possible. The choke line can be
recognised by the steeply descending speed lines at the right
The diffuser slows down the high-velocity air, largely without on the compressor map.
losses, so that both pressure and temperature rise. The diffuser
is formed by the compressor backplate and a part of the volute
housing, which in its turn collects the air and slows it down
further before it reaches the compressor exit.
Operating characteristics
The compressor operating behaviour is generally defined by
maps showing the relationship between pressure ratio and
volume or mass flow rate. The useable section of the map
relating to centrifugal compressors is limited by the surge and
choke lines and the maximum permissible compressor speed.
Surge line
The map width is limited on the left by the surge line. This is
basically "stalling" of the air flow at the compressor inlet. With
too small a volume flow and too high a pressure ratio, the flow
can no longer adhere to the suction side of the blades, with the
result that the discharge process is interrupted. The air flow
through the compressor is reversed until a stable pressure ratio
with positive volume flow rate is reached, the pressure builds
up again and the cycle repeats. This flow instability continues
at a fixed frequency and the resultant noise is known as
"surging".

Turbocharger operating map

The absolute pressure controller
This controller limits turbocharger output to a specified The bleed valve is in the oil pressure line downstream of the
maximum pressure. At low power settings, the controller has wastegate actuator. When the predetermined maximum turbo
no effect, and all the oil pressure available is used to close the pressure is reached, the aneroid capsule contracts lifting the
wastegate, thus causing maximum exhaust flow through the bleed valve off its seat which allows the engine-pressure oil to
turbine. With an increase in throttle settings, more exhaust bleed back to the engine sump, reducing the oil pressure on
gases pass through the turbine, increasing the impeller speed the underside of the wastegate actuator piston. The spring
and consequently the pressure in the induction manifold. When pressure causes the piston to move down to open the
the predetermined induction pressure is reached, the controller wastegate, so reducing the exhaust gas flow through the
bleeds off engine oil pressure from the underside of the turbine and thus reducing the impeller output and consequently
wastegate actuator piston, see the diagram below left. In turn, the induction pressure.
this partially opens the wastegate, reducing the exhaust flow
through the turbine. Thus, the impeller speed is reduced to give At low altitude, the maximum pressure is reached very quickly.
the predetermined maximum pressure. At high-pressure settings, the wastegate is almost fully open,
but as the aircraft climbs and ambient pressure decreases, it
The airflow that runs from the turbo-compressor outlet to the will progressively close to maintain pressure. At a certain
inlet of the throttle plate is referred to in short terminology as altitude, the wastegate fully closes, giving maximum
“Upper Deck Pressure.” All airflow after the throttle plate is turbocharger output. This is known as the critical altitude, which
referred to as manifold pressure. is the equivalent of rated altitude for an internally driven
supercharger. Above this critical altitude the turbocharger
The operation of the absolute pressure controller is as follows. outlet pressure, and thus engine power, decreases even
though the turbocharger is going at maximum speed.
An aneroid capsule is subject to turbocharger outlet pressure,
attached to the capsule is a needle-type bled valve. There is a further loss of power at altitude due to the increased
temperature, which results from the increased impeller speed;
the temperature rise causes the air to expand and become less
dense. Oil temperature and cylinder head temperature also rise
as a result of higher combustion temperatures.
As the absolute pressure controller only works for a fixed,

predetermined maximum pressure, some systems use a
variable pressure controller which sets a maximum pressure for
each throttle lever power selection.

Absolute pressure controller installed
on a throttle body
Absolute pressure controller

The variable pressure controller
The variable pressure controller (also known as the variable
absolute pressure controller) has a variable datum which
controls the bleed valve to give a manifold pressure related to
the power selected by the throttle lever. This is achieved by
having the bleed valve seat position adjusted by a cam, which
is controlled by the throttle linkage.
The aneroid capsule operated needle-type bleed valve

operates similar to that in the absolute pressure controller, to
bleed off wastegate actuator oil pressure for a given induction
manifold pressure. Instead of being in a fixed position, the valve
seat is adjusted by a cam, operated by the throttle linkage. At
small power settings, the seat or datum is held away from the
bleed valve by a spring allowing a larger bleed of actuator oil.
This bleed remains constant for that throttle setting until the
predetermined induction manifold pressure is reached. Then,
the aneroid capsule contracts, moving the bleed valve to
increase the bleed, thus reducing actuator pressure and
opening the wastegate to reduce output from the turbocharger.
When the throttle selects higher power settings, the cam

rotates and forces the valve seat closer to the needle valve,
thus reducing the bleed so resetting the datum. The aneroid
pressure lifts the bleed valve off its seat at a given pressure,
but as the seat is now temporarily fixed in its new position, this
occurs at a higher manifold pressure. So, although the bleed
valve responds to delivery pressure, the original bleed valve
that it alters is determined by the position of the valve seat
which in turn is positioned by the cam. The spring ensures the
seat moves away from the valve, when the cam is off load, at
low power selections.

Variable pressure controller
Variable absolute pressure controller

The dual unit control system
Some grounded posted turbochargers have a dual unit control
system fitted. The unit consists of:
• a density controller; and

• a differential pressure controller.
The density controller is designed to prevent the turbocharger

form exceeding its maximum limiting pressure and only
operates at full throttle up to the critical altitude. The differential
pressure controller controls the induction manifold pressure by
controlling the wastegate at all other throttle positions.
A typical dual unit control system is illustrated in the diagram

below.
The density controller

The density controller shown on the right of the diagram
maintains a constant density at full throttle and also
compensates for temperature and pressure. The capsule is
filled with dry nitrogen which is sensitive to both pressure and
temperature. At a predetermined density (temperature and
pressure) the capsule, the outside of which is subject to
turbocharger outlet pressure, contracts, withdrawing the bleed
valve from its seat. Oil from the wastegate actuator can now
bleed away, allowing the wastegate to open and diverting the
exhaust gate flow to the atmosphere until the turbo outlet
pressure drops. When the turbo outlet pressure drops, the
capsule in the density controller expands, closing off the bleed
valve. The capsule is pre-set so that only the density of the
turbo outlet at full throttle affects it.
There are two springs, one around the capsule holding the
bleed valve on its seat until the capsule contracts compressing
the spring, allowing the other spring to open the bleed valve.
Dual unit control system

The sloped controller The differential pressure controller
The sloped controller (or ‘slope’ controller) is designed to The differential pressure controller has a bleed valve attached
maintain the rated compressor discharge pressure at wide- to a diaphragm which is spring assisted to the valve closed
open throttle and to reduce this pressure at part throttle position. The diaphragm is subjected to turbo outlet pressure
settings. on the top and inlet manifold pressure on the bottom, so the
diaphragm is responsive to the pressure drop across the
A diaphragm, coupled with a spring-supported bellows for throttle valve. At full throttle the pressure drop is at its least, the
absolute pressure reference, is exposed to deck pressure and bleed valve is closed, and the density controller will control
intake manifold pressure through ports located before and after (remember the throttle valve is downstream of the impeller). As
the throttle, respectively. the throttle is closed less turbocharger output is required; the
pressure drop across the throttle increases as the throttle is
This arrangement continuously monitors deck pressure and the closed.
pressure differential between the deck and manifold pressure
due to the throttle being partially closed. If either the deck The downstream throttle pressure, the inlet manifold pressure,
pressure or throttle differential pressure rises, the controller decreases and the upstream throttle pressure, which is turbo
poppet opens and decreases turbocharger discharge (deck) outlet pressure, is relatively higher. These two pressures acting
pressure. The sloped controller is more sensitive to the throttle on the diaphragm cause the bleed valve to open, bleeding off
differential pressure than to deck pressure, thereby wastegate actuator pressure. The wastegate opens to reduce
accomplishing deck pressure reduction as the throttle is closed. the turbo outlet pressure to suit the new throttle position. As the
throttle is closed, the wastegate opens to reduce the turbo
pressure to the power selected. As the throttle is opened, the
reverse applies.
Small changes in temperature or engine speed may cause

some systems to hunt while they try to establish the correct
bleed setting. However, the differential pressure controller
gives immediate compensation which reduces the effects of
small power changes. This hunting is sometimes known as
bootstrapping. On yet another ground boosted turbochargers,
a triple unit control system is used.

Sloped controller

Turbocharged engine components

Turbocharged engine

The triple unit control system
This consists of three separate controllers: The higher the aircraft goes above critical altitude, the more the
bleed valve opens, and the turbo outlet pressure is thus
• an absolute pressure controller, which limits the progressively reduced to keep the inlet manifold temperature
maximum turbo outlet pressure up to critical altitude; below that which may cause detonation. Turbo outlet pressure
• a pressure ratio controller for operation above critical is thus kept at a set ratio to atmospheric about 2.2:1.
altitude; and
• a rate controller which controls the rate of increase of The rate controller
turbo outlet pressure during acceleration. The rate controller controls the rate at which turbo outlet
pressure rises during the engine acceleration, thus preventing
The absolute pressure controller over boosting when the throttle is opened. The unit has a bleed
The absolute pressure controller controls the maximum turbo valve attached to a diaphragm which is spring assisted to the
outlet pressure up to the critical altitude; above the critical closed position.
altitude it is necessary to limit turbo outlet pressure below that
of the absolute pressure controller. This is because if the turbo Both sides of the diaphragm are subjected to turbo outlet
is going flat out trying to maintain the maximum pressure pressure. The lower side has a restrictor in the line so that if the
allowed by this controller, the rise in temperature of the air turbo pressure outlet rises too fast, the unrestricted pressure
generated by the turbo would result in detonation. Limits on the on the top of the diaphragm will increase at a faster rate than
manifold air pressure are imposed on turbocharged engines the pressure below the diaphragm, because of the restrictor.
above the critical altitude, or they may be done automatically This results in the diaphragm flexing down, opening the bleed
by the pressure ratio controller, as shown in the diagram below. valve to bleed pressure oil for the wastegate actuator. The
wastegate opens, causing a reduction turbo speed and outlet
The pressure ratio controller pressure. Eventually, the reduced pressure plus spring
The pressure ratio controller controls turbo outlet maximum pressure equals the unrestricted pressure, and the bleed valve
pressure above the critical altitude. It consists of an aneroid closes, allowing the turbo outlet pressure to rise. The rate of
capsule subjected on the outside to turbo outlet pressure. It is turbocharger outlet pressure is now controlled regardless of the
connected to a diaphragm in the upper section of the unit, in rate of acceleration of the engine, so the rate controller is in
the lower section is a bleed valve held on its seat by a spring, effect a turbo control.
and the lower section is open to ambient air. Above the critical
altitude, the ambient air pressure tends to flex the diaphragm
down, and in the aneroid chamber, the pressure is reduced.
This allows the capsule to expand, first touching the end of the
bleed valve and then progressively opening the bleed valve,
reducing the turbo speed and therefore the turbo pressure.
Triple unit control system

Glossary of supercharger and
turbocharger terms
A B
Aftercharger A radiator placed between the turbo- Backplate Located behind the compressor
compressor outlet and the engine wheel, this supports the compressor
intake manifold used to cool the housing, attaches to the turbo centre-
intake charge, which is heated by the section, and routes air into the
pressurization of the turbo (also compressor housing.
called an intercooler or charge air
cooler).
Backpressure A build-up of pressure in the exhaust
that prevents the free flow of new
Airflow (cfm) A measurement of how much exhaust gases and slows the speed
air/exhaust is able to flow through the of the turbo wheel. Backpressure that
turbo. Airflow is measured in cubic builds after the compressor in the
feet per minute. intake can cause the wheel to
suddenly stop spinning (surge).
Area/radius (A/R) The ratio of the cross-sectional area
of the exhaust-turbine Blow-off valve A valve between the turbo and the
inlet/compressor outlet divided by the intake manifold that vents air to avoid
radius from the centre of the turbo turbo surge when a pre-set pressure
wheel to the centre of the cross- limit (boost) is surpassed.
section (right). Differences in
compressor A/R do not affect
Boost The intake pressure created by the
performance very much, but a large
spinning of the compressor wheel
turbine A/R will allow big power gains
inside the housing. Measured in
at high engine rpm-this will cause
pounds per square inch over the
turbo lag at low speeds.
normal atmospheric pressure
(14.7:1).

B C
Boost controller A mechanical or electrical device that Centre-section The housing between the exhaust
alters the boost-pressure signal sent and intake sides of the turbo that
to actuate the wastegate, allowing houses the turbo shaft and contains
higher boost pressures than would the bearings, oiling system, and
normally be permitted. water-cooling system.
Boost creep When the boost rises past the set

limit. This is often caused by a
wastegate that cannot handle the Charge air cooler A radiator placed between the turbo
exhaust flow. compressor outlet and the engine
intake manifold used to cool the
intake charge, which is heated by the
Boost spike A period of uncontrolled boost when
compression of the turbo (also called
the wastegate and/or blow-off valve
an intercooler or aftercooler).
cannot act fast enough because of
sudden changes in the engine load.
Choke line The boundary on the righthand side

Boost threshold When engine conditions provide
of a compressor map that indicates
enough exhaust pressure to create
the rpm where the turbo efficiency
boost in the intake manifold.
quickly drops. If this happens at low
rpm, a larger turbo is needed.
Boreless turbo A turbo that uses a compressor wheel
that does not have a hole drilled
Compound turbos Two or more turbos that feed into
through it. This design increases the
each other in series to build high
strength of the compressor wheel in
boost pressures.
its highest stress area.
Compressor wheel The fan blades that suck in the intake
air and compress it against the
compressor housing and backplate.

C E
Cool down Running the engine until the exhaust Exducer Where flow exits the turbine or
temperature is low (less than 300 compressor wheel.
degrees F) so oil in the centre-section
does not overheat when the engine is
Exhaust manifold A collector on the engine head(s) that
shut down and the oil flow stops.
routes exhaust gases to the turbo.
External wastgate A wastegate that is not built in to the

D None turbo.
F None
E G None
EGR Exhaust-gas recirculation routes
some exhaust gas back into the
intake manifold after it passes H
through a water-cooled heat
exchanger. EGR reduces emissions Heat soak: When heat from the turbine housing
of nitrogen oxides. is transferred to the compressor side
of the turbo.
EGT Exhaust-gas temperature that should I

be monitored to prevent the turbo
from overheating, which can lead to Inducer: Where flow enters the turbine or
failure (1,250 degrees F maximum for compressor wheel.
extended periods).

I L None
Intake manifold Routes airflow from the intercooler
line into the intake ports in the
head(s) of the engine. M
Mass flow rate A representation of how much air
Intercooler Air-to-air or air-to-water radiators (based on density) is being output by
used between the turbo and the the turbo for use by the engine.
intake manifold to reduce intake
temperature, which is heated by the
pressurization inside the turbo (also
called aftercharger or charge air N None
cooler).
Internal wastegate A built-in valve that diverts exhaust O

gases away from the turbine when a
certain boost level is reached on the Oil restrictor A device that reduces the amount of
compressor side of the turbo. Can be oil delivered to a ball-bearing turbo
mechanically or electrically controlled. because it requires less oil pressure
than a stock journal-bearing unit.
Pressure ratio: The absolute
compressor outlet divided by the
absolute inlet pressure and
J
represented on the left side of a
Journal bearings Hollow brass sleeves suspended in compressor map.
oil that allow the turbo shaft to spin
freely inside the centre-section.
Oil supply/return Routes engine oil to and from the
lines turbo to lubricate the bearings in the
centre-section.
K None

P None
S
Q None Shaft The piece that travels through the
centre-section and connects the
turbine wheel to the compressor
R None wheel.
Shaft play Condition in a worn turbo where the

shaft is allowed to move (other than
spin). Signs of play indicate the turbo
is ready to fail by allowing the fan
blades to contact the housings or
other problems. An abnormal whine
or scraping sound can be a sign that
a turbo is suffering from shaft play.
Spool Another term for turbo boost. A turbo

is spooled up when it is creating
boost in the intake manifold.
Surge When boost pressure builds up to the

point that it causes the compressor
wheel to stall. This can be prevented
with the use of bypass valves. Also
known as bark.

T
Trim The ratio of the inducer area divided U None
by the exducer area.
Turbine wheel A wheel that is spun by exhaust V

gases that pass through the fins and
into the housing before dumping into Variable-geometry A turbo that uses variable vanes or a
the exhaust pipe. turbo (VGT) sliding nozzle to alter the volume
inside the exhaust housing to
maximize turbo speed at low engine
Turbo lag: The time it takes for a turbo to spool rpm. Also known as variable-turbine
up after the throttle has been geometry (VTG).
increased.
Variable nozzle A sliding nozzle in the exhaust side of
Turbo speed lines Lines on a compressor map that the turbo that can reduce the volume
represent the rotational speed of the around the turbine fan blades to
compressor wheel. increase turbo rpm at low engine
loads.
Turbo timer An electronic device that keeps an
engine running before shutdown to Variable vanes Adjustable blades that route exhaust
ensure EGT is low enough to prevent gases directly into the turbine wheel
oil from cooking in the centre-section. at low engine rpm to increase spool
on tap at low speeds.
Twin turbos A system using two turbos mounted
in parallel.
Twin
turbocharged
engine

W
Wastegate Bypass that diverts excess exhaust
gases away from the turbine once a
pre-set boost level is reached in the
compressor side of the turbo. It can
be built into the exhaust-turbine
housing (internal) or can be separate
from the turbo housing (external).
Water-cooled turbo A turbo assembly that incorporates

channels in the centre-section to
circulate engine coolant to keep the
bearing assembly and related parts
cool and prevent heat-soak from the
exhaust turbine and housing.
X None
Y None
Z None

16.8 Lubricants and Fuels

Copyright notice
LEVEL 3
subject.
appropriate.

© Copyright 2020 Module 16.8 Lubricants and Fuels Issue 2 – July 2020
Knowledge
Part-66 Levels
Objective
Ref.
A B1 B3
Properties and specifications; 16.8 1 2 2
Fuel additives;
Safety precautions

Table of Contents
Lubricants ______________________________________ 6
Purpose ______________________________________ 6
Types of lubrication ____________________________ 6
Boundary lubrication ___________________________ 8
Hydrodynamic lubrication _______________________ 8
Elastohydrodynamic lubrication __________________ 8
Properties and specifications ___________________ 10
General ____________________________________ 10
Viscosity and viscosity index ____________________ 12
Flashpoint and fire point _______________________ 14
Cloud point and pour point _____________________ 14
Specific gravity ______________________________ 14
Additives ____________________________________ 16
Extreme pressure additive _____________________ 16
Detergent additives ___________________________ 16
Use of automotive engine oil ____________________ 16
Engine break-in _______________________________ 18
Oil and filter changes __________________________ 20
Protective coatings ___________________________ 20
Moisture formation ___________________________ 20
Acid formation _______________________________ 20
Geographical operation ________________________ 20
Diesel engine lubricants _______________________ 22

Fuels _________________________________________ 24
Safety precautions ____________________________ 52
General _____________________________________ 24
General ____________________________________ 52
Properties and specifications ___________________ 24 Electrical bonding_____________________________ 52
Cloud point _________________________________ 24 Misfuelling __________________________________ 52
Cetane number (Diesel) _______________________ 24 PED use during refuelling ______________________ 54
Octane rating (gasoline) _______________________ 26 Refuelling with passengers on board ______________ 54
Fuel grade (gasoline) _________________________ 26 Defueling ___________________________________ 54
Lubricity____________________________________ 26
Flashpoint __________________________________ 26
Release of energy ____________________________ 28
Heat energy content __________________________ 30
Vapour pressure _____________________________ 30
Critical pressure and temperature ________________ 30
Additives ___________________________________ 32
Avgas _______________________________________ 34
General ____________________________________ 34
History _____________________________________ 34
Avgas 100 __________________________________ 36
Avgas 100LL ________________________________ 36
Avgas 82 UL ________________________________ 36
Avgas density _______________________________ 36
The future of general aviation fuels ______________ 37
Mogas ______________________________________ 39
General ____________________________________ 39
Adverse effects ______________________________ 39
Testing for alcohol in Mogas ____________________ 39
Diesel and Jet fuel ____________________________ 40
General ____________________________________ 40
Diesel fuel or Jet fuel?_________________________ 42
Cold weather operation ________________________ 46
Diesel pollutants _____________________________ 48
Lubricants
Purpose
The primary purpose of a lubricant is to reduce friction between • the nature of the movement, sliding or rolling motion
moving parts. Because liquid lubricants or oils can be circulated have different friction characteristics; and
readily, they are used universally in aircraft engines. In theory, • the type of lubricant, the type of oil and its
fluid lubrication is based on the actual separation of the characteristics also affect friction (viscosity).
surfaces so that no metal-to-metal contact occurs. As long as
the oil film remains unbroken, metallic friction is replaced by the If we want to reduce friction, we need to change or remove the
internal fluid friction of the lubricant. Under ideal conditions, factors which may harm the surfaces in motion. There are
friction and wear are held to a minimum. Oil is generally several ways to do just that.
pumped throughout the engine to all areas that require
lubrication. Overcoming the friction of the moving parts of the If there is sliding friction, rolling element like a ball or needle
engine consumes energy and creates unwanted heat. The bearing elements are used. The use of sacrificial surfaces can
reduction of friction during engine operation increases the be used to, such as lead/copper journal bearings. Last but not
overall potential power output. Engines are subjected to several least, the changing of viscosity, different or improved additives
types of friction. or even changing from oil to grease can reduce friction.
In the small area where the sliding or rolling surfaces are

Types of lubrication lubricated, this happens in one of three modes of lubrication:
The amount of friction between two parts depends on several • boundary lubrication;
factors: • hydrodynamic lubrication (HDL); and
• elastohydrodynamic lubrication, (EHL)
• the temperature, either ambient or in the engine itself
affects friction; We will discuss each of these.
• the surface finish, the better the surface is machined
or polished, the lower the coefficient friction the surfaces
have;
• the load, the higher the load on a surface the more
friction there is;
• the speed of movement, the increase of speed of
sliding surface will increase the friction;

Engine oil

Boundary lubrication
Boundary lubrication occurs when an engine is started, at low This is when a full film of oil has separated an engine shaft
speed or even in high load conditions. At this time, the two (crankshaft or camshaft) from its support, and no contact exists
moving (rolling or sliding) surfaces may come into real contact between the parts. The oil is keeping the shaft and bearing
and damage could result. Some specialists say that 70% of all apart by its viscosity. Also, during hydrodynamic lubrication,
wear in an engine occurs in this regime. there is no friction except in the lubricant itself where molecular
structures shear during operation.
To make sure that no damage is done during these regimes, it
is reasonable to use a lubricant which is formulated with anti- Hydrodynamic lubrication requires that the machined surfaces
wear or even extreme pressure additives. These additives react have a high degree of geometric conformity and relatively low
with the surfaces in contact due to the high pressure and pressure. This situation can be found between rotating crank or
temperature, forming a chemical film on those surfaces. This camshafts and the journal or sleeve bearings.
film is then sacrificed as the surfaces come into contact so that
the film wears off and not the metal surface. Once the engine is at operating temperature and shafts are at
average engine speeds it should be possible to remain in the
By increasing the viscosity of the lubricant, i.e. increasing its hydrodynamic regime forever so that friction is at minimum.
thickness, can reduce boundary friction in some situations.
However, care must be taken not to increase viscosity too Elastohydrodynamic lubrication
much as the internal friction of the lubricant increases too and This type of lubrication occurs where surfaces have a low
can give rise to higher temperatures. degree of conformity combined with high contact pressures as
found in gear drives and rolling bearing elements. The moving
Hydrodynamic lubrication surfaces catch the lubricants. Under high pressure, the
This is when a full film of oil has separated an engine shaft viscosity increases to such a high level that it forms a semi-
(crankshaft or camshaft) from its support, and no contact exists solid film separating the two moving surfaces.
between the parts. The oil is keeping the shaft and bearing
apart by its viscosity. Also, during hydrodynamic lubrication, As long as these conditions do not change the metal surfaces
there is no friction except in the lubricant itself where molecular do not come into contact. These surfaces may deform way
structures shear during operation. before the semi-solid oil or grease film breaks, due to this
remarkable property of the lubricant.

Full fluid film (hydrodynamic) lubrication
Boundary lubrication
Elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication (EHD or EHL)

Properties and specifications
General
While there are several important properties that satisfactory The oil used in aircraft reciprocating engines has a relatively
reciprocating engine oil must possess, its viscosity is most high viscosity required by:
important in engine operation. The resistance of an oil to flow
is known as its viscosity. Oil that flows slowly is viscous or has • large engine operating clearances due to the relatively
a high viscosity; if it flows freely, it has a low viscosity. large size of the moving parts, the different materials
Unfortunately, the viscosity of an oil is affected by temperature. used, and the different rates of expansion of the various
It was not uncommon for earlier grades of oil to become materials;
practically solid in cold weather, increasing drag and making • high operating temperatures; and
circulation almost impossible. Other oils may become so thin at • high bearing pressures.
high temperatures that the oil film is broken, causing a low load-
carrying ability, resulting in rapid wear of the moving parts.
The oil selected for aircraft engine lubrication must be light

enough to circulate freely at cold temperatures, yet heavy
enough to provide the proper oil film at engine operating
temperatures. Since lubricants vary in properties and since no
one oil is satisfactory for all engines and all operating
conditions, it is imperative that only the approved grade or
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) rating is used.
Several factors must be considered in determining the proper

grade of oil to use in a particular engine, the most important of
which are the operating load, rotational speeds, and operating
temperatures. The grade of the lubricating oil to be used is
determined by the operating conditions to be met in the various
types of engines.

Choosing the correct oil

Viscosity and viscosity index
The viscosity of any lubrication oil is its most important “On the ………… engine, SAE 50 oil is to be used when the
characteristic. The resistance of an oil to flow is known as its temperature is above 40°F, and SAE 30 oil below”.
viscosity. Viscosity can be defined as the force required to
overcome the resistance of the oil to deformation or sheer. It is In other words, if it is required to operate at high temperatures,
commonly known as the thickness or ‘body’ of the oil. a higher-viscosity oil is required, and if low temperatures are to
be expected, a low viscosity oil should be used.
• A thin oil which runs freely has a low viscosity.
• A thick oil that is difficult to pour has a high viscosity. The effect of temperature
Lubricating oils react in different ways when heated; some oils
Typically, aviation grades are; SAE 30/65 weight; SAE 40/80 exhibit little change in viscosity, whereas others show a
weight; SAE 50/100 weight; SAE 60/120 weight. considerable change. Good quality oils tend to exhibit a smaller
change in viscosity than others when heated.
The manufacturer, when choosing an oil to use as a lubricant,
requires oil that adheres to the metals within the engine, to It is particularly important to select the correct grade of oil for
prevent metal to metal contact of the moving parts. Equally as use in a lubrication system if a change in temperature is likely
important is that the oil does not produce an oil drag problem, to occur, because of the resulting change in viscosity that can
and so reduce the efficiency of the engine while it is moving. take place. For this reason, the operation temperature of the
system must be known before the selection can be made.
Determining the oil viscosity
The viscosity of an oil and how it is determined has to be A thick oil, with a high viscosity, protects heavily loaded parts
universally adopted. A universal viscosimeter is used to once it is circulated throughout the system. However, when it is
achieve this. This instrument determines the viscosity of an oil cold, such oil does not flow quickly, causing wear to take due
by heating the oil to a predetermined temperature in a tube. to oil starvation. Alternatively, a thin oil with low viscosity flows
The time in seconds that the heated oil takes to pass through a quickly to all parts of the system and give proper initial
calibrated jet or orifice is recorded as a measurement of the lubrication to the parts when the oil is cold. Such an oil,
oil’s viscosity. Although by this method we could end up with however, does not have the firm strength that is necessary to
many values, a simplified selection of values is classified under protect heavily loaded surfaces or bearings when the oil is hot.
an SAE system, where the oils are graded into seven groups
(SAE 10 to 70) according to the viscosity at either 130°F or Manufacturers now produce lubricating oils with a multigrade
210°F. rating. This grade rating produces a grade of oil that is
compatible for operations between a series of temperature
Therefore, a typical example of an SAE rating for lubricating oil ranges. When using such lubricating oils, the engine
systems for a reciprocating engine would read like this. manufacturer’s instructions must be strictly adhered to when
selecting the correct grade of oil.
Generally, commercial aviation oils are classified by a number, temperature and, therefore, are subject to classification in the
(such as 80, 100, 140, etc.) that approximates the viscosity as same grade.
measured by a testing instrument called the Saybolt Universal
Viscosimeter. In this instrument, a tube holds a specific quantity The SAE letters on an oil container are not an endorsement or
of the oil to be tested. The oil is brought to an exact temperature recommendation of the oil by the SAE. Although each grade of
by a liquid bath surrounding the tube. The time in seconds oil is rated by an SAE number, depending on its specific use, it
required for exactly 60 cubic centimetres of oil to flow through may be rated with a commercial aviation-grade number or an
an accurately calibrated orifice is recorded as a measure of the Army and Navy specification number. The correlation between
oil’s viscosity. If actual Saybolt values were used to designate these grade numbering systems is shown in the table.
the viscosity of the oil, there would probably be several hundred
grades of oil. Commercial Commercial Army and navy
aviation number SAE number specification
To simplify the selection of oils, they are often classified under number
an SAE system that divides all oils into seven groups (SAE 10
65 30 1065
to 70) according to viscosity at either 130°F or 210°F. SAE
ratings are purely arbitrary and bear no direct relationship to 80 40 1080
the Saybolt or other ratings.
100 50 1100
The letter W occasionally is included in the SAE number giving 120 60 1120
a designation, such as SAE 20W. This W indicates that the oil
140 70
is satisfactory for winter use in cold climates, in addition to
meeting the viscosity requirements at the testing temperature Grade designations for aviation oils
specifications. This should not be confused with the W used in
front of the grade or weight number that indicates the oil is of Viscosity index
the ashless dispersant type. A viscosity index is a number that indicates the effect of
temperature changes on the viscosity of the oil. When the oil
Although the SAE scale has eliminated some confusion in the has a low viscosity index, it indicates a relatively significant
designation of lubricating oils, it must not be assumed that this change of viscosity with increased temperature. The oil
specification covers all the critical viscosity requirements. An becomes thin at high temperatures and thick at low
SAE number indicates only the viscosity grade or relative temperatures. Oils with a high viscosity index have small
viscosity; it does not indicate the quality or other essential changes in viscosity over a wide temperature range.
characteristics. It is well known that there are good oils and
inferior oils that have the same viscosities at a given

The best oil for most purposes is one that maintains a constant In the early years, the performance of aircraft piston engines
viscosity throughout temperature changes. Oil having a high was such that they could be lubricated satisfactorily using
viscosity index resists excessive thickening when the engine is straight mineral oils, blended from specially selected petroleum
subjected to cold temperatures. This allows for rapid cranking base stocks. Oil grades 65, 80, 100, and 120 are straight
speeds during starting and prompt oil circulation during initial mineral oils blended from selected high-viscosity index-base
start-up. This oil resists excessive thinning when the engine is oils. These oils do not contain any additives except for
at operating temperature and provides full lubrication and exceedingly small amounts of pour point depressant, which
bearing load protection. helps improve fluidity at extremely low temperatures, and an
antioxidant. This type of oil is used during the break-in period
Flashpoint and fire point of a new aviation piston engine or those recently overhauled.
Flashpoint and fire point are determined by laboratory tests that
show the temperature at which a liquid begins to give off Demand for oils with higher degrees of thermal and oxidation
ignitable vapours; flash, and the temperature at which there are stability necessitated fortifying them with the addition of small
sufficient vapours to support a flame; fire. These points are quantities of nonpetroleum materials. The first additives
established for engine oils to determine that they can withstand incorporated in straight mineral piston engine oils were based
the high temperatures encountered in an engine. on the metallic salts of barium and calcium. In most engines,
the performance of these oils concerning oxidation and thermal
Cloud point and pour point stability was excellent. However, the combustion chambers of
Cloud point and pour point also help to indicate suitability. The the majority of engines could not tolerate the presence of the
cloud point of an oil is the temperature at which its wax content, ash deposits derived from these metal-containing additives. A
generally held in solution, begins to solidify and separate into non-metallic (i.e., non-ash-forming, polymeric) additive was
tiny crystals, causing the oil to appear cloudy or hazy. The pour developed that was incorporated in blends of selected mineral
point of the oil is the lowest temperature at which it flows or can oil base stocks, to overcome the disadvantages of harmful
be poured. combustion chamber deposits. W oils are of the ashless type
and are still in use. The ashless dispersant grades contain
Specific gravity additives, one of which has a viscosity stabilising effect that
Specific gravity is a comparison of the weight of the substance removes the tendency of the oil to thin out at high oil
to the weight of an equal volume of distilled water at a specified temperatures and thicken at low oil temperatures.
temperature. As an example, water weighs approximately 8 lb
to the gallon; oil with a specific gravity of 0.9 would weigh 7.2 lb The additives in these oils extend operating temperature range
to the gallon. and improve cold engine starting and lubrication of the engine
during the critical warm-up period permitting flight through
wider ranges of climatic changes without the necessity of
changing oil.
Semisynthetic multigrade SAE W15 W50 oil for piston engines The ashless dispersant grades are recommended for aircraft
has been in use for some time. Oils W80, W100, and W120 are engines subjected to wide variations of ambient temperature,
ashless dispersant oils specifically developed for aviation particularly the turbocharged series engines that require oil to
piston engines. They combine non-metallic additives with activate the various turbo controllers. At temperatures below
selected high viscosity index base oils to give exceptional 20°F, preheating of the engine and oil supply tank is usually
stability, dispersancy, and antifoaming performance. required regardless of the type of oil used.
Dispersancy is the ability of the oil to hold particles in
suspension until they can either be trapped by the filter or Premium, semisynthetic multigrade ashless dispersant oil is a
drained at the next oil change. The dispersancy additive is not blend of high-quality mineral oil and synthetic hydrocarbons,
a detergent and does not clean previously formed deposits with an advanced additive package that has been specifically
from the interior of the engine. formulated for multigrade applications. The ashless anti-wear
additive provides exceptional wear protection for wearing
Some multigrade oil is a blend of synthetic and mineral-based surfaces.
oil. Semisynthetic, plus a highly effective additive package, that
is added due to concern that fully synthetic oil may not have the Many aircraft manufacturers add approved preservative
solvency to handle the lead deposits that result from the use of lubricating oil to protect new engines from rust and corrosion at
leaded fuel. As multigrade oil, it offers the flexibility to lubricate the time the aircraft leaves the factory. This preservative oil
effectively over a broader range of temperatures than should be removed at the end of the first 25 hours of operation.
monograde oils. Compared to monograde oil, multigrade oil When adding oil during the period when preservative oil is in
provides better cold-start protection and a stronger lubricant the engine, use only aviation-grade straight mineral oil or
film (higher viscosity) at typical operating temperatures. The ashless dispersant oil, as required, of the viscosity desired.
combination of non-metallic, anti-wear additives and selected
high viscosity index mineral and synthetic base oils give If ashless dispersant oil is used in a new engine, or a newly
exceptional stability, dispersancy, and antifoaming overhauled engine, high oil consumption might be experienced.
performance. Start-up can contribute up to 80 per cent of The additives in some of these ashless dispersant oils may
normal engine wear due to lack of lubrication during the start- retard the break-in of the piston rings and cylinder walls. The
up cycle. The easier the oil flows to the engine’s components use of mineral oil can avoid this condition until regular oil
at start-up, the less wear occurs. consumption is obtained, then change to the ashless
dispersant oil. Mineral oil should also be used following the
replacement of one or more cylinders or until the oil
consumption has stabilised.
In all cases, refer to the manufacturers’ information when oil

type or time in service is being considered.

Additives
Extreme pressure additive Detergent additives
Lubricants containing an extreme pressure additive (oil Detergent additives are added to lubricating oil to keep the
extreme pressure – OEP) are designed to operate under internal parts of components and lubrication systems clean.
extreme pressure conditions. They appear to work in the same This additive tends to keep the sludge in suspension and
way as a fatty acid, in that they combine chemically with the reduce the tendency for it to accumulate in piston ring grooves,
surface of the bearing metal being lubricated. Extreme oil pipes, and other small oil ways. The additive helps to prevent
pressure additives are used in oils which lubricate heavily such problems as piston rings sticking in their grooves, and oil
loaded gear trains, such as those fitted to helicopter gearboxes starvation due to blocked oil ways.
or the accessory gearboxes of large aircraft.
Use of automotive engine oil
Ashless Dispersant oils are formulated from base stocks This is not permitted. Only an aviation piston engine oil should
blended with additives designed with a range of objectives be used to lubricate engines designed for aviation use.
which may include enhancing low-temperature fluidity, high- Automotive engine oils are usually formulated with detergents
temperature stability, corrosion inhibition and anti-wear and other additives that may contain metals such as zinc. Ash
protection. The additive system is ashless and of a dispersant deposits produced from these metal-containing additives tend
nature offering greater engine cleanliness. Ashless means that to form in the combustion chamber where they can cause pre-
the product does not contain any metallic components – this is ignition. This, in turn, can lead to engine failure; hence aviation
important because it reduces the formation of harmful metallic oils are formulated from metal-free additives.
ash deposits within the engine. Dispersant means it holds small
particles in suspension if they do not dissolve, allowing these
particles to be carried away from critical areas and filtered out;
this helps keep the engine clean. Ashless dispersant piston-
engine oils are approved against SAE J1899 specification
(superseding MIL-L-22851D).

Engine oil and anti-corrosion additives

Engine break-in
Most Lycoming engines must be operated on mineral oil during When changing from straight mineral oil to ashless dispersant
the first 50 hours or until oil consumption has stabilised. LW- oil, the following precautionary steps should be taken.
16702 additive may be used. If an ashless dispersant oil is used
in a new engine, or a newly overhauled engine, high oil • Do not add ashless dispersant oil to straight mineral oil.
consumption might be experienced. The additives in some of Drain the straight mineral oil from the engine and fill with
these ashless dispersant oils may retard the break-in of the ashless dispersant oil.
piston rings and cylinder walls. The use of mineral oil can avoid • Do not operate the engine longer than five hours before
this condition until regular oil consumption is obtained, then the first oil change.
change to the ashless dispersant oil. Mineral oil must also be • Check all oil filters and screens for evidence of sludge or
used following the replacement of one or more cylinders or until plugging. Change oil every ten hours if sludge conditions
the oil consumption has stabilised. are evident. Repeat ten-hour checks until the clean
screen is noted, then change oil at recommended time
All turbocharged Lycoming engines must be broken in with intervals.
ashless dispersant oil only.
Straight grade oils
In engines that have been operating on straight mineral oil for Straight monograde oils are designed to be used when
several hundred hours, a change to ashless dispersant oil breaking-in a new or recently overhauled engine. They are
should be made with a degree of caution. The cleaning action formulated from mineral base stocks, typically further enhanced
of some ashless dispersant oils tends to loosen sludge deposits by a low concentration of antioxidant, and pour point
and cause plugged oil passages. When an engine has been depressant for improved low-temperature performance. These
operating on straight mineral oil and is known to be in an oils are also referred to as running-in or break-in oils. They are
excessively dirty condition, the switch to ashless dispersant oil designed and formulated to provide the correct level of lubricant
should be deferred until after the engine is overhauled. breakdown and controlled cylinder wear to help lap and seal
the piston rings. Straight monograde piston engine oils are
approved against SAE J1966 specification (superseded MIL-L-
6082E). Some engines use these oils beyond break-in, so if in
doubt, please refer to your engine manual/manufacturer.

Oil and filter changes
Oil and filter should be changed regularly, but the use of the Hence the need for multigrade oils in which we have 15W50
aircraft (or the lack of) and other factors dictate if the oil must and 20W50 which are thinner at lower temperatures facilitating
be changed sooner than prescribed by the manufacturer to quicker oil pressure but can be thick enough at engine
prevent any corrosion formation in the engine. operating temperatures.
The frequency of aircraft/engine use is one of the prime factors Moisture formation
in determining how the oil performs and how often it should be Moisture is formed when the engine oil cools, and water
changed. Frequently flown aircraft; think one hour a week and condenses. Regular flying with oil temperatures reaching
regular (50 hours) oil changes makes any oil look good. This 100°C makes sure that all water is boiled off. Ground running
behaviour keeps the oil covering all internal parts. There is is just not enough; it is too short for all parts to get up to
some debate that oil will ‘runoff’ engine parts after a while, but operating temperatures and, in the end, will cause harm. It also
oil always sticks to metal and keep it covered. This, however, increases water formation and corrosive attack.
could not be the case of piston oil compression and scraper
rings as they are subject to high temperatures and oil does tend Acid formation
to get burned off, although this is only in minute quantities. Engine combustion by-products are picked up by the oil and
form, when mixed with condensation, acids capable of etching
Engines flown less than 100 hours a year are candidates for into the metals of the engine, resulting in more corrosion.
corrosion formation Frequent oil changes help against acid formation even on a
four-monthly basis when not frequently flying (time-limited as
Protective coatings opposed to hour limited).
Between aircraft use, engine oil should maintain a coating on
all internal parts, if not, the surfaces will begin to oxidise within Geographical operation
a short period. If left unattended longer, the oxidation will The location where the aircraft is used or parked, coastal and
damage the steel parts of the engine. or high humidity places, contribute to corrosion. As said above,
if flying infrequently and you are in said locations, do more oil
Frequent oil and filter changes are an excellent way to minimise changes to minimise possible corrosion, and this helps in
these effects. Thicker oil would help too as it sticks better to the keeping the engine in good health.
metal. But this has the disadvantage that it takes a couple of
seconds for the oil to be up to pressure and reaching all parts
moving, especially in winter.

Internal engine corrosion
Engine internal surface film build-up

Diesel engine lubricants
The recommended oil for use with most aero Diesel engines is Furthermore, not all aero Diesel engine oils are suitable for all
10W-40, multigrade engine oil specifically designed for use in aero Diesel engine types. It is therefore essential to use only
the new generation of compression ignition (Diesel) aviation the type of oil recommended by the aero Diesel engine
piston engines. manufacturer.
The formulation is suitable in piston engines fuelled by Jet A or

Jet A-1.
Diesel engine oil 10W-40 is a fully synthetic engine oil

containing unique additives to provide piston cleanliness,
resulting in a clean, efficient and reliable engine. This includes
a powerful surface-active additive that bonds to the surface of
highly loaded engine parts, protecting the engine from scuffing
damage.
Aero Diesel oils of this type are optimised to cope with the
demands of this type of engine. Its key performance features
include the ability to sustain high bearing loads, neutralisation
of acid build-up from the sulphur present in the fuel and high
dispersancy to allow for the relatively high loading produced
when burning Jet fuel.
Oils specifically designed for gasoline-burning engines must

not be used in Diesel powered aircraft engines.
Oils specifically designed for aero Diesel engines must not be

used in spark-ignition or gasoline-powered aircraft engines.

AeroShell Oil Diesel 10W-40 is approved for use in the AeroShell Oil Diesel Ultra is a fully synthetic, multigrade engine oil
following engines. designed for use in the new generation of compression ignition (Diesel)
aviation piston engines. The formulation is suitable for use in piston
• SMA SR135 engines fuelled by Jet A or Jet A-1 and is designed for use in the latest
• Thielert 1.7 Centurion highly rated turbocharged Diesel engines under all operating
conditions. AeroShell Oil Diesel Ultra must not be used in spark
ignition, or Avgas powered aircraft engines.
Fuels
General
Aircraft commonly use engines which consume Avgas or Cetane number (or CN) is an inverse function of a fuel’s ignition
engines running Mogas. Some engines are capable or delay and the time between the start of injection and the first
modified, to run either fuel; although some with restrictions. identifiable pressure increase during combustion of the fuel. In
Diesel engines use aviation grade Diesel fuel or can operate on a particular Diesel engine, higher cetane fuels have shorter
Jet-A fuel if the engine is suitably modified to cope with the ignition delay periods than lower Cetane fuels.
lower lubricity of Jet-A fuel.
In short, the higher the Cetane number, the easier the fuel
Properties and specifications combusts in a compression setting (such as a Diesel engine).
The characteristic Diesel ‘knock’ occurs when fuel that has
Cloud point been injected into the cylinder ignites after a delay causing a
Cloud point refers to the temperature below which wax in Diesel late shock wave. Minimising this delay results in less unburned
forms a cloudy appearance. The presence of solidified waxes fuel in the cylinder and less intense knock.
thickens the oil and clogs fuel filters and injectors in engines.
The wax also accumulates on cold surfaces (e.g. pipeline or
heat exchanger fouling) and forms an emulsion with water. Therefore higher-cetane fuel usually causes an engine to run
Therefore, cloud point indicates the tendency of the oil to plug more smoothly and quietly.
filters or small orifices at cold operating temperatures
Cetane number (Diesel)

Cetane number, Cetane rating or CN is an indicator of the
combustion speed of Diesel fuel and is a measure of Diesel fuel
quality. A cetane number is a measure of the delay of ignition
of each Diesel fuel. A higher cetane number indicates that the
fuel ignites more readily when sprayed into hot compressed air.
European (EN 590 standard) road Diesel has a minimum
cetane number of 51.

Cetane number is a measure of how quickly the fuel
ignites after being injected into the combustion zone
Diesel gelling at and

below the ‘cloud point’

Octane rating (gasoline)
An octane rating, or octane number, is a standard measure of Fuel is graded by its anti-knock properties, i.e.:
the performance of an engine or aviation fuel. The higher the
octane number, the more compression the fuel can withstand • 100L which is green; and
before detonating (igniting). In broad terms, fuels with a higher- • 100LL, which is blue.
octane rating are used in high-performance gasoline engines
that require higher compression ratios. In contrast, fuels with Both the above fuels contain TEL, and their use may give rise
lower octane numbers (but higher cetane numbers) are ideal to problems for engines designed for fuel with lower lead
for Diesel engines, because Diesel engines (also referred to as content, or unleaded fuel. Unleaded fuel can be used on some
compression-ignition engines) do not compress the fuel, but engines, but if extra power is obtained by increasing the
rather compress only air and then inject fuel into the air which cylinder pressures, then there is a high risk of detonation.
was heated by compression. Lubricity
Gasoline engines rely on ignition of air and fuel compressed In a modern Diesel engine, the fuel is part of the engine
together as a mixture, which is ignited at the end of the lubrication process. Diesel fuel naturally contains compounds
compression stroke using spark plugs. Therefore, high that provide lubricity, but because of regulations in many
compressibility of the fuel matters mainly for gasoline engines. countries (such as the US and the EU), sulphur must be
Use of gasoline with lower octane numbers may lead to the removed from the fuel before it can be sold. The
problem of engine knocking. hydrotreatment of Diesel fuel to remove sulphur also removes
the compounds that provide lubricity. Reformulated Diesel fuel
Fuel grade (gasoline) has a lower lubricity and requires lubricity-improving additives
All aircraft fuel has an anti-knock rating, which is a measure of to prevent excessive engine wear.
their resistance to detonation. Detonation is the situation where
the speed of burning of the mixture suddenly leaps from tens of Flashpoint
feet per second to thousands of feet per second because the The flashpoint is the lowest temperature at which vapours of a
unburnt mixture reaches its critical temperature and pressure volatile material ignite when given an ignition source.
and explodes, causing damage to pistons, cylinders and Avoid confusing flashpoint with autoignition temperature which
bearings. The use of additives can increase the anti-knock is the temperature at which the vapour ignites without an
value of a fuel, the most common being tetraethyl lead (TEL), ignition source
but as this causes environmental health problems, alternative
additives are being developed. The autoignition temperature, by definition, is higher than the
flashpoint.

Fuel Flashpoint Autoignition temperature
Ethanol (70%) 16.6°C (61.9°F) 363°C (685°F)
Gasoline −43°C (−45°F) 280°C (536°F)
Diesel No. 2 >52°C (126°F) 256°C (493°F)
Jet fuel (Jet A/A-1) >38°C (100°F) 210°C (410°F)
Kerosene >38–72°C (100–162°F) 220°C (428°F)
Vegetable oil (canola) 327°C (621°F) 424°C (795°F)
Biodiesel >130°C (266°F)
At room temperature, as the flashpoint of gasoline is -45°C, the gasoline instantly

ignites when in contact with a flame. The Diesel will put the flame out.

Release of energy
Aircraft reciprocating engines are a type of heat engine that Gasoline burns with a mixture as rich as 8:1 (0.125) to one as
changes the chemical energy in fuel and air into heat energy lean as 18:1 (0.056) when atomised fuel is injected into engine
and then changes this heat energy into useful work to drive the induction air. This ratio band is known as the ‘limits of
pistons. flammability’ for reciprocating aircraft engines. When burned in
a mixture richer than 15:1, there is not enough oxygen in the
Gasoline (for example) is a liquid hydrocarbon compound mixture for the fuel to release all of its energy, and an excess
obtained by fractional distillation of crude oil. Its chemical of carbon appears as black smoke and soot. When the mixture
formula is C8H18, it nominally weighs six pounds per gallon, and is leaner than 15:1, there are fewer fuel molecules than what is
contains approximately 20,000 Btu of heat energy per pound. needed for the available oxygen, so a given volume of fuel-air
charge releases less energy.
Heat energy is released by a chemical reaction between the
hydrogen and carbon in the gasoline and the oxygen in the air. Air is a compressible fluid which is a physical mixture of gases.
When the proper amounts of gasoline and air are mixed and It is made up of approximately 21% oxygen and 78% nitrogen,
the temperature of the mixture is raised to its kindling point, the by weight, with traces of other gases. The percentages of these
carbon and some of the oxygen combine to form carbon gases remain relatively constant throughout the atmosphere,
dioxide, and the hydrogen and the rest of the oxygen combine but the pressure produced by each gas decreases with altitude.
to form water. This reaction takes place so rapidly that a great This fact is especially important in the operation of aircraft
deal of heat is released, and it is this heat that performs useful engines. The power produced by an engine at sea level
work. decreases as the aircraft goes up in altitude because the air
density lessens, resulting in fewer pounds of oxygen to
In the perfect combination of gasoline and air, two molecules of combine with the gasoline.
gasoline (C8H18) and 25 molecules of oxygen (O2) combine to
form 16 molecules of carbon dioxide (CO2) and 18 molecules Since the purpose of a reciprocating engine is to convert the
of water (H2O), plus a large amount of heat. maximum amount of heat energy in the fuel into useful work, it
would appear that the engine should always be operated with
Approximately fifteen pounds of air is needed to provide an air-fuel mixture ratio of 15:1. This is true in theory, but many
enough oxygen for complete combination with one pound of variables prevent this from actually happening. These variables
gasoline. This mixture ratio is expressed as an air/fuel ratio of are discussed next.
15:1, or a fuel/air ratio of 0.067 (1:15). This ratio, which
provides the exact and correct number of oxygen molecules to
unite with all of the hydrocarbon molecules in the gasoline, is
called a stoichiometric mixture.

Gasoline octane rating symbols used on the aircraft

Heat energy content Critical pressure and temperature
Aviation gasoline has a nominal heat energy content of It is important to rate gasoline according to its ability to resist
20,000 Btu per pound, and a nominal weight of 6 lb per gallon. detonation, and its critical pressure and temperature determine
Kerosene, which is a significant component of turbine engine this resistance. Antidetonation characteristics of fuel are
fuel, has a nominal heat energy content of 18,500 Btu per measured by the octane rating or the performance number of
pound, and a nominal weight of 6.7 lb per gallon. the fuel.
Vapour pressure The octane rating of a fuel is measured by comparing its

The vapour pressure of a liquid is the amount of pressure performance in a specialised laboratory test engine to that of a
needed above the liquid to prevent the fuel from evaporating. mixture of two hydrocarbon products, isooctane, and heptane.
Vapour pressure is determined by the temperature of the fuel Iso-octane is a hydrocarbon compound with an exceptionally
and is rated according to its Reid vapour pressure (RVP), which high critical pressure and temperature that is used as a high-
is measured at 100°F. If fuel has an RVP of 15 psi at 100°F, end reference for antidetonation rating, and it has an octane
any time the atmospheric pressure is 15 psi (approximately rating of 100. Heptane, as the low reference, has an octane
normal sea level pressure) or less, and the temperature of the rating of zero. If a fuel performs in the same way as a mixture
fuel is 100°F, the fuel will vaporise. If the RVP is 5 psi, the of 80% isooctane and 20% heptane, it is given an octane rating
atmospheric pressure must decrease to 5 psi, which is of 80.
standard for an altitude of approximately 26,000 ft, before the
fuel will vaporise. Fuels that perform better than 100% isooctane are compared
with isooctane that contains varying amounts of tetraethyl lead
Aviation gasoline is required to have an RVP of 5.5 to 7 psi. If as the reference and are rated in performance numbers rather
the RVP is too high, the fuel vaporises too quickly; when the than octane ratings. Performance numbers are higher than
temperature of the fuel is high, or the atmospheric pressure in 100.
the tank is low, vapours are released from the fuel, and are
likely to cause a vapour lock in the lines to the engine.
If the vapour pressure of the fuel is too low, the fuel will not
readily vaporise when discharged from the carburettor. The
engine will be hard to start, the fuel-air distribution to the
cylinders will not be uniform, the engine may not respond
rapidly to additional power demands, the lubrication film will be
weakened in the upper cylinder range, and fuel efficiency will
be decreased.

Refuelling with AVGAS 100LL

Additives
The antidetonation characteristics of aviation gasoline are
improved when tetraethyl lead is added. But when fuel
containing tetraethyl lead is burned, lead oxides are left in the
cylinder, and these collect in the firing end of the spark plugs
and provide a conductive bridge for high voltage to leak across.
A lead-fouled spark plug will not ignite the fuel-air mixture.
Ethylene dibromide is often mixed with the gasoline. When it

burns, its residue combines with the majority of the lead oxides
and converts them into volatile lead bromides, which leave the
cylinder with the exhaust gases rather than fouling the spark
plugs.
Tricresyl phosphate (TCP) may also be added to aviation

gasoline to minimise lead fouling of spark plugs. It converts the
lead deposits into a non-conductive lead phosphate, which is
easier to eliminate from the cylinder than is lead bromide.
Aromatic compounds such as benzene, toluene, and xylene

have been added to aviation gasoline to increase its
antidetonation characteristics. However, these additives attack
rubber products in the fuel system and must only be used in
systems approved explicitly for them. These would be systems
where the sealing materials are not susceptible to aromatic-
compound deterioration.

Fuel additives are often used to help prevent lead fouling like this

Avgas
General
Avgas has long been used as the fuel for piston-powered • 100/130
aircraft, but aero diesel engines use either Jet or diesel fuel. • 115/145
Aircraft piston engines operate using the same basic principles The first number of each set is the lean performance number,
as spark ignition engines of cars, but they have a much higher and the second is the rich performance number.
performance requirement. Aircraft engines are designed to run
at 55% power or more (on take-off even 100%), whereas car Fuel octane or performance numbers of fuel are indicated by
engines are run at an average of 30% power or less. The the engine manufacturers and must be adhered to at all times.
design of the aero-engine is different in terms of strength, think Incorrect fuel use can lead to loss of power, overheating,
of cylinders, pistons, bearings, crankshaft, etc. detonation and eventually engine failure.
Avgas is gasoline fuel developed for reciprocating piston History

engine aircraft. Common additives to Avgas include tetra-ethyl In the past, there were many different grades of aviation
or alkyl-lead, anti-knock additives, metal de-activators, colour gasoline in general use, e.g. 80/87, 91/96, 100/130, 108/135
dyes, oxidation inhibitors, corrosion inhibitors, icing inhibitors, and 115/145, specially designed for high powered
and static dissipaters. It is very volatile and extremely turbocharged and supercharged radial engines. However, with
flammable at normal operating temperatures. Proper and safe decreasing demand, these have been narrowed down to one
handling of this product is, therefore of the highest importance. type, Avgas 100/130, also known as Avgas 100.
Their octane rating defines Avgas grades. Two ratings are
applied to aviation gasoline’s (the lean- and the rich-mixture Aeons ago, an additional grade was introduced to allow one
rating) resulting in multiple numbers e.g. Avgas 100/130 (the fuel to be used in engines originally designed for grades with
lean mixture is 100, and the rich mixture is 130). lower lead contents: this was called Avgas 100LL, the LL
standing for ‘low lead’. Much later, Avgas 82UL was added.
When ordinary gasoline below 100% is graded, it carries a
single octane number, 87 for instance, but above 100% a The lead was added to increase the fuel’s resistance against
performance figure is used. detonation inside the engine during combustion. Thus, higher
compression (more power) engines could be used
However, the anti-knock qualities differ according to the air/fuel
mixture. Therefore, the performance figure is expressed in two
numbers, one for a lean mixture and one for a rich mixture. An
example is shown below:

Avgas 100
High lead – coloured green
The standard high lead (1 g/litre) high octane fuel for aviation
piston engines. There are two specifications for Avgas 100. The
ASTM D 910 and UK DEF STAN 91-90. These are almost the
same but have some differences in antioxidant content,
oxidation stability requirements and lead content.
Avgas 100LL
Low lead – coloured blue
A low lead version of Avgas 100. Still containing about 0.5 g
lead per litre of fuel, low lead is a relative term. This grade is
listed in the same specifications as Avgas 100, ASTM D 910
and UK DEF STAN 91-90.
Avgas 82 UL
Unleaded – coloured purple
A relatively new grade targeted at the low compression ratio
engines not needing high octane Avgas 100(LL) and designed
to run on unleaded fuel (0.1 gr/litre).
The octane rating can be increased beyond the pure proportion

of octane to heptane by adding anti-knock agents, which delay
the onset of detonation. Until recently, the most important such
additive, for both automotive and aviation use, was the
tetraethyl lead.
Avgas density
Avgas weighs around 6 lbs/US gallons (to be more precise,
5.97 lbs/US gallons per 0.719 g/ml) at standard temperature
(15°C).

The future of general aviation fuels
Currently, the two principal types of fuel used in Aviation are This is common in newly manufactured Avco Lycoming and
Avgas 100LL and Jet A-1; Jet A-1 for turbine engines/Diesel Teledyne Continental engines, but some older engines would
engines and Avgas for spark-ignition piston engines. By far, the need modification.
most commonly used is Avgas, and it is this which we
concentrate on here. The other more significant problem with unleaded fuels is that
of octane rating.
Avgas contains TEL – the additive which has recently been
banned in automotive fuels in the European Union for Octane rating is a measure of how resistant a fuel is to
environmental reasons. Although the total fuel volume used in detonation; the higher the octane rating, the more the fuel/air
aviation is less than 0.5% of that used in the automotive sector mixture can be compressed without detonation happening. To
in Europe, there is considerable pressure from environmental make this clear, octane rating is not a measure of the amount
lobbyists to remove or replace TEL in Avgas and produce an of energy in the fuel but is a measure of its resistance to
unleaded grade. detonation.
To understand what is involved, we first need to look at what The advantage of higher-octane fuels is that a higher
benefits TEL has. Lead compounds from TEL form a protective compression ratio or supercharging ratio can be used, which
layer on the valve seat and prevents the soft valve seats from then leads to a higher engine cycle efficiency, which in turn
eroding. Without TEL, small areas of a soft metal valve seat means more power output for a given fuel burn. However, to
fuses to the valve and be ‘plucked’ from the face of the seat. confuse things further, there are four principal ways to measure
Once attached to the valve, they form an abrasive surface octane rating, RON, MON, lean mixture and rich mixture
which further damages the valve seat. This combination of ratings.
actions is known as valve seat recession (VSR) as the seat of
the valve is worn away and recesses into the cylinder head. Road fuels tend to be measured on a RON scale, for which
The solutions to this are to either use a VSR additive or fit unleaded fuels tend to be 95/98 RON but are only 85/87 MON.
hardened valve seats which are resistant to this action. Avgas is measured on lean mixture (similar to MON) but also
has a rich mixture octane rating.
VSR additives are now commonly used in lead replacement
petrol on petrol station forecourts, however for several reasons The lean mixture rating is 100 octane (15 octanes higher than
they are not yet approved for use in aviation engines. This the comparable 85 MON for unleaded Mogas). However,
means that the only current method of preventing valve seat Avgas also has a rich mixture rating of 130, which allows higher
recession for aviation engines using unleaded fuels would be supercharger boost pressures to be used without detonation
to fit hardened valve seats. occurring.

This is mainly a problem when using high power settings at low To date, there are no additives available to replace TEL which
altitude, for example, during take-off. increase the octane rating – the additives used in automotive
lead replacement fuels only tackle the problem of valve seat
As you can see TEL in Avgas makes a significant difference to recession and do not affect the octane rating of the fuel.
the octane rating, and without it, octane ratings would be back Therefore, if Avgas 100LL were to disappear, the only other
down to 80/85 lean mixture – the level for road fuels – instead option currently available to owners with turbo or supercharged
of 100/130. This is not a problem for most conventional modern engines would be for the aircraft manufacturer raise a
normally-aspirated engines as their compression ratios are modification to replace their engine with either a turboprop or
quite modest and detonation would not be a problem with 80/85 diesel engine.
lean mixture octane fuel.
This brings us on to the other recent advance in General
However, for those aeroplanes with supercharged or Aviation engines; the development by several engine
turbocharged engines, the use of low octane unleaded fuels manufacturers of Diesel engine technology. These engines
would not be suitable. The only way to operate these engines potentially offer several significant advantages over Avgas
on current unleaded technology fuels would be to significantly engines.
reduce the boost pressure of the supercharging and massively
de-rate the engines. This de-rating would be so severe that They return up to 30% better fuel economy, use Jet A-1 rather
many of the engines would no longer be powerful enough for than Avgas, and have the potential to be retrofitted to many
the aeroplane in which they are installed. light aircraft, replacing their current Avgas engines. The
downside is the cost of engine replacement and aircraft
Modern aviation unleaded fuels are currently being developed, modification. While some applications may be able to take
such as 82UL in the United States. This is an 82-octane lean- advantage of this technology, this is not a solution for everyone.
mixture rating fuel and is approved for use in modern non-turbo
Avco Lycoming engines amongst others. However, it is not yet In summary, aviation engines present many unique challenges
available in Europe, but also not everyone can use it – the to the development of Avgas, and as such, there is yet no firm
aircraft manufacturer must raise an aircraft modification date to replace Avgas 100LL. However, there can be little doubt
document to approve its use. that eventually leaded Avgas will be withdrawn from use.
However, this does not seem likely until suitable fully developed
Some new Cessnas are approved to use 82UL, but most alternatives are available; a situation that is likely to be several
aircraft types currently do not have manufacturer’s approval. years into the future.
The potential quantity of Avgas piston-engine aircraft
worldwide that could use this grade is estimated to be around
60%. However, some of these would probably need fuel system
modifications before approval.
Mogas
General
Generally, Mogas (also known as ‘autogas’) is cheaper than Bio-alcohol also burns leaner and may cause an increase in
Avgas (Europe) which is one of the reasons pilots of exhaust gas temperatures and possibly exhaust valve
experimental aircraft wanting to use that fuel. Even some problems.
manufacturers advise users to mainly use Mogas in their
engines, but that Avgas can be used too. The Rotax four-stroke Testing for alcohol in Mogas
models (912, 914) run happily on Avgas, but due to the higher The following steps describe how to test to see if there is any
lead content oil changes must be done every 50 hours and oil alcohol in your Mogas:
must be mineral or semisynthetic. Nowadays, Lycoming is
developing engines capable of running Avgas and Mogas, • Using a glass or chemical resistant plastic container,
because of reduced availability of Avgas. mark ten equally spaced volumes. A graduated cylinder
is ideal; however, a non-tapered glass jar will suffice.
Running an aircraft engine on Mogas can introduce unwanted • Add one part of water (approximately 100 ml) into the
and unexpected side effects because of the possible blending container, fill to the first mark, and then add nine parts
with bio-alcohol. Gasoline pumps should be labelled as such if (approximately 900 ml) of automotive gasoline, fill to the
the fuel that the pump dispenses contains bio-alcohol so that top mark. Shake thoroughly, let stand for 10 minutes or
the buyer of the fuel is warned. until automotive gasoline is again bright and clear.
Record the apparent level of the line between the
Adverse effects automotive gasoline and water.
Bio-alcohol attracts, carries and retains water; this has several
side effects in an engine: bio-alcohol is absorbed by the water Interpreting the above test:
and is difficult to detect. After engine shutdown water can lead
• If alcohol is present in the automotive gasoline, the water
to corrosion on vital parts. Water freezes in cold conditions and
during carburetion. Water also causes vapour lock and lowers will absorb it, and the amount of water will appear to
the vaporisation point of the fuel. If the aircraft is then flown at increase, indicating the automotive gasoline should not
higher altitudes (also favouring vapour lock), it could lead to an be used in the aircraft.
• However, if the water level remains the same, no alcohol
engine failure at the most unexpected time.
is present in automotive gasoline, and it can be used in
Other issues with bio-alcohol blended fuels are lack of lubricity; the aircraft.
alcohol is a solvent and could clean deposits in the fuel system
and carry them to the filters clogging them.

Diesel and Jet fuel
General
Diesel and jet fuel are discussed together in this section Diesel No. 1 flows more easily than Diesel No. 2, so it is more
because they are very similar in properties. Indeed, jet fuel is efficient at lower temperatures. The two types of oil can be
commonly used in aero-Diesel engines, due to its lower cost blended, and most automobile service stations offer Diesel fuel
and greater availability. This is only permissible if the engine is blended for local weather conditions.
type certified to operate with jet fuel.
Most manufacturers of aero Diesel engines recommend Jet
Diesel fuel is more efficient than gasoline because it contains fuel, which is clear to straw-coloured. Jet fuel and automotive-
10% more energy per gallon than gasoline. But there are a few grade Diesel fuel differ in the amounts of lubrication inherent in
kinds of diesel fuel: Just as gasoline is rated by its octane, the fuels.
diesel fuel is rated by its cetane
Jet fuel is based on either an unleaded kerosene (Jet-A) or a
Standard Diesel fuel (sometimes called Diesel oil) comes in two naphtha-kerosene blend (Jet B). Also, jet fuel often has
grades: antifreeze and antimicrobial agents, static dissipaters, and
corrosion inhibitors added to improve performance in
• Diesel No. 1 aeronautical engines, in which ambient temperature often
• Diesel No. 2 varies wildly during flight.
The higher the cetane number, the more volatile the fuel. Most Because of these differences, automotive-grade Diesel is not
Diesel vehicles use fuel with a rating of 40 to 55. Automobile recommended but can be used as a substitute fuel if jet fuel is
manufacturers specify Diesel No. 2 for normal driving unavailable.
conditions. Truckers use Diesel No. 2 to carry heavy loads for
long distances at sustained speeds because it is less volatile Jet-A is more like Diesel No. 1, while Diesel No. 2 is the more
than Diesel No. 1 and provides greater fuel economy. commonly available since it is the one most often used by
ground vehicles.
Diesel fuel also is measured by its viscosity. Like any oil, Diesel
fuel gets thicker and cloudier at lower temperatures. Under
extreme conditions, it can become a gel and refuse to flow at
all.

Diesel fuel sold for cars is Diesel No. 2 The colour of Diesel fuel is very similar
to that of Jet fuel

Diesel fuel or Jet fuel?
Jet-A and Diesel No. 1 tend to have lower viscosities. Lower Diesel is denser, heavier, contains more energy than gasoline.
lubricity is likely as the viscosity decreases. Jet fuels have It also is used to lubricate the fuel pump. However, Jet fuel does
additional specifications that are not required of Diesel fuels, not have the lubrication properties as standard Diesel. Either
such as the requirement of testing for certain components and engine oil is used to lube the pump, or an additive is added to
volatility requirement. Some of the methods for testing also vary the fuel when filling the tanks.
from one fuel to the other. However, the differences noted
above are the most significant. This is not to say using Jet-A in a Diesel engine would not work.
It has worked in Diamond aircraft with Diesel engines without
Jet-A is a relatively high-sulphur fuel, while automotive Diesel reported problems.
is low sulphur, and environmental requirements are getting
more stringent about sulphur in Diesel every year. We are now The issue is one of liability, since all automotive Diesel has a
in the ultra-low sulphur Diesel era. required cetane rating as per the EU or US specifications, and
all automotive Diesel engines have a minimum requirement.
Jet-A is ‘dry.’ Diesel contains additives to lubricate and clean However, that requirement does not indicate that the engine
the injector system of a Diesel engine. does not work with a lower rating, only that the manufacturers
do not warrant the engine if a fuel with a lower cetane rating is
Diesel fuel is very similar to Jet-A or kerosene fuel. used. Jet-A has no cetane rating standard because it is not
necessary for a gas turbine engine; thus, some manufacturers
Diesel is a light oil with a density of around 850 gr/l, and it are very concerned about liability with the increase in popularity
releases 40.9 MJ of energy per litre. of Diesel engines.
Jet fuel/kerosene has just 5% less energy per litre than Diesel Jet-A has a widely varying cetane index, which is not controlled
No. 1. The basic properties compare so much that either can or guaranteed, so potentially a particular batch of Jet A fuel
be used in a regular Diesel engine providing the fuel pump has could have a cetane rating above or below what is specified for
been adapted to cope with the lower lubricity of jet fuel. The a Diesel engine.
main difference is that the lubrication properties of Diesel are
much better and as the fuel is sometimes used as a lubricant The engine manufacturer determines the appropriateness of
for the high-pressure fuel pump, running primarily on Jet fuel any of the three different fuels to perform in a particular engine.
can ruin this pump if precautions are not taken. If the manufacturer indicates the use of only one type of fuel,
that is the fuel that should be used.

Comparison of Jet fuels and Diesel
fuels

Manufacturers seek certification of their engines for use on
specific grades of fuel. For example, Continental Motors Group
offers their CD-155, a jet fuel piston engine for general aviation
with a take-off power of 114 kW (155 HP). The CD-155 is a
turbocharged 4-cylinder in-line engine which is EASA and FAA
certified. The CD-155 is certified for the use of both jet fuel
(Jet-A) and Diesel (DIN EN590) and is running with the two
fuels in any mixture ratio.
However, in parts of the world where Jet-A and EN590 fuels

are not available, alternatives are, Jet-A1, JP-5, DEF STAN 91-
86, JP 8, DEF STAN 91-91, JP-8+100, Chinese Jet Fuel No 3.
The value of high quality, differentiated Diesel fuel

https://youtu.be/6tTlbAzEHLQ

AVGAS 100LL (blue), AVGAS 100 (green), AVGAS 100LL (blue), Jet A (clear/straw), Diesel
and Jet A (clear/straw). The colour of Diesel
fuel is very similar to that of Jet fuel
Cold weather operation
Diesel is prone to gelling and waxing in cold weather if the right Because kerosene-type fuels tend to absorb water more readily
measures are not taken. Usually, the formulation of the fuel than gasoline, the US military often uses anti-icing (or ‘thermal
sold in petrol stations is changed when winter sets in. But when stability’) additives as a precaution in its jet aircraft. However,
an aircraft flies at high altitude temperatures can drop below some of these additives have questionable environmental
freezing quickly, if it were using automotive summer Diesel, it attributes and are (or soon will be) banned in some countries.
would experience fuel gelling and probably an engine flame-
out. Special additives are needed to keep Diesel from gelling at
low temperatures, or the exclusive use of Jet fuel is
recommended in these operations.
Sometimes heat exchangers are used to make sure that no ice

can develop in the fuel system, causing engines surges during
critical phases of the flight. And as the high-pressure fuel pump
intakes more fuel than the engine uses, the return fuel is
warm/hot and thus helps to warm the fuel still in the tanks
preventing gelling and waxing from occurring.
Diesel fuel has a cloud point of about -10°C while Jet-A has a
cloud point of about -40°C, which would seem to be an
advantage. However, piston-powered aircraft do not reach
speeds that cause the heating of the fuel in the wing due to
friction caused by airflow. It is possible that an aircraft powered
by a Diesel engine could reach altitudes where the fuel would
begin to freeze in flight, particularly in cold climates where the
ground temperature in the winter can be close to the jet fuel
freezing point. While the fuel may not freeze solid, other
physical properties such as viscosity can change. This may
have adverse effects on engine components such as fuel filters,
fuel pumps and fuel injectors.

Diesel gelling in a fuel filter at low temperature

Diesel pollutants
In Diesel automobile engines, the Diesel pollutants are a big combustion of non-hydrocarbon components of Diesel fuel,
issue. Despite the addition of catalytic converters to Diesel such as sulphur compounds and fuel additives.
cars, the public opposition to Diesel cars has put the sales into
decline and even prompted prohibitions of Diesel vehicles in Common pollutants include unburned hydrocarbons (HC),
some major cities worldwide. carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx) or particulate
matter (PM, or ‘soot’). The total concentration of pollutants in
Aero-Diesel engines, however, do not create the same kind of Diesel exhaust gases typically amounts to some tenths of one
stigma. Aero-Diesel engines are not fitted with catalytic per cent.
converters, and yet they do not emit anywhere near the same
quantities of pollutants as do ground vehicles. The reasons for • CO2: From a CO2 perspective, diesel engines are less
this are discussed here. polluting than gasoline engines, which is why in many
places across the world, people have been moving to
Diesel engines, like other internal combustion engines, convert Diesel. Governments (many in Europe) have, in some
chemical energy contained in the fuel into mechanical power. cases taxed Diesel less to make it more attractive.
Diesel fuel is a mixture of hydrocarbons which, during an ideal • NOx compounds: Nitrogen oxides are linked to asthma
combustion process, would produce only carbon dioxide (CO2) and breathing disorders, and diesel engines produce
and water vapour (H2O). Indeed, Diesel exhaust gases are more of these than gasoline engines
primarily composed of CO2, H2O and the unused portion of • Sulphur compounds: These are also linked to asthma
engine charge air. and breathing disorders. Jet fuel has higher sulphur
content than diesel fuel, and much higher than
The concentrations depend on the engine load, with the content gasoline/Avgas.
of CO2 and H2O increasing and that of O2 decreasing with
• Particulate matter (soot): Particulates are a big issue
increasing engine load. None of these principal Diesel
from an environmental and health perspective these
emissions (except for CO2 for its greenhouse gas properties)
days. Particulates are linked to asthma and breathing
have adverse health or environmental effects.
disorders, and there is some evidence that black carbon
Diesel emissions also include pollutants that can have adverse particulates are heating the planet and causing glacier
health and environmental effects. Most of these pollutants melt at an accelerated rate as they absorb heat. Diesels
originate from various non-ideal processes during combustion, produce much more particulates than gasoline engines.
such as incomplete combustion of fuel, reactions between
mixture components under high temperature and pressure,
combustion of engine lubricating oil and oil additives as well as

Diesel engine emissions
Diesel engine emissions depend upon the flame

temperature and the fuel/air ratio
Particulate matter (soot) emissions from a Diesel engine

Very high temperatures in the combustion chamber help Secondly, the use of digital fuel control can manipulate the
reduce the emission of soot but produce higher levels of NOx. injection of fuel, in terms of duration and multiple injections per
Lowering the peak temperatures in the combustion chamber power stroke, to optimise the temperature and mixing of fuel to
reduces the amount of NOx produced but increases the minimise both soot and NOx. The temperature profile across
likelihood of soot formation. Better mixing of the air and fuel is the plumes is far more limited; this reduces emissions and
the key to lower emissions. The NO produced rapidly oxidises offers better air utilisation within the cylinder.
to NO2 (collectively called NOx).
And finally, the fact that aero Diesel engines are operated at
NOx combines with hydrocarbons or volatile organic almost a fixed power setting, or at least within a very much
compounds in the presence of sunlight to form low-level ozone. narrower band of power settings (close to 100% power most of
This leads to smog formation. the time) than do automobile Diesel engines, it is much easier
for the engine designer to fine-tune the engine and fuel system
In the past, fuel systems were mechanical and used injection to ensure that the engine is not operated in or near either the
pressures of 200–300 bar, with one fuel injection per power soot formation or NOx formation regions of the graph shown
stroke. The resulting plume of fuel in the combustion chamber previously.
had a wide temperature range, due to poor mixing with the air.
The combustion in the rich region of the flame produced soot,
and the lean regions produced NOx.
Mechanical pumps are still used in modern systems to

generate the pressures, but the injection timing is now
computer-controlled and delivers exact amounts of fuel.
This has enabled the development of engines, which operate

with up to six injections per power stroke. This combustion
technology lowers the combustion temperature by forming a
lean pre-mixture and burning it to reduce NOx and smoke.
To overcome this, systems today operate at pressures up to

1,500 bar and have up to 8 holes per injector. This requires the
injection holes to be smaller. The fuel plumes in engines with
multiple injection holes are smaller than those from a single
large injector.

Avgas from a tanker
Avgas from a self-

serve pump
Avgas from a bowser

Safety precautions
General
Aircraft re-fuelling and de-fuelling are accompanied by Accumulation of surface static charge may occur on either an
attendant hazards which must be managed sufficiently for their aircraft or its fuelling vehicle under certain conditions. Electrical
mitigation to acceptable levels. The issues are much the same bonding must be used to eliminate this hazard.
whether the fuel source is a tanker/bowser or a fuel hydrant Coupling/uncoupling of hoses must not be undertaken unless
system. Pressure re-fuelling is normal for multi-crew transport electrical bonding is in place (see below). Re-fuelling should not
aircraft and business aircraft, but gravity re-fuelling of these take place during active electrical storms/thunderstorms near
types may be available as a backup system. The kerosene fuel the airport.
used by turbine engine aircraft has a higher flash/ignition point
than the aviation gasoline used by piston-engine aircraft, but Electrical bonding
there are still potential hazards. There must be a cable to link to designated points or to clean
unpainted metal surfaces on the chosen airframe. Bonding
The primary risk is unintended ignition of fuel vapour, which can cables should connect the installation delivering the fuel with
occur by a single spark. A sufficient quantity of fuel vapour to the aircraft or installation receiving the fuel. All connections
create a high risk of ignition may result from spillage arising should be made before filler caps are removed before the start
from procedural errors, leaks, aircraft tank venting or failure of of fuelling and then not broken until fuelling is complete and the
pressurised fuel lines or their couplings. A spark of sufficient filler caps have been replaced where applicable. On no account
intensity to ignite fuel vapour can result from the discharge of should either the fuelling vehicle (including hydrant dispenser)
electrostatic energy (static) created either from the movement or the aircraft be bonded to a fuel hydrant pit. It should be noted
of the fuel in the aircraft tank during the fuelling process or its that fuel hoses, including so-called ‘conductive’ hoses, are not
accumulation on the surface of aircraft or vehicles. suitable substitutes for dedicated clips and bonding wires.
Fuel movement during re-fuelling or defueling may lead to a Misfuelling

static charge building up in the fuel. If the charge is of Misfuelling is the introduction of an improper fuel into an
sufficiently high potential, it can cause sparking within the aircraft’s tanks. The consequences of misfuelling can range
aircraft or the ‘origin’ storage tank. The charge density in the from the benign (fuel system drainage) to the expensive
fuel and the possibility of sparks inside the tanks are not (engine replacement) to the disastrous (engine failure shortly
affected by bonding. However, the use of static dissipater after take-off). Given simple precautions, all are easily prevent-
additives in fuel can contribute materially to reducing the risk able. Although the frequency of misfuelling has declined
involved. dramatically with the widespread adoption of colour-coded
wing decals and standardised fuel nozzles and receptacles, the
potential for trouble still exists
Standardised fuel label colour codes
Jet fuel nozzles have a wide spade top that is theoretically incapable of
being inserted in an avgas fuel filler equipped with a restrictor ring

Avgas fuel-nozzle filler-ports are designed to be less than It also appears that PEDs close to or on-board modern aircraft
50 mm (2") diameter, whereas Jet fuel filler nozzles are over can interfere with fuel gauges and some navigation equipment
50 mm (2") diameter. Older avgas aircraft should be fitted with and may cause false fire warnings in cargo/baggage holds.
a restrictor ring to prevent inadvertent filling with Jet fuel. Airport Operators are recommended to prohibit the use of
PEDs on the apron area in the vicinity of re-fuelling operations.
The introduction of diesel engines for general aviation holds Passengers boarding or disembarking an aircraft should be
new potential for misfuelling trouble. Aviation diesel engines discouraged from using PEDs.
are designed to run on jet fuel: Unlike most turbines, they
cannot be run safely on Avgas. This is a potentially dangerous Re-fuelling with passengers on board
problem because Avgas dispensing nozzles fit easily into the Aircraft Operators should have their procedures for re-fuelling,
large-diameter re-fuelling ports used in diesel aircraft. Until new including emergency evacuation if re-fuelling is permitted with
measures are taken to prevent this physically, owners of diesel- passengers on board as appropriate in the Operations Manual.
powered aircraft should be particularly cautious when re- Crew stations and duties should be clearly defined as should
fuelling. appropriate passenger communications.
PED use during re-fuelling Defueling

There is a risk that a PED (personal electronic device) may This is an unusual and infrequent operation; the personnel
create or induce a spark of sufficient intensity to ignite fuel involved, including any flight crew, should be careful to refer to
vapour released during fuelling. However, it is exceptionally the necessary procedural documentation. Fuel removed from
remote under normal circumstances. aircraft tanks must never be re-used and must be offloaded into
a dedicated de-fuelling tanker/bowser.
A particular concern is the proliferation of below-specification
mobile telephone batteries that have the potential to fail
dangerously. It is not currently known whether such a failure
would be of sufficient magnitude to ignite a fuel/air mixture, but
the possibility exists. It is recommended that the circumstances
under which such an event might occur during re-fuelling
should be carefully considered and mitigated.

16.9 Lubrication Systems

Copyright notice
LEVEL 3
subject.
appropriate.

© Copyright 2020 Module 16.9 Lubrication Systems Issue 2 – July 2020
Knowledge
Part-66 Levels
Objective
Ref.
A B1 B3
System operation/layout and 16.9 1 2 2
components.

Table of Contents
Lubrication system function _____________________ 6 Oil filter ______________________________________ 46
Reduce friction _______________________________ 6 General ____________________________________ 46
Provide cooling _______________________________ 6 Differential pressure (ΔP) indicator _______________ 52
Cushioning and sealing _________________________ 7
Oil pressure filter _____________________________ 54
Preservation _________________________________ 7
Cleanliness __________________________________ 8 Oil dilution system ____________________________ 58
Precautions when oil diluting ____________________ 58
Film and boundary lubrication __________________ 10 Period of effectiveness_________________________ 60
Function as a hydraulic medium _________________ 12 Pressure control ______________________________ 62
System layouts and operation ___________________ 14 Pressure relief valve __________________________ 62
Wet sump system ____________________________ 14 Pressure regulator ____________________________ 64
Dry sump system ____________________________ 20 Oil distribution ________________________________ 66
Oil pump ____________________________________ 24 Crankshaft sealing ____________________________ 76
General ____________________________________ 24
Vane-type pump _____________________________ 24 Defects and troubleshooting ____________________ 78
Gerotor-type pump ___________________________ 26 Crankshaft oil seal leaks _______________________ 78
Gear-type pump _____________________________ 28 Oil system indications _________________________ 82
Pressure relief valves _________________________ 32 Low oil pressure ______________________________ 82
High oil consumption __________________________ 82
Oil tank _____________________________________ 34 Worn piston rings _____________________________ 82
General ____________________________________ 34 Worn big end bearing shells ____________________ 82
Vent_______________________________________ 36 High oil temperature___________________________ 82
Hot pot ____________________________________ 36
Stack pipe __________________________________ 36 Chip detectors ________________________________ 84
De-aeration _________________________________ 36 Magnetic chip detectors ________________________ 84
Anti-drain valve ______________________________ 36 Indicating magnetic-chip detectors _______________ 84
Inverted oil system ___________________________ 38 Pulsed chip detectors__________________________ 86
Oil Cooler ___________________________________ 40 Oil consumption monitoring_____________________ 88
General ____________________________________ 40
Air-cooled oil cooler___________________________ 42

Oil particle analysis ___________________________ 90
General ____________________________________ 90
Chip detectors _______________________________ 92
Oil filters ___________________________________ 92
Debris particle examination _____________________ 92
Spectrometric oil analysis ______________________ 94
Ferrography ________________________________ 94

Lubrication system function
The lubricating oil in the engine does considerably more than In a sense, these little ball bearings of oil can be regulated in
reduce friction. It performs five major functions, all of which are size by the petroleum refineries. Thus, the different viscosities
necessary requirements. Each of these five basic requirements or grades of lubricating oils that are available. The clearances
must be met to the degree specified by the engine or space between moving parts in your engine dictate what
manufacturer before the oil can be approved for use. grade or viscosity of oil the engine must have to provide
satisfactory operation and long service life.
The lubricating oil must:
Today’s high compression engines subject their lubricating oils
• reduce friction between moving parts to a negligible to severe stresses and in more ways than one. Laboratory tests
amount; have shown conclusively that the oils in today’s engines
• provide necessary cooling to the internal areas of the undergo continuous shearing action from many of the moving
engine that cannot be reached by external means; parts in the engine. In time this shearing action alters the oils’
• cushion moving parts against shock and help seal the original viscosity properties. This change in the oils’ ‘thixotropic’
piston rings to cylinder walls; properties could lead to a reduction in the service life of the
• protect the highly finished internal parts of the engine engine, hence why engine manufactures have strict oil change
from rust and corrosion; and frequencies published in their maintenance schedules.
• keep the interior of the engine clean and free of sludge,
dirt, varnish, and other harmful contaminants. Provide cooling
Moving parts generate friction, which in turn produces heat.
The lubricating oil must perform all five of these functions While the lubricating oil practically eliminates metal to metal
simultaneously and without compromise to each other. contact, it is subject to its own friction. The constant flow of oil
Therefore, the oil must have a high degree of compatibility to all of these moving parts carries away the heat fast enough
between each of its five functions. to keep the moving parts at a safe temperature. The upper
cylinder walls, pistons and exhaust valve stems are exposed to
Reduce friction extreme temperatures during normal combustion. Here, again,
During regular operation lubricating oil is distributed to all the excess heat inside the engine is removed by the lubricating
moving parts in the engine. The method of delivery, quantity oil. In most instances, the oil temperature observed on the oil
and pressure vary according to the loads imposed on the temperature gauge is the temperature of the oil after it leaves
various parts. In all cases however the oil reduces friction by the oil cooling radiator.
behaving like millions of tiny ball bearings rolling around
between the moving parts of the engine.

Engines not equipped with oil coolers usually have their oil Also, a perfect gas-tight seal between piston rings and cylinder
temperature taken immediately after the oil is removed from the walls is never wholly attained so that the lubricating oil is
sump where it has rime to cool before redistribution. Here the subjected to some high-temperature ‘blow-by’ of combustion
oil temperature is considerably less than what it is during actual gasses.
contact with the hot parts. Oil temperatures must be closely-
regulated, as operating with too low an oil temperature can be Not only does this blow-by contribute to the oxidation situation
harmful to the engine; the oil does not get hot enough to dry out pointed out earlier, but it also contaminates the oil with the
the moisture it collects during a normal shutdown, start-up and various acids and corrosive lead salts generated during
ground operations. The ‘hot’ areas of the engine and combustion. These contaminants remain in the oil and are not
turbocharger impose high temperatures on the lubricating oil removed by the filter. Each hour of engine operation adds more
while it is performing its cooling function. of these contaminants. After shutdown, water vapour
condenses inside the engine, and its subsequent mixture with
These high temperatures subject the oil to ‘coking’ and these corrosive combustion products produces harmful acids
‘oxidation.’ Coking tends to dirty up the oil with carbon particles, which are detrimental to the internal components of the engine
while oxidation causes the oil to breakdown and thicken. A ‘full such as the camshaft.
flow’ filter helps to remove much of the coking effects, but
nothing can be done about the oxidation. Both effects cause Preservation
harmful deterioration of the oil. The lubricating oil accomplishes this task in several ways. After
shutdown, a coating of oil covers all of the interiors of the
Cushioning and sealing engine. This coating protects against rust; however, it slowly
An excellent example of cushioning is in the valve train. Here drains off in time and eventually exposes the interior of the
each valve is being thrust open and yanked shut every 1∕20 of a engine to corrosion. To maintain this protection, the engine
second at standard cruise power. These components would not should be flown (not run-up); Continental Engines recommends
last long if the shock-absorbing did not protect the parts at least once a month if operating inland, and every two weeks
qualifies of the oil film between these parts. A thin film of oil on when flying near the sea (it should be noted that salt can be
the cylinder walls not only lubricates but helps provide the found 75-150 miles inland). Additives in the lubricating oil
necessary gas-tight seal between the piston rings and cylinder provide some protection against corrosion; however, these
walls. In this function, one can easily see the severe shearing additives are not sufficient for long periods of engine idleness.
and crushing action imposed on the lubricating oil by just the Remember that during regular operation the engine
valve train alone. continuously adds more contaminants to the lubricating oil. In
time, the protective additives are used up, and the oil becomes
saturated with undesirable corrosive agents. The only sure
method for continued protection is to change the oil.

Cleanliness
Ashless dispersant types of lubricating oils keep the interior of The water is vaporised and passes out through the crankcase
your engine clean if used continuously after the first 100 hours breather during ‘dry out’ of the oil, but remember, after
of the engine’s life. They contain additives that cause the dirt to shutdown, it returns, and during the humid summer months,
disperse throughout the oil and to prevent the dirt from this condition is worse than any other time of the year.
precipitating out and collecting in the engine when the oil is at
rest. This function is vitally important since the many oil The more humid the climate, the more water condensation
passages in an engine could become clogged with dirt over accumulates during shutdown and start-up. All aeroplane
time and cause oil starvation. engines are not equipped with ‘full flow’ filters, but even those
having filters do not enjoy all the protection some owners are
Also, many assemblies such as hydraulic valve lifters must often led to believe. The filter can remove only the solid
have clean oil for satisfactory operation; otherwise, they fill up contaminants such as dirt and coke.
with dirt and sludge and cease to operate. Every hour the
engine runs, it adds more dirt to the oil. This dirt comes from a The liquid contaminants pass right through the filter and
variety of places; dust taken from the atmosphere which is continue to remain in the oil. The only way to get rid of them is
always present even at high altitudes, also, from soot during to drain the oil.
starting and idling. Then there is the coke produced by the hot
areas.
Highly corrosive lead salts and minute metal particles are other
sources. Blow-by gasses contribute several different acids
such as sulfuric, formic and others. Water vapour forms each
time the engine is shut down and started up. Gasoline dilution
occurs during starting, especially during cold weather. When all
these contaminants get mixed up in the lubricating oil, the form
new mixtures such as sludge, varnish, and highly corrosive
acids.
Acids are usually harmful only when they are wet or contain
water. When the lubricating oil reaches its normal operating
temperature, it dries out.

Corrosion on camshaft and lifters

Film and boundary lubrication
The lubrication process maintains a stable film of oil between Boundary lubrication
close-fitting moving surfaces to keep them apart. The film of oil Consider the situation shown in figure (b), which arises when
may be thin but providing it has a suitable viscosity it continues film lubrication is breaking down or when mating parts starts to
to provide this separation. Lubrication is considered to operate move, for example, on engine starting. It can be followed by
in two phases, as shown in the diagram below. lubrication failure or seizure. Several factors can bring about
this condition; they include:
• Film lubrication.
• Boundary lubrication. • excessively high bearing loads;
• excessively high oil temperatures;
Film lubrication • oil starvation;
Consider figure (c) of the diagram, which is the desired • loss of oil pressure; and
condition, and is the phase where a substantial amount of oil is • oil contamination.
maintained on the bearing surfaces. This is achieved by using
an oil pump to ensure that there is an oil flow and to build up a It is a condition which is difficult to prevent, and much of the
pressure to maintain a good film of oil between the working wear of moving parts is caused before the lubricant is
parts. The viscosity of the oil has to be such that when hot, it circulating through the oil system. Some oils can resist this
does not drain from the bearings faster than the pump can condition for a longer time than others. It is one of the reasons
replace it. why the oils that are specified for an engine must always be
used.
(a) Shaft stationery and possible metal to metal contact at
the arrow.
(b) Shaft begins to move. It tends to climb up the bearing,
the point of contact has been moved, but now some oil
is present, and boundary lubrication conditions apply.
(c) Shaft now up to speed and film lubrication exists with an
even distribution of oil around bearing. A high bearing
load, e.g. during the power stroke, could briefly produce
a boundary lubrication condition

Phases of lubrication

Function as a hydraulic medium
The engine’s lubrication system supplies oil to the propeller
governor. Here, an integral oil pump boosts the pressure to
control and adjust the blade angle on a variable-pitch propeller,
to maintain the correct propeller RPM.
Oil is used within the hydraulic tappet (zero-lash valve lifter)

which eliminates any clearance in the valve linkage and
automatically compensates for any expansion or contraction in
the valve train. Hydraulic valve lifters require less maintenance,
are better lubricated and operate more quietly.

Propeller governor
Hydraulic tappet/lifter

System layouts and operation
There are two ways the lubrication systems of reciprocating A relief valve is fitted on the outlet side of the pump to protect
engines can be classified; the location in which the oil supply is the system from excess pressure. Also, a sensing device is
carried, and the method of lubrication within the engine itself: fitted in this line to check the oil pressure is within limits
prescribed for the engine.
• wet-sump; and
• dry-sump The crankcase sump can be an integral part of the crankcase
or, more often a metal pressing or light alloy casting attached
The main difference is how the oil is carried. The oil supply can directly to the bottom of the crankcase. It acts as the oil
be carried inside the engine itself in a wet-sump system, or it reservoir for the system. The size of the sump, and thus the
can be carried in a separate tank outside the engine in a dry- quantity of oil it can hold, is a compromise between having too
sump system. Both types of systems are used in modern much, so that engine warm-up is hindered and having too little
aircraft. so that the oil is contaminated quickly. The sump allows
entrapped air to escape from the oil, and it is sufficient depth
Wet sump system for water and other contaminants to settle at the bottom. If
Oil is carried in the crankcase of a wet-sump engine, similar to some cooling assistance is required for the oil, the sump
almost all automobile engines. The oil is picked up from the exterior is finned, and slipstream air is passed over it. A
sump by the oil pump and forced through the engine. When it specified level of oil is required to be maintained in the sump,
has served its lubricating functions, it drains back into the sump and this is most usually checked before flight using a dipstick.
and is picked up and recirculated through the engine. For maintenance purposes, a drain plug is fitted at the lowest
The wet sump system is common to most applications of piston point of the sump.
engines and is used in a large number of light aero-engines; it On Lycoming engines, the sump is of a cast aluminium
works as follows. construction, and the induction pipes are an integral part of the
An engine-driven pump draws oil from a sump at the bottom of casting. The heat of the oil is used to vaporise the fuel in the
the engine and delivers it under pressure through a filter to the induction pipe to provide a more uniform mix of the air and fuel
oil circuit. This circuit is the route of the oil through the engine vapour to aid in even combustion.
to the bearings and the valve operating gear. After lubricating
the rest of the engine by splash and spray, as it escapes from
the bearings, the oil drains down to the sump ready for re-
circulation.

A wet sump system

Wet sump schematic
Cast oil sump

Example: Lycoming wet sump system
Lycoming wet sump system – front view

Lycoming wet sump system – side view

Lycoming wet sump system – rear view

Dry sump system
The crankcase of a radial engine is too small to carry the oil One popular series of Continental horizontally opposed
supply, and some horizontally opposed engines are mounted engines has a semi-dry sump system. The oil drains into a
in shallow nacelles where there is not enough room for a deep kidney-shaped steel sump attached to the bottom of the engine,
oil sump. Some aeroplanes designed for aerobatic flight cannot which does not require a scavenger pump. The oil is picked up
use wet-sump engines. by an oil pickup tube that extends down into the sump.
Oil is carried in an external oil tank that is higher than the oil Most engines installed in aeroplanes that are to be flown
inlet to the engine, and it flows to the inlet of the oil pressure inverted use dry-sump lubrication systems. The oil pickup tube
pump by gravity. The pump forces oil through the engine where in the reservoir is flexible and weighted so it can pick up oil even
it lubricates and cools, and then drains down into a small when the aeroplane is inverted.
collection sump where it is picked up by the scavenger pump
and returned to the tank. Many reciprocating aircraft engines have pressure dry-sump
lubrication systems and are generally found on aerobatic
The scavenged oil is hot, and it usually contains some air, so aircraft. The oil supply in this type of system is carried in a tank.
its volume is greater than the cooler oil that is forced through A pressure pump circulates oil through the engine. Scavenger
the engine by the pressure pump. The scavenger pump, pumps then return it to the oil tank as quickly as it accumulates
therefore, must have a considerably larger volume than the in the engine sumps. The need for a separate supply tank is
pressure pump. apparent when considering the complications that would result
if large quantities of oil were carried in the engine crankcase.
An oil cooler with temperature control is mounted in the line On multiengine aircraft, each engine is supplied with oil from its
between the scavenger pump and the oil tank. If the oil does own complete and independent system.
not need cooling, it passes around the core of the cooler, but if
it is too hot, it is forced to flow through the cooler core where it Although the arrangement of the oil systems in different aircraft
transfers its heat to the air flowing through the cooler. varies widely and the units of which they are composed differ
in construction details, the functions of all such systems are the
The standard procedure is to vent the oil tank to the engine same. A study of one system clarifies the general operation and
crankcase, which is in turn, vented to the outside air through maintenance requirements of other systems.
the crankcase breather line. This method of venting provides
adequate ventilation of the tank and prevents oil loss that could The main units in a typical reciprocating engine dry-sump oil
occur if the tank were vented directly. system include; an oil supply tank, an engine-driven pressure
oil pump, a scavenge pump, an oil cooler with an oil cooler
control valve, oil tank vent, necessary tubing, and pressure and
temperature indicators.

A dry sump system principle

A dry sump system

A dry sump system

Oil pump
General
The function of the oil pressure pump or lube pump is to supply Pumping action takes place as the rotor drive shaft and
oil under pressure to the parts of the engine that require eccentric rotor, which act as one rotating piece, drive the sliding
lubrication. Many pump assemblies consist of not only the vanes around. The space between each vane pair floods with
pressure or lube element but scavenge elements as well, all in oil as it passes the oil inlet opening and carries this oil to the oil
one housing usually driven from the accessory or high-speed outlet. As the spaces diminish to a zero clearance, the oil is
gearbox. By its nature, an oil pump is designed to provide a forced to leave the pump.
volume of flow to the engine. How much pressure it creates is
a function of how much resistance to flow there is. The more The downstream resistance to flow determines the pump
the flow is restricted, the higher the oil pressure tends to be. output pressure unless a relief valve is present to regulate
For example, as an oil filter starts to clog, the resistance to flow pressure.
increases in front of the filter and the pressure increases.
Vane pumps are considered to be more tolerant of debris in the
The three most common oil pumps are the vane, gerotor, and scavenge oil. They are also lighter in weight than the gerotor or
gear types. All are classed as positive displacement pumps gear pumps and offer a slimmer profile. They may not,
because they deposit a fixed quantity of oil in the pump outlet however, have the mechanical strength of other type pumps.
per revolution. All three types of pumps are also self-lubricating.
These category pumps are also referred to as constant
displacement types because they displace a constant volume
per revolution.
Vane-type pump
The vane pump illustrated could be a single element type or
one element of a multiple pump. Multiple pumps of this type
generally contain one pressure element and one or more
scavenge elements, all of which are mounted on a common
shaft. The drive shaft mounts to an accessory gearbox drive
pad and all pumping elements rotate together.

Vane-type oil pump

Gerotor-type pump
The diagram shows one pumping element mounted on a • The space reaches its minimum volume as it is closed
multiple-element pump main shaft. The gerotor pump to the discharge port and begins to open to the intake
sometimes referred to as a gear rotor, utilises a principle similar port, repeating the cycle. This action takes place in each
to the vane pump. The gerotor uses a lobe-shaped drive gear of the seven inter-lobal spaces between the inner six-
within an elliptically shaped idler gear to displace oil from an lobe gerotor and the outer seven lobe gerotor, giving a
inlet to an outlet port virtually continuous oil flow.
Notice that the inner driving gear has six lobes (teeth) and that
the outer idling gear has seven openings. This arrangement
allows oil to fill the one open pocket and move inlet oil through
the pump as it rotates until a zero clearance force the oil from
the discharge port. The principle of operation is that the volume
of the missing tooth multiplied by the number of lobes in the
outer gear determines the volume of oil pumped per revolution
of the outer gear. A complete pumping element is shown, one
of several which could be mounted on a single shaft within the
same pump housing. The diagram depicts the principle of
operation of the gerotor pump.
The operation is as follows.
• From 0° to 180°, the inter lobe space increases from a

minimum to a maximum volume. Most of it is open to the
intake port allowing it to fill with oil.
• As the space reaches its maximum volume, it is closed
to the intake port, and it is in a position to open to the
discharge port.
• At 270°, the space decreases in volume, forcing its oil
out of the discharge port.

Gerotor-type oil pump

Gear-type pump
The single element gear type pump takes in inlet oil and rotates The capacity of the pump, i.e. its output in litres/hour, depends
in a direction which allows oil to move between the gear teeth on gear size, which is fixed, and rotational speed which varies.
and the pump case until the oil is deposited in the outlet. At idling speed, for example, the output would be much less
than at cruise or take-off speeds. The scavenge pump, which
The idler gear seals the inlet from the outlet preventing fluid rotates at the same speed as the pressure pump, has larger
backup and also doubles the capacity per revolution. This gears and therefore a larger capacity. This means that it takes
pump also incorporates a system relief valve in its housing oil from the sump faster than the pressure pump can fill it,
which returns unwanted oil to the pump inlet. hence the name ‘dry sump’.
The second figure below shows a dual pump with both a Quite often, both pumps are in a common housing with the
pressure and a scavenge element. This is the most common scavenge gears on the same shafts as those of the pressure
pump assembly seen on gas turbine engines, and for large pump, but with a wall between them to provide two separate
engines, it is normal to have up to seven scavenge pumps. chambers. The scavenge pump gears are longer than those of
the pressure pump to get the higher capacity while being the
Both pressure and scavenge pumps are of the spur gear type same diameter.
shown below.
Two meshing gears of equal diameter are housed in a close-

fitting chamber with one of the gears driven by the engine.
When the gears are rotated, oil entering the pump through the
inlet port becomes trapped between the teeth of the gears and
the wall of the chamber and is then carried round to be
discharged through the outlet port. The meshing teeth prevent
oil from escaping to the inlet side of the pump. As with the wet
sump system, the output pressure is indicated on a cockpit
gauge.

Gear-type lubrication – combined pressure and scavenge

Oil pump circuit inside the accessory gearbox
Accessory gearbox, oil pump and filter assembly

Oil pump and filter circuit

Pressure relief valves
The oil pressure must be maintained within limits established Most pressure relief valves are a simple spring-loaded
by the engine manufacturer. When the pressure is too low, not arrangement and are set to ‘relieve’ at a predetermined
enough oil is forced through the engine to lubricate and cool it pressure. They protect the pump, its drive, and the rest of the
properly. The oil temperature rises, and the wear becomes system form increases in resistance to oil flow. It can be fitted
excessive. Pressure higher than that recommended by the in the pump casing or the crankcase near to the pump.
engine manufacturer should be avoided because excessive
pressure can damage the oil cooler, burst the oil lines, cause
excessive leakage at the oil seals, cause excessive oil
consumption by supplying excessive amounts of oil to the
cylinder-wall area, and cause the hydraulic lifters to keep the
valves from seating.
A pressure relief valve maintains a constant pressure in the

lubricating system as the engine speed changes. At all but
idling speeds, the pump moves more oil than is needed by the
engine, and restriction to the flow is significant enough to raise
the pressure to a value higher than that specified by the engine
manufacturer.
As soon as the pressure at the inlet to the relief valve creates

a force greater than the force of the spring, the valve moves off
its seat, and enough oil returns to the sump to maintain
pressure in the oil system at the value specified by the engine
manufacturer.
One advantage of using a relief valve to maintain the oil

pressure is that the flow of oil through the engine increases as
the clearances between moving parts increase through normal
wear, and as the viscosity of the oil changes with temperature.
The output volume of the pressure pump remains constant for
any constant RPM. As the engine parts wear, more oil flows out
through the bearings and other moving parts, and less oil is
returned to the sump through the relief valve.
Gear-type lubrication – with pressure relief valve

Oil tank
General
Oil tanks are used with a dry-sump lubrication system, while a Each oil tank used with a reciprocating engine must have
wet sump system uses the crankcase of the engine to store the expansion space of not less than the greater of 10 per cent of
oil. Oil tanks are usually constructed of aluminium alloy and the tank capacity or 2 litres (0.5 gallons). Each filler cap of an
must withstand any vibration, inertia, and fluid loads expected oil tank that is used with an engine must provide an oil-tight
in operation. seal. The oil tank is usually placed close to the engine and high
enough above the oil pump inlet to ensure gravity feed. The
The tank is usually fitted to the airframe behind the fireproof tank is ordinarily fitted with a weighted oil pickup pipe which
bulkhead in a position which gives a gravity feed to the remains submerged in the oil in the tank as the aircraft is put
pressure pump inlet. This is because spur gear pumps are not through aerobatic manoeuvres.
particularly effective in suction, and therefore require the inlet
line to be full of oil when the engine is at rest. Oil tank capacity varies with the different types of aircraft, but it
is usually sufficient to ensure an adequate supply of oil for the
In the design of the tank, the position of the filter neck total fuel supply. The tank filler neck is positioned to provide
determines the amount of oil it can hold. This is the quantity sufficient room for oil expansion and for foam to collect.
which is required for full circulation and maximum possible
consumption. An air space is always provided above the oil to The filler cap or cover is marked with the word OIL. A drain in
cater for the following: the filler cap well disposes of any overflow caused by the filling
operation.
• the increased return flow of the accumulated drain oil in
the sump that occurs during engine starting;
• expansion of oil with temperature increase;
• frothing due to aeration; and
• variable pitch propeller oil displacement.

Components of an oil tank

Vent
The tank must be vented to atmosphere to allow for the achieved. The remainder of the oil is gradually warmed as
pressure changes which can arise from variations in oil level running continues.
and changes in altitude. Usually, it is connected to the engine
crankcase, thus preventing loss of oil through the vent. The Stack pipe
crankcase has its own breather which incorporates some sort By having the suction pipe inlet projecting above the floor of the
of oil trap. Oil tank vent lines are provided to ensure proper tank tank and often surrounding it with a gauze filer, the circulation
ventilation in all attitudes of flight. These lines are usually of sludge or water may be trapped in the tank is prevented.
connected to the engine crankcase to prevent the loss of oil
through the vents. This indirectly vents the tanks to the De-aeration
atmosphere through the crankcase breather. The addition of a Because the scavenge pump has a higher capacity than the
check valve in the vent line can be used to pressurise the tank circulating pump, air is always present in the return oil, and this
to provide an excellent positive pressure of oil flow to the oil produces a froth. If this were to be passed on to the engine, the
pump inlet. pump would not maintain a full flow and the bearings could be
partially starved of oil. The return oil is discharged on to a
Oil contents surface, the de-aerator, where it spreads and allows the air
Different methods are employed for indicating the contents of bubbles to escape reducing the froth.
the tank:
Where no de-aerator is fitted, it is usually because the oil
• a graduated dipstick attached either to the screw-on filler volume and circulation rate are such that air has time to escape
cap or a separate cap; from the returning oil before it is recirculated.
• a visual oil level indicator – sight glass; and
• an electrical indicating system. Anti-drain valve
The oil tank can be fitted in such a position that it gives a gravity
Most GA aircraft oil systems are equipped with the dipstick-type feed to the engine. To avoid oil draining from the tank and
quantity gauge, often called a bayonet gauge. possibly flooding the engine when it is at rest, a non-return
valve (check valve) is fitted just after the pressure pump. It is a
Hot pot spring-loaded valve, which is strong enough to resist the head
After a cold engine start, bringing a tank full of oil up to of oil in the tank.
operating temperature could take a long time. By having a
separate compartment, the hot-spot in the tank, which is in the The plate moves off its seat as the pressure pump begins to
direct path of the oil circulation, only a small portion of the oil, operate and allows an unrestricted flow of oil to the engines.
about 10%, circulates through the engine. This oil quickly
reaches operating temperature, and a rapid warm-up is

A dry sump system Lycoming AIO-320

Inverted oil system
The inverted oil system, shown in below is supplied as a kit The inverted oil system, normal flight – refer to the diagram
form accessory for Lycoming AEIO-320, -360 and -540 below, right. During normal flight, the weighted ball valve at the
engines, which permits regular engine lubrication, with minimal top of the oil separator is open, allowing blow-by gasses from
oil loss, during inverted flight. The system functions in all the engine crankcase to be vented from the breather port,
negative-g flight conditions. It is particularly suited to high- through the breather tee, to the top of the oil separator, and out
performance aircraft used for an unlimited-class aerobatic through the overboard breather line. The top ball-valve of the
competition involving long inverted flight and many negative-g oil valve is closed, and the bottom ball valve is open, allowing
manoeuvres. oil to flow from the sump out through the strainer fitting, to the
oil valve, back through the sump fitting to the oil pump and out
Aircraft equipped with constant-speed propellers require to engine lubrication points.
evaluation before modification for aerobatic flight. During
periods of zero oil pressure, some propeller types decrease The inverted oil system, inverted flight – when the aircraft is
pitch, while other types increase pitch. Momentary interruption inverted, engine oil falls to the top of the crankcase. The
of engine oil pressure during aerobatic flight, which usually weighted ball-valve in the oil separator closes, preventing
occurs during certain manoeuvres, may produce decreased overboard loss of oil through the top of the oil separator. Blow-
pitch and cause engine overspeed if the propeller is of the by gasses from the engine crankcase are vented from the sump
decreasing pitch type. For safe engine operation during to the bottom of the oil separator and out through the overboard
aerobatic flight, therefore, the propeller should be of the breather line. The top ball-valve of the oil valve is open, and the
increasing pitch type. bottom ball valve is closed, allowing oil to flow out from the
breather port, through the breather tee, to the oil valve, through
The inverted oil system kit, which is shown below, consists of the sump fitting and the sump screen, to the oil pump and out
the oil valve, oil separator, sump fitting, breather tee, oil sump to engine lubrication points. Any oil in lines which fails to return
strainer fitting, and oil return sump fitting. The oil suction to the sump during the transition between normal and inverted
screen, oil suction sump fitting and sump plug are installed in flight drains into the oil separator. This oil then returns to the
the engine hose, oil lines, and standard fittings. sump from the bottom of the oil separator during periods of
normal flight.

Inverted oil system
Schematic section thru AEIO engine showing oil

circulation during normal and inverted flight

Oil Cooler
General
Oil cooling is a method by which the oil is cooled to maintain The location of the oil cooler within the lubrication system can
the oil temperature to the limits laid down by the engine differ. In the diagram below, the wet-sump arrangement is
manufacturer. It consists of an assembly of tubes in a casing, shown with the cooler in the supply line from the oil pump to the
having their ends expanded and sealed together, thus leaving engine. With a dry-sump method, the oil cooler is arranged in
spaces between the tube walls for most of their length. This the return line to the oil tank. However, in both configurations,
core, or ‘matrix’ as it is called, is arranged so that the hot oil the oil is providing the same function.
passes between the outer surfaces of the tubes. Heat is
transferred from the oil through the tube walls and is conducted The amount of ram air cooling can be regulated by one of the
away by air forced through the tubes. The cooler may be at the following methods:
front or rear of the engine with apertures for ducting arranged
• regulating the flow through the cooler to ensure that an
to ensure cooling airflow through it.
even temperature is maintained; or
It also ensures that the viscosity of the oil is maintained at the • regulating the ram air supply going through the air
required level to produce adequate lubrication. portion of the cooler.
Oil cooling can be achieved in two ways: In practice, however, both methods are usually adopted.
• ram air cooling; and

• fuel cooling.
Ram air cooling is the most effective for piston engines. This is
because a continual supply of cooling air is available during
flight. Fuel oil cooling, on the other hand, relies upon a
continuous supply of fuel through the cooler; such a system is
not generally found on piston engine installations.

A wet sump cooler system

Air-cooled oil cooler
A typical oil cooler assembly consists of a series of hollow tubes Cold oil Flow (non-cooling flow)
that make up the core of the cooler. The tubes are supported Before considering this flow, a word must be said about the
within a double-walled shell. The purpose of the double-walled temperature regulator. The regulator contains an expansion
arrangement will be explained shortly. Oil is allowed to flow element within the assembly that reacts to temperature. As the
around the tubes, while ram air passes through the tubes. This temperature increases, the bellows extend and vice versa.
allows for cooling of the oil as it passes around the cooling air Therefore, by considering the non-cooling flow, the oil is at the
tubes. correct operating temperature and is again taking the path of
least resistance by going past the open regulator, allowing no
Incorporated into the oil cooler assembly are two components oil to pass around the cooling tubes.
that control the flow of oil through the cooler. One component
is the temperature regulating valve, and the other is a bypass Hot oil flow (cooling flow)
valve. An explanation of both functions can be demonstrated As the temperature of the oil increases, the bellows extend
below. under the action of their servicing element. This movement of
the bellows closes off the oil flow and forces the oil through the
The oil cooler has three modes of operation: cooling elements of the oil regulating valve, which, in turn,
regulates the flow of oil through the cooling part of the oil cooler.
• bypass mode;
• non-cooling flow mode; and In some installations, a flap arrangement is used to control the
• cooling flow mode. incoming ram airflow through the cooler. This flap can be
controlled by the aircrew when desired.
Surge condition
This system requires an additional bypass valve and is not
used on all types. In the surge condition, we have to assume
that the viscosity of the oil is so high that extreme pressure has
been created in the oil system. A typical case is operation in
extremely cold conditions, just after start-up of the engine.
If the oil cooler becomes blocked, a high back pressure may be

built up in the oil passages, leading to the cooler damage.
With a high-pressure condition, the bypass valve (not shown)

lifts off its seat and allows oil to bypass the cooler by taking the
path of least resistance. The oil then passes onto the oil system
directly, thus protecting oil cooler from damage.
Cold oil Hot oil
Oil cooler system

Horizontally opposed engine with oil cooler

Oil cooler system with oil
temperature control valve

Oil filter
General
A secondary function of the oil is to cleanse the engine’s Oil filter assemblies are designed in many shapes and forms;
internal parts to ensure that any contaminations are removed the system requirements decide the most suitable design. A
from the oil systems. Typical examples of contaminations are: typical example of a basic oil filter assembly is shown in the
diagram below right. Note that the filter is located downstream,
• rust particles; on the pressure side of the pump; this is to ensure that the oil
• dust; is forced through the filter.
• carbon deposits; and
• metallic material from moving internal parts. Filter elements are generally manufactured from fabric or paper
and are usually reinforced by a wire mesh type arrangement.
The simplest way to remove these contaminants is by changing
the oil. However, this can be a costly exercise, so some means The oil flows through the filter element and past the open check
of removing the particles is desired; filtration is the best method. valve assembly. During this stage, a slight pressure drop
If left unattended, contamination of the oil could lead to failure occurs across the filter element, but this is not considered
of the lubrication system, by causing blocked oil ways, blocking harmful to the system.
oil jets and reducing the close tolerance clearances in such
components as ball and roller bearings and shells. However, as contaminants build up on the outer wall of the filter
element, the restriction of flow through the element is reduced,
Contamination of the oil is not only attributed to foreign particles causing a back-pressure effect at the bypass valve.
but can also be caused during normal use. Apart from carrying
particles in suspension in the oil, two significant chemical At a predetermined setting, the bypass valve opens and allows
changes take place during its travel around the engine. Firstly unfiltered fluid through to the lubrication system. This pressure
oxidation, which occurs due to the mixing of the oil with is felt on top of the check valve and closes the valve, preventing
corrosive lead salts produced by combustion. Secondly, the fluid going into the interior of the filter. This action prevents an
chemical reaction of water vapour condensing inside the idling circuit being created and reduces the possibility of
engine and then being mixed with the oil. contaminants being forced back through the bypass valve.
Neither of these effects can be filtered out of the system; they

can only be removed by regular oil changes.

Oil filter assembly
Oil pump and filter circuit with relief valve and bypass valve

Primary filters are fitted in both suction and pressure lines in an At regular intervals, laid down in the servicing schedule, the oil
oil system, to remove foreign particles from the fluid, and to filter element should be removed and inspected. It is wise at
protect the seals and working surfaces in the components. this stage to replace this filter element after cleaning out the
Also, individual components often have a small filter fitted to filter bowl. In inspection should be carried out on any particles
the inlet connection. found in the bowl, and a fuller investigation carried out on the
engine if large deposits of metal particles are found.
Primary filters usually comprise a filter head containing inlet
and outlet valves, and a sump (or bowl) which houses the filter We have discussed the screen type systems here; it is a
element. Installation of the sump normally opens the valves, common and effective method of filtration. However, in most
and removal of the sump normally closes them, so that the filter cases, especially the wet-sump arrangement, the oil gear pump
element can be removed without the need for draining the must also be protected from any contaminants that may cause
complete system. the pump to seize.
The filter element can be made of porous paper or wire gauze. A metal screen or strainer is fitted over the oil pump inlet in the
Filters made of porous paper may only be used once. After use, oil sump to protect the oil pump from this condition. This screen
they are destroyed. In modem hydraulic systems, filters are retains any large particles that may cause damage to the pump.
made of wire gauze. This gauze can be made of a copper or a
corrosion-resistant steel alloy. The openings in the gauze The degree of filtration is not as high as the filter element
determine the degree to which the hydraulic system is filtered method, as its only purpose is to retain large particles.
and is indicated in microns (1 micron = 0.001 mm). The filters
in the hydraulic system vary from 5 to 15 microns.
Paper filter elements are usually discarded when removed, but

elements of wire cloth may usually be cleaned. Cleaning by an
ultrasonic process is usually recommended. However, if a new
or cleaned element is not available when the element becomes
due for a check, the old element may be cleaned in
trichloroethylene as a temporary measure.

Spacers and screens oil filter

Filtering assembly

Oil pump and filter circuit

Differential pressure (ΔP) indicator
Some filters are fitted with a device which senses the pressure
differential across the filter element, and releases a visual
indicator, in the form of a button, when the pressure differential
increases because of the filter becoming clogged. False
indication of element clogging, because of high fluid viscosity
at low temperature, is prevented by a bi-metal spring which
inhibits indicator button movement at low temperatures. Other
filters are fitted with a relief valve, which allows unfiltered fluid
to pass to the system when the element becomes clogged; this
type of filter element must be changed at regular intervals.
The ΔP indicator (also known as the ‘clogging indicator’)

indicates the difference in pressure between filter inlet and filter
outlet. It, therefore, gives information about the filter’s condition
to the maintenance personnel. The indicator piston pops out
and can be reset by hand.
The figure below shows a filter unit where a bypass and shutoff
valve and a pressure indicator have been included in the filter
housing. If the bowl is screwed open to change the filter, the
valve closes automatically, which prevents the system from
emptying when changing the filter. After installing the bowl and
a new filter, the shutoff valve opens again. Filter units in modem
hydraulic power systems all have a shutoff valve.

Differential pressure indicator – internal components

Oil pressure filter
The oil filter element, or ‘spin-on filter’, should usually be
replaced every fifty hours of engine operation unless specified
otherwise. This is accomplished by removing the lockwire from
the filter and removing the filter from the engine.
Before discarding the full-flow filter element, an examination

should be undertaken. Remove the outer perforated paper
cover and, using a sharp knife, cut through the fold of the
element at both ends close to the metal caps. Unfold the
pleated element and examine the material trapped in the
element for evidence of excessive internal engine wear and
damage, such as metal chips or bearing particles. In new or
newly overhauled engines some small metallic shavings may
be found. These are generally of no consequence and should
not be confused with particles produced by impact, abrasion,
or pressure. Evidence of excessive metal contamination found
in the filter element justifies further examination to determine
the cause.

Oil filter assembly on the accessory gearbox

To examine the spin-on full-flow filter, Champion tool No. CT- Oil filter contaminant Inspection
470 or Airwolf AFC-470 cutter must be used to open the can. Contaminant Typical cause
Instructions for operating the can opener are as follows:
Carbon Excessive oil temperature, poor oil system
1) Secure the filter can in a bench vice. When cutting open maintenance
a female threaded type filter, use the CT-470-2 or AFC- Aluminium Piston plugs, oil pump and aluminium
470-2 adapter. Male threaded type filters can also be bearings in turbocharged engines
opened with the cutter by removing the CT-470-2 or
AFC-470-2 adapter from the rotating bushing. Steel Camshaft and followers
2) Secure the cutter on the filter mounting plate. Tighten Bronze Tacho drive bushing, conrod bearings and
the knurled head screw until the cutter blade meets the rocker arm bushes
metal filter can surface.
3) Rotate the cutter 360º observing that the cutting blade is Copper Camshaft gears (only on some engines)
penetrating the metal can of the filter. Continue
tightening the knurled head screw and rotating the cutter
until the filter mounting plate is separated from the can. On older engines which are not fitted with the spin-on full-flow
4) Remove the element from the filter and cut filter material oil filter, the oil pressure filter had no bypass passage. If
from the end cap. Carefully unfold the element and excessive contamination is experienced, the soldered joint is
examine the material trapped in the filter. designed to burst with the increase in oil pressure allowing dirty
5) After the filter element or spin-on filter has been oil to flow into the engine, thus preventing oil starvation and
replaced, properly torqued and lock-wired, run the engine seizure.
engine and check for oil leaks.

Oil filter content inspection

Oil dilution system
The object of oil dilution is to facilitate the starting of piston Therefore, the oil level should be reduced to compensate for
engines in cold weather. Fuel is added to the oil to reduce the the addition of the fuel. Maintenance manual information gives
viscosity; this reduces the torque necessary to turn the engine the necessary details.
and ensures, immediately after the start, an adequate supply of
lubricant to all moving parts at approximately normal working If it has been decided that oil dilution has to be implemented,
pressure. The reduced viscosity also minimises the risk of then the following general guidelines should be observed.
bursting flexible hoses, couplings and oil coolers when starting.
• The engine should be started in the usual manner unless
If carried out regularly irrespective of the atmospheric otherwise recommended.
temperature prevailing, oil dilution also minimises the • Before opening up, the engine must be warmed up for
accumulation of sludge deposit within the engine. long enough to ensure that some of the fuel is boiled off.
If this is not done, there is a danger of frothing, and much
If we consider the schematic diagram illustrated below left, we of the oil may be blown out through the engine breathers.
can see that a pipe is connected from the pressure delivery side • The partial boiling off period depends on the installation
of the fuel pump and connected to an oil dilution solenoid valve. and the time for which the oil has been diluted.
• The engine should be run at the specified RPM and for
A metered supply of fuel is directed from the outlet side of the the period recommended in the maintenance manual or
solenoid valve and mixed with the oil supply going to the operations manual.
engine. A switch in the cockpit operates the solenoid valve.
In no case should any engine be opened up to a high-power
The oil dilution valve illustrated below right is shown in the de- setting until the oil temperature, as well as the coolant
energised condition where the spring holds the ball against the temperature on liquid-cooled engines, reaches at least the
metering orifice. When the solenoid is energised, the spring minimum permitted or take off, and until the oil pressure is
loading is removed from the ball, and fuel pressure moves the normal.
ball off its seat, allowing a supply of fuel to pass through the
metering met, to the oil system. If the oil pressure does not start to build up immediately the
engine is started, or the pressure falls during the boil-off run,
Precautions when oil diluting the engine should be stopped. Insufficient oil pressure may be
One of the most obvious precautions when introducing fuel into due to cold undiluted oil having found its way into the oil pump
the oil system during oil dilution operations is the level of oil in suction line, due to too low an oil level before dilution, or
the oil tank. possibly to a leaking dilution valve.

Oil dilution system
Oil dilution valve

After completion of the routine engine checks and any Period of effectiveness
necessary boiling off period, the engine should be stopped if Dilution should remain effective for at least two or three days
necessary, and the oil tanks topped up to the required level for during the cold weather, providing the engine is not run up.
flight and the engine restarted without delay.
If the engine is run up for ground servicing purposes only,
Improper use of the oil dilution system will result in the excess further oil dilution, if still required, should not be carried out until
fuel flowing into the oil, preventing effective boiling off. the engine has been run for the required period to boil off any
Excessive loss through the engine breathers may then result. remaining diluent. Exact times for the complete elimination of
diluent depend, among other factors, on the oil temperatures
The engine should be warmed up for the recommended boiling during the run, and cannot be quoted for all cases.
off period. Then, during the routine ground checks, careful
observation should be made to ensure that no loss of oil When no time is quoted, 20 minutes at no less than the
through the engine breathers is apparent. If it is known or recommended RPM should ensure that all diluent has been
suspected that the oil has been over diluted, a further check boiled off; an excessive cumulative percentage of dilution may
that no breather loss occurs at take-off power is essential. result if this is not done. After all diluent has been boiled off, the
appropriate full dilution should be carried out.
Engineering personnel conducting ground running operations
should be familiar with the location of the breather outlets or
drains.

Oil dilution valve – de-energised position

Pressure control
The simplest form of pressure control uses a pressure relief
valve, such as that illustrated below.
Pressure relief valve

The pressure relief valve has a spring-loaded plunger that
keeps the poppet valve on its seat during normal operating
conditions. The adjustment screw adjusts the spring tension to
a predetermined pressure. When held on its seat, the flow of oil
is directed past the poppet to the engine.
When the oil pressure is higher than the spring pressure, the
poppet valve is pushed off its seat by the oil pressure. The oil
then flows past the valve back to the oil pump inlet. As the oil
system pressure drops below the valve of the spring, the valve
closes, and regular supply is returned.
This type of relief valve has several disadvantages; for

example, it is only designed to relieve a maximum oil pressure
and not to act as a pressure regulator. As the valve opens to
relieve oil pressure, there is usually an instant drop in system
pressure; the pressure then rises again, and the oil is returned
to the pump. This causes the poppet valve to slam back on its
seat, aided by the spring. If the relief is set too low, then the
valve would chatter (continually opening and closing), and
damage to the valve could result. The valve tensions are
calibrated by an overhaul agency and should never be adjusted
during normal operations.

Pressure relief valve

Pressure regulator
Some pressure-control systems regulate the oil pressure in the The regulator offloads high oil pressures caused by thick
system, irrespective of the pump output. The pressure viscosity oil during start-up in cold conditions. The high
regulator, in this case, serves two purposes within the pressure is felt at valve (A) and pushes it off its seat, allowing
lubricating system: excess oil pressure to again return to the inlet of the pump.
• it offloads the system during a high-pressure condition System maximum pressure can be controlled by the adjuster
(cold day – thick oil); and screw that alters the tension of the spring acting on valve (A).
• it regulates the system to a maximum pressure once the
oil has warmed up. Information on adjustment procedures can be found in
Chapter 79 (oil) of the maintenance manual.
An example of an oil pressure regulator is illustrated below.
Consider the cavity drain line shown below. Any oil leaking past
In this example, there are three main components: the seal of the piston seeps into the regulator body. In the
absence of a cavity drain, the regulator body could fill with oil
• a series of springs set at a tension equal to the maximum and cause a hydraulic lock. Periodic checks of the cavity drain
working systems pressure; line ensure the integrity of the regulator.
• a pressure relief valve (A); and
• a spring adjuster.
Under normal operating conditions, the springs hold valve (A)

on its seat.
Note the sense line going into the cavity (B); it senses the
system pressure. When the system pressure exceeds the value
of the springs, sense oil is moved the piston to the right.
Because valve (A) is attached to this piston, the oil pressure is
allowed to flow past it back to the oil pump inlet. This action
causes a drop in sense pressure, and when it becomes less
than the spring pressure value, it allows valve (A) to close,
stopping the idling circuit, and causing the normal operation to
resume.
The regulator controls the oil pressure in the system during

normal high-temperature operations.
A pressure regulator

Oil distribution
Oil distribution within the reciprocating engine is achieved in
three ways:
• pressure supply;
• splash; and
• a combination of both splash and pressure.
Of the three methods listed above, the third is the most

commonly used.
It is essential that certain parts of the engine are supplied with

high-pressure oil to ensure that adequate lubrication is
achieved, crankshafts and big end bearings being typical
examples. Engine cylinder walls receive a splash supply of oil
to ensure adequate lubrication of the pistons within the
cylinders. Therefore, most engines use a combination of both
splash and pressure supply.
Other distinct advantages of using pressure supply are:
• satisfactory lubrication at all altitudes and altitudes of

flight. Splash supply could not provide adequate
lubrication at varying attitudes; and
• the pump output ensures more than adequate supply of
oil to bearings and crankshafts. In most cases, the pump
output is higher than the lubricating requirement, so a
great supply of oil is provided; hence a greater cooling
ability is achieved.
The illustration below shows the lubrication system of a typical

reciprocating engine. It shows the lubrication flow and
component location within a wet-sump lubricating system.

A typical lubrication distribution – wet sump type

The lubrication system illustrated below is a combination of
pressure and splash supply.
The main bearings, connecting rod bearings, camshaft

bearings, valve tappets and pushrods are lubricated by positive
pressure.
The pistons, piston pins, cams, cylinder walls, valve rockers,

valve stems and other internal moving parts are lubricated by
oil spray.


Oil under pressure from the oil pump is fed through drilled
crankshaft passages which supply oil to the crankshaft main
bearings and camshaft bearings. Connecting rod bearings are
pressure lubricated through internal passages in the
crankshaft. Valve mechanisms are lubricated through the
hollow pushrods, which are supplied with oil from the crankcase
oil passage.

A typical lubrication distribution – dry sump type

Cylinder walls and piston pins are spray-lubricated by oil
escaping from the connecting rod bearings. A pressure relief
valve is installed to maintain the correct oil pressure at higher
engine speeds. The diagram below shows the splash
lubricating areas.
Once the oil has lubricated its designated parts, it falls to the
lower sump region. In the case of the wet sump system, the oil
is then picked up by the supply pump, and then the process
starts all over again. In the dry-sump arrangement, a scavenge
pump in the sump pumps the used oil back to the oil tank.
Hoses and pipelines used in lubricating systems are the same

as those used in the aircraft hydraulic systems.
As all reciprocating engines have internal passageways, some

small and some large, cleanliness is essential to prevent
blockage by carbon or dirt particles. In most cases, the oil jet
orifices and oil internal passages are of a calibrated size to
ensure even distribution of the pressurised oil. Any blockage
may cause a reduction in the oil supply to parts of the engine
and cause premature failure of bearings or crankshafts.
The replacement of engine oil and filters at the engine hours

recommended by the manufacturer is essential to the long life
of the engine.


Lubrication system Pratt & Whitney twin Wasp (wet sump)

Lubrication system Rolls-Royce Merlin (dry sump)

Crankshaft sealing
Some method must be provided to maintain the lubricating oil
within the crankcase areas, irrespective of the type of engine
configuration. Manufacturers of light aircraft engines all adopt
the same system, the use of the O-ring seal and plate method.
Sealing is achieved by using the O-ring seal fitted either in a

machined groove in the crankcase body or being retained in
place by a retaining plate. Lubrication of the crankcase at this
point is achieved by either splash lubrication (wet sump
method), or by oil jets at the journal bearing in the dry-sump
method.
Although lubricating oil is directed to the seal area, engine

arrangements have an oil slinger attached to one crankshaft to
throw most of the oil back into the sump allowing a calibrated
amount to lubricate the seal. This method reduces the
possibility of significant oil leaks at the crankshaft seal. A typical
example is illustrated below.

Crankshaft slinger ring

Defects and troubleshooting
Crankshaft oil seal leaks
The ‘nose seal’ provides an oil seal at the forward end of the If the tube is in good condition, also remember that the engine
crankshaft. It can leak for the following reasons: expels moisture through the tube. Under freezing conditions,
there is some possibility that the moisture may freeze at the
1) Age hardening of the rubber. end of the tube, and ice builds up until the tube is entirely
2) Excessive forward and aft crankshaft play. restricted. Should this happen, pressure may build up in the
3) Long periods of engine inactivity. crankcase until something gives – usually the crankshaft oil
4) A blocked breather pipe. seal.
5) Incorrect installation.
Since the airframe manufacturers know this is a possibility, and
Should this seal leak immediately after installation, it is possible since they design to prevent engine-related problems of this
it was damaged during the installation process. However, a kind, some means of preventing freeze-up of the crankcase
poor fit between the crankcase or crankshaft and seal could breather is usually incorporated. The breather tube may be
also be responsible for the leak. insulated, it may be designed, so the end is located in a hot
area, it may be equipped with an electric heater, or it may
Before installation of a crankshaft oil seal, it is essential to incorporate a hole, notch or slot which is often called a ‘whistle
check the recess into which it fits for the proper size. Excessive slot.’ Because of its simplicity, the whistle slot is often used and
wear which enlarges the crankcase bore for any reason may is located in a warm area near the engine where it will not
cause the crankshaft oil seal to leak. An undersized crankshaft freeze. Aircraft operators should know which method of
could result in the same poor fit and a leak. This is usually preventing freeze-up is used and then ensure that the
caused by a rusty or pitted surface which has been polished configuration is maintained as specified by the airframe
excessively. manufacturer.
When a leak at the crankshaft oil seal develops after many Should leakage at the crankshaft oil seal occur as a result of
hours of regular operation, it is usually the result of other oil-slinger clearance which is too tight, the problem can initially
problems. A leaking crankshaft oil seal is frequently caused by be identified by checking for excessive end clearance. This can
a restricted breather or an oil-slinger clearance that is too tight. be done with a dial indicator. Remove the prop and then push
The leak might also be caused by a propeller defect which the prop flange to the extreme aft position and zero the
places an abnormal side load on the crankshaft oil seal. indicator. Then, pull the prop flange full forward and read the
To avoid the problem of oil leakage at the crankshaft oil seal travel on the indicator. Compare this figure with the limits listed
because of an engine breather restriction, examination of the in the Table of Limits for the appropriate engine model.
breather tube to determine its condition is an excellent idea.
k
Horizontally opposed engine – nose seal location

Should the end clearance exceed the limits specified, the oil
slinger clearance should then be checked. First, remove the old
nose seal, and clean the work area. Again, push the crankshaft
to the rear of the engine. Insert a 0.002" feeler gauge about 3∕l6"
wide between the oil slinger on the crankshaft and the
crankcase. Again, pull the crankshaft forward. If the 0.002"
feeler gauge is pinched tight, the required 0.002" to 0.007"
clearance has been exceeded. Lack of appropriate clearance
is the result of excessive wear on the crankcase thrust face
which allows oil to be pumped out past the crankcase oil seal.
Overhaul time is usually when the crankcase thrust face might

receive a necessary repair. Should the crankcase oil seal be
leaking excessively, it may simply mean that overhaul time has
arrived early. Fortunately, this is something which does not
happen very often.
Crankcases with worn or damaged thrust face areas can be

repaired by reworking the thrust face area to permit installation
of new thrust-bearing washers. These bearings are available
as repair items. Thrust-bearing washers may be reused if they
do not show wear and if their thickness is sufficient to maintain
compliance with the crankshaft and crankcase end-clearance
specifications in the engine manufacture’s table of limits.

Oil leak Oil seals

Oil system indications Worn piston rings
Oil system problems can be divided into these specified areas: This is indicated by blue smoke emitting from exhaust pipes
during operation. Oil may block one of the crankcase oil
• no oil pressure; breathers, as gasses escape past the piston rings into the
• low oil pressure; crankcase and blow out the oil.
• high oil consumption;
• broken oil pipes (oil everywhere!); Worn big end bearing shells
• kinked or deformed flexible oil pipes; and This causes a reduction in oil pressure as the oil flow escapes
• blocked filter. into the crankcase.
Low oil pressure High oil temperature

Low oil pressure can be associated with many things, but two High oil temperatures can be caused primarily by the restriction
main areas can be considered: of oil flow. This is usually attributed to:
• oil supply; and • blocked or partially blocked internal pipe bores;

• mechanical defects in the engine. • lack of oil within the lubricating systems; or
• restricted oil cooler flows.
The oil which is supplied can be as a result of the conditions
described in the previous section dealing with no oil supply. In
this case, a reduction in oil supply rather than no oil supply is
produced.
One cause may be a worn oil pump, another mis-set oil

pressure relief valve, relieving too early.
High oil consumption

The mechanical defects associated with low oil pressure can
also be related to the problem of high oil consumption. Typical
examples are:
• worn piston rings; and

• worn big end bearing shells.

Oil quantity is measured with a dipstick.
It is not usually indicated in the cockpit. Oil system indications

Chip detectors
There are three types of chip detectors in everyday use: Indicating magnetic-chip detectors
The diagram below shows an indicating type magnetic chip
• magnetic chip detectors; detector. It has a warning circuit feature. When debris bridges
• indicating magnetic chip detectors; and the gap between the magnetic positive electrode in the centre
• pulsed chip detectors and the ground electrode (shell), a warning light is activated in
the cockpit.
Magnetic chip detectors
Many scavenge systems contain permanent magnet chip When the light illuminates, the flight crew must take whatever
detectors which attract and hold ferrous metal particles which action is warranted, such as in-flight shutdown, continued
would otherwise circulate back to the oil tank and the engine operation at flight idle, or continued operation at normal cruise,
pressure subsystem, possibly causing wear or damage. Chip depending on the other engine instruments readings.
detectors are a point of frequent inspection to detect early signs
of main bearing failure.
As a general rule, the presence of small fuzzy particles or grey

metallic paste is considered satisfactory and the result of
normal wear. Metallic chips or flakes are an indication of
serious internal wear or malfunction
Note: The following safety precautions are required when

fitting bayonet-type MCDs:
• ensure that serviceable seals are fitted;

• ensure that the bayonet prongs are in place and secure;
and
• ground run for leak check after fitment.

Magnetic chip detector
Examples of fouled magnetic

chip detectors

Pulsed chip detectors
A newer type is the electric-pulsed chip detector, which can The resulting burn off prevents a cockpit warning light from
discriminate between small wear metal particles, both ferrous illuminating by opening the circuit before a time delay relay in
and nonferrous, considered non-failure related, and larger the circuit activates to complete the current path to ground. If
particles, which can be an indication of bearing failure, gearbox the debris is a large particle, it will remain in place after the
failure, or other potentially serious engine malfunction. burn-off cycle is completed and a warning light will illuminate in
the cockpit when the time delay relay closes.
The pulsed chip detector looks like the indicating chip detector
at the gap end, but its electrical circuit contains a pulsing
mechanism which is powered by the aircraft 28 V DC bus.
The pulsed detector is designed with either one or two

operating modes; manual only or manual and automatic.
In the manual mode, each time the gap is sufficiently bridged,

regardless of the particle size, the warning light illuminates in
the cockpit. The operator then initiates the pulse; electrical
energy discharges across the gap end in an attempt to
separate the debris from the hot centre electrode. This
procedure is called bum off. If the light goes out and stays out,
the operator considers the bridging a result of a non-failure
related cause. If the light does not go out, or repeatedly comes
on after being cleared, the operator must take appropriate
action, such as reducing engine power or shutting down the
engine.
In the automatic mode, if the gap is bridged by small debris, a

pulse of electrical energy discharges across the gap.

Oil consumption monitoring
There is no single standard oil consumption rate for a given trend has changed substantially, conduct the differential
type of engine. Each engine finds its level of oil consumption compression and borescope examinations. If the oil
based on several factors: consumption trend is stable and the oil consumption is less
than one litre (quart) every three hours.
• the type of oil used;
• how the engine is broken in; • Record the type of oil used.
• the type of cylinders it has; and • Record the number of litres (quarts) of oil added.
• the type of flying for which it is used. • Record oil change interval.
For example, if the oil consumption is mainly past the rings, the At every oil change, strain the oil and examine for debris. Also,
rate may go down if you switch from a single grade oil such as cut open the oil filter and examine it for unusual material
W100 to a multigrade oil such as 15W50. If the oil leakage is content; record the examination results of the strained oil, oil
past the intake valves or leaks, the rate of oil consumption can filter or screen. The presence of a substantial amount of
go up if you switch to a multigrade oil. The absolute rate of oil material requires investigation to determine the source before
consumption is not the critical factor; a significant change in the further engine operation.
rate of consumption is more important. If your engine is using
a litre (quart) of oil every eight hours and then starts to consume Oil consumption can be expected to vary with each engine
a litre (quart) in four hours under the same type of maintenance depending on the load, operating temperature, type of oil used
and operational conditions, an investigation should be and condition of the engine. A differential compression check
conducted to find the cause of the increase. and borescope inspection should be conducted if oil
consumption exceeds one litre (quart) every three hours or if
Low oil consumption is not necessarily a good thing; some any sudden change in oil consumption is experienced and
engines such as large turbocharged engines require some oil appropriate action taken.
past the rings to aid seating. Some engines tend to throw out
the first litre (quart) of oil if you fill the sump to the maximum It is important to note that the current technology of general
level, you might want to run one litre (quart) low, although care aviation aircraft reciprocating engines requires a certain level
must be taken to ensure there is sufficient oil for long cross of oil consumption to assure proper lubrication of the cylinder
country flights. walls and rings. Aircraft engines operate under much greater
loads and at higher temperatures than automotive engines and
Formal oil consumption record should be generated for the require correspondingly greater oil use. In addition to
engine installation. If oil consumption is more than one litre lubrication, the oil serves as a coolant and as a means to
(quart) every three hours of operation or if the oil consumption transport contaminants, wear particles, acids and moisture

from the engine at oil changes. Frequent oil changes based on
operating hours or calendar time are critical to engine life.
Monitoring oil consumption

Oil particle analysis
General
Oil particle analysis is a tool to monitor wear material and The oil analysis procedure is typically as follows.
contaminants in the engine. To be effective, a baseline of at
least three analyses must be established from a single source • If an oil analysis profile has been established, review the
to provide trend characteristics. For those engines with an results for indications of wear or contamination.
established oil analysis profile, changes in iron, copper and • Based on the latest oil analysis, record the results of the
other tracked elements can indicate unusual wear. In such profile trend. If the trend indicates an abnormal increase
cases, other diagnostic tools such as differential compression in material amounts, reference the recommended
checks, borescope inspections, oil filter/screen examination actions provided by the oil analysis laboratory.
and oil consumption trends can be useful in identifying the • If no prior oil analysis exists, initiate sampling according
problem. Oil analysis can also detect air filtration or induction to the instructions you receive with the oil analysis kit.
system leaks indicated by high silicon content. Note that oil
analysis does not provide any indication of cracks, leaks or
similar situations that could result in engine problems.
To establish a meaningful database for comparison, the oil

samples must be taken on a regular schedule using the same
sampling technique and laboratory. The engine must have
operated long enough to obtain normal operating temperatures
and the oil sample taken within 30 minutes after engine shut
down. The tube or funnels used to drain the oil from the oil
sump must be clean and free of any foreign material or residue.
If the oil sample is taken from the oil as it drains from the sump,
allow approximately ⅓ of the oil to drain before taking the
sample. If the sample is taken via the oil filler or other location
using a sampling tube, it is critical that the sample not be taken
from the bottom of the sump, but at a location 2" to 3" above
the bottom of the sump Under no circumstances should an oil
sample be taken from the oil filter canister.

Oil analysis report

Chip detectors Oil filters
Magnetic chip detectors are magnetic plugs may be fitted in the Disposable type oil filters are removed periodically and during
scavenge oil return lines. Any ferrous particles carried in the oil fault diagnosis.
is attracted to these plugs and caught. The average particle
size caught by such plugs is around 200 microns and above. The technician gives these an initial examination before
This may be in the form of a light furring, or it may be flakes of packing and sending them to the laboratory for examination.
bearing surface material or it may be sharp, spiked steel
particles or chips. The AMM usually gives guidelines on how to Reusable filters are washed through filter papers to collect
identify the debris. sediment and debris. The oil filters are capable of collecting
ferrous and nonferrous particles. In many cases, the laboratory
Magnetic chip detectors are removed as a set during periodic requires a sample bottle containing the oil from the filter
servicing. They are given an initial examination before being housing.
placed in a particular container together with documentation
that identifies the engine and the position they came from. The Debris particle examination
replacement magnetic chip detectors are generally delivered This examination is used for particles from the magnetic chip
as a set in a special container, so this is used to return the detectors and filters. The particles are generally large and in
removed set. They are sent to a laboratory. In the case where the range of 200 to 500 microns. A binocular microscope is
an engine has been rejected then the plugs are left in the used to identify the size and shape of individual particles.
engine for dispatch back to the engine overhaul facility. An experienced operator can identify whether the particles are
Some magnetic chip detectors are electronically monitored, from teeth, bearings or from rotating seals by their general
using one of two principles. One principle is to let ferrous shape and appearance. Examples of this would be circular
material build up between to electrical poles. When sufficient steel flakes that would be traceable to ball bearings while
debris has been accumulated, an electrical circuit closes. rectangular steel flakes would be traceable to roller bearings.
Another principle uses induction where a coil assembly The particles can be preserved in a fixative on a slide and be
monitors the ferrous build up on the magnetic pole. retained for future investigation. The engine will be rejected if
flakes are found.
In both cases, a too high debris level results in some kind of
alert, for instance via a post-flight report or MCDU warning.

Oil analysis kit Metal particles in oil filter

Spectrometric oil analysis Ferrography
Branches of aviation have used spectrometric oil analysis The most powerful diagnostic tool in oil analysis is analytical
program (SOAP) for many years. It is based on the fact that ferrography; in fact, the only reliable test that can justify the
each element will display a specific pattern of light when a removal of an engine.
sample is used in a spectrometer. It applies to either
reciprocating or turbine engines. A film of oil from the sample is It consists of a detailed microscopic examination of a slide to
placed and burnt between two graphite electrodes that are determine:
supplied with a high voltage AC. The spectrometric analysis for
metal content is possible because metallic atoms and ions emit • particle size and relative concentration;
characteristic light spectra when vaporised by an electric arc. • metallurgy, both ferrous and nonferrous;
As the oil film burns, the light that emits passes through • wear mechanism that indicates the root cause;
calibrated slits separating it into different wavelengths that • component source of wear; and
depend on the trace elements present in the oil. • identification of contaminants.
The spectrum produced by each metal is unique for that metal. This is another process that is used to examine oil samples. It
The position or wavelength of a spectral line identifies the is used to identify the presence of ferrous particles and to
particular metal. The intensity of the line can be used to measure the concentration in the sample.
measure the quantity of metal in a sample. Each wavelength is The test can identify particles in the 5 to 100-micron range. The
projected in its colour in the light spectrum. The colour identifies oil sample is passed across a glass slide that is under the
the element, for example, chromium, nickel, etc. and the influence of a varying magnetic field. This causes the particles
intensity of the colour light is directly related to the amount of to separate and form themselves into groups each containing
the element present. An alloyed material transmits several different micron sizes.
colours dependent on the elements they contain.
The slide is then examined by microscope to assess the nature
This process is used to detect and measure the microscopic and concentrations of caught material. Once again, the results
particles of wear metals in an oil sample in parts per million. can be recorded and compared with previous results to
The particles are in the range of one to ten microns and are too discover if there is any significant rate of change that would
small to be seen or be captured by the magnetic chip detectors reveal an adverse trend. More sophisticated equipment
or the filters. The records of the results from the periodic employs optical sensors to measure the various particle
samples from an engine can be recorded to give a wear trend concentrations.
chart. Any sudden increase in a particular element or alloy in a
sample alerts the operators and assist in identifying the
component that is wearing.

Oil analysis

16.10 Engine Indicating Systems

Copyright notice
LEVEL 3
subject.
• An ability to apply that knowledge. manner using the manufacturers' instructions.
appropriate.

© Copyright 2020 Module 16.10 Engine Indicating Systems Issue 2 – July 2020
Knowledge
Part-66 Levels
Objective
Ref.
A B1 B3
Engine speed; 16.10 1 2 2
Cylinder head temperature;
Coolant temperature;
Oil pressure and temperature;
Exhaust gas temperature;
Fuel pressure and flow;
Manifold pressure.

Table of Contents
Parameters and abbreviations____________________ 6 Oil pressure, temperature and quantity ____________ 46
Cockpit engine indication layouts_________________ 6 Layout _____________________________________ 46
Analogue engine displays _______________________ 6 Oil pressure _________________________________ 48
Electronic engine displays______________________ 10 Oil temperature ______________________________ 52
Oil quantity __________________________________ 54
Hobbs meter _________________________________ 12
Cylinder head temperature, exhaust gas temperature,
Engine speed (RPM) ___________________________ 14
coolant and carburettor temperatures _____________ 56
General ____________________________________ 14
Cylinder head temperature (CHT) ________________ 56
Mechanical tachometers _______________________ 16
The indicator ________________________________ 60
Electromechanical tachometers _________________ 18
Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) _________________ 62
Inductive probe type (Hall sensor) _______________ 20
Coolant and carburettor temperatures _____________ 64
Pressure measuring instruments ________________ 22
Fuel pressure and flow _________________________ 66
Types of pressure ____________________________ 22
Fuel pressure ________________________________ 66
Capsules and bellows _________________________ 22
Fuel flow ___________________________________ 68
Bourdon tube _______________________________ 24
Fuel used ___________________________________ 74
Strain gauges _______________________________ 26
Piezo-resistive sensors ________________________ 26 Diesel engine indicating ________________________ 76
Variable frequency signals _____________________ 28 Cockpit control and instrumentation _______________ 76
FADEC sensors ______________________________ 76
Temperature measuring instruments _____________ 30
Non-electrical temperature measurements _________ 30
Resistance thermometers (thermistors) ___________ 32
Indicators __________________________________ 34
DC ratiometer _______________________________ 36
Thermocouples ______________________________ 38
Manifold pressure and boost pressure gauges _____ 40
Manifold pressure ____________________________ 40
Boost pressure ______________________________ 41
Operation __________________________________ 42
MAP sensor ________________________________ 44


Parameters and abbreviations Cockpit engine indication layouts
The following abbreviations are commonly used: Analogue engine displays
Analogue gauges, often called 'steam gauges', are those
EGT: exhaust gas temperature mechanical, or electromechanical gauges that indicate with a
CHT: cylinder head temperature moving needle against a scale. The diagram below shows a
RPM: engine speed revs per minute typical piston engine gauge layout in the cockpit.
MP or MAP: manifold air pressure
FF: fuel flow Frequently, two or more indications are incorporated into one
Press: pressure unit. For example, oil pressure and oil temperature may share
Temp: temperature the same indicator unit.
The manifold pressure and RPM gauges are considered to be

a 'primary' or 'performance' instruments because they usually
provide some indication of the power output of the engine, so it
is larger and positioned with the other primary aircraft
instruments. On some light aircraft, only the RPM gauge is
provided.
The 'secondary' or 'condition' gauges (EGT, CHT, fuel

flow/pressure, oil pressure/temperature, etc.) are arranged
together in a cluster, which makes for easy scanning by the
pilot. These indications provide the pilot with a measure of the
condition of the engine for any given power level.

Instrument cluster on a piston engined helicopter
Common piston engine analogue indications
An example of a composite indicator

A piston engine analogue indication cluster
Piston engine indications on an EFIS display
Common piston engine indications An example of a composite indication

Electronic engine displays
Many modern small aircraft are fitted with electronic engine
instrument displays. These are often fitted even if the flight
instruments are the more conventional 'steam gauge' type.
They contain a processor which converts all sensed inputs into

digital format, as requires, and generates the symbols and
digits for display on the screen.
Some older displays use LED arrays or, on more modern

systems, LCD screens. The representations may be in a bar-
graph format or may be a simulation of the conventional moving
pointer and scale. Usually, a combination of digital and
analogue style displays are presented.
If the aircraft has a modern EFIS type display, then the engine
instruments can also be displayed on the EFIS multi-function
display, on a section of the screen which is dedicated to engine
instrumentation.

Piston engine indications inset in an EFIS display
An electronic piston engine display unit An electronic piston engine display unit
Hobbs meter
'Hobbs meter' is a genericised trademark for devices used in At these times, the clock runs slower. Depending on the type of
aviation to measure the time that an aircraft is in use. The flight, tach time can be 10–20% less than Hobbs time. Many
meters typically display hours and tenths of an hour, but there organisations, such as flying clubs, charge by tach time to
are several ways in which the meter may be activated: differentiate themselves from fixed-base operators because
10–20% less time recorded makes it 10–20% cheaper to fly (if
• It can measure the time that the electrical system is on the hourly rate is the same). In the case where flying clubs use
which maximises the recorded time. tach time, many charge a dry rate, thus requiring the renter to
• It can be activated by oil pressure running into a pay for fuel on top of the hourly tach time rate.
pressure switch, and therefore runs while the engine is
running. Many rental aircraft use this method to remove On most modern piston engine aircraft, the Hobbs meter is
the incentive to fly with the master electrical switch off. incorporated into the RPM gauge.
• Another switch can activate it, either an airspeed
sensing vane under a wing (as in the Cessna Caravan)
or a pressure switch attached to the landing gear (as in
many twin-engine aeroplanes). In these cases, the
meter only measures the time the aircraft is flying.
Metrics such as 'time in service' and 'turbine actual
runtime' are kept monitoring overhaul cycles and are
usually used by commercial operators.
• It can be activated when the engine alternators are
online (as in the Cirrus SR series).
Hobbs time is usually recorded in the pilot's logbook, and many

fixed-base operators that rent aeroplanes charge an hourly rate
based on Hobbs time. Tach (tachometer) time is recorded in
the engine's logbooks and is used, for example, to determine
when the oil should be changed and the time between
overhauls. Tach time differs from Hobbs time in that it is linked
to engine revolutions per minute (RPM). Tach time records the
time at some specific RPM. It is most accurate at cruise RPM,
and least accurate while taxiing or stationary with the engine
running.
A standalone Hobbs meter A Hobbs meter combined with the RPM gauge

Engine speed (RPM)
General
The tachometer often referred to as the 'tach', shows the
engine crankshaft RPM.
The system used for block testing the engine is the same as
the system in the aircraft installation. The figure below shows a
tachometer with range markings.
The tachometer is calibrated in hundreds of revs per minute

(RPM x 100).
A blue arc on the tachometer indicates the RPM range within

which auto-lean operation is permitted. The bottom of this arc
indicates the minimum RPM desirable in flight. The top
indicates the RPM at which the mixture control must be moved
to auto-rich. A green arc indicates the RPM range within which
auto-rich operation is required. The top of the green arc
indicates maximum continuous power. All operation above this
RPM is limited in time (usually 5 or 15 min.). A red line indicates
the maximum RPM permissible during takeoff; any RPM
beyond this value is an overspeed condition.

Tachometer gauge, often combines with an engine hours meter,
sometimes known as a Hobbs meter

Mechanical tachometers
Older aircraft have a mechanical cable-driven tachometer. At the remote, receiving end of the control run, the cable
Inside the instrument are a set of flyweights to which a pointer passes through an adjustable stop and is connected to the
is attached, indicating RPM. component operating lever by the nipple or bolts. The purpose
of the stop is to provide a means of adjusting the length of the
These are not used much nowadays, but you may encounter conduit, thus altering the range of movement of the control
them on older aircraft. The necessary components are a flex cable. Where a single cable operates two components, a
drive from a drive outlet on the engine and an indicator in the junction box is used.
cockpit.
The inner drive is made of a central steel core on which layers
The diagram below right shows a basic indicator. It consists of of steel wire are wound left then right alternatively. A square
a pivoted weight on a spindle which rotates at the engine drive is then soldered or swaged onto each end. The inner drive
speed, causing the centrifugal forces to act on the weight; it is retained in the outer case by slip washers located in a recess
tries to assume a horizontal position but is opposed by the in the casing union and clip into a groove on the shank of the
springs. drive connector. The two vent holes in the union prevent oil
from reaching the indicator.
Later types have the cable attached to a magnet which rotates
inside an aluminium cup. In this cup, eddy currents (generated If a flex drive longer than 3.5 m (15 ft) is used, the readout on
by the rotating magnet) create a magnetic field coinciding with the gauge is erratic and is in frequent need of attention, as well
the magnetic field from the magnet. The cup is fixed to a as having a short working life.
hairspring and pointer so it cannot rotate, but it is dragged along
by the magnetic field, hence the name 'drag cup'. There are three types of drive coupling used on tacho
generators, they are:
Mechanical drive tachometers have one main drawback, and
that is the flexible drive. It has a limited wear life, and it is not • flexible;
recommended for use over more than 7.5 m (25 ft) and is • splined; and
limited to a nine-inch radius bend. • two-pin.
The flex drive consists of a flexible outer casing supporting the The most common type in use is the splined type.
inner drive. The casing is formed by spirally wound interlocking
metal strips of either brass or steel. The interlock is packed with The operating speed is reduced by gears in the engine drive
asbestos stringing and crimped with a union nut at each end. system to reduce the mechanical load on the generator. If the
generator is running at one quarter engine speed, then the
indicator is calibrated to read four times engine speed.

Principle of the tachometer
using the magnetic drag cup
Principle of the tachometer

using the magnetic drag cup
Drag cup and

Mechanical engine speed indicator with flyweights
permanent magnet
Electromechanical tachometers
You are most likely to encounter electromechanical The rotor is a permanent magnet which rotates inside the stator
tachometers. They are preferable to the mechanical type as inducting alternating electromotive forces in the stator
they do not require a flexible drive to give information to the windings. The rotor is mounted on a spindle and runs in a ball
indicator. or Oilite® bearing. The Oilite bearings retain oil and allow for
long periods for use without maintenance.
A conventional type is known as the magnetic-drag tachometer.
The type of generator shown in the diagram below (known as
The tachometer consists of two units: a 'tachogenerator') has a 2-pole permanent magnet rotor with
a three-phase stator coil producing an alternating current
• a transmitter; and whose frequency is related to the speed of rotation.
• an indicator.
The mounting flange also carries the electrical termination. The
A three-core cable electrically connects them. The generator, square drive shaft is flexible enough to allow slight
which is driven by the engine, has a three-phase alternating misalignment with the drive coupling.
current output.
At each end of the rotor shaft are ball bearing assemblies which
Most tacho generators work on similar principles, but variations are pre-packed with grease. The rear bearing is pre-loaded to
in design are common. Each generator consists of a stator and eliminate end shake.
a rotor, the stator being a hollow cylinder of laminated iron
which has a three-phase star-connected winding. The The indicator is a synchronous motor type. The output of the
conductors of the stator are arranged in slots cut around the generator turns a rotor inside the indicator. When the speed of
inner surface of the cylinder. the rotor field equals the rotating field of the generator, the two
fields lock, and they both rotate synchronised with each other.
The rotor will either be a 2-pole or a 4-pole type; a 2-pole is
illustrated in the diagram below. The 4-pole version has skewed The measuring device consists of a 4-pole magnet mounted on
poles so that when the end of one pole leaves a stator, the other the end of the motor spindle and a copper drag cup with
end is entering the next stator which produces a better surrounds the magnet.
waveform and an even driving torque and prevents the 'cogging
effect'. The 2-pole version achieves the same effect by skewing As the magnet rotates, it tends to turn the copper drag cup
the stator teeth and the individual coils which make up a phase. which in turn moves the pointers over the scale. The
hairsprings give the pointer a dead-beat type of movement,
thus reducing the fluctuations of the pointer.

The indicator instrument case is constructed of steel. It is
grounded to form a Faraday's cage, to prevent the magnetic
flux from within, interfering with other instruments on the
instrument panel.
Drag cup or eddy current tachometer

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WGRjodIvFkM
Animation | How speedometer works | Eddy current type

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3_vfyt6-2Ic
2-pole and 4-pole

(skewed) rotors
Electro-mechanical tachometer system

Inductive probe type (Hall sensor)
The inductive probe speed sensor type is a speed sensor which The sensors on FADEC controlled engines are always dual
is used to measure the speed of a shaft. Its operational sensors. As the FADECs ECU/EEC has two channels, the
principle is known as the 'Hall effect'. This type of speed sensor sensors supply speed information to both channels in the
is often called a 'Hall sensor'. ECU/EEC. If one ECU/EEC channel or one of the dual-sensor
elements fail, there is a possibility to switch to the other
These sensors are used on engines which have a FADEC ECU/EEC or sensor and still provide speed indication.
control system. The ECU/EEC of the FADEC requires a highly
accurate speed signal. The FADEC may also require information on the position of the
crankshaft at any moment in time. This gives the FADEC the
It consists of an electromagnetic part named the pick-up which information of the position of the piston relative to its TDC. On
is positioned near to a gear that is rotating on a shaft, e.g. inside direct fuel-injected engines (i.e. all modern Diesel engines) this
the gearbox. information is crucial since the timing of the fuel injection before
TDC is critical. If the fuel is injected at the wrong time, the
An inductive sensor, for example, a crankshaft position sensor, performance of the engine is degraded at best and catastrophic
is one that uses an induced electrical current to signal the ECU. at worst. The crankshaft position signal also allows the FADEC
For example, the crankshaft speed/position sensor uses to monitor the fuel injection timing many times per second,
induction to produce a sine wave that is sent back to the ECU, adjust as necessary and even change the injection timing
which then analyses this data and determines the speed and according to engine load and RPM. The crankshaft position can
position of the crankshaft at any given instant. be provided by the same inductive probe type sensor that
An inductive sensor normally has a permanent magnet, provides the engine RPM signal. This is done by ensuring that
surrounded by a coil of wire, wound into many turns around, one tooth of the phonic wheel or gear that is being measures
but not touching the magnet. Then, some sort of toothed wheel has an extra concentration of ferrite. This makes the signal
(known as a reluctor wheel, or phonic wheel) is mounted on to have an extra-large 'blip' at each rotation of the wheel. The
the shaft whose speed and position we wish to sense. The position of the blip is proportional to the phase of the rotation or
toothed wheel is made of ferrous material, and as the wheel crankshaft position.
moves past the sensor, it 'traps' and 'releases' the flux from the
permanent magnet in the sensor.
This movement of the magnetic field generates a pulsing signal

in the coil of wire, and this signal is fed back to the ECU.

Crankshaft with reluctor wheel
Inductive probe for RPM indication
Hall sensor components

Hall sensor speed probe
Pressure measuring instruments
Pressure measuring instruments use either a diaphragm or Differential pressure instruments - Differential pressure is
bourdon type of sensor. The choice depends on the pressure simply the difference between two pressures. A differential
the instrument is working with; bourdon types are more suited bellows, like that in the diagram top left, is a popular instrument
to handle higher pressures. mechanism that can be used to measure absolute, differential,
or gauge pressure.
Reading is either direct, via a pressure line running to the
cockpit, or indirect with electrical wires and the sensor close to When used to measure differential pressure, as it is when used
the engine, mounted either on the engine or firewall. as a fuel pressure gauge, one bellows senses the air pressure
at the carburettor inlet, and the other bellows sense the fuel
All pressure must be measured from some known reference. pressure at the carburettor fuel inlet. A differential bellows can
Absolute pressure is measured from zero pressure or a be used to measure gauge pressure by leaving one of the
vacuum. Gauge pressure is measured from the existing bellows open to the atmosphere and the other connected to the
atmospheric pressure, and the differential pressure is the pressure to be measured.
difference between two pressures.
Capsules and bellows
Types of pressure
Aneroid capsule - An aneroid capsule is a thin, disk-shaped

Absolute pressure instruments - This instrument uses a capsule, usually metallic, partially evacuated and sealed, held
sealed, evacuated, concentrically corrugated metal capsule, extended by a spring, which expands and contracts with
known as an aneroid capsule, or diaphragm, as its pressure- changes in atmospheric or gas pressure. It is used to measure
sensitive mechanism. The concentric corrugations provide a small gas pressures such as atmospheric pressure. The gas
degree of springiness that opposes the pressure of the air. As pressure acts on the outside of the capsule, so when the
the air pressure increases, the thickness of the capsule pressure increases, the capsule contracts. The contraction is
decreases, and as the pressure decreases, the capsule connected to a scale, via a quadrant gear and pinion, which
expands. A rocking shaft, sector gear, and pinion multiply the amplifies the movement.
change in dimension of the capsule and drive a pointer across
a calibrated dial. Bellows –The pressure to be measured is taken into the
bellows. As the pressure increases, the bellows expands, and
Gauge pressure instruments - Gauge pressure is a measure its expansion rotates the rocking shaft and the sector gear.
of existing barometric pressure plus the pressure that has been Movement of the sector gear rotates the pinion gear and the
added to the fluid over and above atmospheric pressure. shaft on which the pointer is mounted.

.
Differential bellows with indication mechanism
Aneroid capsule (bellows)

Bourdon tube
A Bourdon tube is typically used to measure gauge pressure.
This tube is a flattened thin-wall bronze tube formed into a
curve. One end of the tube is sealed and attached through a
linkage to a sector gear. The other end is connected to the
instrument case through a fitting that allows the fluid to be
measured to enter.
As the pressure inside the tube increases, it tries to change the

cross-sectional shape from flat to round. As the cross-section
changes, the curved tube tends to straighten out which, in turn,
moves the sector gear, which rotates the pinion gear on which
the pointer is mounted.
Bourdon tube instruments measure relatively high pressures

like those in engine lubricating systems and hydraulic systems

Bourdon tube
Bourdon tube

Strain gauges
These passive electric devices are used to detect forces. The
resistance of strain-gauges varies with force applied to it. The
metallic wire consists of a chrome-nickel alloy. The length and
diameter of the conductor changes as a function of the force.
The expanding force increases the resistance, and a
shortening force decreases it.
One or more strain gauges are bonded to a flexible diaphragm.

The diaphragm assembly is housed inside a sealed chamber,
into which the pressure to be measured is fed. An increase in
pressure causes the diaphragm to stretch, and with it, so does
the strain gauges. The increase in resistance of the strain
gauges is then measured using a Wheatstone bridge circuit,
and the output is indicated on a sensitive voltmeter calibrated
in psi.
Piezo-resistive sensors
P- or N- conducting elements are diffused into a pure silicon
substrate. This so-called piezo-resistive effect changes the
resistance with a much higher sensitivity than what a metallic
strain gauge does.
Semiconductor-based sensors are in many different forms. The

substrate of the pressure sensor shown, in the diagram bottom
right, has a dimension of 3.5 × 3.5 mm (1∕8" × 1∕8"). Inside there
is a bridge with four elements.
The output of the sensor is measured and indicated in much

the same way as that for the strain gauge type.

Piezo-resistive element
Strain gauge pressure type transmitter and Wheatstone bridge indicator

Variable frequency signals
A variable frequency signal has a frequency which is controlled
by a specific parameter. A device with a variable output
frequency makes such a signal. The frequency varies, under
control of the parameter, between a high and a low frequency.
These limit frequencies are different from device to device and
depend on the design of the device.
A control voltage, a variable capacitor, and a variable resistor

are, for example, parameters that control the frequency.
Frequency counters, microprocessor systems and special

moving coil meters are all devices that work with variable
frequency signals.
The diagram below top shows a very sensitive and accurate

pressure transducer used inside air data computers. The
oscillator coil assembly oscillates the diaphragm. Its resonant
frequency increases with the applied pressure against the
vacuum reference inside the transducer.
The output frequency, proportional to the pressure, is easily

changed inside the computer, into a digital signal. The
temperature sensing resistor compensates for influences of the
ambient temperature.

Vibrating diaphragm transducer
Pressure to digital conversion

Temperature measuring instruments
Temperature is one of the most critical measurements in A thin-wall, hollow metal bulb is connected to the Bourdon tube
aircraft operation. Operational temperatures range from well by a capillary tube, that has a very small inside diameter. The
below freezing for outside air, fuel, oil, air conditioning and bulb is filled with a volatile liquid such as methyl chloride which
pneumatic air, to around 1,000°C for exhaust gas has a high vapour pressure, and the entire bulb, capillary, and
temperatures. Bourdon tube are sealed as a unit. The bulb is placed where
the temperature is to be measured.
Non-electrical temperature measurements
Most solids, liquids, and gases change dimensions proportional As the temperature changes, the pressure of the vapours
to their temperature changes. These dimensional changes may above the liquid changes. This pressure change is sensed by
be used to move pointers across a dial to indicate changes in the Bourdon tube, which moves a pointer across a dial that is
temperature. calibrated in degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius.
Bimetallic strip – Most small general aviation aircraft have an

outside air temperature gauge protruding through the
windshield. This simple thermometer is made of strips of two
metals having different coefficients of expansion welded
together, side by side, and twisted into a helix, or spiral. When
this bimetallic strip is heated, one strip expands more than the
other, and the spiral tries to straighten out. A pointer is attached
to the metal strip to indicate temperature changes.
Gas expansion – Temperature is determined by measuring

the pressure of the vapours above a highly volatile liquid. The
vapour pressure varies directly as the temperature of the liquid.
The Bourdon tube consists of a hollow brass or bronze

elliptical-shaped tube formed into a semi-circle. One end is
open and connected to the fluid to be measured, and the
opposite end is sealed. As pressure is applied, the elliptical
tube changes shape and tends to straighten the semi-circular
curve. The bourdon tube needs to be attached to a mechanical
linkage and pointer to create a useful instrument.

Remote temperature indication with Bourdon tube
Bimetallic outside air temperature (OAT) indication

Resistance thermometers (thermistors)
The thermistor type is a portmanteau for 'thermal resistor' type
of sensor. A thermistor used for temperature measurement can
be used for control, indication and protection. Its standard
operating temperature range is from -60 °C to +200 °C.
The device is usually a platinum or nickel wire sensor wound

on a former made of an insulating material such as mica. This
assembly is enclosed within a steel tube. The resistance of the
wire changes with changes in temperature. Hence, it acts as
the variable resistance element.
There are two types:
• A negative temperature coefficient (NTC) resistor. Its

resistance decreases at increasing temperatures. So, it
is called: high-temperature conductor.
• A positive temperature coefficient (PTC) resistor. Its
resistance increases with increasing temperature. So, it
is called: low-temperature conductor.
The sensor is often referred to as a temperature 'bulb'. This

bulb is immersed in the fluid whose temperature is being
measured. The resistance of the nickel-chrome wire varies
directly with its temperature.
Resistance thermometers can often be found with double

windings to act as dual-channel devices in a single unit,
particularly for FADEC controlled engines.

Resistance thermometer probes
Resistance thermometer probe
Resistance temperature bulb Resistance temperature bulb types

Indicators
Any temperature indicator that uses a temperature-sensitive
resistor for its sensor requires a power supply and an indicator
that can measure the resistance sensitively enough to indicate
as a measure of the temperature.
Two conventional methods are used to achieve this:
• The Wheatstone bridge circuit

• The ratiometer
Wheatstone bridge circuit

A Wheatstone bridge circuit consists of three fixed resistors and
one variable resistance, whose resistance varies with
temperature.
When power is applied to a Wheatstone bridge circuit, and all

four resistances are equal, no difference in potential exists
between the bridge junctions ('A-B' in the diagram below).
However, when the variable resistor is exposed to heat, its
resistance increases, causing more current to flow through the
fixed resistor R3 than the variable resistor R4. The
disproportionate current flow produces a voltage differential
between the bridge junctions A-B, causing current to flow
through the galvanometer indicator. The greater the voltage
differential, the higher the current flow through the indicator and
the greater the needle deflection.
Since indicator current flow is directly proportional to the

temperature, an indicator calibrated in degrees provides an
accurate means of registering the temperature.

Wheatstone Bridge

DC ratiometer
A ratiometer circuit measures current ratios and is more reliable Ratiometer temperature measuring systems are especially
than a Wheatstone bridge, especially when the supply voltage useful in applications where accuracy is critical or significant
varies. Typically, a simple ratiometer circuit consists of two variations of supply voltages are encountered. Therefore, a
parallel branches powered by the aircraft electrical system. ratiometer circuit-type temperature-sensing system is generally
One branch consists of a fixed resistor and coil, and the other preferred over Wheatstone bridge circuits by aircraft and
branch consists of a variable resistor and coil. The two coils are engine manufacturers.
wound on a rotor that pivots between the poles of a permanent
magnet, forming a meter movement in the gauge. Notes:
The shape of the permanent magnet provides a larger air gap 1. Variation in input voltage does not affect readout.
between the magnet and coils at the bottom than the top. 2. An open circuit in the sensor causes the instrument to
Therefore, the flux density, or magnetic field, is progressively go to full-scale deflection.
stronger from the bottom of the air gap to the top. Current flow 3. A short circuit in the sensor causes the instrument to go
through each coil creates an electromagnet that reacts with the to a minimum (off-scale) position.
polarity of the permanent magnet, creating a torque that 4. A hairspring is not required (as in a moving coil
repositions the rotor until the magnetic forces are balanced. instrument), any hairspring used is only to take the
needle indicator off the scale.
If the resistance of the temperature probe and fixed resistor are
equal, the current flow through each coil is the same, and the
indicator pointer remains in the centre position. However, if the
probe temperature increases, its resistance also increases,
causing a decrease in current through the temperature-sensing
branch. Consequently, the electromagnetic force on the
temperature sensing branch decreases, creating an imbalance
that allows the rotor to rotate until each coil reaches a null or
balance. The pointer attached to the rotor then indicates the oil
temperature.

DC ratiometer

Thermocouples
Higher temperatures, like those found in the exhaust gases of
both piston and turbine engines, are measured with
thermocouples.
A thermocouple is a loop made of two different kinds of wire

welded together at one end to form a hot or measuring junction.
For example, Chromel and Alumel wires are used. The coil of
a current measuring instrument is connected between the wires
at the other end to form a cold, or reference junction.
The hot junction is held against the cylinder head in the spark
plug gasket, and a voltage is produced in the thermocouple
whose amount is determined by the difference in temperature
between the hot and cold junctions. This voltage difference
causes a current to flow that is proportional to the temperature
of the cylinder head.
The indicator of a thermocouple system is a sensitive

millivoltmeter, calibrated to indicate in °C or °F.
The thermocouple oil temperature indicating the system is not

powered by the aircraft bus. It is a self-contained and self-
generating circuit. It derives its power from a pair of dissimilar
metals; iron and constantan, which when heated at the hot
junction, produce a milli-voltage and cause a current flow
through a cockpit indicator.
The amount of EMF generated depends on the amount of heat

which is sensed by the thermocouple. The more heat, the
higher the current flow, the bigger the EMF and the greater the
temperature reading on the indicator.

Thermocouple principle

Manifold pressure and boost pressure
gauges
The manifold pressure gauge is an engine instrument typically When you can measure how much air pressure is in the
used in piston aircraft engines to measure the pressure inside induction system, just before the air/fuel mixture enters into the
the induction system of an engine. cylinders, you have a good idea of how much power you are
developing.
Engines with a controllable propeller of some sort need a
manifold pressure gauge to set the correct power setting with In normally aspirated engines (non-turbo-charged), the
the selected propeller RPM. manifold pressure gauge has a range of anywhere between
10 – 40 in.hg. In a turbocharged engine, the manifold pressure
It reduces fuel consumption and by having a slight over-square is allowed to go as high as the engine manufacturer allows.
condition, for example, 2,200 RPM at 25 inHg (inches of
mercury) MAP, engine efficiency is also much improved. When the engine is shut down, the manifold pressure gauge
should read very close to the current atmospheric pressure
Usually, an aneroid capsule or diaphragm connected to a setting.
pointer with the scale calibrated in pressure, inHg or hPa/bar.
The instrument can be made to show either only boost To equate manifold pressure to aircraft performance, we need
(pressure above atmospheric) or manifold pressure, from 10 to to look in section 5, or the performance section of the flight
30 inHg and for turbocharged engines, the scale even goes manual (see below).
higher, up 50 inHg and more.
In the sample shown below, you can see that at 8,000 ft
Manifold pressure pressure altitude, -2°C, and 2,450 RPM we would be
The manifold pressure gauge is an engine instrument typically developing about 19.5 in.hg in the induction system. You can
used in piston aircraft engines to measure the pressure inside also see how that would then be related to fuel flow and our
the induction system of an engine. true airspeed.
This measurement, read in inHG or psi, is one of the best

methods to determine just how much power is being developed
by the engine. The more air and fuel we can pump or pull into
the cylinders, the more power the engine can develop (which
makes us fly faster).

Boost pressure
The reason for a boost gauge is to indicate the pressure of the
fuel/air mixture in the induction system of a supercharged
engine concerning the standard atmospheric pressure which
as we know is approximately 14.7 psi.
The boost gauge gives a reading relative to standard sea level

pressure. The boost gauge dial is calibrated to show both
positive and negative pressures. The pointer only registers zero
when the induction pressure is 14.7 psi; if the pressure
decreases to 12.7 psi, then the boost gauge indicates -2 psi.
Manifold pressure and RPM gauges

usually used together
Manifold pressure gauge in a helicopter Boost pressure and manifold pressure indicators
Operation
The principle of the manifold pressure and boost pressure If there is an increase in pressure, the capsule contracts and
gauge is that of the aneroid capsule. The capsule is subjected pull the connecting link down. This pulls on the cross arm
to induction pressure and as the capsule expands or contracts rotating the layshaft and quadrant in the direction of the arrow.
it operates a quadrant which in turn drives the pointer. You can As the quadrant moves, it actuates a pinion on the pointer
also note this sequence of events if you refer to the diagram spindle which in turn rotates the pointer clockwise indicating a
below. pressure increase. A decrease in pressure causes the capsule
to expand.
The bezels of the gauges are often coloured red to indicate that
they are associated with the fuel system. Fitted to the bezel is There are difficulties in maintaining the cases of boost gauges
an adjustable lubber mark to indicate the maximum permissible free from leakage. An instrument was developed so that the
boost of the engine to which the gauge is connected. A grub airtight case was not necessary to overcome this difficulty. This
screw locates the lubber mark in the bezel, or the bezel itself instrument is illustrated below.
may lock it as it is tightened.
Induction pressure is fed to the mechanism via a union at the

rear of the case, as shown below. The union houses a small
gauge filter and a choke. The filter prevents foreign matter from
getting into the instrument. The choke, a restricting orifice
(hole), is to protect the mechanism form pressure surges, i.e. if
the engine backfires.
Gauge mechanisms vary considerably in design, but their

principle of operation remains the same. Two representative
types are described in the following paragraphs.
The diagram below illustrates a typical gauge mechanism of the

type which uses an airtight case. Induction pressure is fed
directly into the case from the union. Although it is evacuated
of air, i.e. a vacuum, the capsule is strong enough to resist
collapsing due to the surrounding pressure.

The mechanism is formed by two flexible metal bellows, the MAP sensor
outer ends of which are fixed to the machine frame and the The manifold absolute pressure sensor (MAP sensor) is one of
inner ends connected by a distance piece. The vacuum bellows the sensors used in an engine's electronic control system.
in the diagram is exhausted of air, but a spring keeps it
distended. The pressure bellows is connected to the union at Engines that use a MAP sensor are typically fuel injected. The
the rear of the instrument, i.e. induction pressure enters the manifold absolute pressure sensor provides instantaneous
bellows, but not in the case, applying a force to the evacuated manifold pressure information to the engine's electronic control
bellows via the connecting link. unit (ECU). The data is used to calculate air density and
determine the engine's air mass flow rate, which in turn
When the engine is at rest and the induction pressure is at determines the required fuel metering for optimum combustion
atmospheric pressure then the pressure bellows does not exert and influence the advance or retard of ignition timing.
any pressure on the vacuum bellows because the pressure
inside the pressure bellows is the same as that surrounding it, A fuel-injected engine may alternatively use a mass airflow
which is atmospheric. The evacuated bellows locate the sensor (MAF sensor) to detect the intake airflow.
distance piece, and the internal force from the spring balances
the external force of atmosphere. A typical naturally aspirated engine configuration employs one
or the other, whereas forced induction engines typically use
When the engine runs the induction, the pressure causes the both; a MAF sensor on the intake tract pre-turbo and a MAP
bellows to push or pull the link; depending on whether the sensor on the charge pipe leading to the throttle body.
pressure is increasing or decreasing. The resultant movement
rotates the pointer on the distance piece. MAP sensor data can be converted to air mass data. Engine
speed (RPM) and air temperature are also necessary to
The quadrant drives a pinion on the pointer spindle and moves complete the speed-density calculation.
the pointer over the scale. The hairspring on the pointer spindle
takes up any backlash between gears and link pins.
Although the bellows are subjected to atmospheric pressure

externally, any change of atmospheric pressure due to altitude
does not affect the position of the bellows. This is because both
bellows are of the same surface area, i.e. the effect on one
bellows is equally opposed by the effect on the other.

Manifold pressure gauge internal mechanism Manifold pressure indicator
MAP sensors – remote type

Oil pressure, temperature and quantity
Layout
The diagram below shows typical locations of the sensors for
the oil system pressure and temperature.
The pressure indicator is a bourdon tube (older type aircraft) or

a temperature-sensitive resistor (thermistor) type.
Temperature indicators are remote type systems which use a

thermistor sensor which is connected electrically to the
indicator. The indicator is a Wheatstone bridge or ration meter.

A composite analogue oil
temperature and pressure indicator

Oil pressure
Bourdon tube / autosyn transmitter Oil pressure indication

Older, and larger, aeroplanes use the bourdon type of The oil pressure indicator has markings for normal operating
transmitter. range; this is the green range.
The oil pressure indicating system is an autosyn design, Another range, which is yellow, is one where the oil pressure is
powered by 26 V AC or 115 V AC from the aircraft bus. The oil either too low or too high, and the crew must take some action
pressure transmitter receives two input pressure signals; one, according to a checklist. If the pointer enters the red area, the
engine vent subsystem pressure and the other, engine oil- engine must be stopped immediately.
pressure subsystem-pressure. The signals apply pressure to a
pair of opposing bourdon tubes which are linked mechanically For electronic instruments, the colour markings are the same,
to an electromagnetic coil. but the presentation is different.
When the magnet rotates within its electrical field, the indicator A low oil pressure warning light is also provided beside the
magnet also rotates because it is in a similar coil connected in normal oil pressure indication. Too low oil pressure may
parallel with the transmitter coil. damage the engine as it is not lubricated sufficiently. The
indication is taken from the same location as the oil pressure
By utilising two pressure inputs, this system algebraically transmitter and with the same reference pressures. The
subtracts vent pressure from the pressure subsystem fluid transmitter can be formed as a switch or as a transmitter which
pressure, giving a differential oil pressure indication in the has a fixed trigger point. The warning given is red, and with a
cockpit. Many engines require this to give an accurate cockpit few exceptions, the engine must be shut down immediately
indication due to oil flow through to the engine. when it illuminates. Low oil pressures (and warnings) are seen
in cold weather with decreased oil flow capability.
Although the oil pressure gauge indication, and the oil pressure
low warning switch could be provided from a common pressure
sensor, often two separate sensors are provided (a transducer
sensor and a pressure switch). This provided redundancy in the
event of the failure of one or other of the sensors.

Bourdon tube pressure type transmitter

Oil pressure sensor and switch

Direct reading system
Remote reading system

Remote reading and direct reading oil pressure indication systems
Oil temperature
Two types of sensors exist for oil temperature measurements,
the thermocouple and the thermistor.
Temperature indicators are remote type systems which use a

thermistor type sensor which is connected electrically to the
indicator. The indicator is a resistance indicator calibrated in
degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit.
Oil temperature indication

The oil temperature indicator typically ranges from 0 to 200 °C.
It has a marked green range that informs the crew that the
engine oil temperature is within the normal range. It also has a
yellow range which is the caution range where the crew must
take some action, e.g. check the other engine indications.

Types of oil temperature sensors and indicators

Oil quantity
A direct-reading type indicator can be marked with a scale or a
yellow or red index. The oil quantity is measured only when the
engine is stationary. Piston engines do not have an oil quantity
indication in the cockpit.
Some engines have a combined oil filler and dipstick which has
a scale marked in imperial quarts, US gallons and litres. There
is no indication in the cockpit for oil quantity. A bayonet cap
usually locates the dipstick.
Many engines have a sight glass instead of a dipstick. The oil

quantity indicator is typically located on the oil tank itself and
may have a dual scale, one for the engine running and another
scale for the engine not running.
For some engines, the aircraft maintenance manual and flight

manual specifies a minimum time must elapse (typically
30 minutes) after the engine has been shut down, before
reading the oil level.

Dipstick oil quantity indicators Typical dipstick quantity markings

Cylinder head temperature, exhaust gas
temperature, coolant and carburettor
temperatures
Cylinder head temperature (CHT)
The cylinder head temperature gauge illustrated below is a dual
gauge that incorporates two separate temperature scales.
A thermocouple probe is fitted in the cylinder head. Each

cylinder should have one, but it is usually installed on the
hottest cylinder (whichever that may be, this does not so much
depend on the position but the mixture entering the cylinders).
Made from iron- or copper-constantan (copper and nickel alloy)
and able to measure up to 400 °C.
A common alternative location for the thermocouple hot

junction is under a spark plug. The sensor is the gasket for the
spark plug. Usually, only one cylinder has the temperature
sensed in this way. This is the cylinder that is known to run
hottest.
A blue arc on the gauge (when used) indicates the range within
which operation is permitted in auto-lean. The bottom of this
arc indicates the minimum desired temperature to ensure
efficient engine operation during flight. The top of the blue arc
indicates the temperature at which the mixture control must be
moved to the "AUTO-RICH" position. The green arc describes
the range within which operation must be in auto-rich. The top
of this arc indicates maximum continuous power; all operation
above this temperature is limited in time (usually 5 to 15
minutes). A red line indicates the maximum permissible
temperature.

CHT indicator
CHT indicator

A thermocouple probe is fitted in the cylinder head. Each Extension leads
cylinder should have one, but it is usually installed on the To maintain the continuity of the correct material between the
hottest cylinder (whichever that may be, this does not so much hot junction and cold junction of the circuit, a special extension
depend on the position but the mixture entering the cylinders). lead is used to connect the thermocouple to the instrument to
Made from iron- or copper-constantan (copper and nickel alloy) give continuity.
and able to measure up to 400°C.
These leads may be called either extension leads or
The system consists of three parts: compensating leads. Copper/constantan extension leads are
identifiable by the colour of their outer covering. The conductors
• a thermocouple; are marked in the same way as on the thermocouples, with
• the extension leads; black sleeves for copper and yellow sleeves for constantan.
• the indicator.
The thermocouple and its lead have a resistance of about
Thermocouple 0.25 ohms, compensating or extension leads measure about
The thermocouple is in the form of a bimetallic lug with a lead 1.75 ohms. These leads are supplied in various lengths for
attached. The lug is made of two joined metals; copper (or iron) installations where a continuous lead can be used. Extension
and constantan,(an alloy of copper and nickel), The lug is leads must not be cut, nor spliced nor altered in any way, as
screwed into the cylinder head, or fitted to a bayonet type the change in resistance alters the calibration of the instrument.
socket adapter. The lead, which is attached to the lug, has two
conductors, one copper (or iron), the other, constantan. The
copper conductor is connected to the indicator copper lead via
a terminal block.
The copper conductor is usually identified with a black sleeve,

and the constantan has a yellow sleeve (although colour code
standards vary from one manufacturer to another).
A common alternative location for the thermocouple hot

junction is under a spark plug. The sensor is the gasket for the
spark plug. Usually, only one cylinder has the temperature
sensed in this way. This is the cylinder that is known to run
hottest.

Thermo couple
(bayonet type for cylinder head)
CHT sensor fitting in the cylinder head
CHT sensor fitting using

the spark plug gasket
CHT gauge
Thermocouple sensor and harness

The indicator
The indicator is usually a moving coil millivoltmeter which is
very sensitive. An EMF is generated when heat is applied to
two different materials; there is also a current flow and a
voltage. The sensing element at the cylinder head is referred to
as the hot junction, the indicator the cold junction.
The amount of EMF generated depends on the amount of heat

which is sensed by the thermocouple. The more heat, the
higher the current flow, the bigger the EMF and the greater the
temperature reading on the indicator.
There is a zero adjustment on the indicator in the form of a

screw which is fitted to the end of a bimetallic spiral. This spiral
compensates for the effect in changes of atmospheric
temperature, and the screw sets the zero position of the
pointer.

CHT indicator CHT indicator

Exhaust gas temperature (EGT)
These are fitted on the hottest cylinder exhaust pipe of some
carburetted engines and used for leaning the engine. If done
correctly, each cylinder should have an EGT indicator.
FADEC controlled fuel injected engines cannot function without

this vital measurement since they regulate the amount of fuel
in combination with RPM and MAP to obtain the best mixture
for the power requirement without detonation in the cylinders.
The diagram below illustrates a typical thermocouple fitted into

an exhaust. Each thermocouple protrudes into the exhaust gas
stream and is secured in position with a jubilee band.
The materials used for exhaust gas thermocouples (EGTs) are

copper (or iron) and constantan, and all extension leads must
be of the same material or material of similar thermal/EMF
characteristics.
The leads to the two conductors are silver soldered, and

together they provide the hot junction. The leads have an
armoured outer covering of metal braid.

EGT indicator on a twin-engine aircraft
EGT and CHT sensors
EGT sensors (thermocouple)

Types of EGT indication fitted using a jubilee band

Coolant and carburettor temperatures The carburettor air temperature gauge indicates the
Either a bourdon tube (older type aircraft) or a temperature- temperature of the air before it enters the carburettor. A bulb
sensitive resistor (thermistor) type is used to sense these senses the temperature reading. In the test cell, the bulb is
temperatures. located in the air intake passage to the engine, and in an
aircraft, it is located in the ram-air intake duct. The carburettor
Carburettor air temperature (CAT) is measured at the air temperature gauge is calibrated in the centigrade scale. The
carburettor entrance; it is regarded by many as an indication of figure below shows a typical carburettor air temperature gauge
induction system ice formation. Although it serves this purpose, or CAT. This gauge, like many other multi-engine aircraft
it also provides many other important items of information. instruments, is dual; that is, two gauges, each with a separate
pointer and scale, are used in the same case. Notice the range
The temperature level of the induction air affects not only the markings used. The yellow arc indicates a range from -15 °C.
charge density but also the vaporisation of the fuel. to +5 °C., since the danger of icing occurs between these
In addition to the regular use of CAT, it is found useful for temperatures. A green range (where used) indicates the normal
checking induction system condition. Backfiring is indicated as operating range from +5 °C. to +40 °C. A red line indicates the
a momentary rise on the gauge, provided it is of sufficient maximum operating temperature of 40° C.; any operation at a
severity for the heat to be sensed at the carburettor air- temperature over this value places the engine in danger of
measuring point. A sustained induction system fire shows a detonation.
continuous increase of carburettor air temperature.
The CAT should be noted before starting and just after

shutdown. The temperature before starting is the best
indication of the temperature of the fuel in the carburettor body
and tells whether vaporisation is sufficient for the initial firing or
whether the mixture must be augmented by priming.
If an engine has been shut down for only a short time, the
residual heat in the carburettor may make it possible to rely on
the vaporising heat in the fuel and powerplant, and priming
would then be unnecessary. After shutdown, a high CAT is a
warning that the fuel trapped in the carburettor will expand,
producing high internal pressure. When the high temperature
is present at this time, the fuel line and manifold valves should
be open so that the pressure can be relieved by allowing fuel
passage back to the tank.
Carb temperature indicator Coolant temperature indicator
Carb heat sensor (thermistor) fitted to the carburettor
Remote temperature indication with Bourdon tube Temperature sensor (thermistor)

Fuel pressure and flow
Fuel pressure
Injection systems have a fuel pressure gauge fitted; the The green arc shows the desired range of operation, which is
pressure is tapped from the line to the flow divider. The diagram 10 to 25 psi. The red line at the 25-psi graduation indicates the
below shows a typical fuel pressure gauge for a non- maximum allowable fuel pressure. Fuel pressures vary with the
supercharged engine. It is calibrated in psi with the face marked type of carburettor installation and the size of the engine.
to give the best power from takeoff to the selected altitude. At
the selected altitude, the fuel pressure can be reduced to its When float-type carburettors or low-pressure carburetion
upper limit for the cruise power selected. When the engine has systems are used, the fuel pressure range is of much lower
stabilised at its best power, the mixture lever can be adjusted value; the minimum allowable pressure is 3 psi, and the
to select the minimum line for that cruise setting, thus giving maximum is 5 psi with the desired range of operation between
economical cruising. With turbocharged engines, as the fuel 3 and 5 psi.
pressure remains constant at varying altitudes, the fuel
pressure gauge shows only pressure or in some cases flow as
the flow is proportional to the pressure. The pilot adjusts the
mixture to the recommended figure for that particular flight
condition.
The fuel pressure gauge is calibrated in pounds per square inch

of pressure. It is used to measure engine fuel pressure at the
carburettor inlet, the fuel-feed valve discharge nozzle, and the
main fuel supply line.
In some aircraft installations, the fuel pressure is sensed at the

carburettor inlet of each engine, and the pressure is indicated
on individual gauges on the instrument panel. The dial is
calibrated in 1 psi graduations, and every fifth graduation line
is extended and numbered. The numbers range from 0 to 30.
The red line on the dial at the 5 psi graduation shows the
minimum fuel pressure allowed during flight.

\
Fuel pressure indicator

Fuel pressure sensor in the fuel distributor
of a fuel injection system
Fuel pressure sensor in the fuel distributor of

a fuel injection system (direct reading type)
Fuel flow
The fuel flow meter measures the amount of fuel delivered to Vane-type sensor
the carburettor. During engine block- test procedures, the fuel A vane-type sensor is usually located downstream behind the
flow to the engine is measured by a series of calibrated tubes fuel filter and pump measuring the amount of fuel going to the
located in the control room. The tubes are of various sizes to engine.
indicate different volumes of fuel flow. Each tube contains a
float that can be seen by the operator, and as the fuel flow Larger piston engines use a fuel flow meter in the fuel system
through the tube varies, the float is either raised or lowered, between the fuel pump and the carburettor.
indicating the amount of fuel flow. From these indications, the
operator can determine whether an engine is operating at the Fuel-injected engines might have a fuel return to the tank in use
correct fuel/air mixture for a given power setting. so for a correct reading the fuel returning must also be
measured with a flow sensor.
In an aircraft installation, the fuel flow indicating system
consists of a transmitter and an indicator for each engine. The A spring-loaded vane is moved by the fuel flowing to the
fuel flow transmitter is conveniently mounted in the engine's carburettor. The higher the flow, the further the vane moves.
accessory section and measures the fuel flow between the The movement is transmitted to the indicator, which is
engine-driven fuel pump and the carburettor. The transmitter is calibrated in gallons per hour. The reading is only an
an electrical device that is connected electrically to the indicator approximation since it assumes that the fuel is at standard
located on the aircraft operator's panel. The reading on the temperature and has a standard density.
indicator is calibrated to record the amount of fuel flow in Fuel pressure as fuel flow
pounds of fuel per hour. Piston engines that are equipped with fuel injection systems
This instrument is even more important than fuel level as any have a flow meter indicator that is a fuel pressure gauge. This
change in fuel consumption is immediately visible. It is usually is, for normally aspirated engines, a bourdon tube instrument
manufactured in combination with a MAP indication. that measures the pressure drop across the fuel injector
nozzles. The higher the flow, the greater the pressure drop is.
Small piston-engine aircraft using carburettors seldom have Turbocharged engines use a differential pressure gauge to
fuel flow meters. The pilot assumes a flow rate based on the measure the flow. They measure the pressure at the distributor,
engine RPM and manifold pressure and checks it against the or manifold valve, and compare it with the upper deck air
amount of fuel used in a given time. pressure, the air pressure as it enters the fuel metering system.
One major problem with this type of flow indicator is the fact
that a clogged injector nozzle decreases the fuel flow, but the
pressure drop across the nozzle increases, and it will indicate
to the pilot as increased fuel flow.

Fuel flow sensor and indicator system
Bourdon tube type fuel Composite manifold pressure

pressure gauge Fuel flow indicator and fuel flow indicator
Turbine-type sensor Thermal dispersion sensor
Another development in fuel flow instruments is the digital-type Increasing use of microprocessors and computers on aircraft
system that uses a small turbine wheel in the fuel line to the has enabled the integration of fuel temperature and other
fuel control unit. As fuel flows through this line, it spins the compensating factors to produce highly accurate fuel flow
turbine, and a digital circuit reads the number of revolutions in information. Fuel flow sensing with digital output facilitates this
a specified period and converts this into a fuel flow rate. This with a high degree of reliability. Thermal dispersion technology
flow rate may electronically compensate for any peculiarities of provides flow sensing with no moving parts and digital output
the specific system. signals. The sensor consists of two resistance temperature
detectors (RTDs). One is a reference RTD that measures the
Relatively new types of fuel flow sensors/transmitters are temperature of the fuel. The other is the active RTD. It is heated
available in new aircraft and for retrofit to older aircraft. One by an adjacent element to a temperature higher than the fuel.
type of device found in home-built and experimental aircraft As the fuel flows, the active element cools proportionally to the
uses a turbine that rotates in the fuel flow. The higher the flow fuel flow. The temperature difference between the two RTDs is
rate is, the faster the turbine rotates. A Hall effect transducer is highest at no flow.
used to convert the speed of the turbine to an electrical signal
to be used by an advanced fuel gauge similar to a fuel computer The RTDs are connected to an electronic assembly that
to produce a variety of calculated readouts and warnings. The supplies power to the heater and uses sensing circuitry and a
turbine in this unit is in line with the fuel flow but is fail-safe to microprocessor to control a constant temperature difference
allow adequate fuel flow without interruption if the unit between the heated and unheated RTDs. The electrical current
malfunctions. to the heater is proportional to the mass flow of the fuel. As
mentioned, the reference RTD is used as a temperature sensor
Another fuel flow sensor used primarily on light aircraft also to provide a temperature output and allow for temperature
detects the spinning velocity of a turbine in the fuel path. It too compensation of the flow measurement.
has a failsafe design should the turbine malfunction. In this unit,
notches in the rotor interrupt an infrared light beam between an
LED and phototransistor that creates a signal proportional to
the amount of fuel flow. This type of sensor may be coupled
with an electronic indicator.

A transducer and microprocessor for control
functions are located in the base of this Fuel flow sensing units using
turbine fuel flow sensor. The gauge is menu thermal dispersion technology
driven with numerous display options have no moving parts and output
digital signals
A turbine flow transducer in this fuel

flow sensor produces a current pulse
signal from an opto-electronic pickup
with a preamplifier

Ultrasonic flow sensor
The development of microelectronics has enabled the design Some sensors may incorporate an electromagnetic shield, to
of solid-state flow measuring devices, not only for aircraft fluid shield the sensitive instrument from the effects of
flow but for any fluid flowing in pipes. They can be portable as electromagnetic fields from other aircraft systems, and to
well as fixed devices. confine any harmful emissions created by the ultrasonic signal
generated within.
Known as 'transmit-time measurement' devices, they operate
by sending a pulse of ultrasound through the flowing fluid. For
accuracy, two pulses are sent and received by transducers,
one in the direction of flow, the other, against the direction of
flow. The principle is based upon the fact that one pulse is
speeded up by the fluid flow; the other is slowed down.
The difference between the time of arrival of a pulse

propagated against the flow (upstream direction), and one
propagated with the flow (downstream), is used to calculate the
velocity of the flow.
Given that the fuel pipeline is of a fixed cross-sectional area,

the calculated velocity of the fluid can be converted into a
volume flow rate.
In the case of aircraft fuel flow, the propagation of sound is

affected by fuel temperature. Therefore, the sensor is usually
combined with a temperature sensor so that the application of
a simple algorithm can remove the effect of temperature.
Secondly, the temperature signal can be used to convert the
volume flow rate into a mass flow rate by the application of the
density formula, to provide an optional display parameter in
PPH or Kg/hr.

Principle of operation of ultrasonic flow measurement
A combined fuel flow and temperature

sensor, and the indications it provides

Fuel used
With accurate fuel flow knowledge, numerous calculations can
be performed to aid the pilot's situational awareness and flight
planning. Most high-performance aircraft have a fuel totaliser
that electronically calculates and displays information such as;
total fuel used, total fuel remaining on board the aircraft, total
range and flight time remaining at the present airspeed and rate
of fuel consumption. On light aircraft, it is common to replace
the original analogue fuel indicators with electronic gauges
containing similar capabilities and built-in logic. Some of these
'fuel computers', as they are called, integrate global positioning
satellite (GPS) location information. Aircraft with fully digital
cockpits process fuel flow data in computers and display a wide
array of fuel flow related information on demand.
The fuel used indication shows the mass of fuel, which was
burned since the last engine start on the ground. This allows
comparing the different performances of the different engines.
It also gives redundant information for the actual fuel quantity.
You can calculate the actual fuel quantity by subtracting the

amount of fuel used from the amount of fuel in the tank at
takeoff. Fuel used indication is usually automatically reset to
zero when the engine master switch is set to on, and the aircraft
is on the ground. There needs to be a fuel flow transmitter on
the engine, and a calculation has to be done, to generate the
fuel flow and the fuel used indications.
The calculation on modern systems is usually done by the

FADEC systems computer (EEC/ECU) by merely integrating
the time into actual fuel flow:
Fuel flow Kg/hour × time = fuel used.

Fuel system indicators – analogue and digital

Diesel engine indicating
Cockpit control and instrumentation FADEC sensors
While the FADEC system itself is more complicated than the With the use of FADEC, many cockpit indications are
conventional mechanical fuel injection or carburetion system redundant and not used. However, FADEC requires a large
with two magnetos, it reduces the workload for the pilot number of sensors around the engine to function.
considerably by eliminating several control elements (mixture,
primer, prop control) and the need to monitor several Some of the sensors are duplicated.
parameters (EGT, CHT). Issues such as shock cooling and
detonation simply do not exist. Many of these sensors do not exist on more conventional fuel
systems and gasoline engines.
A modern aero-Diesel engine generally has more engine
sensors than a conventional gasoline engine. However, due to The following photographs show the sensors located around
the FADEC taking care of and automating most functions, it has the engine on the Thielert TAE 125.
fewer cockpit indications. The power lever connects to the FADEC. The pilot sets the
The interface with the pilot consists of the following: power lever position. Duplicated potentiometers in the base of
the power lever sense its position. The potentiometers give
• load selector level; resistance to the FADEC.
• EEC test switch
• force-EEC switch; Crankshaft position is one of the most important sensed
• EEC status light (one for each EEC); parameters since the FADEC needs to know this information to
• glow plug status light; and inject fuel at the right moment relative to the TDC of the piston.
• engine display for RPM, oil temp, coolant temp, etc. An incorrectly timed injection could be catastrophic. For this
reason, the crankshaft position sense is duplicated.
The engine displays are usually reduced to simple composite
LED indicators called the central engine display (CED) and A Hall effect sensor, which is placed adjacent to a spinning
auxiliary engine display (AED). Only the most essential steel disk, is used to measure the crank position.
parameters of RPM, load lever setting and fuel flow are The crank position sensor is also used to calculate the RPM of
indicated numerically. Other, less critical parameters such as the crankshaft.
coolant water level, are indicated with a warning LED only.

Diesel engine indication and warning panel
Diesel engine indicators
Central engine display (CED) Auxiliary engine display (AED)

Thielert TAE 125

16.11 Powerplant Installation

Copyright notice
LEVEL 3
subject.
appropriate.

© Copyright 2020 Module 16.11 Powerplant Installation Issue 2 – July 2020
Knowledge
Part-66 Levels
Objective
Ref.
A B1 B3
Configuration of firewalls, 16.11 1 2 2
cowlings, acoustic panels, engine
mounts, anti-vibration mounts,
hoses, pipes, feeders, connectors,
wiring looms, control cables and
rods, lifting points and drains.

Table of Contents
Engine mounts ________________________________ 6 Lifting points _________________________________ 44
Engine mount frame ___________________________ 6 Engine removal _______________________________ 46
Anti-vibration mounts (LORD mounts) ____________ 10 General ____________________________________ 46
Control cables and rods ________________________ 14 Quick engine change assembly (QECA) ___________ 46
Throttle control ______________________________ 14 Preparation of reciprocating engines for installation __ 46
Propeller controls ____________________________ 14 QECA build-up of radial engines _________________ 48
Mixture control ______________________________ 14 Preparation of the engine_______________________ 48
Carburettor heat _____________________________ 14 Oil drains ___________________________________ 50
General requirements _________________________ 14 Electrical connections _________________________ 50
Engine and propeller controls ___________________ 18 Engine controls ______________________________ 52
Vernier-assist engine controls ___________________ 20 Hoses and pipes _____________________________ 52
Push-pull control rods _________________________ 22 Hoisting ____________________________________ 54
Bowden cables ______________________________ 24 Engine installation_____________________________ 56
Teleflex helix cable systems ____________________ 28 Hoisting and mounting the engine ________________ 56
Ball-bearing control cables _____________________ 34 Connections and adjustments ___________________ 58
Nacelles and cowlings _________________________ 36 Helicopter engine removal and installations________ 64
General ____________________________________ 36 General ____________________________________ 64
Acoustic panels ______________________________ 40 Engine controls ______________________________ 64
Firewall _____________________________________ 42 Clutch actuator _______________________________ 64
Sprag clutch _________________________________ 66
Reciprocating helicopter engine and QECA_________ 68


Engine mounts
Engine mount frame
Most aircraft equipped with reciprocating engines use an In all cases, a tubular steel framework arrangement is used,
engine mount structure made of welded steel tubing. The where welded tubes form the assembly. If you consider the
mount is constructed in one or more sections that incorporate nose-mounted system below, you can see that this
the engine mount ring, bracing members (V-struts), and fittings arrangement is a continuation of the fuselage structure and in
for attaching the mount to the wing nacelle or the fuselage. some cases may also form part of the landing gear support
structure.
These are the structural assemblies to which the engine is
fastened. They are usually constructed from chrome/
molybdenum 4130 or 4140 steel tubing in light aircraft and
forged chrome/nickel/molybdenum assemblies in larger
aircraft.
The engine mounts are usually secured to the aircraft by

special heat-treated steel bolts. The importance of using only
these special bolts can be readily appreciated since they alone
support the entire weight of the engine and propeller in flight
and withstand all the stresses imposed by them. The upper
bolts support the weight of the engine while the aircraft is on
the ground, but when the aircraft is airborne, another stress is
added. This stress is torsional and affects all bolts, not just the
top bolts.
A typical engine mount ring shown below discloses fittings and

attachment points located at four positions on the engine mount
structure. Each fitting houses a dynamic engine mount.
The section of an engine mount where the engine is attached

is known as the engine mount ring. It is circular so that it can
surround the engine, which is near the point of balance for the
engine, or, in the case of Dynafocal mounts, has a focal point
near the centre of gravity of the engine.

Engine mount for a wing-mounted engine Engine mount frame for a fuselage-mounted engine

Engine mount for a fuselage-mounted engine

Engine attachment shock mount

Anti-vibration mounts (LORD mounts)
Some method is needed to absorb vibration and/or isolate You can recognise a conical mount because the engine-
vibration from the engine. This demand has led to the mounting bolts are all parallel to each other along the
development of the rubber and steel engine suspension units longitudinal axis of the aeroplane, and the mount bushings are
called shock mounts. This combination permits restricted rather cone-shaped, hence the name. An engine that needs a
engine movement in all directions. These vibration isolators are conical mount has mounting holes that are tapered from both
commonly known as flexible, or elastic, shock mounts. sides and are cut square with the back of the engine case. The
advantage of the conical mount is that it does not permit as
A popular manufacturer of the vibration isolators mounts is the much movement between the engine and the rest of the
LORD company (now Parker). Hence the mounts are often aeroplane as a Dynafocal type. In a tightly cowled engine, this
generally known as “LORD mounts”. reduced movement can be a real benefit. A conical mount only
allows about half as much movement of the engine as a
An interesting feature common to most shock mounts is that Dynafocal mount.
the rubber and metal parts are arranged so that, under normal
conditions, rubber alone supports the engine. Of course, if the In both cases, however, the engine is mounted to the
engine is subjected to abnormal shocks or loads, the metal framework using flexible mountings, as shown below.
snubbers limit excessive movement of the engine.
Although still providing thrust loads from the engine to the
Two shock mount geometry arrangements exist: airframe, they do dampen out any vibrations caused by the
propellers or any engine running imbalances. It is essential that
• Conical – straight mounts parallel to crankshaft, these these mounts are inspected regularly to ensure that they are
types of mounts are common on vertical lift (Helicopter) not lose or suffering from problems created by oil
applications; and contamination. The support frame is usually attached to the
• Dynafocal – mounts are set at a specified angle to the airframe without the use of these vibrations’ insulators.
crankshaft with Type-1 set at 30° and Type-2 set at 18°
where All engine mounts converge on a central position
along the thrust line and centre of gravity of the engine
mass.
The vibration isolators focus their centrelines at a point slightly

ahead of but in the same plane as the engine’s centre of gravity.
Flight loads are applied equally to each isolator.

Semi-focalised bed mounts Dynafocal mounts
Focalised bed mounts

Rubber conical
engine-mount
bushings
Rubber conical engine-mount bushings assembly
(Lycoming 0-235 through 0-320 models)

LORD mount

Engine attachment shock mount

Control cables and rods
A typical engine control pedestal for a twin-engine aircraft is General requirements
shown below. The control levers are fitted to allow the pilot to Any control system, no matter the type or design, must have
have control over the following functions: certain characteristics. These can be summed up as follows. It
must be:
• throttle;
• propeller; • accurate – the range of movement is precise and
• mixture; and consistent;
• carburettor heat. • positive – with minimal backlash or sloppiness;
• reliable – it performs its specified function every time it
Throttle control is operated; and
This controls the power output of the engine. It is usually • effective – irrespective of the distance run.
marked with a letter “T” or “THROTTLE” with “OPEN” and
“CLOSE” captions on the throttle quadrant. Forward movement
increases power; rearward movement decreases power.
Propeller controls
This is used as a means of altering the pitch of a variable pitch
propeller. It works in conjunction with the throttle lever to gain
optimum power from the engine.
Mixture control
This is fitted to adjust the fuel/air mixture during regular
operation of the engine. It allows the pilot to enrich or weaken
the mixture to keep the engine within the mixture control
parameters. The quadrant is marked “FULL RICH”, “LEAN” and
“IDLE CUT OFF”.
Carburettor heat
This control allows for the heat from the exhaust system to
warm the carburettor and its air intake, to prevent or reduce any
build-up of ice within the inlet manifold.

Typical engine control pedestal
Cockpit controls and instrumentation to engine

Throttle and mixture control levers
on a simple (fixed-pitch propeller) Throttle, propeller and mixture
single-engine aircraft control levers on a complex
(variable-pitch propeller)
single-engine aircraft
Throttle, propeller and mixture control

levers on a complex (variable-pitch
propeller) twin-engine aircraft

Engine and propeller controls
Because the engine and propeller must work together to Cockpit instruments such as tachometers and manifold
produce the required thrust for a turboprop installation, there pressure gauges must be marked with a green arc to indicate
are a few unique relationships. The turboprop fuel control and the normal operating range, a yellow arc for take-off and
the propeller governor are connected and operate in precautionary range, a red arc for critical vibration range, and
coordination with each other. The power lever directs a signal a red radial line for the maximum operating limit.
from the cockpit to the fuel control for a specific amount of
power from the engine. Alpha range
The propeller control system is divided into two types of control;
The fuel control and the propeller governor together establish one for flight and one for a ground operation. For a flight, the
the correct combination of RPM, fuel flow, and propeller blade propeller blade angle and fuel flow for any given power setting
angle to provide the desired power. are governed automatically according to a predetermined
schedule. This is known as the alpha range.
Propeller control levers in the cockpit must be arranged to allow
for smooth operation of all controls at the same time, but not to Beta range
restrict the movement of individual controls. Below the flight-idle power-lever position, the coordinated RPM
blade angle schedule becomes incapable of handling the
The propeller controls must be rigged so that an increase in engine efficiently. Here the ground-handling range, referred to
RPM is achieved by moving the controls forward and a as the beta range, is encountered. In the beta range of the
decrease in RPM is caused by moving the controls aft. The throttle quadrant, the propeller blade angle is not governed by
throttles must be arranged, so that forward thrust is increased the propeller governor but is controlled by the power lever
by the forward movement of the control and reverse thrust is position. When the power lever is moved below the start
increased by an aft movement of the throttle. When operating position, the propeller pitch is reversed to provide reverse thrust
in reverse, the throttles are used to place the propeller blades for rapid deceleration of the aircraft after landing.
at a negative angle.
Cockpit powerplant controls must be arranged to prevent

confusion as to which engine they control. Recent regulation
changes require that control knobs must be distinguished by
shape and colour, as shown below.

Propeller/engine control lever shapes and colours

Vernier-assist engine controls
The Vernier-assist engine control is used on single-engine
aircraft. It has two modes of operation. It can be pushed and
pulled for large inputs to the control system, but alternatively, it
has a knob which can be turned and for small trim inputs. A
cam inside the mechanism then translates this motion into
small push or pull inputs.
An additional feature of some Vernier-assist controls is an

automatic friction lock. This prevents inadvertent movement of
the control by the pilot, or creep movement due to vibration.
The lock mechanism automatically engages and must be
released by pushing a button on the end of the control,
whenever the pilot wants to use the control in the push/pull
action.
Vernier-Assist Throttle Control Assembly

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5RcjEd7lR4Q

Vernier assist throttle, propeller and mixture control levers on Operation of a Vernier-assist control with friction lock
a complex (variable-pitch propeller) single-engine aircraft
Vernier assist control mechanism Operation of a Vernier-assist control

(no automatic friction lock)

Push-pull control rods
This system uses a series of rods connected to transmit motion Swivel ball joint attachment
in one direction or another, dependent on selection. The rods When the control rod is not in line with the control arm, or where
are in most cases, straight, as any bends on the rods would be a limited amount of angular movement is experienced
distorted by compression and tension loads, for example: (maximum 15°), a swivel ball joint is fitted to allow this
movement to take place.
• compression loads tend to increase a bend; and
• tension loads tend to decrease a bend. Wear
The control rod system does provide an excellent method of
The use of curved rods, and the effect of compression and remote control; however, one of the main drawbacks is wear
tension on them, would not allow the above conditions to be within the system. A slight amount of wear at the rod
satisfied (changes of length). connections can build up through the system and cause a fair
amount of backlash or play. In turn, this can lead to incorrect
The control rods, either solid or tubed, are usually supported by rigging conditions, out of range movements, and possibly
either roller guides or plastic or hard rubber brushes. Due to misalignment of control settings.
installation difficulties, rods may have to change direction on
numerous occasions. Bell-crank levers and walking-beam
levers are used to enable these direction changes.
Clevis and pin attachment

The clevis and pin connection arrangement is probably the
most popular in limited length control systems. In most cases,
the fork end attachment has some means of adjustment for
control system rigging purposes.
Ball-bearing attachment
Where a large amount of rotary movement is required in the
control system, the ball bearing assembly is attached to the
control rod or bell crank/walking beam assembly. These
bearings are pre-packed with lubricant and require little
servicing, except for routine inspection for wear and to check
the condition of the grease seals.

Engine control rod assembly

Bowden cables
Flexible Bowden cables were invented by Sir Frank Bowden, The linear movement of the inner cable is generally used to
the founder of the famous English bicycle company, Raleigh. transmit a pulling force, although for light applications over
Although several other companies make Bowden cables, the shorter distances a push may also be used. Movement is
name Bowden has remained as the generic name. always in the direction of the lie of the cable, with a push or pull
rather than a twist, and can be in either direction. Other types
A Bowden cable is a type of flexible cable used to transmit of sheathed mechanical cables exist, but what distinguishes the
mechanical force or energy by the movement of an inner cable Bowden cable is the direction of the force.
relative to a hollow outer cable housing. The housing is
generally of composite construction, consisting of an inner Bowden cable
lining, a longitudinally incompressible layer such as a helical https://youtu.be/HhzvytVW1kk
winding or a sheaf of steel wire, and a protective outer covering.
Bowden cables are mostly fabricated from steel, usually coated

by pure tin or zinc. They are flexible, preformed and corrosion-
resistant; of a 3 by 7, 7 by 7, 7 by 19 or 6 by 19 construction.
The cable moves relative to a hollow outer housing, generally
made from a spiral steel wire with a plastic outer sheath.
The linear movement of the inner cable is most often used to

transmit a pulling force, although push/pull cables have gained
popularity in recent years.
Many light aircraft use a push/pull Bowden cable for the engine
controls, and here it is typical for the inner element to be a solid
wire, rather than a multi-strand cable. Usually, provision is
made for adjusting the cable tension using an in-line hollow bolt
(often called a barrel adjuster), which lengthens or shortens the
cable housing relative to a fixed anchor point. Lengthening the
housing (turning the barrel adjuster out) tightens the cable;
shortening the housing (turning the barrel adjuster in) loosens
the cable.

Bowden cables used on engine controls
Bowden cables assembly
Bowden cables construction
Bowden cables used on flight controls

The advantages of using flexible cables are the ability to bend Teleflex Bowden cables are sealed and resist abrasion and
and Bowden cables do not require so much space as other contamination. They should, however, be protected against
types of control installation. pinching, shearing and crushing, and the effects of excess
heat. The operating end should be shielded against direct spray
The disadvantage is the backlash, which is apparent as lost and excessive dust. If the outer cable becomes damaged, it can
motion under light push-pull input forces. Backlash is caused allow water to enter. If exposed to low temperatures, icing can
by the core member of the cable assembly moving from the be induced, and jamming may occur. Water ingress may also
inside to the outside of the bends with a change in the direction induce corrosive effects to the cable.
of movement. It is a function of the clearance between the core
and liner. That also explains why flexible cables are not used
on installations requiring force to be transmitted over a longer
distance.
The amount of range of movement that is lost due to the

backlash is sometimes called “dead-band”.
To overcome the problem, many aircraft designers incorporate

an amount of over travel into the control lever. This is often
called control lever cushion. It allows the control lever to be
moved slightly further than is necessary for the engine control.
However, the extra travel returns to the normal position after
the pilot releases the control.
The amount of overtravel is specified in the aircraft

maintenance manual and must be carefully adjusted.
Although cables are flexible motion-transfer devices, keeping

the number of bends to a minimum can attain the best
performance and service life. Also, for the best efficiency and
longest operating life, the cable should be installed so that it
encounters the heaviest load in the pull direction of operation.
Where bends are required, as generous a radius as is
practically possible should be allowed.

A Bowden cable assembly
Bowden cable connections

Teleflex helix cable systems
The Teleflex cable system is more complicated than the A and B are wound in different directions to prevent the cable
Bowden cable system in that the operating cable, within the from twisting under load. Wire of more substantial gauge C,
conduit, is many spirally wound cables which surround a core inter-spaced by three turns of wire D, forms the helix which acts
tension cable, giving it support. This allows the cable to transmit as a bearing surface when working in the conduit and by which
a push force as easily as a pull force, doing away with the need the end of the cable is gripped in the control unit.
for any form of return spring.
The company began in 1943 with one simple product – a multi-

strand helical cable and a gear that could convert push-pull
motions into rotary motions. Its first use was on Spitfire planes
during the second world war, as a flexible cable to adjust the
pilot’s radio, which was located behind the cockpit and out of
the pilot’s reach. The flexible cable was used telescopically to
adjust the radio, giving it its name.
A typical use of a Teleflex system is the throttle lever to engine

fuel-control connection.
The Teleflex cable system is a snug fit within the conduit.

Because there might be the chance of it becoming seized, due
to foreign objects, dirt or freezing, the inner cables must be
regularly removed, cleaned and lubricated with a low-
temperature grease. It is also essential that the conduits are
thoroughly cleaned using a form of pull-through before the inner
cable is reinstalled.
At longer intervals, it might become necessary to inspect the

outer conduit for signs of damage or kinking; which can cause
the control to become tight or ‛notchy’.
The cable is made of high tensile steel wires, which enable it to

transmit both push and pull. The strand core A transmits the
pull, while the first wire wrap B transmits the push.

Cable
Box unit

Box unit
The cable should be tucked into the slot in the pinion, ensuring
that the cable helix engages with the pinion teeth to give a wrap
of at least 40° for single entry units. On double-entry units, the
cable should engage with the pinion to give a wrap of 180°, the
cable projecting through the lead-out hole throughout the travel
of the control. Ensure that the cable end does not foul the
blanked end of the conduit when fully extended. All box units
should be packed with recommended grease.

End fittings
Installing sliding end fittings (fork-end type). Unscrew the At the operating (or terminal) end, the fitting may be a box type
threaded hexagon plug from the body, screw the lock nut right (with gear wheel) or a simple sliding end fitting, to which the
back, and pass the cable through the plug. Screw the lock cable is attached similarly to that for a push-pull type of control.
spring on to the end of the cable so that 3⁄16" of cable projects. This final attachment to the component operated could vary,
being either fork end or ball and socket – examples of which
Insert the cable end, with its lock spring, into the bore of the are shown.
body of the end fitting, and screw the hexagon plug tight down,
preventing the body from rotating. Check that the free end of In assembling, the body of the end fitting must not be screwed
the cable is beyond the inspection hole, but not beyond the fork on to the hexagon plug. The plug should be screwed into the
gap (for a fork-end fitting). Tighten the lock nut and turn up the fork, not fork into the plug. Failure to apply this rule would result
tab washer. Check that the distance from the face of the body in the lock spring unscrewing.
to the end of the sliding tube does not exceed 0.45" (0.35" for
the old type without a tab washer). This ensures that the lock- The same method should be used when removing the fork, and
spring is tightly compressed. care should be taken not to jam the spring and foul up the wire
wrap.
Control end units vary in detail. In the ‛box’ (or wheel) unit, at
the control end, the large wire of the cable C is engaged Swivelling couplings
between the teeth of the gear wheel and the unit body. The A swivelling coupling is sometimes used to allow the sliding end
gear lever is turned by a hand lever or handwheel, thus moving fitting and angular movement; this is used when the lever on
the cable into or out of the box. In some boxes (double entry) the component describes an arc.
the cable engages the pinion for 180°, and an outlet is provided
for the free end of the cable, which is protected by a short length The cable and conduit are connected to control units at each
of the conduit. These boxes permit much greater movement of end of the run, and in between, to other units and fittings which
the cable. are used to direct the run. In many locations, the cables are
attached to lever-operated wheel units or push-pull handles. At
Alternatively, the control may consist of a simple push-pull unit. the receiving end of the run, another wheel unit or sliding end-
This is sometimes fitted with a spring-loaded stop to retain the fitting is used to actuate the mechanism.
control in any position or sometimes fitted with a spring which
returns the control to its original position when released from
operation. The cable is attached to the fitting by clamping a
short coil of wire, which is screwed to the cable end, between
two parts of the control knob.

Cable

Ball-bearing control cables
Ball-bearing control cables are another form of push-pull cable
which may be encountered. However, due to their method of
construction, they are flexible in only one plane.
Several manufacturers make Ball bearing control cables; two

types are the Bowdenflex cable and Flexball cable.
The tension and compression loads are transmitted by a

flexible centre load rail. This is supported by a set of balls either
side, which are kept at regular intervals by two flexible ball-cage
strips. Each set of balls runs in an outer guide rail, and the
whole assembly is retained in a flexible casing. Orientation flats
are formed on the outer casing, parallel to the flat face of the
centre load rail, to ensure that the correct plane of flex is evident
on installation.
End fittings are attached to the centre load-rail to allow input

and output loads to be applied.
The cable requires no lubrication in service and can operate at

temperatures of between -40° and +250°C (-40° and 480°F).
Minimum bend radius is around 75 mm (3") while stroke range
usually is 25 mm to 100 mm (1-4"). Bending in the wrong plane
would result in high friction and excessive wear.
Applications are like those of the Teleflex cable although they

are far less common.

Flexball cable
Bowdenflex cable

Nacelles and cowlings
General
Nacelles (sometimes called “pods”) are streamlined enclosures The exterior of a nacelle is covered with a skin or fitted with a
used primarily to house the engine and its components. They cowling which can be opened to access the engine and
usually present a round or elliptical profile to the wind, thus components inside. Both are usually made of sheet aluminium
reducing aerodynamic drag. On most single-engine aircraft, the or magnesium alloy with stainless steel or titanium alloys being
engine and nacelle are at the forward end of the fuselage. On used in high-temperature areas, such as around the exhaust
multiengine aircraft, engine nacelles are built into the wings. exit. Regardless of the material used, the skin is typically
attached to the framework with rivets.
A pusher-type aircraft is designed with a nacelle in line with the
fuselage aft of the passenger compartment. Regardless of its Cowling refers to the detachable panels covering those areas
location, a nacelle contains the engine and accessories, engine into which access must be gained regularly, such as the engine
mounts, structural members, a firewall, and skin and cowling and its accessories. Cowl flaps are moveable parts of the
on the exterior to fare the nacelle to the wind. Some aircraft nacelle cowling that open and close to regulate engine
have nacelles that are designed to house the landing gear temperature.
when retracted.
Composite cowlings are also used, usually with a heat-
Retracting the gear to reduce drag is standard procedure on sensitive, intumescent internal coating that expands to create
high-performance/high-speed aircraft. The wheel well is the a temporary insulating layer in the event of an engine fire. The
area where the landing gear is attached and stowed when ‘scrubbing’ effect of the cooling airflow on the outside surface
retracted. Wheel wells can be in the wings and/or fuselage of the cowlings help maintain structural integrity in the event of
when not part of the nacelle. an engine fire.
The framework of a nacelle usually consists of structural

members like those of the fuselage. Lengthwise members,
such as longerons and stringers, combine with
horizontal/vertical members, such as rings, formers, and
bulkheads, to give the nacelle its shape and structural integrity.

Typical cowling of a horizontally opposed ‘Orange peel’ type cowling for large
reciprocating engine radial reciprocating engine

On wing-mounted aircraft, nacelles can be considered as being The EASA regulation Certification Specification CS-23
divided into two sections: (1) The wing nacelle, and (2) the specifies the following for the cowlings.
engine nacelle. The wing nacelle is that portion of the nacelle
which is attached to the wing structure. The engine nacelle is • Each cowling must be constructed and supported so that
that portion of the nacelle that is constructed separately from it can resist any vibration, inertia and air loads to which
the wing. it may be subjected in operation.
• There must be a means for rapid and complete drainage
The diagram below left illustrates a typical nacelle with the of each part of the cowling in the standard ground and
separation line identified. Outwardly, the wing nacelle seems to flight attitudes. No drain may discharge where it would
be only a streamlining for the engine nacelle, but that is not its cause a fire hazard.
only purpose. On many aircraft, the inboard wing nacelle • Cowling must be at least fire-resistant (resist fire for at
houses the landing gear when it is in the retracted position. least 5 minutes).
Also, the wing nacelles typically contain lines and units of the • Each part behind an opening in the engine compartment
oil, fuel, and hydraulic systems, as well as linkages and other cowling must be at least fire-resistant for a distance of at
controls for the operation of the engine. least 61 cm (24") aft of the opening.
• Each part of the cowling subjected to high temperatures
The cowling is attached to the nacelle using screws and/or due to its nearness to exhaust system ports or exhaust
quick-release fasteners. Some large reciprocating engines are gas impingement must be fireproof.
enclosed by “orange peel” cowlings which provide excellent • Each nacelle of a twin-engine aeroplane with
access to components inside the nacelle. turbocharged engines must be designed and
constructed so that with the landing gear retracted, a fire
These cowl panels are attached to the forward firewall by in the engine compartment cannot burn through a
mounts which also serve as hinges for opening the cowl. The cowling or nacelle and enter a nacelle area other than
lower cowl mounts are secured to the hinge brackets by quick the engine compartment.
release pins. The side and top panels are held open by rods, • Also, for commuter category aeroplanes, the aeroplane
and the lower panel is retained in the open position by a spring must be designed so that no fire originating in any
and a cable. All of the cowling panels are locked in the closed engine compartment can enter, either through openings
position by over centre steel latches which are secured in the or by burn-through, any other region where it would
closed position by spring-loaded safety catches. create additional hazards.

Typical engine and wing nacelle.
Separation line of a typical

quick engine change assembly (QECA)

Acoustic panels
Some aircraft engines, albeit rare, use acoustic liners to damp
engine noise. Liners are applied on the internal walls of the
engine nacelle and dissipate acoustic energy.
An acoustic liner is a sandwich panel made by:
• a porous top layer called the face-sheet;

• a honeycomb structure providing internal partitions; and
• an impervious layer, called back-sheet or back-skin.
The most common acoustic liner consists of a single layer

honeycomb and perforated facing sheet, as shown below. The
facing sheet is porous and typically formed with aramid fibre
fabrics, or glass fibre fabrics, reinforced-resin matrix-composite
materials (the parameters of the porous sheet are
corresponding to the frequency and noise of the engine). The
facing sheet is often called the impedance layer, which has
many characteristics such as high ratio strength and specific
stiffness, low thermal conductivity, anti-noise vibration, anti-
corrosion, anti-ageing. The core layer is a porous separator
material, e.g. honeycomb core. The outer sheet is a rigid and
solid composite back sheet.
Some special acoustic liners contain a multilayer structure

which combines porous composite sheet with the thermoplastic
material located in the resonant cavity. The structures of
resonant cavities are designed based on the noise frequency,
noise reduction coefficient of engine requirements, which make
it possible to achieve efficient noise reduction while ensuring a
reasonable weight increase. During the propagation of noise
through the porous facing sheet into the resonant cavity, the
acoustic energy of the noise is absorbed by lining material and
converted into heat.

Single-layer acoustic panel
Dual-layer acoustic panel

Firewall
The aircraft’s firewall is a flameproof bulkhead that separates The firewall is usually the foremost bulkhead of the wing
the engine compartment from the rest of the aircraft – whether nacelle. It differs from most other aircraft bulkheads in that it is
that is the cabin, for a single-engine aircraft, or the nacelles and constructed of stainless steel or some other fire-resistant
wings for twin-engine aeroplanes. The regulations require that material.
engines, auxiliary power units, and fuel-burning heaters are
physically isolated from the rest of the aeroplane by firewalls or Since the fuel tanks are usually contained in the wings, the
shrouds. probable consequences of an engine fire are apparent. Thus,
the necessity for sealing all unused openings in the firewall
The firewall must prevent any hazardous quantity of liquid, gas, cannot be overstressed. An aircraft engine and its accessories
or flame from passing through the firewall to other parts of the which have been in storage must undergo careful de-
aeroplane. It must be protected against corrosion, and each preservation and inspection before they may be installed in an
opening in the firewall must be sealed with close-fitting, aircraft. This involves more than removing an engine from its
fireproof grommets, bushings, or other fittings. container and bolting it to the aircraft.
The firewall’s primary role is, in the event of a fire in the engine The EASA regulation Certification Specification CS-23
compartment, to protect the aircraft’s occupants long enough specifies the following materials for construction of the firewall.
for the pilot to make an emergency landing. Act promptly,
however – the regulations require firewall materials and fittings • Stainless steel sheet, 0.38 mm (0.015") thick.
to resist flame penetration for at least 15 minutes. • Mild steel sheet (coated with aluminium or otherwise
protected against corrosion) 0.45 mm (0.018") thick.
Because of its strength and location, the firewall also can be a • Terne plate, 0.45 mm (0.018") thick.
god place to mount battery boxes, voltage regulators, and other • Monel metal, 0.45 mm (0.018") thick.
engine accoutrements. • Steel or copper-base alloy firewall fittings.
• Titanium sheet, 0.41 mm (0.016") thick.
The point at which the engine nacelle is disconnected from the
wing nacelle can easily be identified on most aircraft. To locate
the point of disconnect, find the last section of removable
engine nacelle cowling farthest from the propeller end of the
engine. Usually, the removal of these sections of cowling would
expose lines, fittings, electrical connections, cables, and mount
bolts.

Firewall of a fuselage-nose mounted engine
Firewall of a wing mounted engine
Cables, pipes and hoses passing through the firewall

Lifting points
All engines are provided with one or more lifting points. These
are usually steel eyes attached to the crankcase.
If a single hoist point is provided, it is located above the centre

of gravity of the engine. Check the aircraft maintenance manual
to determine what ancillary components (generator, pumps, oil
coolers, etc.) must be removed before hoisting, to maintain the
correct centre of gravity position. Some manufacturers specify
that the engine mounting frame must be removed at the firewall
and hoisted with the engine, others may specify that the
mounting frame must be disconnected at the engine vibration
absorbers and be left on the aircraft when the engine is
removed.

Engine lifting eye

Engine removal
General Quick engine change assembly (QECA)
Procedures for removing or installing an aircraft engine usually The QECA system is most commonly used with large radial
vary widely with the type of aircraft and the type of engine. engines, and for this reason, such engines are used to describe
Thus, no single list of instructions can be provided as a QECA build-up and installation procedures. But it should be
guideline for all engines. Because of the many types of engine emphasised that many of these procedures apply to all other
installations and a large number of design variations within methods of engine build-up and installation.
each type or category, representative examples have been
selected to illustrate the most typical installation procedures for Preparation of reciprocating engines for installation
reciprocating, turboprop, and turbojet engines. After the decision has been made to remove an engine, the
preparation of the replacement engine must be considered.
The radial and the opposed engines are used to describe and The maintenance procedures and methods used vary widely.
represent general and typical procedures for all reciprocating Commercial operators, whose maintenance operations require
engine build-up, removal, preservation, storage, and the most efficient and expeditious replacement of aircraft
installation. Although these two types have been included to engines, usually rely on a system that utilises the quick engine
ensure adequate coverage of engines used in both heavy and change assembly, or QECA, also sometimes referred to as the
light aircraft, much of the information and many of the engine power package. The QECA is essentially a powerplant
procedures presented in the discussion of radial engines apply and the necessary accessories installed in the engine mount
to opposed-type engines. Only the significant differences ring.
between the two types are included in the discussion of
opposed-type engines. Other operators of aircraft equipped with radial engines and
most opposed-type engines use a slower but less-expensive
While procedures for specific engines and aircraft are included method. Since engine replacement in these repair facilities
in this chapter, many pertinent or mandatory references are often occurs at random intervals, only a few replacement
omitted as they are not relevant for a general discussion. For engines (sometimes only one) are kept on hand. Such
this reason, always reference the applicable manufacturer’s replacement engines may be partially or wholly built up with the
instructions before performing any phase of engine removal or necessary accessories and subassemblies, or they may be
installation. stored as received from the manufacturer in packing boxes,
cases, or cans and are un-crated and built up for installation
only when needed

Types of engine on maintenance stands

QECA build-up of radial engines
The study of QECA build-up that follows is not designed to If the engine is installed in a wooden shipping case, it is
outline procedures to be followed in a practical application necessary to carefully break the seal of the protective envelope
since most maintenance shops develop build-up procedures and fold it down around the engine. Remove the dehydrating
tailored to their facilities or use those recommended by the agent or desiccant bags and the humidity indicator from the
manufacturer. The procedures included in this chapter provide outside of the engine. Also, remove and set safely aside any
a logical sequence in following a QECA and its components accessories that are not installed on the engine but are
through the stages of a typical build-up to gain a better mounted on a special stand or otherwise installed inside the
understanding of units and systems interconnection. protective envelope.
The QECA consists of several units. Among such units that are If the engine is a radial type, the mounting ring bolts must be
common to most present-day aircraft QECAs are the air-scoop, unfastened from the container, and the engine hoisted slightly
cowl flaps, engine ring cowl, cowl support ring, access panels, to allow the mounting ring to be removed from the engine.
engine mount, and the engine, together with all of its Engines other than radial types are usually bolted directly to the
accessories and controls. container.
Preparation of the engine

If the engine is stored in a pressurised metal container, the air
valve should be opened to bleed off the air pressure.
Depending upon the size of the valve, the air pressure should
bleed off in somewhat less than 30-minutes.
Prepare the container for opening by removing the bolts that

hold the two sections together. Then attach a hoist to the
hoisting points and lift the top section clear of the container and
place it away from the work area.

Purpose made aircraft engine shipping containers
Wooden crate aircraft engine shipping containers

Oil drains
Place a large metal pan (drip pan) on the floor under the engine In the junction box, the electrical circuit is completed by
to catch any spilt mixture or oil. Next, secure a clean container fastening two leads to a common terminal. The lead which runs
in which to drain the oil or corrosion-preventive mixture. Place from the junction box to engine is disconnected from the
the container beneath the Y drain located between the oil tank terminal, and the conduit is disconnected from the junction box
and the oil inlet to the engine, open the valve, and allow the oil when preparing to remove the engine.
to drain. Other points at which the oil system is drained include
the oil cooler, the oil return line, and the engine sumps. All After the safety wire is broken, remove all of it from the sleeve
valves, drains, and lines must remain open until the oil system nuts which hold the conduit to the junction boxes, as well as
has been completely drained. from the nuts on the connectors. Wrap moisture-proof tape over
the exposed ends of connectors to protect them from dirt and
After draining the oil, reinstall all drain plugs and close all drain moisture. Also, do not leave long electrical cables or conduits
valves. Then wipe all excess oil from around the drain points. hanging loose, since they may become entangled with some
part of the aircraft while the engine is being hoisted. It is good
Electrical connections practice to coil all lengths of cable or flexible conduit neatly and
Electrical disconnections are usually made at the engine tie or tape them to some portion of the assembly being
firewall. This does not always apply when the basic engine is removed.
being removed. The electrical leads to such accessories as the
starter and generators are disconnected at the units
themselves. When disconnecting electrical leads, it is a good
safety habit to disconnect the magnetos first and immediately
ground them at some point on the engine or the assembly being
removed. Most firewall disconnections of electrical conduit and
cable are simplified by the use of AN or MS connectors. Each
connector consists of two parts; a plug assembly and a
receptacle assembly. The outlet is threaded to permit a knurled
sleeve nut to be screwed to the outlet and then fastened with
safety wire, if necessary, to prevent accidental disconnection
during aeroplane operation.
A typical plug fitting assembly is shown below right. This also

shows a typical junction box assembly, which is used as a
disconnect on some aircraft engine installations.

Electrical connections and other
fittings at the firewall
Oil system drain point

Engine controls Hoses and pipes
The engine control rods and cables connect such units as the The lines between units within the aircraft and the engine are
carburettor or fuel control throttle valve and the mixture control either flexible rubber hose or aluminium-alloy pipes joined by
valve with their manually actuated control in the cockpit. The lengths of hose clamped to them. Lines which must withstand
controls are sometimes disconnected by removing the high pressure, such as hydraulic lines, are often stainless-steel
turnbuckle which joins the cable ends. A typical assembly is tubing.
shown in the diagram below, top-left.
The diagram below bottom-right shows the basic types of line
Typical control linkage consisting of a control rod attached to a disconnects. Most lines leading from a QECA are secured to a
bellcrank is illustrated. threaded fitting at the firewall by a sleeve nut around the tubing.
Hoses are sometimes secured in this manner but may also be
The control rod in the linkage shown has two rod-end secured by a threaded fitting on the unit to which they lead, or
assemblies, a clevis and an eye, screwed onto opposite ends. by a hose clamp. The firewall fittings for some lines have a
quick-disconnect fitting that contains a check valve to prevent
These rod-end assemblies determine the length of the control the system from losing fluid when the line is disconnected.
rod by the distance they are screwed onto it and are locked into
position by check-nuts. An anti-friction bearing is usually The metal tubing on some installations may also be
mounted in the eye end of a rod. This eye is slipped over a bolt disconnected at a point where two lengths of it are joined
in the bellcrank arm and is held in position by a castle nut together by a length of rubber hose. Such a disconnection is
safetied with a split pin. made by loosening the hose clamps and sliding the length of
rubber hose over the length of tubing which remains on the
The clevis rod end is slipped over the end of a bellcrank arm, aircraft. There may be some further variations in these types of
which also usually contains an anti-friction bearing. A bolt is disconnections, but basically, they follow the same pattern.
passed through the clevis and the bellcrank eye, fastened with
a castle nut, and safeties with a split pin. Some type of container should be used to catch any fuel, oil, or
other fluid that may drain from the disconnected lines. After the
Sometimes linkage assemblies do not include the anti-friction lines have drained, they should be immediately plugged or
bearings and are held in position only by a washer and split pin covered with moisture-proof tape to prevent foreign matter from
in the end of a clevis pin which passes through the bellcrank entering them as well as to prevent any accumulated fluid from
and rod end. After the engine control linkages have been dripping out.
disconnected, the nuts and bolts should be replaced in the rod
ends or bellcrank arms to prevent being lost. All control rods
should be removed entirely or tied back to prevent them from
being bent or broken if they are struck by the replacement
engine or QECA as it is being hoisted.
Engine control cable and turnbuckle assembly
Types of line disconnects
Engine control linkage assembly

Hoisting
If there has been thorough preparation of the engine for controlled as it is being hoisted. Hook the hoist onto the sling
removal, the actual removal should be a relatively speedy and hoist the engine slightly – just enough to relieve the engine
operation. weight from the mount attachments. Remove the nuts from the
mount attachments in the order recommended in the
If a QECA is being removed, the engine mount accompanies manufacturer’s instructions for the aircraft. As the last nuts are
the engine. If only the engine is being removed, the mount being removed, pull back on the lines fastened to the engine
remains on the aircraft. Before the engine can be freed from its (or force it back by other means if lines are not being used),
attachment points, a sling must be installed so the engine’s thus steadying the engine.
weight can be supported with a hoist when the mounting bolts
are removed. If bolts must be removed from the mount attachments, be sure
the engine is under control before doing so. If the bolts are to
Aircraft engines or QECA’s have marked points for attaching a remain in the mount attachments, the hoist can be gently
hoisting sling. The location of these attaching points varies manoeuvred upward or downward as necessary after all the
according to the size and weight distribution of the engine. The nuts have been removed. Meanwhile, gently relax the
photograph below left shows a sling supporting an engine backward force on the engine just enough to allow the engine
which has two attaching points. As a matter of safety, the sling gradual forward movement when it is free from the mount
should be carefully inspected for condition before installing it on attachments. At the point where the hoist has removed all
the engine. engine weight from the mount attachments, the engine should
be eased gently forward, away from the aircraft. If the engine
Before attaching the sling to the hoist, be sure that the hoist has binds at any point, manoeuvre it with the hoist until it slips free.
sufficient capacity to lift the engine safely. A manually operated
hoist mounted in a portable frame is shown below right. This The procedure just discussed applies to the removal of most
hoist assembly is specifically manufactured to remove engines reciprocating and turbine aircraft engines. Any variation in
and other large assemblies from aircraft. Some frames are details will be outlined in the manufacturer’s instructions for the
fitted with power-operated hoists. These should be used with aircraft concerned. Before attempting any engine removal,
care since considerable damage can be done if an always consult these instructions.
inexperienced operator allows a power-operated hoist to
overrun. The hoist and frame should also be checked for When the engine has been removed, it can be carefully lowered
condition before being used to lift the engine. onto a stand. The engine should be fastened to the stand and
prepared for the removal of accessories.
Before the hoist is hooked onto the engine sling, re-check the
aircraft tail supports and the wheel chocks. Fasten lines to the
engine at points on the sides or rear so that the engine can be

Engine showing hoisting sling attachments Hoist used for engine removal

Engine installation
Hoisting and mounting the engine
When the new or overhauled engine is ready to be hoisted for The nuts on the engine mount bolts must be tightened to the
installation, move the engine stand as close as possible to the torque recommended by the aircraft manufacturer. While the
nacelle in which the replacement is to be installed. Then attach nuts are being tightened, the hoist should support the engine
the sling to the engine and hook the hoist to the sling; then take weight sufficiently to allow alignment of the mounting bolts. If
up the slack until the hoist is supporting most of the engine the engine is permitted to exert upward or downward pressure
weight. Next, remove the engine attaching bolts from the stand on the bolts, it is necessary for the nuts to pull the engine into
and hoist the engine clear. proper alignment. This would result in nuts being tightened to
the proper torque value without actually holding the engine
The engine stand may be moved and the hoist frame positioned securely to the aircraft.
in a way that most easily permits the engine to be hoisted into
the nacelle. To prevent injury to the crew or damage to the The applicable manufacturer’s instructions outline the
aircraft or engine, be sure that the engine is steadied when sequence for tightening the mounting bolts to ensure the
moving the hoist frame. security of fastening. After the nuts are safetied and the engine
sling and hoist are removed, bonding strips should be
Seldom is an engine nacelle so designed that the engine can connected across each engine mount to provide an electrical
be fitted and bolted into place as though it were being mounted path from the mount to the airframe.
on a bare wall. The engine must be guided into position and
mated with its various connections, such as the mounting bolt Mounting the engine in the nacelle is, of course, only the
holes and the exhaust tailpipe. This must be done despite such beginning. All the ducts, electrical leads, controls, tubes, and
obstacles as the nacelle framework, ducts, or firewall conduits must be connected before the engine can be
connections and without leaving a trail of broken and bent operated.
parts, scratched paint, or crushed fingers.
When the engine has been aligned correctly in the nacelle,

insert the mounting bolts into their holes and start all of the nuts
on them. Always use the type of bolt and nut recommended by
the manufacturer; never use an unauthorised substitution of a
different type or specification than that prescribed.

Engine showing hoisting sling attachments

Connections and adjustments
There are no hard and fast rules that direct the order in which On some systems, a ball joint connects the stationary portion
units or systems should be connected to the engine. Each of the exhaust to the portion that is attached to the engine. This
maintenance organisation usually supply a worksheet or ball joint absorbs the normal engine movement caused by the
checklist to be followed during this procedure. This list is based unbalanced forces of the engine operation. Ball joints must be
upon experience in engine installation on each particular installed with the specified clearance to prevent binding when
aircraft. If this is followed carefully, it serves as a guide for an expanded by hot exhaust gases.
efficient installation. The following instructions, then, are not a
sequence of procedures but are a discussion of correct Hoses used within low-pressure systems are generally
methods for completing an engine installation. fastened into place with clamps. Before using a hose clamp,
inspect it for security of welding or riveting and smooth
The system of ducts for routing air to the engine varies with all operation of the adjusting screw. A clamp that is severely
types of aircraft. In connecting them, the goal is to fit the ducts distorted or materially defective should be rejected. (Material
tightly at all points of disconnect so that the air they route defects include extremely brittle or soft areas that may easily
cannot escape from its intended path. The duct systems of break or stretch when the clamp is tightened.) After a hose is
some aircraft must be pressure-checked for leaks. This is done installed in a system, it should be supported with rubber-lined
by blocking the system at one end, supplying compressed air supporting clamps at regular intervals.
at a specified pressure at the other end, and then checking the
rate of leakage. Before installing metal tubing with threaded fittings, make sure
the threads are clean and in good condition. Apply sealing
The filters in the air induction system must be cleaned to assure compound, of the correct specification for the system, to the
an unrestricted flow of clean air to the engine and its units. threads of the fittings before installing them. While connecting
Because methods for cleaning air filters vary with the materials metal tubing, follow the same careful procedure for connecting
used in the filtering element, clean them per the technical hose fittings to prevent cross-threading and to assure correct
instructions relating to the aircraft being serviced. torque.
The exhaust system should also be carefully connected to When connecting the leads to the starter, generator, or various
prevent the escape of hot gases into the nacelle. When other electrical units within the nacelle, make sure that all
assembling the exhaust system, check all clamps, nuts, and connections are clean and properly secured. On leads that are
bolts and replace any in doubtful condition. During assembly, fastened to a threaded terminal with a nut, a lock-washer is
the nuts should be gradually and progressively tightened to the usually inserted under the nut to prevent the lead from working
correct torque. The clamps should be tapped with a rawhide loose. When required, connector plugs can be safetied with
mallet as they are being tightened to prevent binding at any steel wire to hold the knurled nut in the ‘full-tight’ position.
point.
Electrical connections at the firewall Cables through the firewall

Electrical leads within the engine nacelle are usually passed Next, adjust the throttle control so that it has a slight cushion
through either a flexible or a rigid conduit. The conduit must be action at two positions on the throttle quadrant: One when the
anchored as necessary to provide a secure installation and carburettor throttle valve is in the full-open position, and the
bonded when required. other when it is closed to the idle position.
All engine controls must be accurately adjusted to assure Adjust the cushion by turning the cable turn-buckles equally in
instantaneous response to the control setting. For flexibility, the opposite directions until the throttle control cushion is correct at
engine controls are usually a combination of rods and cables. the full-open position of the throttle valve. Then, when the
Since these controls are tailored to the model of aircraft in throttle arm stop is adjusted to the correct idle speed setting,
which they are installed, their adjustment must follow precisely the amount of cushion should be within tolerance at the idle
the step-by-step procedure outlined in the manufacturer’s speed position of the throttle valve. The presence of this
instructions for each particular model of aircraft. cushion assures that the travel of the throttle valve is not limited
by the stops on the throttle control quadrant, but that they are
The diagram below illustrates a simplified schematic drawing of opening fully and closing to the correct idle speed as
a throttle control system for a reciprocating aircraft engine. determined by the throttle arm stop.
Using the drawing as a guide, follow a general procedure for
adjusting throttle controls. First, loosen the serrated throttle Adjustment of the engine controls is basically the same on all
control arm at the carburettor and back off the throttle stop until aircraft, insofar as the linkage is adjusted to a predetermined
the throttle valve is in the fully closed position. After locking the length for a specific setting of the unit to be controlled. Then, if
cable drum into position with the locking pin, adjust the control cables are used in the control system, they are adjusted to a
rod to a specified length. Then, attach one end of the control specific tension with the control system locked. Finally, the full
rod to the locked cable drum and re-install the throttle control travel of the unit to be controlled is assured by establishing the
arm on the carburettor in the serrations that allows the other correct cushion in the controls.
end of the control rod to be attached to it. This correctly
connects the control arm to the cable drum. In general, the same basic procedure is used to connect the
linkage of the manual mixture control. This system is marked at
Now, loosen the cable turnbuckles until the throttle control can the quadrant and the carburettor for the three mixture positions;
be locked at the quadrant with the locking pin. Then, with both (1) idle cut-off, (2) auto lean, and (3) auto rich. The positions of
locking pins in place, adjust the cables to the correct tension as the lever on the control quadrant must be synchronised with the
measured with a tensiometer. Remove the locking pins from positions of the manual mixture control valves on the
the cable drum and quadrant. carburettor.

Schematic drawing of throttle control system

Generally, this adjustment is made simultaneously with the After the engine has been completely installed and connected,
cushioning adjustment by placing the mixture control lever and install the propeller on the aircraft. Before doing so, the thrust
the mixture control valve in the idle cut-off position before bearing retaining nut should be checked for correct torque. If
adjusting the linkage. required, the propeller shaft must be coated with light engine
oil before the propeller is installed; the propeller governor and
After rigging the engine controls, safety the turnbuckles and anti-icing system must be connected according to applicable
castle nuts, and make sure the jam nuts on all control rods are manufacturer’s instructions.
tightened.
On multi-engine aircraft, the amount of cushion of all throttle

and mixture controls on each quadrant must be equal so that
all are aligned at any specific setting chosen. This eliminates
the necessity of individually setting each control to synchronise
engine operations.
After the engine has been installed, it is necessary to adjust the

cowl flaps so that the passage of the cooling air over the engine
can be regulated accurately. When the cowl flap adjustments
have been completed, operate the system and re-check for
opening and closing to the specified limits. Also check the cowl
flap position indicators, if installed, to assure that they indicate
the true position of the flaps.
The oil cooler doors are adjusted in a manner similar to that

used to adjust the cowl flaps. In some cases, the procedure is
reversed insofar as the door is first adjusted to retract to a
specified point, and the limit switch on the motor is set to cut
out at this point. Then the jackscrew is adjusted to permit the
door to open only a specified distance, and the open limit switch
is set to stop the motor when this point is reached.

Helicopter engine removal and installations
General
Unlike the majority of light fixed-wing aircraft that are classified power-on limits. Manual manipulation of the twist grip is not
as direct drive as the propeller is installed directly to the typically required except during start-up, shut down,
propeller flange and propeller speed, therefore, is engine autorotation practice, and emergencies.
speed. In a rotorcraft, the engine needs to be able to run
independently to the rotors, and the main rotor and tail rotors An overtravel spring located in the throttle linkage allows the
need to operate at a different rotational speed. This requires pilot to roll the throttle off beyond the idle stop before a ground
the engine to be connected to the transmission via a pilot contact (run-on) autorotation landing. This prevents the throttle
operated clutch. from opening when the collective is raised.
The principal components are: Correct throttle linkage adjustment may be verified during pre-
flight by rolling the twist-grip through the overtravel spring and
• the collective lever and throttle; holding against the hard-idle stop. The carburettor throttle arm
• the clutch actuator; should just barely start to move when the collective is raised full
• the sheave; up.
• V-belts;
• the clutch and sprag clutch assembly; Other engine controls include a mixture control located forward
• the drive shafts; and to the right of the cyclic centre post and a carburettor heat
• the main rotor gearbox; control located to the right and aft of the cyclic. R22s with O-360
• the tail rotor gearbox; and engines are equipped with carb heat assist.
• the governor.
Clutch actuator
Engine controls After the engine is started, it is coupled to the rotor drive system
A twist-grip throttle control is located on each collective stick. through vee-belts which are tensioned by raising the upper
The controls are interconnected and actuate the throttle valve drive sheave. An electric actuator, located between the drive
through a mechanical linkage. The engine throttle is also sheaves, raises the upper sheave when the pilot engages the
correlated to collective inputs through a mechanical linkage. clutch switch. The actuator senses compressive load (belt
When the collective is raised, the throttle is opened, and when tension) and switches off when the vee-belts are appropriately
the collective is lowered, the throttle is closed. tensioned. The clutch caution light illuminates whenever the
actuator circuit is energised, either engaging, disengaging, or
The electronic engine governor makes minor throttle re-tensioning the belts. The light stays on until the belts are
adjustments by rotating the twist grip to maintain RPM within properly tensioned or wholly disengaged.

Helicopter engine drive components Helicopter engine installations and drive components

Sprag clutch
The most commonly used freewheeling unit on helicopters is
the sprag clutch. This clutch allows movement in only one
direction by having an inner and outer race, which are often at
the end of the driveshaft.
The sprag assembly is made up of several sprags resembling

the rollers in a roller bearing. The sprags, unlike the circular
bearings, have a figure-eight shape. The vertical height of each
of these sprags is slightly greater than the gap between the
inner diameter of the outer race and the outer diameter of the
inner race.
This engaged position places the sprags against both races at

a slight angle. Rotation from the engine on the outer race jams
the sprags between the outer and inner races and this
interference fit drives the inner race, which is attached to the
driveshaft. If the driveshaft attempts to drive the engine, the
sprags are relived, and the driveshaft rotates without the
engine. The same would happen if the engine stopped.
Transmission/drive system
Transfers energy from the engine to rotors via the lower sheave
which is bolted directly to the engine output shaft. The two
V-belts transfer power to the upper sheave when they become
tight when the pilot operates the clutch actuator. This moves
the upper sheave and driveshaft up to tension the belts to turn
the rotors.
The airframe supplied gearboxes convert the engine RPM to

the ideal main/tail rotor RPM and changes the axis of rotation.

Helicopter sprag clutch

Reciprocating helicopter engine and QECA
The engine is installed facing aft with the propeller shaft Installation, rigging, and adjustment of helicopter QECA
approximately 39° above horizontal. The engine is supported The installation of a new or an overhauled engine is in reverse
by the engine mount, which is bolted to the fuselage structure. of the removal procedure. The manufacturer’s instructions for
The installation of the engine provides for ease of maintenance the helicopter must be consulted to ascertain the correct
by allowing easy access to all accessories and components interchange of parts from the old engine to the new engine. The
when the engine access doors are opened. The QECA applicable maintenance instructions should be followed.
contains the engine, engine mount, engine accessories, engine
controls, fuel system, lubrication system, ignition system, Refer to the maintenance instructions manual and associated
cooling system, and hydromechanical clutch and fan assembly. technical publications for detailed information concerning
rigging the throttle, mixture control, cable tensions, and related
Removal of helicopter QECA data.
Before removing the helicopter QECA, the engine should be
preserved if it is possible to do so. Then, shut off the fuel supply
to the engine and drain the oil. Make the disconnections
necessary to remove the QECA, and then perform the following
steps.
1) Attach the engine lifting sling to a hoist of at least a two-

ton capacity.
2) Raise the hoist to apply a slight lift to the QECA. Loosen
both engine-mount lower attachment bolt nuts before
leaving the upper attachment bolts.
3) Remove the bolts from the sway braces and remove
both engine upper attachment bolts. Then, remove both
engine-mount lower attachment bolts and remove the
QECA from the helicopter. Mount the power package in
a suitable work stand and remove the sling.

Helicopter engine installation

Helicopter engine removal

Licence Category B1
16.12 Engine Monitoring and Ground Operation

Copyright notice
Knowledge levels – Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C conjunction with physical laws describing the subject.
LEVEL 3
subject.
appropriate.

© Copyright 2020 Module 16.12 Engine Monitoring and Ground Operation Issue 2 – July 2020
Knowledge
Part-66 Levels
Objective
Ref.
A B1 B3
Procedures for starting and ground 16.12 1 3 2
run-up;
Interpretation of engine power
output and parameters;
Inspection of engine and
components: criteria, tolerances,
and data specified by the engine
manufacturer.

Table of Contents
Procedures for starting and ground run-up _________ 6 Magnetos and other ignition components __________ 32
Ground running checks _________________________ 6 Summary ___________________________________ 34
Ground run precautions ________________________ 6 Other reasons for removal ______________________ 36
Prestart checks and procedures __________________ 6
Overhaul periods ______________________________ 40
Starting _____________________________________ 7 Private category aircraft ________________________ 40
Hand cracking ________________________________ 8 Public transport and aerial work category aircraft ____ 40
Power variation procedures ____________________ 10 Engine inspection procedures for an extension to
Engine shut down ____________________________ 10 overhaul life _________________________________ 40
Example: Lycoming O-540 / IO-540 ground running, Crop spraying aircraft__________________________ 41
warm-up, and ground test procedure _____________ 11 Extensions to overhaul periods __________________ 41
Interpretation of engine power output and parameters
Engine overhaul_______________________________ 42
____________________________________________ 14 Top overhaul ________________________________ 42
Engine manufacturer’s power charts ______________ 14 Major overhaul _______________________________ 42
Temperature correction ________________________ 16
Humidity correction ___________________________ 18 General overhaul procedures ____________________ 44
Effect of compression ratio _____________________ 20 Disassembly ________________________________ 44
Cruise operations ____________________________ 22 Inspection terminology _________________________ 45
Turbocharged engines ________________________ 24 Inspection procedures _________________________ 47
CHT and EGT _______________________________ 24 Cleaning____________________________________ 48
Repair and replacement________________________ 50
Reasons for engine failure ______________________ 26
Crankshaft__________________________________ 26
Crankcase __________________________________ 26
Camshaft and lifters __________________________ 28
Gears _____________________________________ 28
Oil pump ___________________________________ 28
Bearings ___________________________________ 30
Connecting rods _____________________________ 30
Pistons and rings_____________________________ 32
Cylinders ___________________________________ 32
Valves and valve guides _______________________ 32
Rocker arms and pushrods _____________________ 32
Cylinder assembly inspection and overhaul _______ 52 Block testing ________________________________ 116
Cylinder head _______________________________ 52 General ___________________________________ 116
Cylinder barrel _______________________________ 54 Purpose ___________________________________ 116
Engine break-in ______________________________ 58 Requirements ______________________________ 117
Cylinder bore inspection _______________________ 64 Mobile stand testing of reciprocating engines ______ 118
Valves and valve springs ______________________ 68 Block test instruments ________________________ 120
Rocker arms and shafts _______________________ 68 Engine operation _____________________________ 122
Piston and piston pin __________________________ 70 General ___________________________________ 122
Refacing valve seats __________________________ 72 Engine instruments __________________________ 122
Valve reconditioning __________________________ 76 Engine starting ______________________________ 123
Valve lapping and leak testing __________________ 80 Engine warm-up _____________________________ 123
Piston repairs _______________________________ 82 Ground check ______________________________ 124
Crankshaft ___________________________________ 86 Propeller pitch check _________________________ 125
Power check _______________________________ 125
Connecting rods ______________________________ 88
Ignition system operational check _______________ 127
Visual inspection _____________________________ 88
Cruise mixture check _________________________ 128
Checking alignment___________________________ 88
Idle speed and idle mixture checks ______________ 128
In-situ cylinder care and maintenance ____________ 90 Two-speed supercharger check _________________ 129
General ____________________________________ 90 Acceleration and deceleration checks ____________ 129
Hydraulic lock _______________________________ 90 Engine stopping _____________________________ 130
Valve blow-by _______________________________ 92 Basic engine operating principles _______________ 131
Cylinder compression tests _____________________ 93 Backfiring __________________________________ 137
Direct compression tester ______________________ 94 After-firing _________________________________ 137
Differential pressure tester _____________________ 94
Ground and flight testing ______________________ 138
Cylinder replacement _________________________ 97
Pre-oiling __________________________________ 138
Cylinder removal ____________________________ 100
Fuel system bleeding _________________________ 139
Cylinder installation __________________________ 101
Propeller check _____________________________ 139
Valve and valve mechanism ___________________ 106
Checks and adjustments after engine run-up and
Valve clearance ____________________________ 108
operation __________________________________ 140
Valve spring replacement _____________________ 111
Cold cylinder check __________________________ 112

Procedures for starting and ground run-up
Ground running checks
Ground running checks can be very varied, depending upon Start procedures differ from one type of engine to another.
the type of engine and manufacturer’s instructions. Typical Therefore, the information in this module is general and not
functional checks are as follows. directed to any specific type. As we are dealing primarily with
light aircraft, it is this type that we will consider for engine
If a variable pitch propeller is fitted, check the propeller controls running.
for movement through their range. However, it is recommended
that feathering of the propeller is not carried out on the ground, Engines are capable of starting in relatively low temperature
as excessive vibration may occur. without the use of engine heating or oil dilution, depending on
the grade of oil used.
• Check that the oil pressure and temperature indications
are within the correct limits for all engine RPM Prestart checks and procedures
conditions. Typical checks to make before starting are as follows:
• Carry out idle and full-power checks with reference to
the engine RPM gauge and the manufacturer’s • Check the wind direction – face the aircraft into wind, but
recommendations. make sure the wind velocity is within limits for ground
• Check the operation of the carburettor heating systems. running.
Note that the application of this system will cause a slight • Check that ground chocks are positioned.
drop in RPM.
The various covers (wing, tail, cockpit, wheel, etc.) protecting
These are just a few of the checks that may be required to the the aircraft must be removed before attempting to turn the
carried out during ground running operations. For more engine.
information and details of these checks, you should consult the
manufacturers’ information. External sources of electrical power should be used when
starting engines equipped with electric starters. This eliminates
Ground run precautions an excessive burden on the aircraft battery.
Before any engine ground running operations are carried out,
reference must always be made to the manufacturer’s
operating instructions, or maintenance manual, as in most
cases a starting and after starting checklist should always be
followed.

Starting
To start the engine proceeds as follows. ignition switch to the “LEFT” position. Place the ignition
switch to “START” when the magneto incorporates a
1) Turn the auxiliary fuel pump on if the aircraft is equipped retard breaker assembly.
with one. Do not crank the engine continuously with the starter for
2) Place the mixture control to the position recommended more than one minute. Allow three to five-minutes for
for the engine and carburettor combination being cooling the starter between successive attempts.
started. As a general rule, the mixture control should be Otherwise, the starter may be burnt out due to
in the “IDLE CUT OFF” position for pressure type overheating.
carburettors and the “FULL RICH” position for float-type 6) Put the primer switch to “ON” intermittently, or prime with
carburettors. one three strokes of primary pump depending on how
Note: Many light aircraft are equipped with a mixture control the aircraft is equipped. When the engine begins to fire,
pull rod which has no detected intermediate positions. hold the primer while gradually opening the throttle to
When such controls are pushed in flush with the obtain smooth operation.
instrument panel, the mixture is set in the “FULL RICH” 7) After the engine is operating smoothly on the primer,
position. Conversely, when the control rod is pulled all move the mixture control to the “FULL RICH” position.
the way out, the carburettor is in the “IDLE CUT OFF” or Release the primer as soon as a drop in RPM indicates
“FULL LEAN” position. Unmarked intermediate positions the engine is receiving additional fuel from the
between those two extremes can be selected by the carburettor.
operator to achieve any desired mixture setting. 8) Piston engine installations vary considerably, and the
3) Open the throttle to a position that provides 1,000 to method of starting recommended by the manufacturer
1,200 RPM. should always be followed. Engine speed should be kept
4) Leave the preheat or alternate air (carburettor air) to a minimum until oil pressure has built up and the
control in the cold position to prevent damage and fire in engine should be warmed up to minimum operating
case of back power; auxiliary heating should be used temperature before proceeding with the required tests.
after the engine warms up. They improve fuel 9) High power should only be used for sufficient duration to
vaporisation, prevent fouling of the spark plugs, ice accomplish the necessary checks, since the engine may
formation, and eliminate icing in the induction system. not be adequately cooled when the aircraft is stationary.
5) Energise the starter; after the propeller has made at After all the checks have been carried out the engine
least two complete revolutions, and then turn the ignition should be cooled by running at the recommended speed
switch on. On engines equipped with induction vibration, for several minutes, the magneto switches should be
turn the switch to the “BOTH” position. When starting an checked for operation, and the engine should be
engine that uses an impulse coupling magneto, turn the stopped.
Hand cracking
Extreme care is essential when starting piston engines by hand • Blowing out: If the engine fails to start through over-
swinging; many accidents have occurred in this way. Both pilots richness the ground crew should face the pilot and call
and technicians should be given demonstrations and be “switches off”, “petrol off”, “throttle open”, “blow out”. The
checked out on this method of starting. The engine must always pilot should repeat these words, carrying out the
be treated as live, and no parts of the arms, legs, or body appropriate action at the same time. The ground crew
should be moved into the propeller disc at any time. No attempt should then turn the propeller several revolutions in the
should ever be made to start an engine without someone in the reverse directions of rotation to expel the mixture from
cockpit to operate the throttles or brakes as necessary, or the engine. This usually entails swinging the propeller up
without chocks placed in front of the wheels. from the 6 o’clock position, using the opposite hand. The
throttle should then be closed, the petrol should then be
• Sucking in: To prime the engine cylinders, when closed, the petrol turned “ON” and the operations for
necessary, the ground crew should stand away from the starting the engine repeated.
propeller. Face the pilot and call “switches off”, “petrol
on”, “throttle closed”, “suck in”. The pilot should repeat
these words, carrying out the appropriate actions at the
same time. The ground crew should then set the
propeller to the beginning of a compression stroke and
turn the engine through at least two revolutions. The
propeller must be swung smartly down and across the
body. Turn away from the propeller and step away in the
direction of the movement of the aircraft.
• Starting: The ground crew should set the propeller at
the start of a compression stroke, stand away from the
propeller, face the pilot and call “contact”. The pilot
should set the throttle for starting, switch “ON” the
magnetos and repeat “contact”. The ground crew should
then swing the propeller. If the engine does not start, the
ground crew should ensure that the magnetos are
switched off before resetting the propeller and switched
on again before making another attempt to start the
engine.

Swinging the propeller to start the engine

Power variation procedures Engine shut down
While running the engine, the following procedures should be Once the ground running procedures have been accomplished,
observed. then the engine can be shut down. However, like all types of
aircraft engine, the engine will be hot, so a condition known as
• To increase power – first, enrich the mixture, increase thermal shock must be avoided. To do this, if the engine has
RPM, then follow with the throttle. been operating at high RPM, the engine must be allowed to idle
• To decrease power – first, reduce throttle, reduce RPM, before shutting down.
and then adjust the mixture.
Idling allows the engine to cool gradually to a lower temperature
Increasing power – enrich mixture first to ensure protecting before stopping. This condition can best be judged by using
the engine against damage from a higher power when either cylinder temperature gauges, if fitted, or by using the oil
previously leaned out for a lower power setting. temperature gauge. Once these instruments indicate a normal
running condition, then the engine can be stopped.
Next, increase RPM, because, in some models, the engine and
propeller would have undesirable pressure and stresses with
high manifold pressure and lower RPM.
Then, follow with the appropriate manifold pressure now that

the mixture and RPM have been correctly set to accommodate
the increased throttle.
Decreasing power – most models of engines require the basic

procedure for a decrease of power by retarding throttle,
followed by RPM. In the climb configuration, we recommended
full throttle throughout the climb for internal fuel cooling with
RPM reductions initially to 3,000 RPM and then 2,750 RPM for
a prolonged climb.
Turbocharged and supercharged engines require careful

application of the basic power sequences as outlined in the
beginning. It is also possible to create an over-boost condition
on these engines by going to takeoff manifold pressure at
cruise RPM, such as might take place in an unexpected go-
around. The stresses and pressures on prop and engine would
create a threat to both.
Example: Lycoming O-540 / IO-540 ground running,
warm-up, and ground test procedure
Remember that these engines are air pressure cooled and d) (Where applicable) Move the propeller control through
depend on the forward movement of the aircraft to maintain its complete range to check operation and return to the
proper cooling. Therefore, particular care is necessary when “FULL LOW PITCH” position. Full feathering check (twin
operating these engines on the ground. It is recommended that engine) on the ground is not recommended. However,
the following precautions are observed to prevent overheating. the feathering action can be checked by running the
engine between 1,000 and 1,500 RPM, then
Note: Any ground check that requires full-throttle operation momentarily pulling the propeller control into the
must be limited to three minutes, or less if indicated feathering position. Do not allow the RPM to drop more
cylinder head temperature should exceed the maximum than 500 RPM.
stated in the operator’s manual. e) A proper magneto check is essential. Additional factors,
other than the ignition system, affect magneto drop-off;
Preparation load-power output, propeller pitch and mixture strength.
a) Head the aircraft into the wind. The important thing is that the engine runs smoothly
b) Leave the mixture in the “FULL RICH” position. because magneto drop-off is affected by the variables
c) Operate the engine on the ground only with the propeller listed above. Make the magneto check per the following
in the minimum blade-angle setting. procedures.
d) Warm-up at approximately 1,000-1,200 RPM. Avoid 1) (Controllable pitch propeller) With propeller in
prolonged idling and do not exceed 2,200 RPM on the minimum pitch angle, set the engine to produce 50-
ground. 65% power as indicated by the manifold pressure
e) The engine is warm enough for takeoff when the throttle gauge unless other specified in the aircraft
can be opened without the engine faltering. manufacturer’s manual. Set the mixture control to the
Ground check full rich position. At these settings, the ignition
a) Warm-up as directed above. system and spark plugs must work harder because
b) Check both oil pressure and oil temperature. of the greater pressure within the cylinders. Under
c) Leave the mixture at “FULL RICH”. these conditions, ignition problems can occur.
Magneto checks at low power settings only indicate
fuel-air distribution quality.

Note: Aircraft that are equipped with fixed-pitch
propellers, or not equipped with a manifold
pressure gauge, may check magneto drop-off
with the engine operating at approximately
2,100-2,200 RPM.
2) Switch from both magnetos to one and note drop-off;

return to both until engine regains speed and switch
to the other magneto and note drop-off, then return
to both. Drop-off should not exceed 175 RPM and
should not exceed 50 RPM between magnetos. A
smooth drop-off past the expected specification of
175 RPM is usually a sign of a too-lean or too-rich
mixture.
3) If the RPM drop exceeds 175 RPM, slowly lean the
mixture until the RPM peaks. Then retard the throttle
to the RPM specified in step e) 1) for the magneto
check and repeat the check. If the drop off does not
exceed 175 RPM, the difference between the
magnetos does not exceed 50 RPM, and the engine
is running smoothly, then the ignition system is
operating correctly. Return the mixture to full rich.
f) Do not operate on a single magneto for too long; a few
seconds is usually sufficient to check drop-off and
minimises plug fouling.

Engine ground running

Interpretation of engine power output and
parameters
Engine manufacturer’s power charts
The power charts provided by manufacturers of type- For this example, let us determine the power produced with
certificated engines are the standard when determining engine mixture set for best power at 2,000 RPM and 23.6" MAP at
power, but these charts have significant limitations that we 2,300 ft pressure altitude at 14°F (-10°C). Start on the right side
must understand. The limitations should be listed on the of the graph, which shows various combinations of full-throttle
margins of the charts. The limitations, stated or implicit, are: manifold pressure vs RPM at standard temperature. Find the
2,000 RPM line and interpolate between the 22" and 24" lines
1) The mixture must be set for best power. to find the power for 23.6" MAP at 2,000 RPM, labelled as point
2) The chart power is for standard temperature. If the A in the example on the chart.
temperature is above or below standard, the temperature
corrections listed on the chart must be applied. Look to the left to find 109 hp. If you go straight down, you see
3) The chart power is for dry air. If the air is humid, power is that this combination of RPM and manifold pressure is
reduced. predicted to occur at full throttle at about 5,900 ft.
4) The engine configuration must match that of the engine
model listed on the chart. Any changes in compression Now go to the left side of the chart, which shows the power
ratio, ignition system, or fuel delivery system may affect the produced at sea level, at standard temperature. Point B, in the
power produced. example, indicates 2,000 RPM and 23.6" MAP. Look to the
5) The engine must be in good condition. An engine with low right to see that this power setting would produce 97 hp at sea
compression, leaky valves, weak ignition system, or other level with standard temperature.
issues, will not make the power claimed by the chart.
Now we know what power would be produced at 2,000 RPM
The graph below shows a typical power chart (Lycoming IO- and 23.6" at sea level, and also at 5,900 ft. The next step is to
360-M1A series engine). The chart can be found in the engine interpolate to find what power would be produced at 2,300 ft.
operator’s manual. The left side of the chart shows the power
that is produced at sea level at standard temperature, as a
function of RPM and manifold absolute pressure (MAP). The
right side of the chart provides power at full throttle as a function
of RPM and MAP at various altitudes.

Power chart for a Lycoming IO-360-M1A

Take the 97 hp point from the sea level chart on the left and Note 4 also gives a temperature correction of “approximately
mark it on the right chart. This is point C. It is at the left edge of 1 % correction for each 10 °F variation from TS.” The actual
the portion of the chart that shows sea level on the scale at the temperature in our example (14 °F) is 37 °F colder than the
bottom. standard temperature of 51 °F. The correction is 1 % for every
10 degrees, so we have a correction of 3.7% of 102 hp which
Draw a straight line from point C (97 hp at sea level) to point A is 4 hp. The predicted power is 102 + 4 = 106 hp, in dry air.
(109 hp at 5,900 ft). Find 2,300 ft on the scale on the bottom This 4 hp temperature correction is shown at points E and F.
and go up from there to see where that altitude intersects the
line you just drew – 102 hp (point D in the example). This is the
predicted power at 2,000 RPM and 23.6" MAP at standard
temperature, in dry air, at 2,300 ft pressure altitude.
Temperature correction
Some of the power charts have a line at the bottom of the right
half of the chart showing standard temperature (TS) as a
function of altitude. Find 2,300 ft, go up to the line, then over to
the scale on the left. You will see that the standard temperature
is 51 °F (10.4 °C).
Note 4, at the top left of the chart, provides two ways to correct
for non-standard temperature. The temperature correction
formula in note 4, which assumes temperatures are in degrees
Fahrenheit, is:
P = PS × √(460 + TS ÷ 460 + T) [temperatures in °F].
If using degrees Celsius, the formula would be:
P = PS × √(273 + TS ÷ 273 + T) [temperatures in °C].
Where
P = power at the actual temperature
PS = power at a standard temperature from power chart
T = actual temperature
TS = standard temperature
Power chart for a Lycoming IO-360-M1A

Humidity correction
Water vapour in the air, humidity, displaces the other Where
constituents of air. The lower oxygen content means less fuel P = power in humid air
can be burned, so less power is produced. The manifold Pdry = power in dry air, from power chart
pressure lines on the power charts are for “dry manifold MAP = actual manifold pressure
pressure,” i.e., they are valid for completely dry air. In the real PH20 = MAP correction from tables below
world, with some amount of humidity, the manifold pressure
must be corrected before entering the power chart. The water vapour pressure and the approximate power
correction for humid air may also be determined using various
The amount of water vapour in the air can be determined from tables compiled for the purpose.
the dewpoint. The tables below provide the correction that must
be applied to the MAP for various dewpoint values. For
example, if the dewpoint is 59 °F (15 °C), and the manifold
pressure is 29 inHg, the correction is -0.5", thus we would use
a MAP of 28.5 inHg when using the power charts.
The dewpoint cannot be higher than the air temperature, and

air temperature generally decreases as the altitude increases.
Thus, there usually is less water vapour present at altitude than

at ground level. If the air is cold enough, the amount of water
vapour it can hold is so small that the effect on power is
negligible. At 18 °F (-8 °C), even fully saturated air has a vapour
pressure of only 0.1 inHg, which is likely smaller than the error
in our MAP gauges.
We can determine ground-level dewpoints from reported airport

weather observations then the following approximate
correction may be applied:
P = Pdry × (((MAP – PH2O) ÷ MAP) – 0.17) ÷ (1 – 0.17)

Effect of compression ratio
Some engine manufacturers provide modified higher
compression pistons in their engines to obtain increased
power. The compression ratio is one of the significant factors
that determine the thermal efficiency of internal combustion
engines. The higher the compression ratio, the greater the
amount of power produced from the combustion of a given
amount of air and fuel. Engine manufacturer power charts are
only valid if the compression ratio is as specified for the engine
model listed on the chart. If we have changed the compression
ratio of our engine, we can make approximate corrections to
the power from the power chart, using the theoretical
relationship between efficiency and compression ratio.
P2 = P1 × (1 – CR2-0.27) ÷ (1 – CR1-0.27)
Where
P1 = power with the original compression ratio

P2 = power with a new compression ratio
CR1 = original compression ratio
CR2 = new compression ratio
For example, if we had a 150 hp O-320, with a 7.0:1

compression ratio, and we installed 8.5:1 compression ratio
pistons, the predicted power with the higher compression ratio
pistons is:
P2 = 150 × (1 – 8.5-0.27) ÷ (1 – 7.0-0.27) = 161


Cruise operations
The following recommendations are provided by Teledyne rapidly in response to small changes in the fuel mixture. Adjust
Continental motors. single point EGT system’s cruise mixture 50° to 75°F (10° to
24°C) lean of peak. Adjust Multi-point EGT systems so the
Takeoff and climb richest (last to peak) EGT is 25° to 50°F (-4° to 10°C) lean of
Maintain full-rich fuel flows, leaning only for density altitude peak. Note on the cruise power settings chart that lean of peak
compensation. Fuel helps cool cylinders during high power operation reduces power by up to 10% at the same RPM and
operations. CHT should be substantially less than 460°F, manifold pressure setting. Do not increase manifold pressure
typically between 380° to 440 °F (193° to 226 °C) on typical “hot or RPM to regain reduced power or speed. The result is the
day” conditions. Oil temperatures should be less than 220°F same as leaning from a higher power setting. You may also
(105°C). Keep cowl flaps open to assist with cooling. notice in the cruise power settings chart that part of the
perceived fuel flow reduction operating at best economy comes
High-power cruise simply because the power is reduced.
High power cruise is generally defined as power settings
between 65 and 74% of rated engine power. In this range, TCM For all cruise power settings, CHTs should be in the 360° to
recommends the fuel mixture be leaned for best power settings 400°F (182° to 205°C) range and oil temperature between 180°
(see chart below). This can be done by leaning to the values in and 210°F (82° and 100°C). Add fuel or open cowl flaps, as
the POH, or if EGT information is available, lean the mixture by required, to maintain cooler temperatures.
finding peak EGT and adjusting richer to get to best power. The
leanest cylinder EGT (first to peak) should be at least 50°F Low power cruise
(10°C) rich of peak, preferably 75°F (24°C) rich of peak. Since Low power cruise is generally defined as power settings below
a 75 to 100°F (24 to 38°C) EGT spread is usual, a single point 65%. In this range, duty cycles and temperatures are lower,
EGT system should be adjusted to at least 125°F (52°C) rich of and operation over a broader range is generally permitted.
peak. Multi-point EGT systems should be adjusted so the Regular operation is still recommended to be in the best power
cylinder with the leanest (first to peak) EGT is 50° to 75°F (10° range with lean of peak or best economy reserved for trips
to 24°C) rich of peak. For turbocharged engines, turbine inlet where extended range is desired. Adjust fuel mixture in the
temperature (TIT) limitations may restrict leaning. In those sequence described under the high-power cruise heading.
cases, comply with the AFM/POH instructions. When operating the engine with the fuel mixture lean of peak,
advancing manifold pressure or RPM from standard settings to
Lean of peak operation in the best economy range as shown regain lost power is prohibited.
on the cruise power settings chart is permitted on many models
and should be used primarily for trips where extended range is
desired. Lean of peak operation requires the operator to
monitor EGT closely, as power and temperature may change
Turbocharged engines
Turbocharged engines usually operate at increased power with Therefore, attempting to limit EGTs in an attempt to be kind to
higher air temperatures in the cylinders. Aggressive leaning at the engine is wrongheaded.
high power settings reduces detonation margins and should not
be practised. Always stay within the safe engine operational • Limiting CHTs is essential to ensure cylinder longevity.
margins outlined in the AFM/POH. In addition to effects on • Limiting EGTs accomplishes nothing useful.
cylinder life, operation at high exhaust gas temperatures also
affects turbocharger, wastegate and exhaust system life. One caveat: Turbocharged engines usually have a turbine inlet
temperature (TIT) red line that should be observed, particularly
CHT and EGT when flying at flight level altitudes. The purpose of the TIT limit
From an engine management perspective, it is crucial to is to protect the fast-spinning turbine wheel from blade stretch.
understand that CHT and EGT tell us quite different things The TIT limit is usually either 1,650°F (900°C) or 1,750°F
about what is going on inside the engine. CHT mainly reflects (955°C), depending on the model of turbocharger installed.
what is going on in the cylinder during the Otto cycle power
stroke before the exhaust valve opens, while EGT mainly Factors affecting CHT
reflects what is going on during the exhaust stroke after the CHT increases when power is increased; it also increases
exhaust valve opens: when cooling airflow is decreased. But several other factors
also affect CHT.
• CHT measures heat energy wasted during the power
stroke when the cylinder is under maximum stress from Recall that during the Otto cycle power stroke, peak internal
high internal pressures and temperatures. cylinder pressure and temperature optimally occur at 15° to 20°
• EGT measures heat energy wasted during the exhaust of crankshaft rotation after top dead centre. Anything that
stroke when the cylinder is under relatively low stress. causes it to occur earlier (i.e., closer to TDC) increases CHT,
and anything that causes it to occur later (further from TDC)
High CHTs generally indicate that the engine is under decreases CHT.
excessive stress. That is why it is so important to manage the
powerplant in a fashion that limits CHTs to a tolerable value. By For example, advancing the ignition timing so that the spark
contrast, high EGTs do not indicate that the engine is under plug fires earlier causes the power peak to occur earlier and
excessive stress. They simply indicate that much energy from increases CHT. Retarding the ignition timing so that the spark
the fuel is being wasted out the exhaust pipe rather than being plug fires later causes the power peak to occur later and
extracted in the form of mechanical energy sent to the decreases CHT.
propeller. High EGTs do not represent a threat to engine
longevity. The engine is simply not capable of producing EGTs
that are high enough to harm anything.
Alternatively, changing the mixture can affect CHT by changing Note: The absolute value of EGT is not important. It is quite
the rate at which the air/fuel charge burns, and therefore common for different cylinders of the same engine to
causing the power peak to occur earlier or later. The burn rate indicate quite different EGTs, and that is perfectly
of the air/fuel charge is fastest a mixture that is slightly richer normal. What is important is the relative value of EGT for
than stoichiometric, approximately 50°F (10°C) rich of peak a particular cylinder compared to that cylinder’s peak
EGT (50°F (10°C) ROP). Either richening or leaning the mixture EGT value. In other words, we do not care whether a
from that point decreases the burn rate, causes the power peak cylinder’s EGT is 1,390°F (755°C) or 1,460°F (795°C);
to occur later and consequently reduces CHT. what we care about is whether the cylinder’s EGT is
80°F (26°C) ROP or 30°F (-1°C) LOP.
Failure of one spark plug or magneto can also affect CHT
because the air/fuel mixture takes longer to burn when it is EGT is also affected by ignition performance. Advanced ignition
ignited by only one spark plug instead of two. This causes θ pp timing that ignites the air/fuel charge earlier and causes the
to occur later and CHT to decrease. power peak to occur earlier decreases EGT. Retarded ignition
timing that ignites the air/fuel charger later and causes the
Factors affecting EGT power peak to occur later increases EGT. Failure of one spark
EGT is affected by the mixture. Peak EGT occurs at plug or magneto causes the air/fuel charge to take longer to
approximately the “stoichiometric” (chemically correct) mixture burn, so it causes the power peak to occur later and EGT to
of 14.7 pounds (kg) of air for each pound (kg) of fuel, at which increase. (You can see this EGT rise every time you do a pre-
there is precisely the right amount of oxygen to oxidise all the flight magneto check.)
hydrocarbon chains in the fuel. Leaner mixtures cause EGT to
decrease simply because less fuel produces less energy. Finally, a burned exhaust valve can increase EGT if it allows
Richer mixtures also cause EGT to decrease because excess some of the ultra-hot gas during the peak-temperature phase
(unoxidised) fuel absorbs heat energy when it vaporises. of the power stroke to leak past the valve and impinge on the
Consequently, peak EGT can be used to identify a EGT sensor probe located a few inches beyond the cylinder’s
stoichiometric mixture and decreases in EGT from peak can be exhaust port. Even a badly burned valve permits only a tiny
used to establish mixtures richer or leaner than stoichiometric amount of gas leakage. The EGT increase caused by a burned
(ROP and LOP). exhaust valve is usually quite small (typically a rise of 1,400°F
to 1,500°F EGT (760° to 815°C)) and quite easy to miss unless
you pay close attention.

Reasons for engine failure
The following discusses the common reasons for aircraft Crankcase
engine failure. Crankcases are also rarely replaced at major overhaul. They
are typically repaired as necessary, align-bored to restore
Crankshaft critical fits and limits, and often provide reliable service for
There is no more severe failure mode than crankshaft failure. If many TBOs. If the case remains in service long enough, it will
it fails, the engine stops. Yet crankshafts are rarely replaced at eventually crack. The good news is that case cracks propagate
overhaul. slowly enough that a detailed visual inspection once a year is
sufficient to detect such cracks before they pose a threat to
Lycoming did a study that showed their crankshafts often safety. Engine failures caused by case cracks are extremely
remain in service for more than 14,000 hours (that’s 7+ TBOs) rare.
and 50 years. Continental has not published any data on this,
but their crankshafts probably have similar longevity.
Crankshafts fail in three ways:
• infant-mortality due to improper materials or

manufacture;
• following unreported prop strikes; and
• secondary to oil starvation or bearing failure.
Over the past 15 years, there has been a rash of infant-

mortality failures of crankshafts. Both Continental and
Lycoming have had major recalls of crankshafts that were
either forged from inferior steel or were damaged during
manufacture. These failures invariably occurred within the first
200 hours after the new crankshaft entered service. If the
crankshaft survived its first 200 hours, we can be confident that
it was manufactured correctly and should perform reliably for
numerous TBOs.

Crankshaft failure
Crankcase cracks

Camshaft and lifters Gears
The cam/lifter interface endures more pressure and friction The engine has lots of gears: crankshaft and camshaft gears,
than any other moving parts in the engine. The cam lobes and oil pump gears, accessory drive gears for fuel pump, magnetos,
lifter faces must be hard and smooth to function and survive. prop governor, and sometimes alternator. These gears are
made of case-hardened steel and typically have a very long
Even tiny corrosion pits (caused by disuse or acid build-up in useful life. They are not usually replaced at overhaul unless
the oil) can lead to rapid destruction (spalling) of the surfaces apparent damage is found. Engine gears rarely cause
and dictate the need for a premature engine teardown. Cam catastrophic engine failures.
and lifter spalling is the number one reason that engines fail to
make TBO, and it is becoming an epidemic in the owner-flown Oil pump
fleet where aircraft tend to fly irregularly and sit unflown for Failure of the oil pump is rarely the cause of catastrophic
weeks at a time. engine failures. If oil pressure is lost, the engine will seize
quickly. But the oil pump is simple, consisting of two steel gears
Cam and lifter problems seldom cause catastrophic engine inside a close-tolerance aluminium housing, and usually
failures. Even with a badly spalled cam lobe (like the one operates trouble-free.
pictured below right), the engine continues to run and make
good power. Typically, a problem like this is discovered at a The pump housing can get scored if a chunk of metal passes
routine oil change when the oil filter is cut open and found to through the oil pump – although the oil pickup tube has a
contain a substantial quantity of ferrous metal. Sometimes a suction screen to prevent this. Even if the pump housing is
cylinder is removed for some other reason, and the worn cam damaged, the pump has typically ample output to maintain
lobe can be inspected visually. adequate oil pressure in flight; the problem is mainly noticeable
during idle and taxi. If the pump output seems deficient at idle,
If the engine is flown regularly, the cam and lifters can remain the oil pump housing can be removed and replaced without
in good condition for thousands of hours. At overhaul, the cam tearing down the engine.
and lifters are often replaced with new ones, although a
reground cam and reground lifters are sometimes used and can
be just as reliable.

Worn camshaft and lifters

Bearings
Bearing failure is responsible for a significant number of Spun bearings are usually infant-mortality failures that occur
catastrophic engine failures. Under normal circumstances, either shortly after an engine is overhauled (due to an assembly
bearings have a long useful life. They are always replaced at error) or shortly after cylinder replacement (due to lack of
major overhaul, but it is not unusual for bearings removed at preload on the through bolts). Failures occasionally occur after
overhaul to be in pristine condition with little detectable wear. a long period of crankcase fretting, but such fretting is usually
detectable through oil filter inspection and oil analysis. They
Bearings fail prematurely for three reasons: can also occur after extreme unpreheated cold starts, but that
is quite rare.
• they become contaminated with metal from some other
failure; Connecting rods
• they become oil-starved when oil pressure is lost; or Connecting rod failure is responsible for a significant number of
• main bearings become oil-starved because they shift in catastrophic engine failures. When a rod fails in flight, it often
their crankcase supports to the point where their oil punches a hole in the crankcase (thrown rod) and causes loss
supply holes become misaligned. of engine oil and subsequent oil starvation. Rod failure has also
been known to cause camshaft breakage. The result is
Contamination failures can generally be prevented by using a invariably a rapid and often total loss of engine power.
full-flow oil filter and inspecting the filter for metal at every oil
change. So long as the filter is changed before its filtering Connecting rods usually have a long useful life and are not
capacity is exceeded, metal particles are caught by the filter generally replaced at overhaul. (Rod bearings, like all bearings,
and do not get into the engine’s oil galleries and contaminate are always replaced at overhaul.) Many rod failures are infant-
the bearings. If a significant quantity of metal is found in the mortality failures caused by improper tightening of the rod cap
filter, the aircraft should be grounded until the source is bolts during engine assembly. Rod failures can also be caused
identified and the problem corrected. by the failure of the rod bearings, often due to oil starvation.
Such failures are usually random failures unrelated to time
Oil-starvation failures are relatively rare. Pilots tend to be well- since overhaul.
trained to respond to decreasing oil pressure by reducing
power and landing at the first opportunity. Bearings continue to
function correctly at partial power even with fairly low oil
pressure.

Worn bearing shells ‘Thrown’ rod

Pistons and rings Valves and valve guides
Piston and ring failures usually cause only partial power loss, It is quite common for exhaust valves and valve guides to
but in rare cases can cause complete power loss. Piston and develop problems well short of TBO. Actual valve failures are
ring failures are of two types: becoming much less common nowadays because incipient
problems can usually be detected using borescope inspections
• infant-mortality failures due to improper manufacturer or and digital engine monitor surveillance. Even if a valve fails
assembly; and completely, the result is usually only partial power loss and an
• heat-distress failures caused by preignition or on-airport emergency landing.
destructive detonation events. Heat-distress failures can
be caused by contaminated fuel (e.g., 100LL laced with Rocker arms and pushrods
Jet A), or by improper engine operation. Rocker arms and pushrods (which operate the valves) typically
have a long useful life and are generally not replaced at
They are generally unrelated to hours or years since overhaul. overhaul. (Rocker bushings, like all bearings, are always
A digital engine monitor can alert the pilot to preignition or replaced at overhaul.) Rocker arm failure is quite rare. Pushrod
destructive detonation events in time for the pilot to take failures are caused by stuck valves and can almost always be
corrective action before heat-distress damage is done. avoided through regular borescope inspections. Even when
they happen, such failures usually result in only partial power
Cylinders loss.
Cylinder failures usually cause only partial power loss, but
occasionally can cause complete power loss. A cylinder Magnetos and other ignition components
consists of a forged steel barrel mated to an aluminium alloy Magneto failure is commonplace. Magnetos are full of plastic
head casting. Cylinder barrels typically wear slowly, and components that are less than robust; plastic is used because
excessive wear is detected at annual inspection using it is non-conductive. Fortunately, aircraft engines are equipped
compression tests and borescope inspections. Cylinder heads with dual magnetos for redundancy, and the probability of both
can suffer fatigue failures, and occasionally the head can magnetos failing simultaneously is exceptionally remote.
separate from the barrel. As dramatic as it sounds, a head Magneto checks during pre-flight run-up can detect ignition
separation causes only a partial loss of power; a six-cylinder system failures, but in-flight magneto checks are far better at
engine with a head-to-barrel separation can still make better detecting subtle or incipient failures. Digital engine monitors
than 80% power. Cylinder failures can be infant-mortality can reliably detect ignition system malfunctions in real-time if
failures (due to improper manufacture) or age-related failures the pilot is trained to interpret the data. Magnetos should be
(especially if the cylinder head remains in service for more than disassembled, inspected, and serviced every 500 hours; doing
two or three TBOs). Nowadays, most major overhauls include so drastically reduces the likelihood of an in-flight magneto
new cylinders, so age-related cylinder failures have become failure.
quite rare.
Valve failure
Cylinder failure
Magneto gear tooth failure

Summary
The bottom-end components of piston aircraft engines
– crankcase, crankshaft, camshaft, bearings, gears, oil pump,
etc., – are very robust. They usually exhibit long useful life that
are many multiples of published TBOs. Most of these bottom-
end components (with the notable exception of bearings) are
routinely reused at major overhaul and not replaced on a
routine basis. When these items do fail prematurely, the failures
are mostly infant-mortality failures that occur shortly after the
engine is built, rebuilt or overhauled, or they are random
failures unrelated to hours or years in service. The vast majority
of random failures can be detected long before they get bad
enough to cause an in-flight engine failure simply through
routine oil-filter inspection and laboratory oil analysis.
The top-end components; pistons, cylinders, valves, etc., are

considerably less robust. It is not at all unusual for top-end
components to fail before TBO. However, most of these failures
can be prevented by regular borescope inspections and by use
of modern digital engine monitors. Even when they happen,
top-end failures usually result in only partial power loss and a
successful on-airport landing, and they usually can be resolved
without having to remove the engine from the aircraft and
sending it to an engine shop. Most top-end failures are infant-
mortality or random failures that do not correlate with time since
overhaul.
The bottom line is that the traditional practice of fixed-interval

engine overhaul or replacement is unwarranted and
counterproductive. A conscientiously applied program of
condition monitoring that includes regular oil filter inspection, oil
analysis, borescope inspections and digital engine monitor
data analysis can yield improved reliability and much-reduced
expense and downtime.
Top end and bottom end components

Other reasons for removal
The following paragraphs outline the most common reasons for Sudden reduction in speed
removing and replacing a reciprocating engine. Information aid Sudden reduction in engine speed can occur when one or more
in determining engine conditions that require removal is of the propeller blades strike an object at a low engine RPM.
included; however, in every case, consult applicable After impact, the foreign object is cleared, and the engine
manufacturer’s instructions as the final authority in establishing recovers RPM and continues to run unless stopped to prevent
the basis for an engine replacement. further damage.
Engine life expired While taxiing an aircraft, a sudden reduction in speed can occur
Engine life is dependent upon such factors as operational when the propeller strikes a foreign object, such as a raised
misuse, the quality of manufacture or overhaul, the type of section in the runway, a toolbox, or a portion of another
aircraft in which the engine is installed, the kind of operation aeroplane. Investigation of engines on which this type of
being carried out, and the degree to which preventive accident occurred has shown that generally no internal damage
maintenance is accomplished. Thus, it is impossible to results when the RPM is low, for then the power output is low.
establish definite engine removal times. However, based on The propeller absorbs most of the shock. However, when the
service experience, it is possible to establish a maximum accident occurs at high engine RPM, shocks are much more
expected life span of an engine. Regardless of condition, an severe. When a sudden reduction in RPM occurs, the following
engine should be removed when it has accumulated the action should be taken.
recommended maximum allowable time since the last
overhaul, including any allowable time extension. Make a thorough external inspection of the engine mount,
crankcase, and nose section to determine whether any parts
Sudden stoppage have been damaged. If damage is found which cannot be
A sudden stoppage is a very rapid and complete stoppage of corrected by line maintenance, remove the engine.
the engine. It can be caused by engine seizure or by one or
more of the propeller blades striking an object in such a way Remove the engine oil screens or filters. Inspect them for the
that RPM goes to zero in less than one complete revolution of presence of metal particles. Remove the engine sump plugs,
the propeller. The sudden stoppage may occur under such drain the oil into a clean container, strain it through a clean
conditions as the complete and rapid collapse of the landing cloth, and check the cloth and the strained oil for metal
gear, nosing over of the aircraft, or crash landing. Sudden particles. Heavy metal particles in the oil indicate a definite
stoppage can cause internal damage, such as cracked engine failure, and the engine must be removed. However, if
propeller gear teeth, gear train damage in the rear section, the metal particles present are similar to fine filings, continue
crankshaft misalignment, or damaged propeller bearings. the inspection of the engine to determine its serviceability.
When a sudden stoppage occurs, the engine is usually
replaced.
When the propeller strikes the ground, and stops the engine, it is known as ‘sudden stoppage’

If there are no heavy metal particles in the engine oil, give the Start the engine to see if the operation is smooth and the power
engine a flight test. If the engine operates properly during this output adequate. If the engine operates properly during this
flight, look again for any metal in the oil system. If none is found, ground check, shut the engine down and repeat the inspection
continue the engine in service. Recheck the oil screens for the for metal particles in the oil system.
presence of metal after 10 hours of operation and again after
20 hours. If no indication of internal failure is found after
20 hours of operation, the engine probably requires no further
special inspections.
Remove the propeller and check the crankshaft, or the

propeller drive shaft on reduction-gear engines, for
misalignment. Clamp a test indicator to the nose section of the
engine. Use the dial-type reversible indicator, which has
1∕
1,000" (0.025 mm) graduations. Remove the front or outside
spark plugs from all the cylinders. Then turn the crankshaft and
observe if the crankshaft or propeller shaft runs out at either the
front or rear propeller cone seat locations.
If there is an excessive run-out reading at the crankshaft or

propeller driveshaft at the front seat location, the engine should
be removed. Consult the applicable manufacturer’s instructions
for permissible limits. Even though the run-out of the crankshaft
or propeller driveshaft at the front cone seat is less than
allowable limits, the rear cone seat location should be checked.
If any run-out is found at the rear seat location, which is not in
the same plane as the run-out at the front cone seat location,
the engine should be removed.
If the crankshaft or propeller drive shaft run-out does not

exceed these limits, install a serviceable propeller. Make an
additional check by tracking the propeller at the tip in the same
plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation to assure that blade
track tolerance is within the prescribed limits.

Metal particles in the oil Unstable engine operation
Metal particles on the engine oil screens or the magnetic sump Engines are usually removed when there is consistent unstable
plugs are generally an indication of partial internal failure of the engine operation. Unstable engine operation generally includes
engine. However, due to the construction of aircraft oil systems, one or more of the following conditions:
metal particles may have collected in the oil system sludge at
the time of a previous engine failure. Furthermore, carbon • excessive engine vibration;
tends to break loose from the interior of the engine in rock-like • backfiring, either consistent or intermittent;
pieces which have the appearance of metal. It is necessary to • cutting-out while in flight; or
consider these possibilities when foreign particles are found on • low power output.
the engine oil screens or sump plugs.
Before removing an engine for suspected internal failure as

indicated by foreign material on the oil screens or oil sump
plugs, determine if the foreign particles are metal by placing
them on a flat metal object and striking them with a hammer. If
the material is carbon, it will disintegrate, whereas metal will
either remain intact or change shape, depending on its
malleability.
If the particles are metal, determine the probable extent of

internal damage. For example, if only small particles are found
which are similar to filings, drain the oil system, and refill it.
Then ground-run the engine and reinspect the oil screens and
sump plugs. If no additional particles are found, the aircraft
should be test-flown, followed by an inspection of the oil
screens and sump plugs. If no further evidence of foreign
material is found, continue the engine in service. However,
engine performance should be closely observed for any
indication of difficulty or internal failure.

Overhaul periods
Private category aircraft
Aircraft in the private category (not exceeding 2,730 kg) can However, here are some typical examples:
continue in service beyond the overhaul period indefinitely as
long as an inspection is carried out by a licensed engineer • External Inspections
before the 120% period is used. Overheating; security of attachment of components;
cracked support brackets and casings; excessive play in
If these inspections are successful, then the engine may shafts and bearings.
continue in service, being reassessed at 100-hour intervals or
annually, whichever comes first. • Internal Inspections
Check filters, magnetic chip detectors, spark plug
Public transport and aerial work category aircraft condition (oiling, etc.).
Aircraft engines in the public transport and aerial work category
may continue to remain in service but are prohibited from being • Oil Consumption
employed in public transport or aerial work above the 120% This check must be carried out during the last ten hours
period and must have their Certificate of Airworthiness of the overhaul period. If the oil consumption rate is
endorsed to this effect. Inspections are the same above 120% within the manufacturer’s recommendations, then an
as for the private category. extension is acceptable.
You must read the CAA document CAP 747 GR No. 24: ‘Light The periods between overhaul are usually calculated in flying
Aircraft Piston Engine Overhaul Periods’ (download from the hours. However, during everyday use, the engine may be
CAA website). subjected to different environmental conditions and loads
(aerobatic – hard use, private flying – easy use). So, the
Engine inspection procedures for an extension to condition of the engine when the overhaul period is due may
overhaul life differ significantly from one engine to another.
Most of these procedures are laid down by the manufacturers
in their overhaul manuals. Therefore, at the discretion of the operator/owner, some
manufacturers may permit the engine to exceed the
recommended overhaul period, if the engine condition shows it
to be justified. However, certain rules cover these conditions.

Engines that have been installed since new or since major For aero engines, the major servicing is known as an overhaul,
overhaul for more than ten years, and are not due overhaul, and this can be defined as a major work operation that involves
must be inspected at yearly or 100-hour intervals, whichever dismantling, bench testing and removal of working parts to
comes first. If the condition of the engine is acceptable at these enable the engine to continue in service. So, who decides when
inspection times, then the engine is allowed to complete its an aircraft engine needs to be overhauled?
recommended period between overhauls.
Usually, the national aviation authority accepts the engine
The inspection, however, must be carried out by a fully manufacturer’s recommended overhaul period, which results
qualified, appropriately licensed engineer. from following a laid down procedure approved by that
authority.
An engine may continue in service beyond its recommended
overhaul period not exceeding 20% of the recommended Light aircraft engines are those which:
period between overhaul life, but only when the appropriately
licensed engineer has inspected the aircraft engine just before • are installed in an aircraft whose maximum weight does
the termination of its standard period, to assess its conditions. not exceed 2,730 kg; or
If proved satisfactory, the engine can continue in service and • with an output of 400 hp or less.
be inspected at 100-hour or yearly intervals, whichever comes
first, until the 20% extension is used up.
Crop spraying aircraft

Note that for crop spraying aircraft engines, the 100-hour
inspection interval is reduced to 50 hours.
Extensions to overhaul periods

At the end of the 20% extension, any further extensions depend
upon the following.
Overhaul periods (light aircraft)

Aircraft piston engines, like other mechanical components,
have to be serviced at set intervals. However, the degree of
servicing differs greatly, for instance, from the servicing that
may be carried out on a car engine.

Engine overhaul
Both maintenance and overhaul operations are performed on It includes removal of the units, such as exhaust collectors,
aircraft powerplants at specified intervals. This interval is ignition harness, and intake pipes, necessary to remove the
usually governed by the number of hours the powerplant has cylinders. The actual top overhaul consists of reconditioning the
been in operation. Tests and experience have shown that cylinder, piston, and valve-operating mechanism, and replacing
operation beyond this period is inefficient and even dangerous the valve guides and piston rings if needed.
because certain parts are worn beyond their safe limits. For an
overhauled engine to be as airworthy as a new one, worn parts, Usually, at this time, the accessories require no attention other
as well as damaged parts, must be detected and replaced than that generally required during ordinary maintenance
during overhaul. The only way to detect all unairworthy parts is functions.
to perform a thorough and complete inspection while the engine
is disassembled. The principal purpose of the overhaul is to A top overhaul is not recommended by all aircraft engine
inspect the engine parts. Inspection is the most precise and the manufacturers. Many stress that if an engine requires this much
most critical phase of the overhaul. Inspection cannot be dismantling, it should be completely disassembled and receive
slighted or performed carelessly or incompletely. a major overhaul.
Each engine manufacturer provides specific tolerances to Major overhaul

which his engine parts must conform and provides general Major overhaul consists of the complete reconditioning of the
instructions to aid in determining the airworthiness of the part. powerplant. The actual overhaul period for a specific engine is
However, in many cases, the final decision is left up to the generally determined by the manufacturer’s recommendations
mechanic. He must determine if the part is serviceable, or by the maximum hours of operation between overhaul, as
repairable, or should be rejected. Knowledge of the operating approved by the authority.
principles, strength, and stresses applied to a part is essential At regular intervals, an engine should be completely
in making this decision. When the powerplant mechanic signs dismantled, thoroughly cleaned, and inspected. Each part
for the overhaul of an engine, he certifies that he has performed should be overhauled per the manufacturer’s instructions and
the work using methods, techniques, and practices acceptable tolerances for the engine involved. At this time, all accessories
to the CAA surveyor. are removed, overhauled, and tested. Here again, instructions
Top overhaul of the manufacturer of the accessory concerned should be
Modern aircraft engines are constructed of such durable followed.
materials that top overhaul has mostly been eliminated. Top
overhaul means an overhaul of those parts ‘on top’ of the
crankcase without completely dismantling the engine.
Top overhaul Major overhaul

General overhaul procedures
Because of the continued changes and the many different • Always use the proper tool for the job and the one that
types of engines in use, it is not possible to treat the specific fits. Use sockets and box end wrenches wherever
overhaul of each in this module. However, there are various possible. If special tools are required, use them rather
overhaul practices and instructions of a non-specific nature than improvising.
which apply to all makes and models of engines. These general • Drain the engine oil sumps and remove the oil filter.
instructions are described in this section. Drain the oil into a suitable container; strain it through a
clean cloth. Check the oil and the cloth for metal
Any engine to be overhauled completely should receive a run- particles.
out check of its crankshaft or propeller shaft as a first step. Any
question concerning crankshaft or propeller shaft replacement
is resolved at this time since a shaft whose run-out is beyond
limits must be replaced.
Disassembly
Since visual inspection immediately follows disassembly, all
individual parts should be laid out in an orderly manner on a
workbench as they are removed. To guard against damage and
to prevent loss, suitable containers should be available in which
to place small parts, nuts, bolts, etc., during the disassembly
operation.
Other practices to observe during disassembly include:
• Before disassembly, wash the exterior of the engine

thoroughly.
• Dispose of all safety devices as they are removed.
Never reuse safety wire or split pins. Always replace with
new safety devices.
• All loose studs and loose or damaged fittings should be
carefully tagged to prevent them from being overlooked
during the inspection.

Inspection terminology
Several terms are used to describe defects detected in engine Crack – A partial separation of material usually caused by
parts during an inspection. Some of the more common terms vibration, overloading, internal stresses, defective assembly, or
and definitions are listed here. fatigue. Depth may be a few thousandths to the full thickness
of the piece.
Abrasion – An area of roughened scratches or marks usually
caused by foreign matter between moving parts or surfaces. Cut – Loss of metal, usually to an appreciable depth over a
relatively long and narrow area, by mechanical means, as
Brinelling – One or more indentations on bearing races would occur with the use of a saw blade, chisel or sharp-edged
usually caused by high static loads or application of force stone striking a glancing blow.
during installation or removal. Indentations are rounded or
spherical due to the impression left by the contacting balls or Dent – A small, rounded depression in a surface, usually
rollers of the bearing. caused by the part being struck with a rounded object.
Burning – Surface damage due to excessive heat. It is usually Erosion – Loss of metal from the surface by the mechanical
caused by improper fit, defective lubrication, or action of foreign objects, such as grit or fine sand. The eroded
overtemperature operation. area will be rough and may be lined in the direction in which the
foreign material moved relative to the surface.
Burnishing – Polishing of one surface by sliding contact with
a smooth, harder surface. Usually no displacement nor removal Flaking – The breaking loose of small pieces of metal or
of metal. coated surfaces, which is usually caused by defective plating
or excessive loading.
Burr – A sharp or roughened projection of metal usually
resulting from machine processing. Fretting – A condition of surface erosion caused by minute
movement between two parts usually clamped together with
Chafing – Describes a condition caused by a rubbing action considerable unit pressure.
between two parts under light pressure which results in wear.
Galling – A severe condition of chafing or fretting in which a
Chipping – The breaking away of pieces of material, which is transfer of metal from one part to another occurs. It is usually
usually caused by excessive stress concentration or careless caused by a slight movement of mated parts having limited
handling. relative motion and under high loads.
Corrosion – Loss of metal by chemical or electrochemical Gouging – A furrowing condition in which a displacement of
action. The corrosion products generally are easily removed by metal has occurred (a torn effect). It is usually caused by a
mechanical means. Iron rust is an example of corrosion. piece of metal or foreign material between close moving parts.
Grooving – A recess or channel with rounded and smooth Upsetting – A displacement of material beyond the normal
edges usually caused by the faulty alignment of parts. contour or surface (a local bulge or bump). Usually indicates no
metal loss.
Inclusion – Presence of foreign or extraneous material wholly
within a portion of the metal. Such material is introduced during
the manufacture of rod, bar, or tubing by rolling or forging.
Nick – A sharp sided gouge or depression with a V-shaped

bottom which is generally the result of careless handling of
tools and parts.
Peening – A series of blunt depressions in a surface.
Pick up or scuffing – A build-up or rolling of metal from one

area to another, which is usually caused by insufficient
lubrication, clearances, or foreign matter.
Pitting – Small hollows of irregular shape in the surface,

usually caused by corrosion or slight mechanical chipping of
surfaces.
Scoring – A series of deep scratches caused by foreign

particles between moving parts, or careless assembly or
disassembly techniques.
Scratches – Shallow, thin lines or marks, varying in degree of

depth and width, caused by the presence of fine foreign
particles during operation or contact with other parts during
handling.
Stain – A change in colour, locally, causing a noticeably

different appearance from the surrounding area.

Inspection procedures solution of acetic acid at room temperature can be applied for
The inspection of engine parts during overhaul is divided into a maximum of one minute. The part should then be rinsed with
three categories: a solution of 1 oz (30 g) of ammonia in 1 gallon (4.5 l) of water.
• visual; Examine all gears for evidence of pitting or excessive wear.
• magnetic; and These conditions are of particular importance when they occur
• dimensional. on the teeth; deep pit marks in this area are sufficient cause to
reject the gear. Bearing surfaces of all gears should be free
The first two methods are aimed at determining structural from deep scratches. However, minor abrasions usually can be
failures in the parts, while the last method deals with the size dressed out with fine abrasive cloth.
and shape of each part. Structural failures can be determined
by several different methods. Non-austenitic steel parts can All bearing surfaces should be examined for scores, galling,
readily be examined by the magnetic particle method. Other and wear. Considerable scratching and light scoring of
methods, such as X-ray or etching, can also be used. aluminium bearing surfaces in the engine does no harm and
should not be considered a reason for rejecting the part,
A visual inspection should precede all other inspection provided it falls within the clearances outlined in the table of
procedures. Parts should not be cleaned before a preliminary limits in the engine manufacturer’s overhaul manual. Even
visual inspection, since indications of failure may often be though the part comes within the specific clearance limits, it is
detected from the residual deposits of metallic particles in some not satisfactory for reassembly in the engine unless inspection
recesses in the engine. shows the part to be free from other serious defects.
Defects in nonmagnetic parts can be found by careful visual Ball bearings should be inspected visually and by feel for
inspection along with a suitable etching process. If it is thought roughness, flat spots on balls, flaking or pitting of races, or
that a crack exists in an aluminium part, clean it by brushing or scoring on the outside of races. All journals should be checked
grit-blasting very carefully to avoid scratching the surface. for galling, scores, misalignment, or out-of-round condition.
Cover the part with a solution made from 1¼ lbs (575 g) of Shafts, pins, etc., should be checked for straightness. This may
sodium hydroxide and 1 pint (0.6 l) of water at room be done in most cases by using V-blocks and a dial indicator.
temperature. Rinse the part thoroughly with water after about
one minute’s contact with the solution. Immediately neutralise Pitted surfaces in highly stressed areas resulting from corrosion
the part with a solution of one-part nitric acid and three-parts of can cause the ultimate failure of the part. The following areas
water heated to 100°F (40°C). Keep the part in this solution until should be scrutinised for evidence of such corrosion:
the black deposit is dissolved. Dry the part with compressed • interior surfaces of piston pins;
air. • the fillets at the edges of crankshaft main and crankpin
If a crack exists, the edges will turn black after this treatment, journal surfaces; and
thus aiding in its detection. For magnesium parts, a 10% • thrust bearing races.

If pitting exists on any of the surfaces mentioned to the extent Regardless of the method and type of solution used, coat or
that it cannot be removed by polishing with crocus cloth or other spray all parts with lubricating oil immediately after cleaning to
mild abrasive, the part usually must be rejected. prevent corrosion.
Parts, such as threaded fasteners or plugs, should be While the degreasing solution will remove dirt, grease, and soft
inspected to determine the condition of the threads. Badly worn carbon, deposits of hard carbon will almost invariably remain
or mutilated threads cannot be tolerated; the parts should be on many interior surfaces. To remove these deposits, they must
rejected. However, small defects such as slight nicks or burrs be loosened first by immersion in a tank containing a
may be dressed out with a small file, fine abrasive cloth, or decarbonising solution (usually heated). A great variety of
stone. If the part appears to be distorted, badly galled, or commercial decarbonising agents are available.
mutilated by overtightening, or from the use of improper tools, Decarbonisers, like the degreasing solutions, previously
replace it with a new one. mentioned, fall generally into two categories, water-soluble and
hydrocarbons; the same caution concerning the use of water-
Cleaning soluble degreasers applies to water-soluble decarbonisers.
After visually inspecting engine recesses for deposits of metal
particles, it is essential to clean all engine parts thoroughly to Extreme caution should be followed when using a
facilitate inspection. Two processes for cleaning engine parts decarbonising solution on magnesium castings. Avoid
are: immersing steel and magnesium parts in the same
decarbonising tank, because this practice often results in
• degreasing to remove dirt and sludge (soft carbon); and damage to the magnesium parts from corrosion.
• the removal of hard carbon deposits by decarbonising,
brushing or scraping, and grit-blasting. Decarbonising usually loosens most of the hard carbon
deposits remaining after degreasing; the complete removal of
Degreasing can be done by immersing or spraying the part in all hard carbon, however, generally requires brushing,
a suitable commercial solvent. Extreme care must be used if scraping, or grit- blasting. In all of these operations, be careful
any water-mixed degreasing solutions containing caustic to avoid damaging the machined surfaces. In particular, wire
compounds or soap are used. In addition to being potentially brushes and metal scrapers must never be used on any
corrosive to aluminium and magnesium, such compounds may bearing or contact surface.
become impregnated in the pores of the metal and cause oil When grit-blasting parts, follow the manufacturer’s
foaming when the engine is returned to service. When using recommendations for the type abrasive material to use. Sand,
water-mixed solutions, therefore, the parts must be rinsed rice, baked wheat, plastic pellets, glass beads, or crushed
thoroughly and completely in clear boiling water after walnut shells are examples of abrasive substances that are
degreasing. used for grit-blasting parts.

Part-cleaned components

All machined surfaces must be adequately masked and all Flanged surfaces that are bent, warped, or nicked can be
openings tightly plugged before blasting. The one exception to repaired by lapping to a true surface on a surface plate. Again,
this is the valve seats, which may be left unprotected when the part should be cleaned to be sure that all abrasive has been
blasting the cylinder head combustion chamber. It is often removed. Defective threads can sometimes be repaired with a
advantageous to grit-blast the seats since this cuts the glaze suitable die or tap. Small nicks can be removed satisfactorily
which tends to form (particularly on the exhaust valve seat), with Swiss pattern files or small, edged stones. Pipe threads
thus facilitating subsequent valve seat reconditioning. Piston should not be tapped deeper to clean them, because this
ring grooves may be grit-blasted if necessary; extreme caution practice results in an oversized tapped hole. If galling or
must be used, however, to avoid the removal of metal from the scratches are removed from a bearing surface of a journal, it
bottom and sides of the grooves. When grit-blasting housings, should be buffed to a high finish.
plug all drilled oil passages with rubber plugs or other suitable
material to prevent the entrance of foreign matter. In general, welding of highly-stressed engine parts is not
recommended for unwelded parts. However, welding may be
The decarbonising solution generally removes most of the accomplished if it can be reasonably expected that the welded
enamel on exterior surfaces. All remaining enamel should be repair will not adversely affect the airworthiness of the engine.
removed by grit- blasting, particularly in the crevices between A part may be welded when:
cylinder cooling fins.
• the weld is located externally and can be inspected
After cleaning operations, rinse the part in petroleum solvent, easily;
dry and remove any loose particles of carbon or other foreign • the part has been cracked or broken as the result of
matter by air-blasting, and apply a liberal coating of unusual loads not encountered in regular operation;
preservative oil to all surfaces. • a new replacement part of an obsolete type of engine is
unavailable; and
Repair and replacement • The welder’s experience and the equipment used
Damage such as burrs, nicks, scratches, scoring, or galling ensures a first-quality weld and the restoration of the
should be removed with a fine oil stone, crocus cloth, or any original heat treatment in heat-treated parts.
similar abrasive substance. Following any repairs of this type,
the part should be cleaned carefully to be sure that all abrasive Many minor parts not subjected to high stresses may be safely
has been removed, and then checked with its mating part to repaired by welding. Mounting lugs, cowl lugs, cylinder fins,
assure that the clearances are not excessive. rocker box covers, and many parts fabricated initially by
welding are in this category. The welded part should be suitably
stress-relieved after welding. However, before welding any
engine part, consult the manufacturer’s instructions for the
engine concerned to see if it is approved for repair by welding.
Parts requiring the use of paint for protection or appearance Magnesium parts should be cleaned thoroughly with a
should be repainted according to the engine manufacturer’s dichromate treatment before painting. This treatment consists
recommendations. One procedure is outlined in the following of cleaning all traces of grease and oil from the part by using a
paragraphs. neutral, non-corrosive degreasing medium followed by a rinse.
Then the part is immersed for at least 45 minutes in a hot
Aluminium alloy parts should have original exterior painted dichromate solution (340g (¾ lb) of sodium dichromate to 4.5 l
surfaces rubbed smooth to provide a proper paint base. See (1 gallon) of water at 80° to 95°C (180° to 200°F)). Next, the
that surfaces to be painted are thoroughly cleaned. Care must part should be washed thoroughly in cold running water, dipped
be taken to avoid painting mating surfaces. Exterior aluminium in hot water, and dried in an air blast. Immediately after that,
parts should be primed first with a thin coat of zinc chromate the part should be painted with a prime coat and engine enamel
primer. Each coat should be either air-dried for two hours or in the same manner as that suggested for aluminium parts.
baked at 177°C (350°F) for half an hour. After the primer is dry,
parts should be painted with engine enamel, which should be Any studs which are bent, broken, damaged, or loose must be
air-dried until hard or baked for half an hour at 82°C (180°F). replaced. After a stud has been removed, the tapped stud hole
Aluminium parts from which the paint has not been removed should be examined for size and condition of threads. If it is
may be reprinted without the use of a priming coat, provided no necessary to re-tap the stud hole, it is also necessary to use a
bare aluminium is exposed. suitable oversize stud. Studs that have been broken off flush
with the case must be drilled and removed with suitable stud
Parts requiring a black gloss finish should be primed first with remover. Be careful not to damage any threads. When
zinc chromate primer and then painted with glossy black replacing studs, coat the coarse threads of the stud with anti-
cylinder enamel. Each coat should be baked for one and a half seize compound.
hours at 177°C (350°F).
If baking facilities are not available, cylinder enamel may be air-

dried; however, an inferior finish results. All paint applied in the
above operations should preferably be sprayed; however, if it
is necessary to use a brush, use care to avoid an accumulation
of paint pockets.

Cylinder assembly inspection and overhaul
Cylinder and piston assemblies are inspected according to the One of the best methods to double-check your findings is to
procedures contained in the engine manufacturer’s manuals, inspect using the Zyglo process. Any crack in the cylinder head,
charts, and service bulletins. except those on the fins which can be worked out, is a reason
for rejecting the cylinder.
A general procedure for inspecting and reconditioning cylinders
(known as top overhaul) is discussed here to provide an Inspect the head fins for other damage besides cracks. Dents
understanding of the operations involved. or bends in the fins should be left alone unless there is a danger
of cracking. Where pieces of the fin are missing, the sharp
Cylinder head edges should be filed to a smooth contour.
Inspect the cylinder head for internal and external cracks.
Carbon deposits must be cleaned from inside of the head, and Fin breakage in a concentrated area will cause dangerous local
paint removed from the outside for this inspection. hot spots. Fin breakage near the spark plug bushings or on the
exhaust side of the cylinder is more dangerous than in other
Exterior cracks show up on the head fins where they have been areas. When removing or reprofiling a cylinder fin, follow the
damaged by tools or contact with other parts because of instructions and the limits in the manufacturer’s manual.
careless handling. Cracks near the edge of the fins are not
dangerous if the portion of the fin is removed and contoured Inspect all the studs on the cylinder head for looseness,
correctly. Cracks at the base of the fin are a reason for rejecting straightness, damaged threads, and proper length. Slightly
the cylinder. Cracks may also occur on the rocker box or in the damaged threads may be chased with the proper die. The
rocker bosses. length of the stud should be correct within ± 1 mm (1∕32") to allow
for proper installation of pal nuts or other safety devices.
Interior cracks will almost always radiate from the valve seat
bosses or the spark plug bushing boss. They may extend from Be sure the valve guides are clean before the inspection. Very
one boss to the other entirely and are usually caused by often, carbon covers pits inside the guide. If a guide in this
improper installation of the seats or bushings. condition is put back in service, carbon again collects in the
pits, and valve sticking results. Besides pits, scores, and
Use a bright light to inspect for cracks and investigate any burned areas inside the valve guide, inspect them for wear or
suspicious areas with a magnifying glass or microscope. looseness.
Cracks in aluminium alloy cylinder heads are generally jagged
because of the granular nature of the metal. Do not mistake
casting marks or laps for a crack.

Most manufacturers provide a maximum wear gauge to check
the dimension of the guide. This gauge should not enter the
guide at all at either end. Do not confuse this gauge with the
Go/No-Go gauge used to check new valve guides after
reaming.
Inspection of valve seat inserts before they are refaced is

mostly a matter of determining if there is enough of the seat left
to correct any pitting, burning, scoring, or out-of-trueness.
Inspect spark plug inserts for the condition of the threads and
looseness; run a tap of the proper size through the bushing.
Very often, the inside threads of the bushing are burned. If
more than one thread is missing, the bushing is rejectable.
Tighten a plug into the bushing to check for looseness.
Inspect the rocker shaft bosses for scoring, cracks, oversize, or

out-of-roundness. Scoring is generally caused by the rocker
shaft turning in the bosses, which means either the shaft was
too loose in the bosses or a rocker arm was too tight on the
shaft. Out-of-roundness is usually caused by a stuck valve. If a
valve sticks, the rocker shaft tends to work up and down when
the valve offers excessive resistance to opening. Inspect for
out-of-roundness and oversize using a telescopic gauge and a
micrometre.

Cylinder barrel
Inspect the cylinder barrel for wear, using a dial indicator, a The measurement for out-of-roundness is usually taken at the
telescopic gauge and micrometre, or an inside micrometre. top of the cylinder. However, a reading should also be taken at
Dimensional inspection of the barrel consists of the following the skirt of the cylinder to detect dents or bends caused by
measurements: careless handling.
• the maximum taper of cylinder walls; A step or ridge is formed in the cylinder by the wearing action
• maximum out-of-roundness; of the piston rings. The greatest wear is at the top of the ring
• bore diameter; travel limit. The ridge which results is very likely to cause
• step; and damage to the rings or piston. If the step exceeds tolerances, it
• fit between piston skirt and cylinder. should be removed by grinding the cylinder oversize, or it
should be blended by hand stoning to break the sharp edge.
All measurements involving cylinder barrel diameters must be
taken at a minimum of two positions 90° apart in the particular A step also may be found where the bottom ring reaches its
plane being measured. It may be necessary to take more than lowest travel. This step is very rarely found to be excessive, but
two measurements to determine the maximum wear. The use it should be checked.
of a dial indicator to check a cylinder bore is shown below left.
Inspect the cylinder walls for rust, pitting, or scores. Mild
The taper of the cylinder walls is the difference between the damage of this sort can be removed when the rings are lapped.
barrel’s diameter at the bottom and the top. The cylinder is With more extensive damage, the cylinder must be reground or
usually worn larger at the top than at the bottom. This taper is honed. If the damage is too deep to be removed by either
caused by the natural wear pattern. At the stroke’s top, the method, the cylinder usually must be rejected. Most engine
piston is subjected to greater heat, pressure and a more manufacturers have an exchange service on cylinders with
erosive environment than at the bottom. Also, there is greater damaged barrels.
freedom of movement at the top of the stroke. Under these
conditions, the piston wears the cylinder wall. Check the cylinder flange for warpage by placing the cylinder
on a suitable jig. Check to see that the flange contacts the jig
In most cases, the taper ends with a ridge, as seen below right, all the way around. The amount of warp can be checked by
which must be removed during overhaul. Where cylinders are using a thickness gauge. A cylinder whose flange is warped
built with an intentional choke, measurement of taper becomes beyond the allowable limits should be rejected.
more complicated. It is necessary to know exactly how the size
indicates wear or taper. The taper can be measured in any
cylinder by a cylinder dial gauge as long as there is not a sharp
step. The dial gauge tends to ride up on the step and causes
inaccurate readings at the top of the cylinder.
Checking cylinder bore with a dial test indicator
Ridge or step formed in an engine cylinder

A method for checking cylinder flange warpage

Engine break-in
Each new production engine is given a standard production
acceptance test. The last part of this test is the oil consumption
run and is conducted at full throttle. The purpose of this test is
the initial seating of the piston rings to the cylinder walls. The
run is conducted at full power because that is where greatest
brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) occurs, and a high
BMEP is necessary for good piston ring break-in. The test
house at the factory determines initial piston ring seating by the
amount of oil consumed by the engine during this run. Only a
few hours are involved in the acceptance test, and the new
engine is by no means wholly broken in. Finishing up the break-
in is the responsibility of the pilot who flies the engine during
the first 100 hours of its life.
The cylinder walls of a new engine are not mirror-smooth as

one might imagine. A special hone is used to put a diamond-
like pattern of scratches over the entire area of the cylinder wall.
The diagrams below show magnified views of these cross-
hatch patterns. The cross-hatch treatment of the cylinder walls
plays an essential role in the proper break-in of piston rings to
cylinder walls.

Cross hatch hone pattern

The illustration below is considerably exaggerated for effect; in The diagram below right is an exaggerated illustration of oil film
reality, the sawtooth effect would not be that pronounced. rupture during the normal break-in process. Note that the points
Notice that a film of lubricating oil holds the piston ring away or ridges of the honed-in scratches have partially worn away.
from the cylinder wall. Proper break-in of piston ring to cylinder During the actual oil film rupture, only the ridges on the piston
wall requires that the ring rupture or break through this oil film rings and cylinder walls contact each other. The little valleys
and contact the cylinder wall. During such metal-to-metal between the ridges retain a film of oil and thereby prevent a
contact, the little peaks on the ring face and cylinder wall total dry condition between the piston ring and cylinder wall.
become white-hot and rub off. This condition continues to occur Notice how BMEP, or combustion pressure, forces the ring
until the ring face and cylinder wall have established a smooth, against the cylinder wall. This is the key to the break-in process.
compatible surface between each other. At this point, break-in You can see then that low power (low BMEP) won’t provide the
is said to be relatively complete, and minimal metal-to-metal same results, and the break-in process requires more time.
contact occurs after. As the break-in progresses, the degree of However, time in this instance has a detrimental effect on the
metal-to-metal contact regresses. engine because any prolonged, low power break-in procedure
usually leads to glazed cylinder walls.
The film of lubricating oil is there to prevent metal-to-metal
contact. Ordinarily, this is what we want. However, during the
break-in process, there must be some minute metal-to-metal
contact as previously explained. Therefore, rupture of the oil
film is necessary. Two factors under the pilot’s control can
retard this necessary rupture; low power, and improper
lubricating oils during the break-in period. Engine lubricating
oils can be divided into two basic categories, compounded
(detergent and ashless dispersant) and non-compounded. The
compounded oils are superior lubricants with a greater film
strength than non-compounded oils.
Consequently, only non-compounded oils should be used

during the break-in period (unless directed by the engine
manufacture, Lycoming require all turbocharged engines to be
broken in using ashless dispersant oil). Some owners insist on
using additives or super lubricants along with the regular
engine oil during the break-in period. They believe that such
practice aids the engine during its break-in. However, this
practice is wrong and causes harm.
Piston ring seating Oil film rupture during ring seating

During each power stroke, the cylinder walls are subjected to Interrupt cruise power every 30 minutes or so with a smooth
extremely high temperatures, often 2,200°C (4,000°F) or advance to full available manifold pressure and RPM for
higher. This period is very brief but long enough to cause 30 seconds then return to original cruise settings (non-
oxidation of minute quantities of some of the lubricating oil on supercharged engines only). This procedure helps to hasten a
the cylinder walls. Some of this oxidation settles into the valleys good break-in. These procedures apply primarily to the break-
of the honed cylinder wall cross-hatch. Eventually, this situation in period and are not necessary after that.
fills the valleys of the cylinder walls creating a smooth, flat
surface. This is also a normal situation; however, the ring Avoid long power-off let downs, especially during the break-in
break-in process practically ceases when these valleys period. Carry enough power during let down to keep cylinder
become filled or glazed over. If this glazed-over process occurs head temperatures at least in the bottom of the green.
before the break-in is complete, “you’ve had it.” Excessive oil
consumption resulting from incomplete ring seating will result, Keep ground running time to absolute minimums, especially
and the only sure remedy is rehoning the cylinder walls; this is during warm weather. During the break-in period, it is better to
both expensive and unnecessary. delay departure than to sit at the end of the runway for
15 minutes or more running in high ambient temperatures.
Duration of the break-in period is usually defined as the first
50 hours or until oil consumption stabilises. Be especially generous with mixture controls and cooling air
during break-in. All takeoffs should be with a full-rich mixture
Oil changes are more critical during the break-in period than at except those from altitudes over 5,000 ft, and then take care to
any other time in the engine’s life. lean only enough to restore power lost from overly rich
mixtures. Make your climbs just a little flatter in hot weather to
Do use full rated power and RPM for every takeoff and maintain assure adequate cooling air.
these settings until at least 400 ft of altitude above the
departing runway is attained. At this point, reduce power to
75% and continue the climb to your cruising altitude.
Maintain 65 to 75% power for all cruise operation during the

break-in period. Avoid high altitude operation with non-
supercharged engines during the break-in period. At altitudes
over 8,000 ft, air density does not permit sufficient cruise power
development with non-supercharged engines.


Cylinder bore inspection
The following is a general procedure for the inspection of the Inspect each cylinder for signatures of heavy wear, below-
cylinder bore. bottom-right. Heavy bore wear is identified as a complete loss
of visible hone pattern over the full ring travel. It generally has
Inspect each cylinder for signatures of everyday wear, below- associated low cylinder differential compression or high oil
top-right. Cylinder walls which appear to have a minimum, or consumption. This generally indicates a need for cylinder repair
no hone pattern are acceptable if the cylinder has good or replacement or, at a minimum, call for more frequent
differential compression readings and the engine has condition inspections.
acceptable oil consumption.
Inspect each cylinder for signatures of scoring. A predominant
Inspect each cylinder for signatures of light rust, below-top-left. amount of cylinder bore scratches or grooves that extend in the
Light rust which has not resulted in pitting of the cylinder wall is direction of piston travel typically leads to low differential
acceptable. Several small, localised areas less than 1.5 mm compression checks and high oil consumption. This may also
(1/16") in diameter are acceptable as long as the total affected be identified by burnt or blistered paint on the exterior of the
areas in any one cylinder do not exceed 25 mm (1") in cylinder barrel and indicates a need for cylinder repair or
diameter. The affected areas must be separated by at least replacement.
12.5 mm (½"). Rust above the top ring travel is inconsequential
and not cause for cylinder removal. Surface discolouration or Cylinder borescope inspections are recommended when
staining is acceptable and does not result in any damage to the reported oil consumption is high, or as routine inspections to
cylinder barrel or the piston rings. monitor cylinder condition. Conducting meaningful borescope
inspections requires practice and experience to interpret the
Inspect each cylinder for signatures of heavy rust, below- limited view available properly.
bottom-left. Cylinder walls which show heavy rust as
characterised by pitting of the cylinder wall surface should be When conducting the borescope inspection, the maintenance
removed for repair or replacement if the cylinder has low technician should examine the cylinder for the presence of rust
differential compression or the engine oil consumption is high. and overall condition of the cylinder bore and valve area.
Areas of corrosion where the honed surfaces have been altered
are of primary concern. These areas usually are very dark in
contrast to the surrounding areas. Small localised areas less
than 12.5 mm (½") in diameter are acceptable as long as there
are no signatures of scoring or material pick up.

Light rust formation, hone not affected Typical bore at TBO
Heavy rust formation, surface pitting has altered honed pattern Heavily worn cylinder bore

To provide improved rust formation protection in new cylinders, The following figures show hone patterns in a new cylinder and
TCM cylinders produced have a manganese phosphate at TBO for typical TCM cylinders. As can be seen from the
coating. These cylinders have an advanced multi-step hone photograph at TBO, below-top-right, cylinders which have a
pattern to aid in oil retention. Note that the phosphated cylinder very light or no hone pattern in the upper portion of the bore
bore has a dark grey to brownish colour that wears away as can function normally, have regular oil consumption and have
hours in service are accumulated. Infrequent or irregular use of acceptable differential compression checks. For this reason,
the aircraft can easily lead to rust formation, which may result the borescope inspection should be used in conjunction with
in reduced cylinder life if the engine is not correctly preserved. differential compression checks and oil consumption trends to
assess engine condition.
Caution: The practice of ground running as a substitute for
regular use of the aircraft is unacceptable. Ground running Scratches or grooves that extend in the direction of piston travel
does not provide adequate cooling for the cylinders. Also, can result from contamination and may lead to low differential
ground running introduces water and acids into the lubrication compression checks and high oil consumption. Heavy bore
system, which can cause substantial damage over time to wear with a complete loss of visible hone pattern over the full
cylinders and other engine components such as camshafts. ring travel can result from an over-temperature operation or
Turning the propeller by hand is not recommended as this abrasive wear, as shown below-bottom-right. These
wipes off the residual oil. signatures, in conjunction with low differential compression
checks or high oil consumption, generally indicate cylinder
Borescope inspections of the cylinder wall are performed to repair or replacement or, at minimum, call for more frequent
assess the condition of the hone pattern and identify abnormal condition inspections.
wear patterns which can contribute to low differential
compression readings or increased oil consumption. Over time, the cylinder wall may develop a glazed coating
which is generally beneficial to cylinder life as a rust inhibitor.
The cylinder wall hone pattern consists of a carefully applied The glaze is a residue of hydrocarbon constituents and lead
pattern of surface scratches introduced at the time of deposits which serve as both a rust inhibitor and lubricant.
manufacture. These scratches aid in ring-seating by allowing Changes and variations in fuel constituents and types of oil
the ring and wall surface to wear into conformity to each other used in recent years may impact this beneficial coating. TCM’s
and provide a reservoir of oil for lubrication during ring travel. revised hone pattern, reduced oil control ring tension and
The cylinder walls and rings are designed to wear over the life manganese phosphate coating are intended to offset this
of the engine, particularly in the high pressure and temperature impact.
combustion area. The visible hone pattern in the upper portion
of the bore may disappear during regular operation. Such
patterns are normal and not a cause for cylinder removal.

Using a boroscope to view the interior of cylinders Typical bore at TBO
New steel cylinder bore

Heavily worn cylinder bore

Valves and valve springs
Remove the valves from the cylinder head and clean them to Examine the valve springs for cracks, rust, broken ends, and
remove soft carbon. Examine the valve visually for physical compression. Cracks can be located by visual inspection or the
damage and damage from burning or corrosion. Do not reuse magnetic particle method. Compression is tested with a valve
valves that indicate damage of this nature. Check the valve spring tester. The spring is compressed until its total height is
face run-out. The locations for checking run-out and edge that specified by the manufacturer.
thickness are shown in the diagram below left.
The dial on the tester should indicate the pressure required to
Measure the edge thickness of valve heads. If, after refacing, compress the spring to the specified height. This must be within
the edge thickness is less than the limit specified by the the pressure limits established by the manufacturer
manufacturer, the valve must not be reused. The edge
thickness can be measured with sufficient accuracy by a dial Rocker arms and shafts
indicator and a surface plate. Inspect the valve rockers for cracks and worn, pitted, or scored
tips. See that all oil passages are free from obstructions.
Using a magnifying glass, examine the valve in the stem area
and the tip for evidence of cracks, nicks, or other indications of Inspect the shafts for correct size with a micrometre. Rocker
damage. This type of damage significantly weakens the valve, shafts are frequently found to be scored and burned because
making it susceptible to failure. If superficial nicks and of excessive turning in the cylinder head. Also, there may be
scratches on the valve indicate that it might be cracked, inspect some pickup on the shaft (bronze from the rocker bushing
it using the magnetic particle or dye penetrant method. transferred to the steel shaft). Generally, this is caused by
overheating and too little clearance between shaft and bushing.
Critical areas of the valve include the face and tip, both of which
should be examined for pitting and excessive wear. Minor Inspect the rocker arm bushing for the correct size. Check for
pitting on valve faces can sometimes be removed by grinding. proper clearance between the shaft and the bushing.
Frequently the bushings are scored because of mishandling
Inspect the valve for stretch and wear, using a micrometre or a during disassembly. Check to see that the oil holes line up. At
valve radius gauge. Checking valve stretch with a valve radius least 50% of the hole in the bushing should align with the hole
gauge is illustrated in the diagram below right. If a micrometre in the rocker arm.
is used, the stretch is found as a smaller diameter stem near
the valve neck. Measure the diameter of the valve stem and On engines that use a bearing, rather than a bushing, inspect
check the fit of the valve in its guide. the bearing to make sure it has not been turning in the rocker
arm boss. Also, inspect the bearing to determine its
serviceability.

Valve, showing locations for checking run-out and
section for measuring edge thickness
Checking valve stretch with

manufacturer’s gauge

Piston and piston pin
Inspect the piston for cracks. As an aid to this, heat the piston Inspect the ring grooves for evidence of a step. If a step is
carefully with a blow torch. If there is a crack, the heat expands present, the groove must be machined to an oversize width.
it and forces out residual oil, no matter how well the piston has Use a standard piston ring and check side clearance with a
been cleaned. Cracks are more likely to be formed at the highly feeler gauge to locate wear in the grooves or to determine if the
stressed points. Carefully inspect the base of the pin bosses, grooves have already been machined oversize. The largest
inside the piston at the junction of the walls and the head, and allowable width is usually 0.5 mm (0.02") oversize because any
the base of the ring lands – especially the top and bottom lands. further machining weakens the lands excessively.
When applicable, check for the flatness of the piston head Examine the piston pin for scoring, cracks, excessive wear, and
using a straightedge and thickness gauge. If a depression is pitting. Check the clearance between the piston pin and the
found, double-check for cracks on the inside of the piston. A bore of the piston pin bosses using a telescopic gauge and a
depression in the top of the piston usually means that micrometre. Use the magnetic particle method to inspect the
detonation has occurred within the cylinder. pin for cracks.
Inspect the exterior of the piston for scores and scratches. Since the pins are often case hardened, cracks show up inside
Scores on the top ring land are not a cause for rejection unless the pin more often than they will on the outside.
they are excessively deep. Deep scores on the side of the
piston are usually a reason for rejection. Check the pin for bends, using V-blocks and a dial indicator on
a surface plate, as pictured below. Measure the fit of the plugs
Examine the piston for cracked skirts, broken ring lands, and in the pin.
scored piston-pin holes.
Measure the outside of the piston using a micrometre.

Measurements must be taken in several directions and on the
skirt, as well as on the lands section. Check these sizes against
the cylinder size. Several engines now use cam-ground pistons
to compensate for the greater expansion parallel to the pin
during engine operation. The diameter of these pistons
measures several thousandths of an inch larger at an angle to
the piston pin hole than parallel to the pin hole.

Checking a piston pin for bends

Refacing valve seats
The valve seat inserts of aircraft engine cylinders are usually in The pilot must be tight in the guide because any movement can
need of refacing at every overhaul. They are refaced to provide cause a poor grind. The fluid hose is inserted through one of
a true, clean, and correct size seat for the valve. When valve the spark plug inserts.
guides or valve seats are replaced in a cylinder, the seats must
be trued-up to the guide. The three grades of stones available for use are classified as
rough, finishing, and polishing stones. The rough stone is
Modern engines use either bronze or steel seats. Steel seats designed to true and clean the seat. The finishing stone must
are commonly used as exhaust seats and are made of a hard, follow the rough to remove grinding marks and produce a
heat-resistant, and often austenitic steel alloy. Bronze seats are smooth finish. The polishing stone does just as the name
used for intake or both seats; they are made of aluminium implies and is used only where a highly polished seat is
bronze or phosphor bronze alloys. desired.
Steel valve seats are refaced by grinding equipment. Bronze The stones are installed on special stone holders. The face of
seats are refaced preferably by the use of cutters or reamers, the stone is trued by a diamond dresser. The stone should be
but they may be ground when this equipment is not available. refaced whenever it is grooved or loaded and when the stone
The only disadvantage of using a stone on bronze is that the is first installed on the stone holder. The diamond dresser also
soft metal loads the stone to such an extent that much time is may be used to cut down the diameter of the stone. Dressing
consumed in redressing the stone to keep it clean. of the stone should be kept to a minimum as a matter of
conservation; therefore, it is desirable to have sufficient stone
The equipment used on steel seats can be either wet or dry holders for all the stones to be used on the job.
valve seat grinding equipment. The wet grinder uses a mixture
of soluble oil and water to wash away the chips and to keep the In the actual grinding job, considerable skill is required in
stone and seat cool; this produces a smoother, more accurate handling the grinding gun. The gun must be centred accurately
job than the dry grinder. The stones may be either silicon on the stone holder. If the gun is tilted off-centre, the chattering
carbide or aluminium oxide. of the stone results and a rough grind is produced. The stone
must be rotated at a speed that permits grinding instead of
Before refacing the seat, make sure that the valve guide is in rubbing. This speed is approximately 8,000 to 10,000 RPM.
good condition, is clean, and does not need to be replaced. Excessive pressure on the stone can slow it down. It is not a
good technique to let the stone grind at slow speed by putting
Mount the cylinder firmly in the hold-down fixture. An expanding pressure on the stone when starting or stopping the gun. The
pilot is inserted in the valve guide from the inside of the cylinder. maximum pressure used on the stone at any time should be no
An expander screw is inserted in the pilot from the top of the more than that exerted by the weight of the gun.
guide as shown in in the diagram below left.

Valve seat grinding equipment
Valve seat grinding

Another practice which is conducive to good grinding is to ease If the seat contacts the upper third of the valve face, grind off
off on the stone every second or so to let the coolant wash away the top corner of the valve seat as shown in the diagram middle
the chips on the seat; this rhythmic grinding action also helps below. Such grinding is called “narrowing grinding.” This
keep the stone up to its correct speed. Since it is quite a job to permits the seat to contact the centre third of the valve face
replace a seat, remove as little material as possible during the without touching the upper portion of the valve face.
grinding. Inspect the job frequently to prevent unnecessary
grinding. If the seat contacts the bottom third of the valve face, grind off
the inner corner of the valve seat, as shown in the diagram
The rough stone is used until the seat is true to the valve guide below-bottom.
and until all pits, scores, or burned areas are removed. After
refacing, the seat should be smooth and true. The seat is narrowed by a stone other than the standard angle.
It is common practice to use a 15° angle and 45° angle cutting
The finishing stone is used only until the seat has a smooth, stone on a 30° angle valve seat, and a 30° angle and 75° angle
polished appearance. Extreme caution should be used when stone on a 45° angle valve seat.
grinding with the finishing stone to prevent chattering.
If the valve seat has been cut or ground too much, it contacts
The size and trueness of the seat can be checked by several the seat too far into the cylinder head, affecting its clearance.
methods. Run-out of the seat is checked with a particular dial To check the height of a valve, insert the valve into the guide
indicator and should not exceed 0.05 mm (0.002"). The size of and hold it against the seat. Check the height of the valve stem
the seat may be determined by using Prussian blue. To check above the rocker box or some other fixed position.
the fit of the seat, spread a thin coat of Prussian blue evenly on
the seat. Press the valve onto the seat. The blue transferred to Before refacing a valve seat, consult the overhaul manual for
the valve indicates the contact surface. The contact surface the particular model engine. Each manufacturer specifies the
should be one-third to two-thirds the width of the valve face and desired angle for grinding and narrowing the valve seat.
in the middle of the face.
In some cases, a Go-No Go gauge is used in place of the valve

when making the Prussian blue check. If Prussian blue is not
used, the same check may be made by lapping the valve lightly
to the seat. Examples of test results are shown in the diagram
below-top.

Fitting of the valve seat
Grinding top surface of the seat
Grinding the inner corner of the valve seat

Valve reconditioning
One of the most common jobs during engine overhaul is Notice that the interference angle is ground into the valve, not
grinding the valves. The equipment used should preferably be the seat. It is easier to change the angle of the valve grinder
a wet valve grinder. work head than to change the angle of a valve seat grinder
stone. Do not use an interference fit unless the manufacturer
With this type of machine, a mixture of soluble oil and water is approves it.
used to keep the valve cool and carry away the grinding chips.
Install the valve into the chuck and adjust it so that the valve
Like many machine jobs, valve grinding is mostly a matter of face is approximately 50 mm (2") from the chuck, see below-
setting up the machine. The following points should be checked bottom. If the valve is chucked any further out, there is a danger
or accomplished before starting a grind. of excessive wobble and also a possibility of grinding into the
stem.
True the stone using a diamond nib. The machine is turned on,
and the diamond is drawn across the stone, cutting just deep There are various types of valve grinding machines. In one type
enough to true and clean the stone. the stone is moved across the valve face; in another, the valve
is moved across the stone. Whichever type is used, the
Determine the face angle of the valve being ground and set the following procedures are typical of those performed when
movable head of the machine to correspond to this valve angle. refacing a valve.
Usually, valves are ground to the standard angles of 30° or 45°.
However, in some instances, an interference fit of 0.5° or 1.5° Check the travel of the valve face across the stone. The valve
less than the standard angle may be ground on the valve face. should completely pass the stone on both sides and yet not
travel far enough to grind the stem. There are stops on the
The interference fit in the diagram below-top is used to obtain machine which can be set to control this travel.
a more positive seal using a narrow contact surface.
Theoretically, there is a line contact between the valve and With the valve set correctly in place, turn on the machine and
seat. With this line contact, the entire load that the valve exerts turn on the grinding fluid so that it splashes on the valve face.
against the seat is concentrated in a tiny area, thereby Back the grinding wheel off all the way. Place the valve directly
increasing the unit load at any one spot. The interference fit is in front of the stone. Slowly bring the wheel forward until a light
especially beneficial during the first few hours of operation after cut is made on the valve. The intensity of the grind is measured
an overhaul. The positive seal reduces the possibility of a by sound more than anything else. Slowly draw the valve back
burned valve or seat that a leaking valve might produce. After and forth across the stone without increasing the cut. Move the
the first few hours of running, these angles tend to pound down work head table back and forth using the full face of the stone
and become identical. but always keep the valve face on the stone.

Valve installed in the grinding machine
Interference fit of valve and valve seat

When the sound of the grind diminishes, indicating that some Grinding of the valve tip may remove or partially remove the
valve material has been removed, move the work head table to bevel on the edge of the valve. To restore this bevel, mount a
the extreme left to stop the rotation of the valve. Inspect the vee-way approximately 45° to the grinding stone. Hold the
valve to determine if further grinding is necessary. If another valve onto the vee-way with one hand, then twist the valve tip
cut must be made, bring the valve in front of the stone, then onto the stone, and with a light touch grind around the tip. This
advance the stone out to the valve. Do not increase the cut bevel prevents scratching the valve guide when the valve is
without having the valve directly in front of the stone. installed.
An important precaution in valve grinding, as in any kind of

grinding, is to make light cuts only. Heavy cuts cause
chattering, which may make the valve surface so rough that
much time is lost in obtaining the desired finish.
After grinding, check the valve margin to be sure that the valve
edge has not been ground too thin. A thin edge is called a
“feather edge” and can lead to preignition. The valve edge
would burn away in a short time, and the cylinder would have
to be overhauled again. The diagram below-top-left shows a
valve with a regular margin and one with a feather edge.
The valve tip may be resurfaced on the valve grinder. The tip is
ground to remove cupping or wear and also to adjust valve
clearances on some engines.
The valve is held by a clamp on the side of the stone as in the

diagram below-bottom-right. With the machine and grinding
fluid turned on, the valve is pushed lightly against the stone and
swung back and forth. Do not swing the valve stem off either
edge of the stone.
Because of the tendency for the valve to overheat during this

grinding, be sure plenty of grinding fluid covers the tip.

A correctly lapped valve
Grinding a valve tip
Engine valves showing normal margin and a feather edge Interference fit of valve and valve seat

Valve lapping and leak testing
After the grinding procedure is finished, it is sometimes
necessary that the valve is lapped to the seat. This is done by
applying a small amount of lapping compound to the valve face,
inserting the valve into the guide, and rotating the valve with a
lapping tool until a smooth, grey finish appears at the contact
area. The appearance of a correctly lapped valve is shown in
the diagram below-bottom.
After the lapping process is finished, be sure that all lapping

compound is removed from the valve face, seat, and adjacent
areas.
The final step is to check the mating surface for leaks to see if
it is sealing correctly. Install the valve in the cylinder, holding
the valve by the stem with the fingers, and pour kerosene or
solvent into the valve port. While holding finger pressure on the
valve stem, check to see if the kerosene is leaking past the
valve into the combustion chamber. If it is not, the valve
reseating operation is finished. If kerosene is leaking past the
valve, continue the lapping operation until the leakage is
stopped.
Any valve face surface appearance that varies from that

illustrated in the diagram below-top is correct. However, the
incorrect indications are of value in diagnosing improper valve
and valve seat grinding. Incorrect indications, their cause and
remedy, are shown.

Incorrectly lapped valves
A correctly lapped valve

Piston repairs
Piston repairs are not required as often as cylinder repairs After machining, check to be sure that the small radius is
since most of the wear is between the piston ring and cylinder maintained at the back of each ring groove. If it is removed,
wall, valve stem and guide, and valve face and seat. A lesser cracks may occur due to localisation of stress. Ring groove
amount of wear is encountered between the piston skirt and oversizes are usually 0.127 mm (0.005"), 0.254 mm (0.010”),
cylinder, ring and ring groove, or piston pin and bosses. or 0.5 mm (0.020”) More than that would weaken the ring lands.
The most common repair is the removal of scores. Usually, A few manufacturers sell 0.127 mm (0.005") oversize piston
these may be removed only on the piston skirt if they are very pins. When these are available, it is permissible to bore or ream
light. Scores above the top ring groove may be machined or the piston-pin bosses to 0.127 mm (0.005") oversize. However,
sanded out, as long as the diameter of the piston is not reduced these bosses must be in perfect alignment.
below the specified minimum. To remove these scores, set the
piston on a lathe. With the piston revolving at a slow speed, Small nicks on the edge of the piston-pin boss may be sanded
smooth out the scores with number 320 wet-and-dry down. Deep scores inside the boss or anywhere around the
sandpaper. Never use anything rougher than crocus cloth on boss are definite reasons for rejection.
the piston skirt.
Cylinder grinding and honing
On engines where the entire rotating and reciprocating If a cylinder has an excessive taper, out-of-roundness, step, or
assembly is balanced, the pistons must weigh within one-fourth its maximum size is beyond limits, it can be reground to the next
ounce of each other. When a new piston is installed, it must be allowable oversize. If the cylinder walls are lightly rusted,
within the same weight tolerance as the one removed. It is not scored, or pitted, the damage may be removed by honing or
enough to have the pistons matched alone; they must be lapping.
matched to the crankshaft, connecting rods, piston pins, etc. To
make weight adjustments on new pistons, the manufacturer Regrinding a cylinder is a specialised job that the powerplant
provides a heavy section at the base of the skirt; to decrease mechanic usually is not expected to do. However, the mechanic
weight, file metal evenly off the inside of this heavy section. The must be able to recognise when a cylinder needs regrinding,
piston weight can be decreased easily, but welding, metallizing, and he must know what constitutes a good or bad job.
or plating cannot be done to increase the piston weight. Generally, standard aircraft cylinder oversizes are 0.254 mm
If ring grooves are worn or stepped, they must be machined (0.010”), 0.38 mm (0.015”), 0.5 mm (0.020”), or 0.76 mm
oversize so that they can accommodate an oversize width ring (0.030”). Unlike car engines which may be rebored to over-
with the proper clearance. sizes of 1.9 mm (0.075”) to 2.54 mm (0.100”), aircraft cylinders
have relatively thin walls and may have a nitrided surface,
which must not be ground away. Manufacturers usually do not
allow all of the above oversizes.
Some manufacturers do not allow regrinding to an oversize at The standard used when measuring the finish of a cylinder wall
all. The manufacturer’s overhaul manual or parts catalogue is known as micro inch root-mean-square, or microinch RMS In
usually lists the oversizes allowed for a particular make and a finish where the depth of the grinding scratches are one-
model engine. millionth (0.000001) of an inch deep, it is specified as
1 microinch RMS*. Most aircraft cylinders are ground to a finish
The standard bore size must be known to determine the regrind of 15 to 20 microinch RMS. Several low-powered engines have
size. Usually, this can be determined from the manufacturer’s cylinders that are ground to a relatively rough 20- to
specifications or manuals. The regrind size is figured from the 30-microinch RMS finish. On the other end of the scale, some
standard bore. For example, a certain cylinder has a standard manufacturers require a super finish of approximately 4- to
bore of 98.425 mm (3.875"). To have a cylinder ground to 6-microinch RMS.
0.381 mm (0.015") oversize, it is necessary to grind to a bore
diameter of 98.806 mm (3.890") 98.425 + 0.381
(3.875 + 0.015). A tolerance of ±0.127 mm (±0.0005") is
usually accepted for cylinder grinding.
Another factor to consider when determining the size to which

a cylinder must be reground is the maximum wear that has
occurred. If there are spots in the cylinder wall that are worn
larger than the first oversize, then obviously it is necessary to
grind to the next oversize to clean up the entire cylinder.
An important consideration when ordering a regrind is the type

of finish desired in the cylinder. Some engine manufacturers
specify a reasonably rough finish on the cylinder walls, which
allows the rings to seat even if they are not lapped to the
cylinder. Other manufacturers desire a smooth finish to which
a lapped ring will seat without much change in ring or cylinder
dimensions. The latter type of finish is more expensive to
produce.
* Use an engineer’s Surface Roughness Conversion

chart for conversions micro-meters / micro-inches / RMS
etc.
Cylinder grinding is accomplished by a rigidly mounted stone After the cylinders have been reground, check the size and wall
that revolves around the cylinder bore, as well as up and down finish, and check for evidence of overheating or grinding cracks
the length of the cylinder barrel, shown in the diagram below- before installing on an engine.
bottom. Either the cylinder, the stone, or both may move to get
this relative movement. The size of the grind is determined by
the distance the stone is set away from the centre line of the
cylinder. Some cylinder-bore grinding machines produce a
perfectly straight bore, while others are designed to grind a
choked bore. A choked bore grind refers to the manufacturing
process in which the cylinder walls are ground to produce a
smaller internal diameter at the top than at the bottom. The
purpose of this type of grind or taper is to maintain a straight
cylinder wall during operation. As a cylinder heats up during
operation, the head and top of the cylinder are subjected to
more heat than the bottom. This causes greater expansion at
the top than at the bottom, thereby maintaining the desired
straight wall.
After grinding a cylinder, it may be necessary to hone the

cylinder bore to produce the desired finish. If this is the case,
specify the cylinder regrind size to allow for some metal
removal during honing. The usual allowance for honing is
0.0254 mm (0.001"). If a final cylinder bore size of 98.806 mm
(3.890") is desired, specify the regrind size of 98.781 mm
(3.889"), and then hone to 98.806 mm (3.890").
There are several different makes and models of cylinder

hones. The burnishing hone is used only to produce the desired
finish on the cylinder wall. The more elaborate micromatic hone
can also be used to straighten out the cylinder wall, A
burnishing hone, shown in the diagram below-bottom, should
not be used in an attempt to straighten cylinder walls. Since the
stones are only spring-loaded, they follow the contour of the
cylinder wall and may aggravate a tapered condition.
Cylinder bore grinding
Cylinder honing

Crankshaft
Carefully inspect all surfaces of the shaft for cracks. Check the The sludge chamber or tubes must be removed for cleaning at
bearing surfaces for evidence of galling, scoring, or other overhaul. If these are not removed, accumulated sludge
damage. When a shaft is equipped with oil transfer tubes, loosened during cleaning may clog the crankshaft oil passages
check them for tightness. Some manufacturers recommend and cause subsequent bearing failures. If the sludge chambers
supplementing a visual inspection with one of the other forms are formed using tubes pressed into the hollow crankpins,
of non-destructive testing, such as magnetic particle or make sure they are reinstalled correctly to avoid covering the
radiography. ends of the oil passages.
Use extreme care in inspecting and checking the crankshaft for

straightness. Place the crankshaft in V-blocks supported at the
locations specified in the applicable engine overhaul manual.
Using a surface plate and a dial indicator, measure the shaft
run-out. If the total indicator reading exceeds the dimensions
given in the manufacturer’s table of limits, the shaft must not be
reused. A bent crankshaft should not be straightened. Any
attempt to do so will result in rupture of the nitrided surface of
the bearing journals, a condition that will cause eventual failure
of the crankshaft.
Measure the outside diameter of the crankshaft main and rod-

bearing journals. Compare the resulting measurements with
those in the table of limits.
Some crankshafts are manufactured with hollow crankpins that

serve as sludge removers. The sludge chambers may be
formed using spool-shaped tubes pressed into the hollow
crankpins or by plugs pressed into each end of the crankpin.

Measuring journal wear Measuring run-out

Connecting rods
The inspection and repair of connecting rods include: Checking alignment
Check bushings that have been replaced to determine if the
• visual inspection; bushing and rod bores are square and parallel to each other.
• checking of alignment; The alignment of a connecting rod can be checked in several
• rebushing; and ways. One method requires a push-fit arbour for each end of
• replacement of bearings. the connecting rod, a surface plate, and two parallel blocks of
equal height.
Some manufacturers also specify a magnetic particle
inspection of connecting rods. To measure rod squareness or twist, insert the arbours into the
rod bores, see the diagram below. Place the parallel blocks on
Visual inspection a surface plate. Place the ends of the arbours on the parallel
A visual inspection should be done with the aid of a magnifying blocks. Check the clearance at the points where the arbours
glass or bench microscope. A rod which is bent or twisted rest on the blocks, using a thickness gauge. This clearance,
should be rejected without further inspection. divided by the separation of the blocks in inches, gives the twist
Inspect all surfaces of the connecting rods for cracks, per inch of length.
corrosion, pitting, galling, or other damage. Galling is caused To determine bushing or bearing parallelism (convergence),
by a slight amount of movement between the surfaces of the insert the arbours in the rod bores. Measure the distance
bearing insert and the connecting rod during periods of high between the arbours on each side of the connecting rod at
loading, such as that produced during overspeed or excessive points that are equidistant from the rod centre line. For exact
manifold pressure operation. The visual evidence produced by parallelism, the distances checked on both sides should be the
galling appears as if particles from one contacting surface had same. Consult the manufacturer’s table of limits for the amount
welded to the other. Evidence of any galling is sufficient reason of misalignment permitted.
for rejecting the complete rod assembly. Galling distortion in the
metal and is comparable to corrosion in the manner in which it The preceding operations are typical of those used for most
weakens the metallic structure of the connecting rod. reciprocating engines and are included to introduce some of
the operations involved in engine overhaul. It would be
impractical to list all the steps involved in the overhaul of an
engine. It should be understood that some other operations and
inspections must be performed. For exact information
regarding a specific engine model, consult the manufacturer’s
overhaul manual.
Checking connecting rod parallelism and squareness

In-situ cylinder care and maintenance
General
Each cylinder of the engine is, in reality, an engine in itself. In lock which goes undetected at the time it occurs. The piston
most cases, the cylinder receives its fuel and air from a meets extremely high resistance but is not entirely stopped.
common source such as the carburettor. Every phase of The engine falters but starts and continues to run as the other
cylinder operation, such as compression, fuel mixture, and cylinders fire.
ignition must function properly since even one type of
malfunctioning causes engine difficulty. Engine backfiring, for The slightly bent connecting rod resulting from the partial lock
example, may be caused by a lean fuel/air mixture in one of the also goes unnoticed at the time it is damaged but is sure to fail
cylinders. The lean mixture may be caused by such difficulties later. The eventual failure is almost certain to occur at a time
as an improper valve adjustment, a slicking intake or exhaust when it can be least tolerated since it is during such critical
valve, or a leaking intake pipe. Most engine difficulties can be operations as takeoff and go-around that maximum power is
traced to one cylinder or a small number of cylinders. demanded of the engine and maximum stresses are imposed
Therefore, engine difficulty can only be corrected after on its parts.
malfunctioning cylinders have been located and defective
phases of cylinder operation brought up to normal. Before starting any radial engine that has been shut down for
more than 30-minutes, check the ignition switches for “OFF”
Hydraulic lock and then pull the propeller through in the direction of rotation a
Whenever a radial engine remains shut down for any length of minimum of two complete turns to make sure that there is no
time beyond a few minutes, oil or fuel may drain into the hydraulic lock or to detect the hydraulic lock if one is present.
combustion chambers of the lower cylinders or accumulate in, Any liquid present in a cylinder is indicated by the abnormal
the lower intake pipes ready to be drawn into the cylinders effort required to rotate the propeller. However, never use force
when the engine starts. As the piston approaches the top when a hydraulic lock is detected. When engines which employ
centre of the compression stroke (both valves closed), this direct drive or combination inertia and direct drive starters are
liquid, being incompressible, stops piston movement. If the being started, and an external power source is being used, a
crankshaft continues to rotate, something must give. Therefore, check for hydraulic lock may be made by intermittently
starting or attempting to start an engine with a hydraulic lock of energising the starter and watching for a tendency of the engine
this nature may cause the affected cylinder to blow out or, more to stall. Use of the starter in this way will not exert sufficient
likely, may result in a bent or broken connecting rod. force on the crankshaft to bend or break a connecting rod if a
lock is present.
A complete hydraulic lock – one that stops crankshaft rotation
– can result in serious damage to the engine. Still more serious,
however, is the slight damage resulting from a partial hydraulic
Initial step in developing a hydraulic lock

To eliminate a lock, remove either the front or rear spark plug Check the valve clearance on the affected cylinder. If the valve
of the lower cylinders and pull the propeller through in the clearance is incorrect, the valve may be sticking in the valve
direction of rotation. The piston will expel any liquid that may be guide. To release the sticking valve, place a fibre drift on the
present. rocker arm immediately over the valve stem and strike the drift
several times with a mallet. Sufficient hand pressure should be
If the hydraulic lock occurs as a result of over-priming before exerted on the fibre drift to remove any space between the
initial engine start, eliminate the lock in the same manner, i.e., rocker arm and the valve stem before hitting the drift.
remove one of the spark plugs from the cylinder and rotate the
crankshaft through two turns. If the valve is not sticking and the valve clearance is incorrect,
adjust it, as necessary.
Never attempt to clear the hydraulic lock by pulling the propeller
through in the direction opposite to normal rotation. This tends Determine whether blow-by has been eliminated by pulling the
to inject the liquid from the cylinder into the intake pipe with the engine through by hand or turning it with the starter again. If
possibility of complete or partial lock occurring on the blow-by is still present, it may be necessary to replace the
subsequent start. cylinder.
Valve blow-by
Valve blow-by is indicated by a hissing or whistle when pulling
the propeller through before starting the engine, when turning
the engine with the starter, or when running the engine at slow
speeds. It is caused by a valve sticking open or warped to the
extent that compression is not built up in the cylinder as the
piston moves toward the top dead centre on the compression
stroke. Blow-by past the exhaust valve can be heard at the
exhaust stack, and blow-by past the intake valve is audible
through the carburettor.
Correct valve blow-by immediately to prevent valve failure and

possible engine failure by taking the following steps.
Perform a cylinder compression test to locate the faulty

cylinder.

Cylinder compression tests
The cylinder compression test determines if the valves, piston Be sure that the ignition switch is in the “OFF” position so that
rings, and pistons are adequately sealing the combustion there can be no accidental firing of the engine.
chamber. If pressure leakage is excessive, the cylinder cannot
develop its full power. The purpose of testing cylinder Remove necessary cowling and the most accessible spark plug
compression is to determine whether cylinder replacement is from each cylinder. When removing the spark plugs, identify
necessary. The detection and replacement of defective them to coincide with the cylinder. Close examination of the
cylinders will prevent a complete engine change because of plugs aids in diagnosing problems within the cylinder. Review
cylinder failure. Cylinder compression tests must be made the maintenance records of the engine being tested. Records
periodically. of previous compression checks help in determining
progressive wear conditions and in establishing the necessary
Although the engine can lose compression for other reasons, maintenance actions.
low compression, for the most part, can be traced to leaky
valves. Conditions which affect engine compression are: The two basic types of compression testers currently in use for
checking cylinder compression in aircraft engines are the direct
• incorrect valve clearances; compression tester and the differential pressure tester. The
• worn, scuffed, or damaged piston; procedures and precautions to observe when using either of
• excessive wear of piston rings and cylinder walls; these types of testers are outlined in this section. When
• burned or warped valves; performing a compression test, follow the manufacturer’s
• carbon particles between the face and the seat of the instructions for the particular tester being used.
valve or valves; and
• early or late valve timing.
Perform a compression test as soon as possible after the

engine is shut down so that piston rings, cylinder walls, and
other parts are still freshly lubricated. However, it is not
necessary to operate the engine before accomplishing
compression checks during engine build-up or on individually
replaced cylinders. In such cases, before making the test, spray
a small quantity of lubricating oil into the cylinder or cylinders
and turn the engine over several times to seal the piston and
rings in the cylinder barrel.

Direct compression tester
This type of compression test indicates the actual pressures minute valve leakages can be detected, making possible the
within the cylinder. Although the particular defective component replacement of cylinders where valve burning is starting.
within the cylinder is difficult to determine with this method, the
consistency of the readings for all cylinders is an indication of The operation of the compression tester is based on the
the condition of the engine as a whole. The following are principle that, for any given airflow through a fixed orifice, a
suggested guidelines for performing a direct compression test: constant pressure drop across the orifice results. As the airflow
varies, the pressure changes accordingly and in the same
1) Warm up the engine to operating temperatures and direction. If air is supplied under pressure to the cylinder with
perform the test as soon as possible after shutdown. both intake and exhaust valves closed, the amount of air that
2) Remove the most accessible spark plug from each leaks by the valves or piston rings indicate their condition; the
cylinder. perfect cylinder, of course, would have no leakage.
3) Rotate the engine with the starter to expel any excess oil
or loose carbon in the cylinders. The differential pressure tester below left requires the
4) If a complete set of compression testers is available, install application of air pressure to the cylinder being tested with the
one tester in each cylinder. However, if only one tester is piston at top-centre compression stroke. Guidelines for
being used, check each cylinder in turn. performing a differential compression test are:
5) Using the engine starter, rotate the engine at least three
complete revolutions and record the compression reading. 1) Perform the compression test as soon as possible after
Use an external power source, if possible, as a low battery engine shutdown to provide uniform lubrication of cylinder
will result in a slow engine-turning rate and lower readings. walls and rings.
6) Recheck any cylinder which shows an abnormal reading 2) Remove the most accessible spark plug from the cylinder
when compared with the others. Any cylinder having a or cylinders and install a spark plug adapter in the spark
reading approximately 103 kPa (15 psi) lower than the plug insert.
others should be suspected of being defective. 3) Connect the compression tester assembly to a 690- to
1,035-kPa (100- to 150-psi) compressed air supply. With
If a compression tester is suspected of being defective, replace the shutoff valve on the compression tester closed, adjust
it with one known to be accurate, and recheck the compression the regulator of the compression tester to obtain 550 kPa
of the affected cylinders. (80 psi) on the regulated pressure gauge.
4) Open the shutoff valve and attach the air hose quick-
Differential pressure tester connect fitting to the spark plug adapter. The shutoff valve,
The differential pressure tester checks the compression of when open, automatically maintains a pressure of 103 to
aircraft engines by measuring the leakage through the 137 kPa (15 to 20 psi) in the cylinder when both the intake
cylinders. The design of this compression tester is such that and exhaust valves are closed.
Differential compression tester – schematic Differential compression tester

By hand, turn the engine over in the direction of rotation until If the low compression is not corrected, remove the rocker-box
the piston in the cylinder being tested comes up on the cover and check the valve clearance to determine if the
compression stroke against the 103 kPa (15 psi). Continue difficulty is caused by inadequate valve clearance. If the low
turning the propeller slowly in the direction of rotation until the compression is not caused by inadequate valve clearance,
piston reaches the top dead centre. The top dead centre can place a fibre drift on the rocker arm immediately over the valve
be detected by a decrease in force required to move the stem and tap the drift several times with a 0.5- to 1-kg (1- to
propeller. If the engine is rotated past top dead centre, the 103 2-lb) hammer to dislodge any foreign material that may be
to 137 kPa (15 to 20 psi) tends to move the propeller in the lodged between the valve and valve seat. After staking the
direction of rotation. If this occurs, back the propeller up at least valve in this manner, rotate the engine with the starter and
one blade before turning the propeller again in the direction of recheck the compression. Do not make a compression check
rotation. This backing up is necessary to eliminate the effect of after staking a valve until the crankshaft has been rotated either
backlash in the valve- operating mechanism and to keep the with the starter or by hand to reseat the valve in a normal
piston rings seated on the lower ring lands. manner. The higher seating velocity obtained when staking the
valve indicates valve seating even though valve seats are
Close the shutoff valve in the compression tester and recheck slightly egged or eccentric.
the regulated pressure to see that it is 550 kPa (80 psi) with air
flowing into the cylinder. If the regulated pressure is more or Cylinders having compression below the minimum specified
less than 550 kPa (80 psi), readjust the regulator in the test unit after staking should be further checked to determine whether
to obtain 550 kPa (80 psi). When closing the shutoff valve, the leakage is past the exhaust valve, intake valve, or piston.
make sure that the propeller path is clear of all objects. Excessive leakage can be detected:
There is sufficient air pressure in the combustion chamber to • at the exhaust valve by listening for air leakage at the
rotate the propeller if the piston is not on top dead centre. With exhaust outlet;
regulated pressure adjusted to 550 kPa (80 psi), if the cylinder • at the intake valve by escaping air at the air intake; and
pressure reading indicated on the cylinder pressure gauge is • past the piston rings by escaping air at the engine
below the minimum specified for the engine being tested, move breather outlets.
the propeller in the direction of rotation to seat the piston rings
in the grooves. Check all the cylinders and record the readings. The wheeze test is another method of detecting leaking intake
and exhaust valves. In this test, as the piston is moved to top
If low compression is obtained on any cylinder, turn the engine dead centre on the compression stroke, the faulty valve may be
through with the starter or restart and run the engine to takeoff detected by listening for a wheezing sound in the exhaust outlet
power and recheck the cylinder or cylinders having low or intake duct.
compression.

Another method is to admit compressed air into the cylinder Some of the reasons for cylinder replacement are:
through the spark plug hole. The piston should be restrained at
the top dead centre of the compression stroke during this • low compression;
operation. A leaking valve or piston rings can be detected by • high oil consumption in one or more cylinders;
listening at the exhaust outlet, intake duct, or engine breather • excessive valve guide clearance;
outlets. • loose intake pipe flanges;
• loose or defective spark plug inserts; and
Next to valve blow-by, the most frequent cause of compression • external damage, such as cracks.
leakage is excessive leakage past the piston. This leakage may
occur because of lack of oil. To check this possibility, squirt When conditions like these are limited to one or a few cylinders,
engine oil into the cylinder and around the piston. Then recheck replacing the defective cylinders should return the engine to a
the compression. If this procedure raises compression to or serviceable condition.
above the minimum required, continue the cylinder in service.
If the cylinder pressure readings still do not meet the minimum The number of cylinders that can be replaced on air-cooled, in-
requirement, replace the cylinder. When it is necessary to service engines more economically than changing engines is
replace a cylinder as a result of low compression, record the controversial. Experience has indicated that, in general, one-
cylinder number and the compression value of the newly quarter to one-third of the cylinders on an engine can be
installed cylinder on the compression check-sheet. replaced economically. Consider these factors when deciding:
• time on the engine;

Cylinder replacement
• priority established for returning the aircraft to service;
Reciprocating engine cylinders are designed to operate a
• availability of spare cylinders and spare engines;
specified time before normal wear requires their overhaul. If the
• whether QECA (quick engine change assemblies) are
engine is operated as recommended and proficient
maintenance is performed, the cylinders typically last until the being used;
• the number of persons available to make the change;
engine is removed for “high-time” reasons. It is known from
experience that materials fail and engines are abused through and
• when spare serviceable cylinders are available, replace
incorrect operation; this has a severe effect on cylinder life.
Another reason for premature cylinder change is poor cylinders when the working hour requirement for
maintenance. Therefore, exert special care to ensure that all changing them does not exceed the time required to
the correct maintenance procedures are adhered to when make a complete engine change.
working on the engine. The cylinder is always replaced as a complete assembly, which
includes piston, rings, valves, and valve springs. Obtain the
cylinder by ordering the cylinder assembly under the part
number specified in the engine parts catalogue.
Except under certain conditions, do not attempt to replace Correct procedures and care are essential when replacing
individual parts, such as pistons, rings, or valves. This cylinders. Careless work or the use of incorrect tools can
precaution guarantees that clearances and tolerances are damage the replacement cylinder or its parts. Incorrect
correct. Other parts, such as valve springs, rocker arms, and procedures in installing rocker-box covers may result in
rocker box covers, may be replaced individually. troublesome oil leaks. Improper torqueing of cylinder hold-
down nuts or cap-screws can easily result in a cylinder
Normally, all the cylinders in an engine are similar; that is, all malfunction and subsequent engine failure.
are a standard size or all a certain oversize, and all are steel
bore or all are chrome-plated. In some instances, because of The discussion of cylinder replacement here is limited to the
shortages at the time of overhaul, it may be necessary that removal and installation of air-cooled engine cylinders. The
engines have two different sizes of cylinder assemblies. discussion is centred on radial and opposed engines since
these are the aircraft engines on which cylinder replacements
Replace a cylinder with an identical one, if possible. If an are most often performed.
identical cylinder is not available, it is permissible to install
either a standard or oversize cylinder and piston assembly, Since these instructions are meant to cover all air-cooled
since this will not adversely affect engine operation. engines, they are necessarily general. The applicable
manufacturer’s maintenance manual should be consulted for
The size of the cylinder is indicated by a colour code around torque values and special precautions applying to a particular
the barrel between the attaching flange and the lower barrel aircraft and engine. However, always practice neatness and
cooling fin, shown below. cleanliness and always protect openings so that nuts, washers,
tools, and miscellaneous items do not enter the engine’s
In some instances, air-cooled engines are equipped with internal sections.
chrome-plated cylinders. Chrome-plated cylinders are usually
identified by a painted band around the barrel between the
attaching flange and the lower barrel cooling fin. This colour
band is usually international orange. When installing a chrome-
plated cylinder, do not use chrome-plated piston rings. The
matched assembly will, of course, include the correct piston
rings. However, if a piston ring is broken during cylinder
installation, check the cylinder marking to determine what ring,
chrome-plated or otherwise, is correct for replacement. Similar
precautions must be taken to be sure that the correct size rings
are installed.

Identification of cylinder size

Cylinder removal
Assuming that all obstructing cowling and brackets have been The ball ends are usually worn to fit the sockets in which they
removed, first remove the intake pipe and exhaust pipes; plug have been operating. Furthermore, on some engines’ pushrods
or cover openings in the diffuser section. Then remove cylinder are not all of the same lengths. A good procedure is to mark
deflectors and any attaching brackets which would obstruct the pushrods near the valve tappet ends “No 1 IN,” “No 1 EX,”
cylinder removal. Loosen the spark plugs and remove the “No 2 IN,” “No 2 EX”, etc.
spark-plug lead clamps. Do not remove the spark plugs until
ready to pull the cylinder off. On fuel injection engines, disconnect the fuel injection line and
remove the fuel injection nozzle and any line clamps which
Remove the rocker box covers. First, remove the nuts and then interfere with cylinder removal.
tap the cover lightly with a rawhide mallet or plastic hammer.
Never pry the cover off with a screwdriver or similar tool. If the cylinder to be removed is a master rod cylinder, special
precautions, in addition to regular cylinder removal
Loosen the pushrod packing gland nuts or hose clamps, top precautions, must be observed. Information designating which
and bottom. Pushrods are removed by depressing the rocker cylinder has the master rod is included on the engine data
arms with a special tool or by removing the rocker arm. Before plate. Arrangements must be made to hold the master rod in
removing the pushrods, turn the crankshaft until the piston is at the mid-position of the crankcase cylinder hole (after the
top dead centre on the compression stroke. This relieves the cylinder has been removed). Templates or guides are usually
pressure on both intake and exhaust rocker arms. It is also wise provided by the manufacturer for this purpose, or they are
to back off the adjusting nut as far as possible because this manufactured locally.
allows maximum clearance for pushrod removal when the
rocker arms are depressed. Under no circumstances should the master rod be moved from
side to side. It must be kept centred until the guide is in place.
On some model engines, tappets and springs of lower cylinders Do not turn the crankshaft while the master rod cylinder is
can fall out. Provision must be made to catch them as the removed and other cylinders in the row remain on the engine.
pushrod and housing are removed. These precautions are necessary to prevent bottom rings on
some of the other pistons from coming out of the cylinders,
After removing the pushrods, examine them for markings or expanding, and damaging rings and piston skirts. If several
mark them so that they may be replaced in the same location cylinders are to be removed, one of which is the master rod
as they were before removal. cylinder, it should always be removed last and should be the
first installed.

The next step in removing the cylinder is to cut the lockwire or Using a wire brush, clean the studs or cap-screws and examine
remove the split pin, and pry off the locking device from the them for cracks, damaged threads, or any other visible defects.
cylinder-attaching cap-screws or nuts. Remove all the screws If one cap-screw is found loose or broken at the time of cylinder
or nuts except two located 180° apart. Use the wrench specified removal, all the cap-screws for the cylinder should be
for this purpose in the special tools section of the applicable discarded, since the remaining cap-screws may have been
manual. significantly weakened. A cylinder hold-down stud failure would
place the adjacent studs under greater operating pressure, and
Finally, while supporting the cylinder, remove the two remaining they are likely to be stretched beyond their elastic limit. The
screws or nuts and gently pull the cylinder away from the engine manufacturer’s instruction must be followed for the
crankcase. Two men must work together during this step as number of studs that will have to be replaced after a stud failure.
well as during the remaining procedure for cylinder
replacement. After the cylinder skirt has cleared the crankcase When removing a broken stud, take proper precautions to
and before the piston protrudes from the skirt, pro-vide some prevent metal chips from entering the engine power section.
means (usually a shop cloth) for preventing pieces of broken
rings from falling into the crankcase. After the piston has been In all eases, both faces of the washers and the seating faces of
removed, remove the cloths, and carefully check for piston ring stud nuts or cap-screws must be cleaned and any roughness
pieces. To make sure that no ring pieces have entered the or buns removed.
crankcase, collect, and arrange all the pieces to see that they
form a complete ring. Cylinder installation
See that all preservative oil accumulation on the cylinder and
Place a support on the cylinder mounting pad and secure it with piston assembly is washed off with solvent and thoroughly dried
two cap-screws or nuts. Then remove the piston and ring with compressed air. Install the piston and ring assembly on the
assembly from the connecting rod. When varnish makes it hard connecting rod. Be sure that the piston faces in the right
to remove the pin, a pin pusher or puller tool must be used. If direction. The piston number stamped on the bottom of the
the special tool is not available and a drift is used to remove the piston head should face toward the front of the engine.
piston pin, the connecting rod should be supported so that it will Lubricate the piston pin before inserting it. It should fit with a
not have to take the shock of the blows. If this is not done, the push. If a drift must be used, follow the same precaution that
rod may be damaged. was taken during pin removal.
After the removal of a cylinder and piston, the connecting rod

must be supported to prevent damage to the rod and
crankcase. This can be done by supporting each connecting
rod with the removed cylinder-base oil-seal ring looped around
the rod and cylinder base studs.
Oil the exterior of the piston assembly generously, forcing oil
around the piston rings and in the space between the rings and
grooves. Stagger the ring gaps around the piston and check to
see that rings are in the correct grooves and whether they are
positioned correctly because some are used as oil scrapers,
others as pumper rings. The number, type and arrangement of
the compression and oil-control rings vary with the make and
model of engine.
If it is necessary to replace the rings on one or more of the

pistons, check the side clearance against the manufacturer’s
specification, using a thickness gauge. The ring end gap must
also be checked. The method for checking side and end
clearance is shown in below. If the ring gauge shown is not
available, a piston (without rings) may be inserted in the
cylinder and the ring inserted in the cylinder bore. Insert the ring
in the cylinder skirt below the mounting flange, since this is
usually the smallest bore diameter. Pull the piston against the
ring to align it properly in the bore.
If it is necessary to remove material to obtain the correct side

clearance, it can be done either by turning the piston grooves
a slight amount on each side or by lapping the ring on a surface
plate.
If the end gap is too close, the excess metal can be removed
by clamping a mill file in a vice, holding the ring in proper
alignment, and dressing off the ends. In all cases, the engine
manufacturer’s procedures must be followed.

Measuring piston ring side clearance Measuring piston ring end gap

Before installing the cylinder, check the flange to see that the Install the remaining nuts or cap-screws with their conical
mating surface is smooth and clean. Coat the inside of the washers and tighten the nuts or cap-screws until they are snug.
cylinder barrel generously with oil. Be sure that the cylinder oil- Make sure that the conical side of each washer is toward the
seal ring is in place and that only one seal ring is used. cylinder mounting flange. Before inserting cap-screws, coat
them with a good sealer to prevent oil leakage. Generally, studs
Using a ring compressor, compress the rings to a diameter fit into holes, and the fit is tight enough to prevent leakage.
equal to that of the piston. Start the cylinder assembly down
over the piston, making sure that the cylinder and piston plane The hold-down nuts or cap-screws must now be torqued to the
remains the same. Ease the cylinder over the piston with a value specified in the table of torque values in the engine
straight, even movement, which moves the ring compressor as manufacturer’s service or overhaul manual. A definite and
the cylinder slips on. Do not rock the cylinder while slipping it specific sequence of tightening all cylinder fastenings must be
on the piston, since any rocking is apt to release a piston ring followed. Always refer to the appropriate engine service
or a part of a ring from the ring compressor before the ring’s manual. A general rule is to tighten the first two nuts or cap-
entrance into the cylinder bore. A ring released in this manner screws 180° from each other; then tighten two alternate nuts or
will expand and prevent the piston from entering the cylinder. cap-screws 90° from the first two.
Any attempt to force the cylinder onto the piston is apt to cause
cracking or chipping of the ring or damage to the ring lands. If locating nuts or cap-screws are being used, they should be
torqued first. The tightening of the remaining screws or nuts
After the cylinder has slipped on the piston so that all piston should be alternated 180° as the torqueing continues around
rings are in the cylinder bore, remove the ring compressor and the cylinder. Apply the torque with a slow, steady motion until
the connecting rod guide. Then, slide the cylinder into place on the prescribed value is reached.
the mounting pad. If cap-screws are used, rotate the cylinder to
align the holes. While still supporting the cylinder, install two Hold the tension on the wrench for a sufficient length of time to
cap-screws or stud nuts 180° apart. ensure that the nut or cap-screw will tighten no more at the
prescribed torque value. In many cases, an additional turning
If the cylinder is secured to the crankcase by conical washers of the cap-screw or nut as much as one-quarter turn can be
and nuts or cap-screws, position the cylinder on the crankcase done by maintaining the prescribed torque on the nut for a short
section by two special locating nuts or cap-screws. These time. After tightening the regular nuts or cap- screws, remove
locating nuts or cap-screws do not remain on the engine, but the two locating nuts or cap-screws, install regular nuts or cap-
are removed and replaced with regular nuts or cap- screws and screws, and tighten them to the prescribed torque.
conical washers after they have served their purpose and the
other nuts or cap-screws have been installed and tightened to After the stud nuts or cap-screws have been torqued to the
the prescribed torque. prescribed value, safety them in the manner recommended in
the engine manufacturer’s service manual.

Reinstall the pushrods, pushrod housings, rocker arms, barrel
deflectors, intake pipes, ignition harness lead clamps and
brackets, fuel injection line clamps and fuel injection nozzles,
exhaust stack, cylinder head deflectors, and spark plugs.
Remember that the pushrods must be installed in their original
locations and must not be turned end to end.
Make sure, too, that the pushrod ball end seats properly in the
tappet. If it rests on the edge or shoulder of the tappet during
valve clearance adjustment and later drops into place, valve
clearance will be off. Furthermore, rotating the crankshaft with
the pushrod resting on the edge of the tappet may bend the
pushrod.
After installing the pushrods and rocker arms, set the valve
clearance.
Before installing the rocker-box covers, lubricate the rocker-

arm bearings and valve stems. Check the rocker-box covers for
flatness and resurface them if necessary. After installing the
gaskets and covers, tighten the rocker-box cover nuts to the
specified torque.
Safe-tie those nuts, screws, and other fasteners which require

safetying. Follow the recommended safetying procedures.

Valve and valve mechanism
Valves open and close the ports in the cylinder head to control Replace any damaged parts, such as cracked, broken, or
the entrance of the combustible mixture and the exit of the chipped rocker arms, valve springs, or spring retainers. If the
exhaust gases. It is essential that they open and close properly damaged part is one which cannot be replaced in the field,
and seal tight against the port seats to secure maximum power replace the cylinder.
from the burning fuel/air mixture for the crankshaft, and to
prevent valve burning and warping. The motion of the valves is Excessive valve stem clearance. A certain amount of valve
controlled by the valve-operating mechanism. stem wobble in the valve guide is normal. Replace the cylinder
only in severe cases.
The valve mechanism includes cam plates or shafts, cam
followers, pushrods, rocker arms, valve springs, and retainers. Evidence of incorrect lubrication. Excessive dryness indicates
All parts of a valve mechanism must be in good condition, and insufficient lubrication. However, the lubrication varies between
valve clearances must be correct if the valves are to operate engines and between cylinders in the same model engine. For
correctly. example, the upper boxes of radial engines typically run drier
than the lower rocker boxes. These factors must be considered
Checking and adjusting the valve clearance is perhaps the in determining whether or not ample lubrication is being
most crucial part of valve inspection, and indeed, it is the most obtained. Wherever improper lubrication is indicated,
challenging part. However, a visual inspection should not be determine the cause, and correct it. For example, a dry rocker
slighted. It should include a check for the following significant may be caused by a plugged oil passage in the pushrod.
items. Excessive oil may be caused by plugged drains between the
rocker box and the crankcase. If the pushrod drains become
Metal particles in the rocker box are indications of excessive clogged, the oil forced to the rocker arm and other parts of the
wear or partial failure of the valve mechanism. Locate and valve mechanism cannot drain back to the crankcase. This may
replace the defective parts. result in oil leakage at the rocker box cover or in oil seepage
along valve stems into the cylinder or exhaust system, causing
Excessive side clearance or galling of the rocker arm side. excessive oil consumption on the affected cylinder and
Replace defective rocker arms. Add shims when permitted, to smoking in the exhaust.
correct excessive side clearance.
Insufficient clearance between the rocker arm and the valve

spring retainer. Follow the procedure outlined in the engine
service manual for checking this clearance and increase it to
the minimum specified.

Excessive sludge in the rocker box. This indicates an excessive
rocker box temperature, which, in turn, may be caused by
improper positioning of cowling or exhaust heat shields or
baffles. After correcting the cause of the difficulty, spray the
interior of the rocker box with dry cleaning solvent, blow it dry
with compressed air, and then coat the entire valve mechanism
and interior of the rocker box with clean engine oil.
Variation in valve clearance not explained by everyday wear. If

there is excessive valve clearance, check for bent pushrods.
Replace any that are defective. Also, check for valve sticking.
If the pushrod is straight and the valve opens and closes when
the propeller is pulled through by hand, check the tightness of
the adjusting screw to determine whether the clearance was
set incorrectly or the adjusting screw has loosened.
After adjusting the clearance on each valve, tighten the lock

screw or nut to the torque specified in the maintenance manual.
After completing all clearance adjustments and before installing
the rocker box covers, make a final check of all lock screws or
nuts for tightness with a torque wrench.
Warped rocker box covers are a common cause of oil leakage.

Therefore, the box covers should be checked for flatness at
each valve inspection. Resurface any warped covers by
lapping them on emery cloth laid on a surface plate. Rocker box
cover warpage is often caused by improper tightening of the
rocker box cover nuts. Eliminate further warpage by torqueing
the nuts to the values specified in the manufacturer’s service
manual.

Valve clearance
The amount of power that can be produced by a cylinder For a valve to seat, the valve must be in good condition, with
depends primarily on the amount of heat that can be produced no significant pressure being exerted against the end of the
in that cylinder without destructive effects on the cylinder valve by the rocker arm. If the expansion of all parts of the
components. Any condition that limits the amount of heat in the engine, including the valve train were the same, the problem of
cylinder also limits the amount of power which that cylinder can ensuring valve seating would be quite easy to solve. Practically
produce. no free space would be necessary in the valve system.
However, since there is a great difference in the amount of
In determining valve timing and establishing the maximum expansion of various parts of the engine, there is no way of
power setting at which the engine is permitted to run, the providing a constant operating clearance in the valve train.
manufacturer considers the amount of heat at which cylinder
components such as spark plugs and valves can operate The clearance in the valve-actuating system is exceedingly
efficiently. The heat level of the exhaust valve must be below small when the engine is cold but is much greater when the
that at which pitting and warping of the valve occur. engine is operating at normal temperature. The difference is
caused by differences in the expansion characteristics of the
The head of the exhaust valve is exposed to the heat of various metals and by the differences in temperature of various
combustion at all times during the combustion period. Also, the engine parts.
head of this valve and a portion of the stem are exposed to hot
exhaust gases during the exhaust event. Under regular There are many reasons why proper valve clearances are of
operation, the exhaust valve remains below the critical heat vital importance to satisfactory and stable engine operation. For
level because of its contact with the valve seat when closed example, when the engine is operating, valve clearances
and because of the heat dissipated through the stem. Any establish valve timing. Since all cylinders receive their fuel/air
condition which prevents the valve from seating correctly for the mixture (or air) from a common supply, valve clearance affects
required proportion of time will cause the valve to exceed the both the amount and the richness or leanness of the fuel/air
critical heat limits during periods of high power output. In cases mixture. Therefore, valve clearances must be correct and
of inferior valve seat contact, the exhaust valve can warp during uniform between each cylinder.
periods of low power output.
On radial engines, valve clearance decreases with a drop in
Typically, the exhaust valve is closed and in contact with its temperature; therefore, insufficient clearance may cause the
seat about 65% of the time during the four-stroke cycle. If the valve to hold open when extremely cold temperatures are
valve adjustment is correct, and if the valve seats firmly when encountered. This may make cold-weather starting of the
closed, much of the heat is transferred from the valve, through engine difficult, if not impossible, because of the inability of the
the seat, into the cylinder head. cylinders to pull a combustible charge into the combustion
chamber.
Accurate valve adjustment establishes the intended valve Wright engines incorporate pressure-lubricated valves. Oil
seating velocity. If valve clearances are excessive, the valve under pressure passes through the pushrod and into the centre
seating velocity is too high. The result is valve pounding and of the valve-clearance adjusting screw. From this point, oil
stem stretching, either of which is conducive to valve failure. passages radiate in three directions. To permit proper
Insufficient clearance may make starting difficult and cause lubrication, one of the three passages in the adjusting screw
valves to stick in the “open” position, causing blow-by and must be at least partially open to the passage leading to the
subsequent valve failure as a result of the extreme rocker arm bearing. At the same time, neither of the other two
temperatures to which the valve is subjected. passages must be uncovered by being in the slot in the rocker
arm. Determine the location of the oil passages in the adjusting
The engine manufacturer specifies the valve inspection period screw by locating the 0 stamped in three places on its top. If
for each engine. In addition to the regular periods, inspect and there are only two stamped circles, the third oil passage is
adjust the valve mechanism any time there is rough engine midway between the two marked ones. After final tailoring of
operation, backfiring, loss of compression, or hard starting. the valve adjustment, if any one of the three oil passages aligns
with or is closer than 2.38 mm (3∕32") to the nearest edge of the
Because of variations in engine designs, various methods are slot in the rocker arm, turn the adjusting screw in a direction to
required for setting valves to obtain correct and consistent increase or decrease the clearance until the reference 0 mark
clearances. In all cases, follow the exact procedure prescribed is 2.38 mm (3∕32") from the nearest edge of the slot in the rocker
by the engine manufacturer, since unknown factors may be arm, or until the maximum or minimum valve clearance is
involved. reached.
For example, there is considerable cam float on many radial
engines, and the valve-adjusting procedure for these engines
is developed to permit accurate and consistent positioning of’
the cam. Since the ratio of valve movement to pushrod
movement may be as much as two to one, each 0.0254 mm
(0.001") shift of the cam can result in a 0.102 mm (0.002")
variation in valve clearances.

Pratt and Whitney's engines also incorporate pressure- In making the check with the feeler gauge, do not use
lubricated valves. On these engines, there is no slot in the excessive force to insert the gauge between the valve stem and
rocker arm, but the valve-clearance adjusting screw can be the adjustment screw or rocker arm roller. The gauge can be
turned in or backed out so far that the oil passage from the inserted by a heavy force, even though the clearance may be
screw into the rocker arm is blocked. The specific instructions several thousandths of an inch less than the thickness of the
for setting clearance on the Pratt and Whitney engines state gauge. This precaution is particularly important on engines
that a certain number of threads must show above the rocker where the cam is centred during valve clearance adjustment,
arm. For example, on one model engine, at least two threads since forcing the gauge on these engines may cause the cam
and not more than five must show, and will, providing the to shift, with subsequent false readings.
pushrod is the correct length. Correct the pushrod length by
pulling off one of the ball ends and changing the washer When a dial gauge and brackets for mounting the gauge on the
beneath for a thicker or thinner one. If there is no washer and rocker box are specified, be sure to use them. A dial gauge with
the rod is too long, correct it by grinding away the end of the a bracket may be used for checking valve clearances on any
rod. Check the engine manufacturer’s service or overhaul engine, provided the rocker arm arrangement is such that the
manual for the maximum or minimum number of threads which pickup arm of the gauge is located over the centre line of the
may show on the engine in question. valve stem.
When adjusting valve clearances, always use the valve With a dial gauge, the clearance is the amount of travel
clearance gauge or the dial gauge specified in the “tools” obtained when the rocker arm is rotated from the valve stem
section of the engine manufacturer’s service manual. The until the other end of the rocker arm contacts the pushrod.
specified gauge is of the proper thickness and is so shaped that
the end being used for checking can be slipped in a straight line Since valve clearance adjustment procedures vary between
between the valve and the rocker arm roller of the rocker arm. engines, a single treatment will not be sufficient. Thus, the
When a standard gauge is used without being bent to the procedures for various engines or groups of engines are
proper angle, a false clearance will be established since the treated separately in the following paragraphs. However, the
gauge will be cocked between the valve stem and rocker arm procedures are described only to provide an understanding of
or rocker arm roller. the operations involved. Consult the engine manufacturer’s
instructions for the clearance to be set, the torque to be applied
to lock-screws and rocker box cover nuts, and other pertinent
details.

The first step in checking and adjusting valve clearances is to Valve spring replacement
set the piston in the No. 1 cylinder at top-centre compression A broken valve spring seldom affects engine operation and can,
stroke. Turn the propeller by hand until the valve action or therefore, be detected only during a careful inspection.
cylinder pressure against a thumb held over the spark plug hole Because multiple springs are used, one broken spring is hard
indicates that the piston is coming up on the compression to detect. But when a broken valve spring is discovered, it can
stroke. Insert a piece of aluminium tubing into the spark plug be replaced without removing the cylinder. During valve spring
hole and turn the propeller in the direction of rotation until the replacement, the critical precaution to remember is not to
piston reaches its highest position. Proper precaution must be damage the spark plug hole threads. The complete procedure
taken to make sure that the piston is on the compression for valve spring replacement is as follows:
stroke.
• Remove one spark plug from the cylinder.
After positioning the piston and crankshaft, adjust intake and • Turn the propeller in the direction of rotation until the
exhaust valve clearances on the No. 1 cylinder to the piston is at the top of the compression stroke.
prescribed values. Then adjust each succeeding cylinder in • Remove rocker arm.
firing order, properly positioning the crankshaft for each • Using a valve spring compressor, compress the spring
cylinder. and remove the valve keepers. During this operation, it
may be necessary to insert a piece of brass rod through
Recheck the valve clearances and readjust any that are outside the spark plug hole to decrease the space between the
the limits. On this second check, align the oil passages in the valve and the top of the piston head to break the spring
adjusting screws of engines incorporating pressure-lubricated retaining washer loose from the keepers. The piston,
valves. being at the top position on the compression stroke,
prevents the valve from dropping down into the cylinder
once the spring retaining washers are broken loose from
the keepers on the stem.
• Remove the defective spring and any broken pieces
from the rocker box.
• Install a new spring and correct washers. Then, using
the valve spring compressor, compress the spring and,
if necessary, move the valve up from the piston using a
brass rod inserted through the spark plug hole.
• Reinstall the keepers and rocker arms. Then check and
adjust the valve clearance.
• Reinstall the rocker box cover and the spark plug.

Cold cylinder check
The cold cylinder check determines the operating
characteristics of each cylinder of an air-cooled engine. The
tendency for any cylinder or cylinders to be cold or to be only
slightly warm indicates lack of combustion or incomplete
combustion within the cylinder. This must be corrected if the
best operation and power conditions are to be obtained. The
cold cylinder check is made with a cold cylinder indicator
(magic wand). Engine difficulties which can be analysed by use
of the cold cylinder indicator are:
• rough engine operation;

• excessive RPM drop during the ignition system check;
• high manifold pressure for a given engine rpm during the
ground check when the propeller is in the full low-pitch
position; and
• faulty mixture ratios caused by improper valve
clearance.

Using a cold cylinder indicator

In preparation for the cold cylinder check, head the aircraft into ignition and master switches. Record the cylinder head
the wind to minimise uneven cooling of the individual cylinders temperature reading registered on the cockpit gauge.
and to ensure even propeller loading during engine operation.
Open the cowl flaps. Do not close the cowl flaps under any As soon as the propeller has ceased rotating, move a
circumstances, as the resulting excessive heat radiation affects maintenance stand to the front of the engine. Connect the clip
the readings obtained and can damage the ignition leads. attached to the cold cylinder indicator lead to the engine or
propeller to provide a ground for the instrument. Press the tip
Start the engine with the ignition switch in the “BOTH” position. of the indicator pickup rod against each cylinder and record the
After the engine is running, place the ignition switch in the relative temperature of each cylinder. Start with number one
position in which an excessive RPM drop is obtained. When and proceed in numerical order around the engine, as rapidly
excessive RPM drop is encountered on both right and left as possible. A firm contact must be made at the same relative
switch positions, or when excessive manifold pressure is location on each cylinder to obtain comparative temperature
obtained at a given engine RPM, perform the check twice, once values. Recheck any outstandingly low values. Also, recheck
on the left and once on the right switch position. the two cylinders having the highest readings to determine the
amount of cylinder cooling during the test. Compare the
Operate the engine at its roughest speed between 1,200 and temperature readings to determine which cylinders are dead or
1,600 RPM until a cylinder head temperature reading of 150° are operating intermittently.
to 170°C (302° to 338°F) is obtained, or until temperatures
stabilise at a lower reading. If engine roughness is encountered Difficulties which may cause a cylinder to be inoperative (dead)
at more than one speed, or if there is an indication that a on both right and left magneto positions are:
cylinder ceases operating at idle or higher speeds, run the
engine at each of these speeds and perform a cold cylinder • defective spark plugs;
check to pick out all the dead or intermittently operating • incorrect valve clearances;
cylinders. When low power output or engine vibration is • leaking impeller oil seal;
encountered at speeds above 1,600 RPM when operating with • leaking intake pipes;
the ignition switch on “BOTH,” run the engine at the speed • lack of compression;
where the difficulty is encountered until the cylinder head • plugged push rod housing drains; or
temperatures are up to 150° to 170°C or until the temperatures • faulty operation of the fuel injection nozzle (on fuel-
have stabilised at a lower value. injection engines).
When cylinder head temperatures have reached the values Before changing spark plugs or making an ignition harness test
prescribed in the previous paragraph, stop the engine by on cylinders that are not operating or are operating
moving the mixture control to the “IDLE CUT-OFF” or “FULL intermittently, check the magneto ground leads to determine
LEAN” position. When the engine ceases firing, turn off both that the wiring is connected correctly.

Repeat the cold cylinder test for the other magneto positions on Defects within the ignition system that can cause a cylinder to
the ignition switch, if necessary. Cooling the engine between go completely dead are:
tests is unnecessary. The airflow created by the propeller and
the cooling effect of the incoming fuel/air mixture is sufficient to • both spark plugs inoperative;
cool any cylinders that are functioning on one test and not • both ignition leads grounded, leaking, or open;
functioning on the next. • a combination of inoperative spark plugs and defective
ignition leads.
In interpreting the results of a cold cylinder check, remember
that the temperatures are relative. A cylinder temperature taken Faulty fuel injection nozzles, incorrect valve clearances, and
alone means little, but when compared with the temperatures other defects outside the ignition system can also cause dead
of other cylinders on the same engine, it provides valuable cylinders.
diagnostic information.
Temperature readings
On this check, the cylinder-head temperature gauge reading at Cylinder number Right magneto Left magneto
the time the engine was shut down was 160°C on both tests. 1 180 170
A review of these temperature readings reveals that, on the 2 170 175
right magneto, cylinder number 6 runs cool and cylinders 8 and 3 100 170
9 runs cold. This indicates that cylinder 6 is firing intermittently 4 145 60
and cylinders and 9 are dead during engine operation on the
front plugs (fired by the right magneto). Cylinders 9 and 10 are 5 70 155
dead during operation on the rear plugs (fired by the left 6 60 45
magneto). Cylinder 9 is completely dead. Readings are taken during a cold-cylinder check
An ignition system operational check would not disclose this In interpreting the readings obtained on a cold-cylinder check,
dead cylinder since the cylinder is inoperative on both right and the amount the engine cools during the check must be
left switch positions, considered. To determine the extent to which this factor should
A dead cylinder can be detected during run-up since an engine be considered in evaluating the readings, recheck some of the
with a dead cylinder requires a higher-than-normal manifold first cylinders tested and compare the final readings with those
pressure to produce any given RPM below the cut-in speed of made at the start of the check. Another factor to be considered
the propeller governor. A dead cylinder could also be detected is the normal variation in temperature between cylinders and
by comparing power input and power output with the aid of a between rows. This variation results from those design features
torquemeter. which affect the airflow past the cylinders.

Block testing
General Purpose
The information in this chapter on block testing of engines is The block test serves a dual purpose: first, it accomplishes
intended to familiarise you with the procedures and equipment piston ring run-in and bearing burnishing; and second, it
used in selecting for service only those engines that are in top provides valuable information that is used to evaluate engine
mechanical condition. performance and determine engine condition. Piston rings
must be seated correctly in the cylinder in which they are
Like a new or recently overhauled automobile engine, the installed to provide proper oil flow to the upper portion of the
aircraft engine must be in top mechanical condition. This cylinder barrel walls with a minimum loss of oil. The process is
condition must be determined after the engine has been newly called piston ring run-in and is accomplished chiefly by
assembled or completely overhauled. The method used is the controlled operation of the engine in the high-speed range.
block test, or run-in, which takes place at overhaul before Improper piston ring conditioning or run-in may result in
delivery of the engine. It must be emphasised that engine run- unsatisfactory engine operation.
in is as vital as any other phase of engine overhaul, for it is how
the quality of a new or newly overhauled engine is checked. It A process called “bearing burnishing” creates a highly polished
is the final step in the preparation of an engine for service. surface on new bearings and bushings installed during
overhaul.
In many instances, an engine has appeared to be in perfect
mechanical condition before the engine run-in tests. However, The burnishing is usually accomplished during the first periods
the tests have shown that it was actually in poor and unreliable of the engine run-in at comparatively slow engine speeds.
mechanical condition. Thus, the reliability and potential service
life of an engine is in question until it has satisfactorily passed
the block test.

Requirements
The operational tests and test procedures vary with individual
engines, but the basic requirements are discussed in the
following paragraphs. The failure of any internal part during
engine run-in requires that the engine be returned for a
replacement of the necessary units, and then be retested
entirely. If any part of the basic engine should fail, a new unit is
installed; a minimum operating time is used to check the engine
with the new unit installed.
After an engine has completed block-test requirements, it is

then specially treated to prevent corrosion. During the final run-
in period at block test, the engines are operated on the proper
grade of fuel prescribed for the particular kind of engine. The
oil system is serviced with a mixture of corrosion-preventive
compound and engine oil. The temperature of this mixture is
maintained at 105° to 121°C. Near the end of final run-in CPM
(corrosion-preventive mixture) is used as the engine lubricant;
the engine induction passages and combustion chambers are
also treated with CPM by an aspiration method (CPM is drawn
or breathed into the engine).

Mobile stand testing of reciprocating engines
The mobile stand testing of reciprocating engines is much the
same as for the block testing of reciprocating engines. They
both have the same purpose; i.e., to ensure that the engine is
fit to be installed on an aircraft. Once the engine has been
operated on the mobile test stand and any faults or troubles
corrected, it is presumed that the engine operates correctly on
the aircraft.
A typical mobile test stand consists of a frame, engine mount,

control booth, and trailer welded or bolted together. The engine
test stand mount and firewall are located toward the rear of the
trailer deck and afford access to the rear of the engine. The
engine test stand mount is a steel structure of uprights, braces,
and cross members welded and bolted together forming one
unit. The rear stand brace has non-skid steel steps welded in
place to permit the mechanic to climb easily to the top of the
engine accessory section. The front side of the engine mount
has steel panels incorporating cannon plugs for the electrical
connections to the engine. Also, there are fittings on the steel
panels for the quick connection of the fluid lines to the engine.
The hydraulic tank is located on the rear side of the engine test
stand mount. Finally, the mobile engine test stand has outlet
plugs for the communication system.
The control booth is located in the middle of the trailer and

houses the engine controls and instrument panels.
The most important thing about positioning a mobile test stand

is to face the propeller directly into the wind. If this is not done,
engine testing will not be accurate.

Mobile engine test stand

Block test instruments
The block-test operator’s control room houses the controls The blue arc, like the yellow, indicates a range of operation.
used to operate the engine and the instruments used to The blue arc might indicate, for example, the manifold pressure
measure various temperatures and pressures, fuel flow, and gauge range in which the engine can be operated with the
other factors. These devices are necessary for providing an carburettor control set at automatic lean. The blue arc is used
accurate check and an evaluation of the operating engine. The only with certain engine instruments, such as the tachometer,
control room is separate from, but adjacent to, space (test cell) manifold pressure, and cylinder head temperature.
that houses the engine being tested.
The green arc shows a standard range of operation. When
The safe, economical, and reliable testing of modern aircraft used on certain engine instruments, however, it also means
engines depends mostly upon the use of instruments. In engine that the engine must be operated with an automatic rich
run-in procedures, the same basic engine instruments are used carburettor setting when the pointer is in this range.
as when the engine is installed in the aircraft, plus some
additional connections to these instruments and some When the markings appear on the cover glass, a white line is
indicating and measuring devices that cannot be practically used as an index mark, often called a slippage mark. The white
installed in the aircraft. Instruments used in the testing radial mark indicates any movement between the cover glass
procedures are inspected and calibrated periodically, as are and the case, a condition that would cause mislocation of the
instruments installed in the aircraft; thus, accurate information other range and limit markings.
concerning engine operation is ensured.
The expanded portion is set off from the instrument to make it
Instrument markings indicate ranges of operation or minimum easier to identify the instrument markings.
and maximum limits, or both. Generally, the instrument marking
system consists of four colours (red, yellow, blue, and green) Oil temperature indicator
and intermediate blank spaces. During engine run-in at block test, engine oil temperature
readings are taken at the oil inlet and outlet. From these
A red line or mark indicates a point beyond which a dangerous readings, it can be determined if the engine heat transferred to
operating condition exists, and a red arc indicates a dangerous the oil is low, normal, or excessive. This information is of
operating range. Of the two, the red mark is used more extreme importance during the breaking-in process of large
commonly and is located radially on the cover glass or dial face. reciprocating engines. The oil temperature gauge line in the
aircraft is connected at the oil inlet to the engine.
The yellow arc covers a given range of operation and is an
indication of caution. Generally, the yellow arc is located on the
outer circumference of the instrument cover glass or dial face.

Three range markings are used on the oil temperature gauge. The temperature recorded at either of these points is merely a
The red mark on the dial shows the minimum oil temperature reference or control temperature. However, as long as it is kept
permissible for operational ground checks or during flight. The within the prescribed limits, the temperatures of the cylinder
green mark shows the desired oil temperature for continuous dome, exhaust valve, and piston are within an acceptable
engine operation. The red mark indicates the maximum range. Since the thermocouple is attached to only one cylinder,
permissible oil temperature. it can do no more than giving evidence of general engine
temperature. While it can usually be assumed that the
Oil pressure indicator remaining cylinder temperatures are lower, conditions such as
The oil pressure on block-test engines is checked at various detonation are not indicated unless they occur in the cylinder
points. The main oil pressure reading is taken at the pressure that has the thermocouple attached.
side of the oil pump. Other pressure readings are taken from
the nose section and blower section; and when internal
supercharging is used, a reading is taken from the high- and
low-blower clutch.
Generally, there is only one oil pressure gauge for each aircraft
engine, and the connection is made at the pressure side (outlet)
of the main oil pump.
Cylinder head temperature indicator

During the engine block-test procedures, a pyrometer indicates
the cylinder head temperatures of various cylinders on the
engine being tested.
Thermocouples are connected to several cylinders, and by a

selector switch, any cylinder head temperature can be
indicated on the pyrometer. There are one thermocouple lead
and indicator scale for each engine installed in an aircraft.
Cylinder head temperatures are indicated by a gauge

connected to a thermocouple attached to the cylinder which
tests show to be the hottest on an engine in a particular
installation. The thermocouple may be placed in a special
gasket located under a rear spark plug or in a special well in
the top or rear of the cylinder head.
Engine operation
General
The operation of the powerplant is controlled from the cockpit. For exact information regarding a specific engine model,
Some installations have numerous control handles and levers consult the applicable instructions.
connected to the engine by rods, cables, bellcranks, pulleys,
etc. The control handles, in most cases, are conveniently Engine instruments
mounted on quadrants in the cockpit. Placards or markings are The term engine instruments usually includes all instruments
placed on the quadrant to indicate the functions and positions required to measure and indicate the functioning of the
of the levers. In some installations, friction clutches are installed powerplant. The engine instruments are generally installed on
to hold the controls in place. the instrument panel so that all of them can easily be observed
at one time.
Manifold pressure, RPM, engine temperature, oil temperature,
carburettor air temperature, and the fuel/air ratio can be Some of the simple, light aircraft may be equipped only with a
controlled by manipulating the cockpit controls. Coordinating tachometer, oil pressure gauge, and oil temperature gauges.
the movement of the controls with the instrument readings The heavier, more complex aircraft have all or part of the
protects against exceeding operating limits. following engine instruments:
Engine operation is usually limited by specified operating • oil pressure indicator and warning system;
ranges of the following: • oil temperature indicator;
• fuel pressure indicator and warning system;
• crankshaft speed (RPM); • carburettor air temperature indicator;
• manifold pressure; • cylinder head temperature indicator for air-cooled
• cylinder head temperature; engines;
• carburettor air temperature; • manifold pressure indicator;
• oil temperature; • tachometer;
• oil pressure; • fuel quantity indicator;
• fuel pressure; and • fuel flow meter or fuel mixture indicator;
• fuel/air mixture setting. • oil quantity indicator;
The procedures, pressures, temperatures, and RPMs used • augmentation liquid quantity indicator;
throughout this section are solely for illustration and do not • fire warning indicators;
have general application. The operating procedures and limits • a means to indicate when the propeller is in reverse
used on individual makes and models of aircraft engines vary pitch; and
considerably from the values shown here. • BMEP (brake mean effective pressure) indicator.

Engine starting
Correct starting technique is an integral part of engine During warm-up, watch the instruments associated with engine
operation. Improper procedures are often used because some operation – this aids in making sure that all phases of engine
of the basic principles involved in engine operation are operation are normal. For example, engine oil pressure should
misunderstood. In general, two different starting procedures be indicated within 30 seconds after the start.
cover all engines. One procedure is for engines using float-type
carburettors, and the other for engines with pressure-injection Furthermore, if the oil pressure is not up to or above normal
carburettors. The specific manufacturer’s procedures for a within one minute after the engine starts, the engine should be
particular engine and aircraft combination should always be shut down. Cylinder head or coolant temperatures should be
followed. observed continually to see that they do not exceed the
maximum allowable limit.
Engine warm-up
Proper engine warm-up is essential, particularly when the A lean mixture should not be used to hasten the warm-up.
condition of the engine is unknown. Improperly adjusted idle Actually, at the warm-up RPM, there is little difference in the
mixture, intermittently firing spark plugs, and improperly mixture supplied to the engine, whether the mixture is in a
adjusted engine valves all have an overlapping effect on engine “RICH” or “LEAN” position since metering in this power range
stability. Therefore, the warm-up should be made at the engine is governed by throttle position.
speed where maximum engine stability is obtained. Experience
has shown that the optimum warm-up speed is from 1,000 to Carburettor heat can be used as required under conditions
1,600 RPM. The actual speed selected should be the speed at leading to ice formation. For engines equipped with a float-type
which engine operation is the smoothest since the smoothest carburettor, it is desirable to raise the carburettor air
operation is an indication that all phases of engine operation temperature during warm-up to prevent ice formation and to
are the most stable. ensure smooth operation.
Most Pratt and Whitney engines incorporate temperature- The magneto safety check can be performed during warm-up.
compensated oil pressure relief valves. This type of relief valve Its purpose is to ensure that all ignition connections are secure
results in high engine-oil pressures immediately after the and that the ignition system permits operation at the higher
engine starts, if oil temperatures are below 40°C. power settings used during later phases of the ground check.
Consequently, start the warm-up of these engines at The time required for proper warm-up gives ample opportunity
approximately 1,000 RPM and then move to the higher, more to perform this simple check, which may disclose a condition
stable engine speed as soon as oil temperature reaches 40°C. that would make it inadvisable to continue operation until after
corrections have been made.

The magneto safety check is conducted with the propeller in The ground check is made after the engine is thoroughly warm.
the high RPM (low pitch) position, at approximately 1,000 RPM It consists of checking the operation of the powerplant and
Move the ignition switch from “BOTH” to “RIGHT” and return to accessory equipment by ear, by visual inspection, and by the
“BOTH”; from “BOTH” to “LEFT” and return to “BOTH”; from proper interpretation of instrument readings, control
“BOTH” to “OFF” momentarily and return to “BOTH.” movements, and switch reactions.
While switching from “BOTH” to a single magneto position, a During the ground check, the aircraft should be headed into the
slight but noticeable drop in RPM should occur. This indicates wind, if possible, to take advantage of the cooling airflow. A
that the opposite magneto has been adequately grounded out. ground check may be performed as follows:
Complete cutting out of the engine when switching from
“BOTH” to “OFF” indicates that both magnetos are correctly Control position Check:
grounded. Failure to obtain any drop while in the single
Cowl flaps Open.
magneto position, or failure of the engine to cut out while
switching to “OFF” indicates that one or both ground Mixture Rich.
connections are not secured. Propeller High RPM.
Ground check Carburettor heat Cold.
The ground check is performed to evaluate the functioning of
Carburettor air filter As required.
the engine by comparing power input, as measured by manifold
pressure, with power output, as measured by RPM or torque Supercharger control Low, neutral, or off position
pressure. (where applicable).
The engine may be capable of producing a prescribed power,

even rated takeoff, and not be functioning correctly. Only by
comparing the manifold pressure required during the check
against a known standard will an unsuitable condition be
disclosed. The magneto check can also fail to show up short-
comings since the allowable RPM drop-off is only a measure of
an improperly functioning ignition system and is not necessarily
affected by other factors. Conversely, the magneto check can
prove satisfactory with an unsatisfactory condition present
elsewhere in the engine.

Procedure: determined that the engine is capable of delivering a given
• Check propeller according to propeller manufacturer’s power at a given RPM and manifold pressure. The original
instruction. calibration, or measurement of power, is made using a
• Open throttle to manifold pressure equal to field dynamometer. During the ground check, power is measured
barometric pressure. with the propeller. With constant conditions of air density, the
• Switch from “BOTH” to “RIGHT” and return to “BOTH.” propeller, at any fixed-pitch position, always requires the same
Switch from “BOTH” to “LEFT” and return to “BOTH.” RPM to absorb the same horsepower from the engine. This
Observe the RPM drop while operating on the right and characteristic is used in determining the condition of the engine.
left positions. The maximum drop should not exceed that
specified by the engine manufacturer. With the governor control set for full low pitch, the propeller
• Check the fuel pressure and oil pressure. They must be operates as a fixed-pitch propeller. Under these conditions, the
within the established tolerance for the subject engine. manifold pressure for any specific engine, with the mixture
• Note RPM. control in auto-rich, indicates whether all the cylinders are
• Retard throttle. operating correctly. With one or more dead or intermittently
firing cylinders, the operating cylinders must provide more
In addition to the operations outlined above, check the power for a given RPM.
functioning of various items of aircraft equipment, such as
generator systems, hydraulic systems, etc. Consequently, the carburettor throttle must be opened further,
resulting in higher manifold pressure. Different engines of the
Propeller pitch check same model using the same propeller installation and in the
The propeller is checked to ensure proper operation of the pitch same geographical location should require the same manifold
control and the pitch-change mechanism. The operation of a pressure, within 1 inHg, to obtain RPM when the barometer and
controllable pitch propeller is checked by the indications of the temperature are at the same readings. A higher-than-normal
tachometer and manifold pressure gauge when the propeller manifold pressure usually indicates a dead cylinder or late
governor control is moved from one position to another. ignition timing. An excessively low manifold pressure for a
Because each type of propeller requires a different procedure, particular RPM usually indicates that the ignition timing is early.
the applicable manufacturer’s instructions should be followed. Early-ignition can cause detonation and loss of power at takeoff
power settings.
Power check
Specific RPM and manifold pressure relationship should be Before starting the engine, observe the manifold pressure
checked during each ground check. This can be clone at the gauge, which should read approximately atmospheric
time the engine is run-up to make the magneto check. The (barometric) pressure when the engine is not running. At sea
basic idea of this check is to measure the performance of the level, this is approximately 30 inHg, and at fields above sea
engine against an established standard. Calibration tests have
level, the atmospheric pressure is less, depending on the Atmospheric temperatures. The effects of variations in
height above sea level. atmospheric temperature tend to cancel each other. Higher
carburettor intake and cylinder temperatures tend to lower the
When the engine is started and then accelerated, the manifold RPM, but the propeller load is lightened because of the less
pressure decreases until about 1,600 or 1,700 RPM is reached, dense air.
and then it begins to rise. At approximately 2,000 RPM., with
the propeller in low-pitch position, the manifold pressure should Engine and induction system temperature. If the cylinder
be the same as the field barometric pressure. If the manifold and carburettor temperatures are high because of factors other
pressure gauge reading (field barometric pressure) was than atmospheric temperature, a low RPM results since the
30 inHg before starting the engine, the pressure reading should power is lowered without a compensating lowering of the
return to 30 inHg at approximately 2,000 RPM. If the manifold propeller load.
pressure gauge reads 26 inHg before starting, it should reread
26 inHg at approximately 2,000 RPM. The exact RPM will vary Oil temperature. Cold oil tends to hold down the RPM since
with various models of engines or because of varying propeller the higher viscosity results in increased friction horse-power
characteristics. In certain installations, the RPM needed to losses.
secure field barometric pressure may be as high as
2,200 RPM. However, once the required RPM has been The addition of a torquemeter can increase the accuracy of the
established for an installation, any appreciable variation power check by providing another measurement of power
indicates some malfunctioning. This variation may occur output. As long as the check is performed with the blades in a
because the low-pitch stop of the propeller has not been known fixed-pitch position, the torquemeter provides no
correctly set or because the carburettor or ignition system is not additional information, but its use can increase accuracy; in the
functioning properly. frequent instances where the tachometer scales are graduated
coarsely, the tachometer gauge reading may be a more
The accuracy of the power check may be affected by the convenient source of the desired information.
following variables:
Wind. Any appreciable air movement (5 MPH or more) will

change the air load on the propeller blade when it is in the fixed-
pitch position. A headwind increases the RPM obtainable with
given manifold pressure. A tailwind decreases the RPM.

Ignition system operational check
In performing the ignition system operational check (magneto functioning. The excessive difference in RPM drop-off between
check), the power-absorbing characteristics of the propeller in the left and right switch positions can indicate a difference in
the low fixed-pitch position are utilised. In switching to individual timing between the left and right magnetos.
magnetos, cutting out the opposite plugs results in a slower rate
of combustion, which gives the same effect as retarding the Sufficient time should be given the check on each single switch
spark advance. position to permit complete stabilisation of engine speed and
manifold pressure. There is a tendency to performing this check
The drop in engine speed is a measure of the power loss at this too rapidly with resultant wrong indications. Single ignition
slower combustion rate. operation for as long as 1 minute is not excessive.
When the magneto check is performed, a drop in torquemeter Another point that must be emphasised is the danger of a
pressure indication is an excellent supplement to the variation sticking tachometer. The tachometer should be tapped lightly
in RPM and in cases where the tachometer scale is graduated to make sure the indicator needle moves freely. In some cases,
coarsely, the torquemeter variation may give more positive tachometer slicking has caused errors in indication to the extent
evidence of the power change when switching to the individual of 100 RPM Under such conditions the ignition system could
magneto condition. A loss in torquemeter pressure not to have had as much as a 200 RPM drop with only a 100 RPM
exceed 10% can be expected when operating on a single drop indicated on the instrument. In most cases, tapping the
magneto. By comparing the RPM drop with a known standard, instrument eliminates the sticking and results in accurate
the following are determined: readings.
• proper timing of each magneto; In recording the results of the ignition system check, record the
• general engine performance as evidenced by the amount of the total RPM drop, which occurs rapidly and the
smooth operation; and amount which occurs slowly. This breakdown in RPM drop
• an additional check of the proper connection of the provides a means of pinpointing certain troubles in the ignition
ignition leads. system. It can save much time and unnecessary work by
confining maintenance to the specific part of the ignition
Any unusual roughness on either magneto is an indication of system, which is responsible for the trouble.
faulty ignition caused by plug fouling or by malfunctioning of the
ignition system. The operator should be sensitive to engine Fast RPM drop is usually the result of either faulty spark plugs
roughness during this check. Lack of drop-off in RPM may be or faulty ignition harness. This is true because faulty plugs or
an indication of faulty grounding of one side of the ignition leads take effect at once. The cylinder goes dead or starts firing
system. Complete cutting out when switching to one magneto intermittently the instant that the switch is moved from “BOTH”
is definite evidence that its side of the ignition system is not to the “RIGHT” or “LEFT” position.

Slow RPM drop usually is caused by incorrect ignition timing or Moving the mixture control from the “AUTO-RICH” position to
faulty valve adjustment. With late ignition timing, the charge is the “AUTO-LEAN” position checks the cruise mixture. In
fired too late with relation to piston travel for the combustion general, the speed should not increase more than 25 RPM or
pressures to build up to the maximum at the proper time. The decrease more than 75 RPM during the change from “AUTO-
result is a power loss greater than usual for single ignition RICH” to “AUTO-LEAN.”
because of the lower peak pressures obtained in the cylinder.
However, this power loss does not occur as rapidly as that For example, suppose that the RPM change is above 100 for
which accompanies a dead spark plug. This explains the slow the 800 to 1,500 RPM checks; it is evident that the probable
RPM drop as compared to the instantaneous drop with a dead cause is an incorrect idle mixture. When the idle is
plug or defective lead. Incorrect valve clearances, through their appropriately adjusted, the duration is correct throughout the
effect on valve overlap, can cause the mixture to be too rich or range.
too lean. The too-rich or too-lean mixture may affect one plug
more than another, because of the plug location, and show up Idle speed and idle mixture checks
as a slow RPM drop on the ignition check. Plug fouling difficulty is the inevitable result of failure to provide
a proper idle mixture setting. The tendency seems to be to
Cruise mixture check adjust the idle mixture on the extremely rich side and to
The cruise mixture check is a check of carburettor metering. compensate for this by adjusting the throttle stop to a relatively
Checking the carburettor metering characteristics at 200 to high RPM for minimum idling. With a properly adjusted idle
300 RPM intervals, from 800 RPM to the ignition system check mixture setting, it is possible to run the engine at idle RPM for
speed, gives a complete pattern for the basic carburettor long periods.
performance.
Such a setting results in a minimum of plug fouling and exhaust
To perform this test, set up a specified engine speed with the smoking, and it pays dividends from the savings on the aircraft
propeller in full low pitch. The first check is made at 800 RPM. brakes after landing and while taxiing.
With the carburettor mixture control in the “AUTO-RICH”
position, read the manifold pressure. With the throttle remaining If the wind is not too strong, the idle mixture setting can be
in the same position, move the mixture control to the “AUTO- checked easily during the ground check as follows:
LEAN” position. Read and record the engine speed and • Close throttle; and
manifold pressure readings. Repeat this check at 1,000, 1,200, • Move the mixture control to the “IDLE CUT-OFF”
1,500, 1,700, and 2,000 RPM or at the RPMs specified by the position and observe the change in RPM Return the
manufacturer. Guard against a sticking instrument by tapping mixture control back to the “RICH” position before
the tachometer. engine cut-off.

As the mixture control lever is moved into idle cut-off, and When the engine speed has stabilised, observe the manifold
before normal drop-off, one of two things may occur pressure, and shift the supercharger control to the “LOW”
momentarily. position without moving the throttle. A sudden decrease in
manifold pressure indicates that the two-speed supercharger
• The engine speed may increase. An increase in RPM, drive is functioning correctly. If no decrease occurs, the clutch
but less than that recommended by the manufacturer may be inoperative.
(usually 20 RPM), indicates proper mixture strength. A
greater increase indicates that the mixture is too rich. As soon as the change in manifold pressure has been checked,
• The engine speed may not increase or may drop reduce the engine speed to 1,000 RPM, or less. If the shift of
immediately. This indicates that the idle mixture is too the supercharger did not appear to be satisfactory, operate the
lean. engine at 1,000 RPM for two or three minutes to permit heat
generated during the shift to dissipate from the clutches, and
The idle mixture should be set to give a mixture slightly richer then repeat the shifting procedure. Blower shifts should be
than best power, resulting in a 10 to 20 RPM rise after the idle made without hesitation or dwelling between the control
cut-off. positions to avoid dragging or slipping the clutches. Make sure
the supercharger control is in the “LOW” position when the
The idle mixture of engines equipped with electric primers can ground check is completed.
be checked by flicking the primer switch momentarily and
noting any change in manifold pressure and RPM. A decrease Acceleration and deceleration checks
in RPM and an increase in manifold pressure will occur when The acceleration check is made with the mixture control in both
the primer is energised if the idle mixture is too rich. If the idle auto-rich and auto-lean. Move the throttle from idle to take off
mixture is adjusted too lean, the RPM will increase, and smoothly and rapidly. The engine RPM should increase without
manifold pressure will decrease. hesitation and with no evidence of engine backfire.
Two-speed supercharger check This check will, in many cases, show up borderline conditions
To check the operation of the two-speed blower mechanism, that will not be revealed by any of the other checks. This is true
set the engine speed to a sufficiently high RPM to obtain the because the high cylinder pressures developed during this
minimum oil pressure required for clutch operation. Move the check put added strain on both the ignition system and the fuel
supercharger control to the “HIGH” position. A momentary drop metering system.
in oil pressure should accompany the shift. Open the throttle to
obtain not more than 30 inHg manifold pressure.

This added strain is sufficient to point out certain defects that Turbocharger waste gates are set in the “FULL OPEN” position.
otherwise go unnoticed. Engines must be capable of rapid
acceleration, since in an emergency, such as a go-around Two-speed supercharger control is placed in the “LOW
during landing, the ability of an engine to accelerate rapidly is BLOWER” position.
sometimes the difference between a successful go-around and
a crash landing. A two-position propeller will usually be stopped with the control
set in the “HIGH PITCH” (decrease RPM.) position. Open the
The deceleration check is made while retarding the throttle from throttle to approximately 1,200 RPM and shift the propeller
the acceleration check. Note the engine behaviour. RPM control to “HIGH PITCH” position. Allow the engine to operate
should decrease smoothly and evenly. There should be little or approximately one minute before stopping, so that the oil
no tendency for the engine to after-fire. dumped into the engine from the propeller may be scavenged
and returned to the oil tank.
Engine stopping
With each type of carburettor installation, specific procedures However, to inspect the propeller piston for galling and wear
are used in stopping the engine. The general procedure and for other particular purposes, this propeller may be stopped
outlined in the following paragraphs reduces the time required with the propeller control in “LOW PITCH” (increase RPM)
for stopping, minimises backfiring tendencies, and, most position when the engine is stopped.
important, prevents overheating of tightly baffled air-cooled
engines during operation on the ground. No mention is made of the throttle, mixture control, fuel selector
valve, and ignition switches in the initial set of directions
In stopping any aircraft engine, the controls are set as follows, because the operation of these controls varies with the type of
irrespective of carburettor type or fuel system installation. carburettor used with the engine.
Cowl flaps are always placed in the “FULL OPEN” position to Engines equipped with a float-type carburettor without an idle
avoid overheating the engine and are left in that position after cut-off unit are stopped as follows.
the engine is stopped to prevent residual engine heat from
• Adjust the throttle to obtain an idling speed of
deteriorating the ignition system.
approximately 600 to 800 RPM, depending on the type
Oil cooler shutters should be “FULL OPEN” to allow the oil of engine.
temperature to return to normal. • Close the fuel selector valve.
• Open the throttle slowly until the engine is operating at
Intercooler shutters are kept in the “FULL OPEN” position. approximately 800 to 1,000 RPM.
Carburettor air-heater control is left in the “COLD” position to

prevent damage which may occur from backfire.
• Observe the fuel pressure. When it drops to zero, turn The conventional reciprocating aircraft engine operates on the
the ignition switch to the “OFF” position and four-stroke-cycle principle. Pressure from burning gases acts
simultaneously move the throttle slowly to the “FULL upon a piston, causing it to reciprocate back and forth in an
OPEN” position. This operation removes the enclosed cylinder. This reciprocating motion of the piston is
accelerating charge from the induction system and changed into rotary motion by a crankshaft, to which the piston
avoids the possibility of accidental starting. is coupled using a connecting rod. The crankshaft, in turn, is
• When the engine has stopped, place the fuel selector attached or geared to the aircraft propeller. Therefore, the
valve in the “ON” position and refill the carburettor and rotary motion of the crankshaft causes the propeller to revolve.
fuel lines by using the auxiliary pump. Thus, the motion of the propeller is a direct result of the forces
acting upon the piston as it moves back and forth in the
An engine equipped with a carburettor incorporating an idle cut- cylinder.
off is stopped as follows.
Four strokes of the piston, two up and two down, are required
• Idle the engine by setting the throttle for 800 to to provide one power impulse to the crankshaft. Each of these
1,000 RPM. strokes is considered an event in the cycle of engine operation.
• Move the mixture control to the “IDLE CUT-OFF”
position. In a pressure-type carburettor; this causes the Ignition of the gases (fuel/air mixture) at the end of the second,
cloverleaf valve to stop the discharge of fuel through the or compression, stroke makes the fifth event. Thus, the five
discharge nozzle. In a float-type carburettor, it equalises events which make up a cycle of operation occur in four strokes
the pressure in the float chamber and at the discharge of the piston.
nozzle.
• After the propeller has stopped rotating, place the As the piston moves downward on the first stroke (intake), the
ignition switch in the “OFF” position. intake valve is open, and the exhaust valve is closed. As air is
drawn through the carburettor gasoline is introduced into the
Basic engine operating principles stream of air forming a combustible mixture.
A thorough understanding of the basic principles on which a
reciprocating engine operates and the many factors which On the second stroke, the intake closes, and the combustible
affect its operation is necessary to diagnose engine mixture is compressed as the piston moves upward. This is the
malfunctions. Some of these basic principles are reviewed not compression stroke.
as a mere repetition of basic theory, but as a concrete, practical
discussion of what makes for good or bad engine performance. At the correct instant, an electric spark jumps across the
terminals of the spark plug and ignites the fuel/air mixture. The
ignition of the fuel/air mixture is timed to occur just slightly
before the piston reaches the top dead centre.

As the mixture burns, temperature and pressure rise rapidly. closed at the top centre (end of exhaust stroke). More efficient
The pressure reaches a maximum just after the piston has engine operation can be obtained by opening the intake valve
passed top centre. The expanding and burning gas forces the several degrees before top centre and closing it several
piston downward, transmitting energy to the crankshaft. This is degrees after bottom centre. Opening the exhaust valve before
the power stroke. Both intake and exhaust valves are closed at the bottom centre, and closing it after top centre, also improves
the start of the power stroke. engine performance. Since the intake valve opens before top-
centre exhaust stroke and the exhaust valve closes after top-
Near the end of the power stroke, the exhaust valve opens, and centre intake stroke, there is a period where both the intake and
the burned gases start to escape through the exhaust port. On exhaust valves are open at the same time. This is known as
its return stroke, the piston forces out the remaining gases. This valve lap or valve overlap. In valve timing, the reference to
stroke, the exhaust stroke, ends the cycle. With the introduction piston or crankshaft position is always made in terms of before
of a new charge through the intake port, the action is repeated, or after the top and bottom centre points, e.g., ATDC, BTDC,
and the cycle of events occurs over again as long as the engine ABDC, and BBDC.
is in operation.
Opening the intake valve before the piston reaches top centre
Ignition of the fuel charge must occur at a specific time in starts the intake event while the piston is still moving up on the
relation to crankshaft travel. The igniting device is timed to exhaust stroke. This aids in increasing the volume of charge
ignite the charge just before the piston reaches top centre on admitted into the cylinder. The selected point at which the
the compression stroke. Igniting the charge at this point permits intake valve opens depends on the RPM at which the engine
maximum pressure to build up at a point slightly after the piston normally operates.
passes over top dead centre. For ideal combustion, the point of
ignition should vary with engine speed and with the degree of At low RPM, this early timing results in poor efficiency since the
compression, mixture strength, and other factors governing the incoming charge is not drawn into and the exhaust gases are
rate of burning. However, certain factors, such as the limited not expelled out of the cylinder with sufficient speed to develop
range of operating RPM and the dangers of operating with the necessary momentum. Also, at low RPM the cylinder is not
incorrect spark settings, prohibit the use of variable spark well scavenged, and residual gases mix with the incoming fuel
control in most instances. Therefore, most aircraft ignition and are trapped during the compression stroke. Some of the
system units are timed to ignite the fuel/air charge at one fixed incoming mixture is also lost through the open exhaust port.
position (advanced). However, the advantages obtained at normal operating RPM
more than make up for the poor efficiency at low RPM. Another
On early models of the four-stroke-cycle engine, the intake advantage of this valve timing is the increased fuel vaporisation
valve opened at top centre (beginning of the intake stroke), it and beneficial cooling of the piston and cylinder.
closed at bottom centre (end of intake stroke). The exhaust
valve opened at bottom centre (end of power stroke) and
Delaying the closing of the intake valve takes advantage of the Many aircraft engines are supercharged. Supercharging
inertia of the rapidly moving fuel/air mixture entering the increases the pressure of the air or fuel/ air mixture before it
cylinder. This ramming effect increases the charge over that enters the cylinder. In other words, the air or fuel/air mixture is
which would be taken in if the intake valve closed at bottom forced into the cylinder rather than being drawn in.
centre (end of intake stroke). The intake valve is open during Supercharging increases engine efficiency and makes it
the latter part of the exhaust stroke, all of the intake stroke, and possible for an engine to maintain its efficiency at high altitudes.
the first part of the compression stroke. Fuel/air mixture is taken This is true because the higher pressure packs more charge
in during all this time. into the cylinder during the intake event. This increase in weight
of charge results in a corresponding increase in power. Also,
The early opening and late closing of the exhaust valve goes the higher pressure of the incoming gases more forcibly ejects
along with the intake valve timing to improve engine efficiency. the burned gases out through the exhaust port. This results in
The exhaust valve opens on the power stroke, several better scavenging of the cylinder.
crankshaft degrees before the piston reaches the bottom
centre. This early opening aids in obtaining better scavenging The flame fronts start at each spark plug and burn in more or
of the burned gases. It also results in improved cooling of the less wavelike forms. The velocity of the flame travel is
cylinders, because of the early escape of the hot gases. influenced by the type of fuel, the ratio of the fuel/air mixture,
Actually, on aircraft engines, the major portion of the exhaust and the pressure and temperature of the fuel mixture. With
gases, and the unused heat, escape before the piston reaches normal combustion, flame travel is about 100 ft/second. The
the bottom centre. The burned gases continue to escape as the temperature and pressure within the cylinder rise at a normal
piston passes bottom centre, moves upward on the exhaust rate as the fuel/air mixture burns.
stroke, and starts the next intake stroke. The late closing of the
exhaust valve still further improves scavenging by taking There is a limit, however, to the amount of compression and
advantage of the inertia of the rapidly moving outgoing gases. the degree of temperature rise that can be tolerated within an
The exhaust valve is open during the latter part of the power engine cylinder and still permit normal combustion. All fuels
stroke, all of the exhaust stroke, and the first part of the intake have critical limits of temperature and compression. Beyond
stroke. this limit, they will ignite spontaneously and burn with explosive
violence. This instantaneous and explosive burning of the
From this description of valve timing, it can be seen that the fuel/air mixture or, more accurately, of the latter portion of the
intake and exhaust valves are open at the same time on the charge, is called detonation.
latter part of the exhaust stroke and the first part of the intake
stroke. During this valve overlap period, the last of the burned
gases are escaping through the exhaust port while the new
charge is entering through the intake port.

As previously mentioned, during normal combustion, the flame The effects of detonation are often not discovered until after
fronts progress from the point of ignition across the cylinder. teardown of the engine. When the engine is overhauled,
These flame fronts compress the gases ahead of them. At the however, the presence of severe detonation during its
same time, the gases are being compressed by the upward operation is indicated by dished piston heads, collapsed valve
movement of the piston. If the total compression on the heads, broken ring lands, or eroded portions of valves, pistons,
remaining unburned gases exceeds the critical point, or cylinder heads.
detonation occurs. Detonation then is the spontaneous
combustion of the unburned charge ahead of the flame fronts The essential protection from detonation is provided in the
after ignition of the charge. The explosive burning during design of the engine carburettor setting, which automatically
detonation results in an extremely rapid pressure rise. This supplies the rich mixtures required for detonation suppression
rapid pressure rise and the high instantaneous temperature, at high power; the rating limitations, which include the
combined with the high turbulence generated, cause a maximum operating temperatures; and selection of the correct
scrubbing action on the cylinder and the piston. This can burn grade of fuel. The design factors, cylinder cooling, magneto
a hole completely through the piston. timing, mixture distribution, supercharging, and carburettor
setting are taken care of in the design and development of the
The critical point of detonation varies with the ratio of fuel to air engine and its method of installation in the aircraft.
in the mixture. Therefore, the detonation characteristic of the
mixture can be controlled by varying the fuel/air ratio. At high
power output, combustion pressures and temperatures are
higher than they are at low or medium power. Therefore, at high
power, the fuel/air ratio is made richer than is needed for good
combustion at medium or low power output. This is done
because, in general, a rich mixture does not detonate as readily
as a lean mixture.
Unless detonation is heavy, there is no cockpit evidence of its

presence. Light to medium detonation does not cause
noticeable roughness, temperature increase, or loss of power.
As a result, it can be present during takeoff and high-power
climb without being known to the crew.

Normal combustion within a cylinder Detonation within a cylinder

The remaining responsibility for the prevention of detonation The hot spot can be caused by deposits on the chamber
rests squarely in the hands of the ground and flight crews. They surfaces resulting from the use of leaded fuels. Normal carbon
are responsible for observance of RPM and manifold pressure deposits can also cause preignition. Mainly, preignition is a
limits. Proper use of supercharger and fuel mixture, and condition similar to the early timing of the spark. The charge in
maintenance of suitable cylinder head and carburettor -air the cylinder is ignited before the required time for normal
temperatures are entirely in their control. engine firing. However, do not confuse preignition with the
spark which occurs too early in the cycle. Preignition is caused
Preignition, as the name implies, means that combustion takes by a hot spot in the combustion chamber, not by incorrect
place within the cylinder before the timed spark jumps across ignition timing. The hot spot may be due to either an overheated
the spark plug terminals. This condition can often be traced to cylinder or a defect within the cylinder.
excessive carbon or other deposits which cause local hot spots.
Detonation often leads to preignition. However, preignition may The most apparent method of correcting preignition is to reduce
also be caused by high- power operation on excessively lean the cylinder temperature. The immediate step is to retard the
mixtures. Preignition is usually indicated in the cockpit by throttle. This reduces the amount of fuel charge and the amount
engine roughness, backfiring, and by a sudden increase in of heat generated. If a supercharger is in use and is in high
cylinder head temperature. ratio, it should be returned to a low ratio to lower the charge
temperature. Following this, the mixture should be enriched, if
Any area within the combustion chamber which becomes possible, to lower combustion temperature.
incandescent will serve as an igniter in advance of normal
timed ignition and cause combustion earlier than desired. If the engine is at high power when preignition occurs, retarding
Preignition may be caused by an area roughened and heated the throttle for a few seconds may provide enough cooling to
by detonation erosion. A cracked valve or piston, or a broken chip off some of the lead, or other deposit, within the
spark plug insulator may furnish a hot point which serves as a combustion chamber. These chipped-off particles pass out
glow plug. through the exhaust. They are visible at night as a shower of
sparks. If retarding the throttle does not permit a return to
uninterrupted normal power operation, deposits may be
removed by sudden cooling shock treatment. Such treatments
are water injection, alcohol from the de-icing system, full-cold
carburettor air, or any other method that provides sudden
cooling to the cylinder chamber.

Backfiring After-firing
When a fuel/air mixture does not contain enough fuel to After-firing, sometimes called afterburning, often results when
consume all the oxygen, it is called a lean mixture. Conversely, the fuel/air mixture is too rich. Overly rich mixtures are slow-
a charge that contains more fuel than required is called a rich burning. Therefore, charges of unburned fuel are present in the
mixture. An extremely lean mixture either will not burn at all or exhausted gases. Air from outside the exhaust stacks mixes
will burn so slowly that combustion is not complete at the end with the unburned fuel which ignites. This causes an explosion
of the exhaust stroke. The flame lingers in the cylinder and then in the exhaust system. After-firing is perhaps more common
ignites the contents in the intake manifold or the induction where long exhaust ducting retains greater amounts of
system when the intake valve opens. This causes an explosion unburned charges. As in the case of backfiring, the correction
known as backfiring, which can damage the carburettor and for After-firing is the proper adjustment of the fuel/air mixture.
other parts of the induction system.
After-firing can also be caused by cylinders which are not firing
A point worth stressing is that backfiring rarely involves the because of faulty spark plugs, defective fuel injection nozzles,
whole engine. Therefore, it is seldom the fault of the or incorrect valve clearance. The unburned mixture from these
carburettor. In practically all cases, backfiring is limited to one dead cylinders passes into the exhaust system, where it ignites
or two cylinders. Usually, it is the result of faulty valve clearance and burns. Unfortunately, the resultant torching or afterburning
setting, defective fuel injector nozzles, or other conditions can easily be mistaken for evidence of rich a carburettor.
which cause these cylinders to operate leaner than the engine Cylinders which are firing intermittently can cause a similar
as a whole. There can be no permanent cure until these defects effect. Again, the malfunction can be remedied only by
are discovered and corrected. Because these backfiring discovering the real cause and correcting the defect. Either
cylinders will fire intermittently and therefore run cool, they can dead or intermittent cylinders can be located by the cold
be detected by the cold cylinder check. The cold cylinder check cylinder check.
is discussed later in this chapter.
In some instances, an engine backfires in the idle range but

operates satisfactorily at medium and high-power settings. The
most likely cause, in this case, is an excessively lean idle
mixture. Proper adjustment of the idle fuel/air mixture usually
corrects this difficulty.

Ground and flight testing
Pre-oiling
Before the new engine is flight-tested, it must undergo a Then a line must be disconnected or an opening made in the
thorough ground check. Before this ground check can be made, oil system at the nose of the engine to allow the oil to flow out
several operations are usually performed on the engine. of the engine. Oil flowing out of the engine indicates the
completion of the pre-oiling operation since the oil has now
To prevent failure of the engine bearings during the initial start, passed through the entire system.
the engine should be pre-oiled. When an engine has been idle
for an extended period, its internal bearing surfaces are likely To force oil from the pre-oiler tank through the engine, apply air
to become dry at points where the corrosion- preventive pressure to the oil in the tank while the engine is being turned
mixture has dried out or drained away from the bearings. through with the starter. When this action has forced oil through
Hence, it is necessary to force oil throughout the entire engine the disconnection at the nose of the engine, stop cranking the
oil system. If the bearings are dry when the engine is started, engine and disconnect the pre oiler tank.
the friction at high RPM will destroy the bearings before
lubricating oil from the engine-driven oil pump can reach them. When no external means of pre-oiling an engine are available,
the engine oil pump may be used. Fill the engine oil tank to the
There are several methods of pre-oiling an engine. The method proper level. Then, with the mixture in the “IDLE CUT-OFF”
selected should provide an expeditious and adequate pre-oiling position, the fuel shutoff valve and ignition switches in the
service. Before using any pre-oiling method, remove one spark “OFF” position, and the throttles fully open, crank the engine
plug from each cylinder to allow the engine to be turned over with the starter until the oil pressure gauge mounted on the
more easily with the starter. Also, connect an external source instrument panel indicates oil pressure.
of electrical power (auxiliary power unit) to the aircraft electrical
system to prevent an excessive drain on the aircraft battery. If After the engine has been pre-oiled, replace the spark plugs
the engine is equipped with a hydromatic (oil-operated) and connect the oil system. Generally, the engine should be
propeller, remove the plug and fill the propeller dome with oil. operated within four hours after it has been pre-oiled;
Then reinstall the plug. otherwise, the pre-oiling procedure typically must be repeated.
In using some types of pre-oilers, the oil line from the inlet side
of the engine-driven oil pump must be disconnected to permit
the pre-oiler tank to be connected at this point.

Fuel system bleeding
To purge the fuel system of airlocks and to aid in flushing any A propeller whose pitch-changing mechanism is electrically
traces of preservative oil from a pressure carburettor, remove actuated may be checked before the engine is operated. This
the drain plug in the carburettor fuel chamber which is farthest is done by connecting an external source of electrical power to
from the fuel inlet to the carburettor. In its place, screw a the aircraft electrical system, holding the propeller selector
threaded fitting to which a length of hose, leading to a suitable switch in the “DECREASE RPM” position, and checking for an
container, is attached. Then open the throttle and place the increase of the propeller blade angle. Continue the check by
mixture control in the “AUTO- LEAN” or “AUTO-RICH” position, holding the switch in the “INCREASE RPM” position and
so that fuel will be permitted to flow through the system. examining the propeller blades for a decrease in angle.
After making sure the fuel shutoff and main fuel tank valves are The propellers can also be checked for feathering by holding
open, turn on the fuel boost pump until there are no traces of the selector switch in the “FEATHER” position until the blade
preservative oil in the fuel being pumped through the system. angle increases to the “FULL-FEATHER” position. Then return
The passage of air will be indicated by an audible burp the propeller to a normal operating position by holding the
emerging from the end of the hose submerged in the container switch in the “INCREASE RPM” position.
of fuel. This phenomenon is not to be confused with the
numerous small air bubbles that may appear as a result of the Propellers whose pitch-changing mechanisms are oil actuated
velocity of the fuel being ejected from the carburettor. Usually, must be checked during engine operation after the normal
after approximately a gallon of fuel has been bled off, the operating oil temperature has been reached. In addition to
system can be considered safe for operation. checking the increase or decrease in RPM, the feathering cycle
of the propeller should also be checked.
After completing the bleeding operation, return all switches and
controls to their “NORMAL” or “OFF” position, and replace and When an engine equipped with an oil-operated propeller is
safety the drain plug in the carburettor. stopped with the propeller in the “FEATHER” position, never
unfeather the propeller by starting the engine and actuating the
Propeller check feathering mechanism. Remove the engine sump plugs to drain
The propeller installed on the engine must be checked before, the oil returned from the feathering mechanism and turn the
during, and after the engine has been ground operated. blades to their normal position using the feathering pump; or a
blade wrench, a long-handled device that slips over the blade
to permit returning the blades to normal pitch position manually,
can be used.

Checks and adjustments after engine run-up and
operation
After the engine has been ground-operated, and again after a
flight test, operational factors must be adjusted, as necessary,
and the entire installation given a thorough visual inspection.
These adjustments often include fuel pressure and oil pressure,
as well as rechecks of such factors as ignition timing, valve
clearances, and idle speed and mixture, if these rechecks are
indicated by how the engine performs.
After both the initial ground run-up and the test flight, remove
the oil sump plugs and screens and inspect for metal particles.
Clean the screens before reinstalling them.
Check all lines for leakage and security of attachment.

Especially, check the oil system hose clamps for security as
evidenced by oil leakage at the hose connections. Also, inspect
the cylinder hold-down nuts or cap screws for security and
safetying. This check should also be performed after the flight
immediately succeeding the test flight.

Licence Category B1
16.13 Engine Storage and Preservation

Copyright notice
LEVEL 3
subject.
appropriate.

© Copyright 2020 Module 16.13 Engine Storage and Preservation Issue 2 – July 2020
Knowledge
Part-66 Levels
Objective
Ref.
A B1 B3
Preservation and depreservation for 16.13 - 2 1
the engine and accessories/systems

Table of Contents
Engine preservation ____________________________ 6
General _____________________________________ 6
General procedures for preservation_______________ 8
Corrosion-preventive materials __________________ 14
Corrosion-preventive compounds ________________ 14
Dehydrating agents ___________________________ 16
Corrosion-preventive treatment __________________ 18
Fuel system inhibiting _________________________ 20
Blanks and seals _____________________________ 20
Scheduled inspection of stored engines ___________ 20
Engine depreservation _________________________ 22
General procedure ___________________________ 22
Additional considerations ______________________ 24
Inspection and de-preservation of accessories ______ 26
Inspection and replacement of powerplant external
units and systems ____________________________ 27


Engine preservation
General
Engines in aircraft that are flown only occasionally may not For engine storage of one to four weeks, proceed with
achieve normal service life because of corrosion. It occurs preservation before engine stop or on the engine at operating
when moisture from the air and products of combustion temperature. Let the engine run at increased idle speed. Shut
combine to attack cylinder walls and bearing surfaces during the engine down and secure against inadvertent engine start.
periods when the aircraft is not used. The procedures for Remove air filters and inject approximately 3 cm3 (0.18 in3) of
combating this condition consist of coating the vulnerable preservation oil or equivalent oil into the air intake of each
surfaces with rust inhibitive compounds as herein described. carburettor. Restart the engine and run at increased idle speed
for 10–15 seconds. Shut the engine down and secure against
Need for preservation must be evaluated by the owner
inadvertent engine start. Close all engine openings, such as
or operator of the aircraft based on environmental conditions
exhaust pipe, venting tube, and air filter, to prevent the entry of
and frequency of aircraft activity. The periods given are
contamination and humidity.
recommendations based on normal conditions.
For engine storage of engine for longer than four weeks and up
In regions of high humidity, active corrosion can be found on
to one year, proceed with preservation before engine stop and
cylinder walls of new engines inoperative for periods as brief as
on the engine at operating temperature. Let the engine run at
two days. The cylinder walls of engines that have accumulated
increased idle speed. Remove air filters and inject
50 hours or more service in a short period acquire a varnish
approximately 6 cm3 (0.37 in3) of preservative oil or equivalent
that tends to protect them from corrosive action. Such engines,
oil into the air intake of each carburettor. Stop the engine.
under favourable atmospheric conditions, can remain inactive
Remove spark plugs and inject approximately 6 cm3 (0.37 in3)
for several weeks without evidence of damage by corrosion.
preservation oil or equivalent oil into each cylinder and slowly
Aircraft operated close to oceans, lakes, rivers and in humid turn crankshaft 2 to 3 turns by hand to lubricate top end parts.
regions have a greater need for engine preservation than Replace and re-torque the spark plugs. Drain gasoline from
engines operated in arid regions. float chambers, fuel tank, and fuel lines. Drain coolant on liquid-
If the engine is not going to be used for an extended period, cooled engines to prevent any damage by freezing. Lubricate
measures must be taken to protect the engine against heat, all carburettor linkages using the proper lubricants. Close all
direct sunlight, corrosion, and formation of residues. In openings of the engine, such as exhaust pipe openings, venting
particular, the water bonded by the alcohol in the fuel causes tube, and air intake, to prevent the entry of any foreign material
increased corrosion problems during storage. After each flight, and humidity. Protect all external steel parts by spraying with
activate choke for a moment before stopping the engine. Close engine oil.
all engine openings such as the exhaust pipe, venting tube, and
air filter to prevent the entry of contamination and humidity.
Internal engine corrosion

General procedures for preservation
Before an engine is placed in temporary or indefinite storage, it The crankshaft must not be moved after this final spraying, or
should be operated and filled with a corrosion-preventive oil the seal of corrosion-preventive mixture between the pistons
mixture added in the oil system to retard corrosion by coating and cylinder walls are broken. Air can then enter past the
the engine’s internal parts. Drain the regular lubricating oil from pistons into the engine. Also, the coating of corrosion
the sump or system and replace with a preservative oil mixture preventive mixture on the cylinder walls is scraped away,
according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Operate the exposing the bare metal to possible corrosion. The engine
engine until normal operating temperatures are obtained for at should have a sign attached similar to the following:
least one hour.
“DO NOT TURN CRANKSHAFT—ENGINE PRESERVED
Always take the appropriate precautions when turning or PRESERVATION DATE ____________.”
working around a propeller. After the flight, remove all the spark
plug leads and the top spark plugs. When preparing the engine for storage, dehydrator plugs are
screwed into the spark plug opening of each cylinder. If the
To prevent corrosion, spray each cylinder interior with a engine is to be stored in a wooden shipping case, the ignition
corrosion-preventive mixture to prevent moisture and oxygen harness leads are attached to the dehydrator plugs with lead
from contacting the deposits left by combustion. Spray the supports. Special ventilatory plugs are installed in the spark
cylinders by inserting the nozzle of the spray gun into each plug holes of an engine stored horizontally in a storage
spark plug hole and playing the gun to cover as much area as container. Any engine being prepared for storage must receive
possible. Before spraying, each cylinder to be treated should thorough treatment around the exhaust ports. Because the
be at the bottom centre position and the oil at room residue of exhaust gases is potentially very corrosive, a
temperature. This allows the entire inside of the cylinder to corrosion-preventive mixture must be sprayed into each
become coated with the corrosion-preventive mixture. After exhaust port, including the exhaust valve. After the exhaust
spraying each engine cylinder at bottom centre, respray each ports have been thoroughly coated, a moisture-proof and oil-
cylinder while the crankshaft is stationary with none of the proof gasket backed by a metal or wooden plate should be
cylinder’s pistons at top dead centre. secured over the exhaust ports using the exhaust stack
mounting studs and nuts.

Corrosion prevention fluid

These covers form a seal to prevent moisture from entering the
interior of the engine through the exhaust ports. Engines stored
in metal containers usually have special ventilatory covers.
Another point at which the engine must be sealed is the intake
manifold. If the carburettor is to remain on the engine during
storage, the throttle valve should be wired open and a seal
installed over the air inlet. But, if the carburettor is removed and
stored separately, the seal is made at the carburettor mounting
pad. The seal used in either instance can be an oil-proof and
moisture-proof gasket, backed by a wooden or metal plate
securely bolted into place. Silica gel should be placed in the
intake manifold to absorb moisture. The silica gel bags are
usually suspended from the cover plate. This eliminates the
possibility of forgetting to remove the silica gel bags when the
engine is eventually removed from storage. A ventilatory cover,
without silica gel bags attached, can be used when the engine
is stored in a metal container.
Although the above procedures should prevent corrosion under

favourable conditions, it is recommended that the engine is
periodically inspected for evidence of corrosion.
An engine awaiting overhaul or return to service after overhaul

must be given careful attention. It does not receive the daily
care and attention necessary to detect and correct early stages
of corrosion. For this reason, some definite action must be
taken to prevent corrosion from affecting the engine.

Engine preservation kit

After the following details have been taken care of, the engine
is ready to be packed into its container. If the engine has not
been spray-coated with the corrosion-preventive mixture, the
propeller shaft and propeller shaft thrust bearing must be
coated with the compound. Then, a plastic sleeve, or moisture-
proof paper, is secured around the shaft, and a threaded
protector cap is screwed onto the propeller retaining nut
threads.
All engine openings into which dehydrator plugs (or ventilatory

plugs if the engine is stored in a metal container) have not been
fitted must be sealed. At points where the corrosion-preventive
mixture can seep from the interior of the engine, such as the oil
inlet and outlet, oil-proof and moisture-proof gasket material
backed by a metal or wooden plate should be used. At other
points, moisture-proof tape can be used if it is carefully
installed.
Before its installation in a shipping container, the engine should

be carefully inspected to determine if the following accessories,
which are not a part of the basic engine, have been removed:
• spark plugs and spark plug thermocouples;

• remote fuel pump adapters (if applicable);
• propeller hub attaching bolts (if applicable;
• starters;
generators;
• vacuum pumps;
• hydraulic pumps;
• propeller governor; and
• engine-driven fuel pumps.

Inhibited engine

Corrosion-preventive materials
An engine in service is in a sense ‘self-purging’ of moisture The desired proportions of lubricating oil and either heavy or
since the heat of combustion evaporates the moisture in and light corrosion-preventive compound must not be obtained by
around the engine, and the lubricating oil circulated through the adding the compound to the oil already in the engine. The
engine temporarily forms a protective coating on the metal it mixture must be prepared separately before applying to the
contacts. If the operation of an engine in service is limited or engine or placing in an oil tank. A heavy compound is used for
suspended for a time, the engine is preserved to a varying the dip treating of metal parts and surfaces. It must be heated
extent, depending upon how long it is to be inoperative. This to a high temperature to be sufficiently liquid to coat the objects
discussion is primarily directed to preserving engines that have to be preserved effectively. A commercial solvent or kerosene
been removed from an aircraft. However, the preservation spray is used to remove corrosion-preventive compounds from
materials discussed are used for all types of engine storage. the engine or parts when they are being prepared for a return
to service.
Corrosion-preventive compounds
Corrosion-preventive compounds are petroleum-based Although corrosion-preventive compounds act as an insulator
products which form a wax-like film over the metal to which it is from moisture, in the presence of excessive moisture, they
applied. Several types of corrosion-preventive compounds are eventually break down, and corrosion begins. Also, the
manufactured according to different specifications to fit the compounds eventually become dried because their oil base
various aviation needs. The type mixed with engine oil to form gradually evaporates. This allows moisture to contact the
a corrosion-preventive mixture is a relatively light compound engine’s metal, and aids in corroding it. When an engine is
that readily blends with engine oil when the mixture is heated stored in a shipping container, a dehydrating agent must be
to the proper temperature. used to remove moisture from the air in and around the engine.
The light mixture is available in three forms: MIL-C-6529 type I,

type II, or type III. Type I is a concentrate and must be blended
with three parts of MIL-L-22851 or MIL-L-6082, grade 1100 oil
to one part of concentrate. Type II is a ready-mixed material
with MIL-L-22851 or grade 1100 oil and does not require
dilution. Type III is a ready-mixed material with grade 1010 oil,
for use in turbine engines only. The light mixture is intended for
use when a preserved engine is to remain inactive for less than
30 days. It is also used to spray cylinders and other designated
areas.

AeroShell Fluid 2XN is a corrosion preservative
concentrate for protecting infrequently used engines. It
uses an ashless anti-corrosion additive package and
highly refined mineral base oils to protect internal engine
surfaces from the Effects of humidity. It is also designed
to neutralize the acidic by-products of oil oxidation and
combustion.
AeroShell Fluid 2XN can be used neat to long-term

storage, but it is typically mixed with one-part AeroShell
Fluid 2XN to three parts fresh AeroShell Oil 100 to create
an inhibited oil. It can also be sprayed undiluted on piston-
engine exhaust ports, Rocker arms and accessories to
provide additional protection.

Dehydrating agents
There are several substances, referred to as desiccants, that
can absorb moisture from the atmosphere in sufficient
quantities to be useful as dehydrators. One of these is silica
gel. This gel is an ideal dehydrating agent since it does not
dissolve when saturated.
As a corrosion preventive, bags of silica gel are placed around

and inside various accessible parts of a stored engine. It is also
used in clear plastic plugs, called dehydrator plugs, that can be
screwed into engine openings, such as the spark plug holes.
Cobalt chloride is added to the silica gel used in dehydrator
plugs. This additive makes it possible for the plugs to indicate
the moisture content, or relative humidity, of the air surrounding
the engine. The cobalt-chloride treated silica gel remains a
bright blue colour in low relative humidity. As the relative
humidity increases, the shade of the blue becomes
progressively lighter, becoming lavender at 30% and fading
through the various shades of pink, until at 60% relative
humidity it is a natural or white colour.
Some types of dehydrator plugs can be dried by removing the

silica gel and heating the gel to dry it out, returning it to its
original blue colour. When the relative humidity is less than
30%, corrosion does not normally take place. Therefore, if the
dehydrator plugs are bright blue, the air in the engine has so
little moisture that internal corrosion is held to a minimum. This
same cobalt-chloride-treated silica gel is used in humidity
indicator envelopes. These envelopes can be fastened to the
stored engine so that they can be inspected through a small
window in the shipping case or metal engine container. All
desiccants are sealed in containers to prevent their becoming
saturated with moisture before they are used. Care should be
taken never to leave the container open or improperly closed.
Silica gel bags

Corrosion-preventive treatment
Before an engine is removed, it should be operated, if possible, Another point at which the engine must be sealed is the intake
with corrosion-preventive mixture added in the oil system to manifold. If the carburettor is to remain on the engine during
retard corrosion by coating the engine’s internal parts. If it is storage, the throttle valve should be wired open and a seal
impossible to operate the engine before removal from the installed over the air inlet. But, if the carburettor is removed and
aircraft, it should be handled as much as possible in the same stored separately, the seal is made at the carburettor mounting
manner as an operable engine. pad. The seal used in either instance can be an oil-proof and
moisture-proof gasket backed by a wooden or metal plate
Any engine being prepared for storage must receive thorough securely bolted into place. Silica gel should be placed in the
treatment around the exhaust ports. Because the residue of intake manifold to absorb moisture. The silica gel bags are
exhaust gases is potentially very corrosive, a corrosion- usually suspended from the cover plate. This eliminates the
preventive mixture must be sprayed into each exhaust port, possibility of forgetting to remove the silica gel bags when the
including the exhaust valve. engine is eventually removed from storage. A ventilatory cover
without silica gel bags attached can be used when the engine
After the exhaust ports have been thoroughly coated, a is stored in a metal container.
moisture-proof and oil-proof gasket backed by a metal or
wooden plate should be secured over the exhaust ports using After these details have been taken care of, the engine is ready
the exhaust stack mounting studs and nuts. These covers form to be packed into its container. If the engine has not been
a seal to prevent moisture from entering the interior of the spray-coated with the corrosion-preventive mixture, the
engine through the exhaust ports. Engines stored in metal propeller shaft and propeller shaft thrust bearing must be
containers usually have special ventilatory covers. coated with the compound. Then, a plastic sleeve or moisture-
proof paper is secured around the shaft, and a threaded
When preparing the engine for storage, dehydrator plugs are protector cap is screwed onto the propeller retaining nut
screwed into the spark plug opening of each cylinder. If the threads.
engine is to be stored in a wooden shipping case, the ignition
harness leads are attached to the dehydrator plugs with lead All engine openings into which dehydrator plugs (or ventilation
supports, as shown in the diagram below. Special ventilatory plugs if the engine is stored in a metal container) have not been
plugs are installed in the spark plug holes of an engine stored fitted must be sealed. At points where the corrosion-preventive
horizontally in a metal container. If the engine is stored mixture can seep from the interior of the engine, such as the oil
vertically in a container, these vent plugs are installed in only inlet and outlet, oil-proof and moisture-proof gasket material
the upper spark plug holes of each cylinder, and non-ventilatory backed by a metal or wooden plate should be used. At other
plugs are installed in the lower cylinders. Dehydrator plugs from points, moisture-proof tape can be used if it is carefully
which the desiccant has been removed may be used for this installed.
latter purpose.
Before its installation in a shipping container, the engine should
be carefully inspected to determine if the following accessories,
which are not a part of the basic engine, have been removed:
• Spark plugs and spark plug thermocouples;

• remote fuel pump adapters (if applicable);
• propeller hub attaching bolts (if applicable);
• starters;
• generators;
• vacuum pumps;
• hydraulic pumps;
• propeller governors; and
• engine-driven fuel pumps.
Ignition harness lead support

Fuel system inhibiting Scheduled inspection of stored engines
The fuel used in turbine engines usually contains a small Most maintenance shops provide a scheduled inspection
quantity of water which, if left in the system, could cause system for engines in storage. Typically, the humidity indicators
corrosion. on engines stored in shipping cases are inspected every
30 days. When the protective envelope must be opened to
All the fuel should, therefore, be removed and replaced with an inspect the humidity indicator, the inspection period may be
approved inhibiting oil. extended to once every 90 days if local conditions permit. The
humidity indicator of a metal container is inspected every
Uninstalled fuel components should be preserved and placed 180 days under normal conditions.
in airtight bags with a small amount of wrapped silica gel.
Pressure-injection carburettors should be drained of all fuel, the If the humidity indicator in a wooden shipping case shows by
mixture placed in the full-rich position and grade #1010 (light its colour that more than 30% relative humidity is present in the
lubricating mineral oil) introduced into the fuel inlet. When the air around the engine, all desiccants should be replaced. If
preservative oil begins to flow from the uncapped vapour vent more than half the dehydrator plugs installed in the spark plug
opening, all drain and vent plugs should be reinstalled and holes, indicate the presence of excessive moisture, the interior
safety wired, and the inlet and outlet fittings capped for storage. of the cylinders should be resprayed. If the humidity indicator in
a metal container gives a safe blue indication, but air pressure
Blanks and seals has dropped below 1 PSI, the container needs only to be
Approved blanks or seals should be used whenever possible. brought to the proper pressure using dehydrated air. However,
These are generally supplied with a new or reconditioned if the humidity indicator shows an unsafe (pink) condition, the
engine and should be retained for future use. Pipe connections engine should be re-preserved.
are usually sealed using a screw-type plug or cap such as AGS
3802 to 3807, and plain holes are sealed with plugs such as
AGS 2108; these items are usually coloured for visual
identification. Large openings such as air intakes are usually
fitted with a specially designed blanking plate secured by the
regular attachment nuts, and the contact areas should be
smeared with grease before fitting, to prevent the entry of
moisture. Adhesive tape may be used to secure waxed paper
where no other protection is provided but should never be used
as a means of blanking off by itself, since it may promote
corrosion and clog small holes or threads.

Dehydrator plug blue showing low Dehydrator plug pink showing high Dehydrator plug
humidity humidity
Silica gel – dehydrated and saturated

Engine depreservation
General procedure
For an engine which was not installed in an aircraft during 4) Rotate propeller by hand several revolutions to remove
storage, the installation procedure described in the appropriate preservative oil.
maintenance manual should be carried out, followed by a 5) Service and install spark plugs and ignition leads per
thorough ground run, and check of associated systems. the manufacturer’s instructions.
6) Service the engine and the aircraft per the
For an engine which was installed in an aircraft during storage manufacturer’s instruction.
the following actions should be taken: 7) Thoroughly clean the aircraft and engine. Perform a
visual inspection.
1) Remove seals and all desiccant bags. 8) Correct any discrepancies.
2) Remove cylinder dehydrators and plugs or spark plugs 9) Conduct a standard engine start.
from upper and lower spark plug holes. 10) Perform the operational test per operational inspection
3) Remove oil sump drain plug and drain the corrosion of the applicable maintenance manual.
preventive mixture. Replace drain plug, torque, and 11) Correct any discrepancies.
safe-tie. Remove the oil filter. Install new oil filter, 12) Perform a test flight per airframe manufacturer’s
torque, and safe-tie. Service the engine with oil per the instructions.
manufacturer’s instructions. 13) Correct any discrepancies before returning aircraft to
service.
Warning: To prevent serious bodily injury or death, 14) Change oil and filter after 25 hours of operation.
accomplish the following before moving the propeller:
⎯ Disconnect all spark plug leads.
⎯ Verify that magneto switches are connected to
magnetos and that they are in the off position and
P-leads are grounded.
⎯ Throttle position “CLOSED”.
⎯ Mixture control “IDLE-CUT-OFF”.
⎯ Set the brakes and block the aircraft’s wheels.
Ensure that aircraft tie-downs are installed and
verify that the cabin door latch is open.
⎯ Do not stand within the arc of the propeller blades
while turning the propeller.

Fitting spark plugs

Additional considerations
After the engine has been secured to an engine stand, all A more positive method, however, is to remove the lower intake
covers must be removed from the points where the engine was pipes and open the intake valve of the cylinder by rotating the
sealed or closed with ventilatory covers, such as the engine crankshaft. The latter method allows the compound to drain
breathers, exhaust outlets, and accessory mounting-pad cover from the cylinder through the open intake valve. If for some
plates. reason, an excessive amount of compound is present in an
upper cylinder, it can be removed with a hand pump.
As each cover is removed, inspect the uncovered part of the
engine for signs of corrosion. Also, as the dehydrator plugs are The oil screens should be removed from the engine and
removed from each cylinder, make a careful check of the walls thoroughly washed in kerosene or an approved solvent to
of any cylinder for which the dehydrator plug colour indicates remove all accumulations that could restrict the oil circulation
an unsafe condition. Care is emphasized in the inspection of and cause engine failure. After the screens are cleaned,
the cylinders, even if it is necessary to remove a cylinder. immerse them in clean oil and then reinstall them in the engine.
On radial engines, the inside of the lower cylinders and intake When the cover has been removed from the intake manifold,
pipes should be carefully checked for the presence of an the silica gel desiccant bags must be removed before installing
excessive corrosion-preventive compound that has drained the carburettor. Take care not to tear one of the bags
from the engine and settled at these low points. This excessive accidentally.
compound could cause the engine to become damaged from a
hydraulic lock (also referred to as liquid-lock) when a starting Remove the protective covering from the propeller shaft and
attempt is made. wash all the corrosion-preventive compound from inside and
outside surfaces. Then coat the propeller shaft lightly with
The check for an excessive amount of corrosion-preventive engine oil. As a final check, see that the exterior of the engine
compound in the cylinders can be made as the dehydrator is clean. Usually, a quantity of compound runs out of the engine
plugs are removed from each cylinder. Much of the compound when the dehydrator plugs and oil screens are removed. To
will drain from the spark plug holes of the lower cylinders of a clean the engine, spray it with kerosene or an approved
radial engine when the dehydrator plugs are removed. Some commercial solvent.
mixture remains in the cylinder head below the level of the
spark plug hole and can be removed with a hand pump.

Draining corrosion-preventive compound

Inspection and de-preservation of accessories
An engine’s performance is no better than that of its Before installing any replacement accessory, check it visually
accessories. Though the engine has been completely for signs of corrosion and freedom of operation. Always wipe
overhauled and is in top condition, any oversight or error in the mounting pad, flange, and coupling clean before mounting
installing the accessories can result in improper engine the accessory, and install the proper gasket between the
operation or even irreparable damage to it. mounting pad and the accessory mounting flange. Lubricate
the accessory drive shaft when indicated in the manufacturer’s
Before de-preserving any of the accessories enclosed with the instructions.
engine, consult the storage data usually stencilled on the
outside of the engine container or the records enclosed with the
engine to determine how long the engine and accessories were
in storage. Certain accessories that generally accompany an
engine from overhaul are considered unsafe for use if their time
in storage has exceeded a specified period. This time varies
according to the limits prescribed by the manufacturer.
Any accessory that has been removed from the old engine and
can be installed on the new one must be given a thorough
inspection to determine its condition. This inspection includes
a check for general condition, cleanliness, absence of
corrosion, and absence of wear as evidenced by excessive
‘play’ in the moving parts.
Some accessories must be replaced, regardless of their

operating time, if the engine is being changed because of
internal failure. Such accessories may have been
contaminated by metal particles carried into their operating
mechanisms by the engine oil that lubricates them.

Inspection and replacement of powerplant external units Before installing an engine, inspect all tubing in the nacelle for
and systems dents, nicks, scratches, chafing, or corrosion. Check all tubing
The engine nacelle must be thoroughly cleaned before it is carefully for indications of fatigue or excessive flatness caused
inspected. The design of an engine nacelle varies with different by improper or accidental bending. Thoroughly inspect all
aircraft. It is a framework covered with removable cowling, in hoses used in various engine systems. Weather checking
which the engine is mounted. This assembly is attached to the (cracking of the outside covering of the hose) sometimes
aircraft and incorporates an insulating firewall between the penetrates to the hose reinforcement. Replace any length of
engine and the airframe. The interconnecting wiring, tubing, hose that shows indications of the cover peeling or flaking or
and linkages between the engine and its various systems and has exposed fabric reinforcement. Replace a hose that shows
controls pass through the firewall. indications of excessive cold flow.
Inspect the complete engine nacelle for the condition of the Cold flow is a term used to describe the deep and permanent
framework and the sheet-metal cowling and riveted plates that impressions or cracks caused by hose clamp pressure.
cover the nacelle. The engine mounting frame assembly should
be checked for any distortion of the steel tubing, such as bends, Always replace a control rod if it is nicked or corroded deeply
dents, flat spots, corrosion, or cracks. Use the dye penetrant enough to affect its strength. If the corrosion cannot be
inspection method to reveal a crack, porous area, or other removed by rubbing with steel wool, the pitting is too deep for
defects. safety.
The engine mounting bolts are usually checked for condition by On older aircraft, check the pulleys in the control system for
magnetic particle inspection or other approved process. While freedom of movement. It is easy to spot a pulley that is not
the bolts are removed, the bolt holes should be checked for turning freely, for both it and the cable are worn from the cable
elongation caused by the movement of an improperly tightened sliding over the pulley instead of rolling free. The bearings of a
bolt. pulley may be checked by inspecting the pulley for excessive
play or wobble with the tension removed from the cable. The
Check the outer surface of all exposed electrical wiring for cable must also be inspected for corrosion and broken strands.
breaks, chafing, or other damage. Also, check the security of Locate any broken strands by wiping the cable with a cloth.
crimped or soldered cable ends. Also, carefully inspect
connector plugs for overall condition. Any item that is damaged Check bonding for fraying, loose attachment, and cleanness of
must be repaired or replaced, depending on the extent of the terminal ends. The electrical resistance of the complete bond
damage. must not exceed the resistance values specified in the
applicable manufacturer’s instructions.

Inspect the exhaust stacks, collector ring, and tailpipe
assembly for security, cracks, or excessive corrosion.
Depending on the installation, these units, or parts of them,
may be mounted on the engine before it is installed in the
aircraft.
Check all air ducts for dents and for the condition of the fabric
or rubber anti-chafing strips at the points where sections of duct
are joined. The dents may be pounded out; the anti-chafing
strips should be replaced if they are pulled loose from the duct
or are worn to the point at which they no longer form a tight seal
at the joint.
Thoroughly inspect the engine oil system and perform any

required special maintenance upon it before installing a
replacement engine. If an engine is being changed at the end
of its normal time in service, it is usually only necessary to flush
the oil system. However, if an engine has been removed for
internal failure, usually some units of the oil system must be
replaced and others thoroughly cleaned and inspected.
If the engine has been removed because of internal failure, the

oil tank is generally removed to permit thorough cleaning. Also,
the oil cooler and temperature regulator must be removed and
sent to a repair facility for overhaul. The vacuum pump
pressure line and the oil separator in the vacuum system must
also be removed, cleaned, and inspected. Internal failure also
requires that the propeller governor and feathering pump
mechanism be replaced if these units are operated by engine
oil pressure.


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Total Training Support Ltd 1-2

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A French engine of 1908, the Gnome, introduced air cooling as

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Rotax two-stroke engines

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The first successful Diesel engine explicitly developed for

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Interest in Diesel engines in the post-war period was sporadic.

Napier & Son in Britain had developed the Napier Culverin, a

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Cessna 172, with Centurion 120 engine

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North American P51

Wilbur Wright adjusts the engine

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The throw is an offset section of the crankshaft that scribes a

The lower end of the connecting rod is attached to the

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As the crankshaft rotates in view (B), the connecting rod pulls

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4 – Exhaust (second upstroke)

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The four-strokes of the Otto cycle

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The timing of the exhaust valve opening is determined by,

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Here we discuss the Otto Thermodynamic Cycle which is

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The Otto cycle P-V diagram

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The area enclosed by the cycle on a P-V diagram is

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How Diesel Engines Work - Part - 1 (Four Stroke

How Diesel Engines Work - Part - 2 (Stages of

How Diesel Engines Work - Part - 3 (Valve Timing

How Diesel Engines Work! (Animation)

Diesel Engine, How it works

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At D, the exhaust valve opens, and the pressure falls abruptly

• The inertia of the coming fuel/air mixture and the out-

These deficiencies can be minimised by varying the valve

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