LINEAR ELASTIC FRACTURE MECHANICS

The application of Fracture Mechanics in material analysis is dependent on the dominant

stresses. A material may be subjected to elastic or plastic deformation in which cases the
treatment will be different. Four categories of fracture mechanics exist, namely:-

LEFM - Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics

EPFM – Elastic- Plastic Fracture Mechanics
YFM – Yielding Fracture Mechanics
GYFM – General Yielding Fracture mechanics

σ LEFM - σl>σy>σn>σ
The extent of yielding at the crack tip is very
small and is limited to a zone in the
immediate vicinity of the crack. The
σl specimen is loaded in a purely elastic manner
σn
and if fracture occurs, it will be by unstable
propagation of the crack when the
longitudinal stress σl reaches the fracture
stress σf. This Leads to Brittle failure.
σ

σ
EPFM - σl>σy≥σn>σ
Yielding is extensive but still contained
within the bulk of the material. The
σl boundaries of the specimen are loaded
σn elastically ∴ will not yield. Use of LEFM
under these conditions requires that a plastic
zone correction factor be applied. Failure
takes place by unstable rapid propagation of
the crack leading to brittle failure.
σ

YFM - σl>σn≥σy>σ
Yielding is extensive and spreads to the
σl
boundaries of the specimen. Failure occurs
σn either by plastic collapse in very tough
materials or by stable crack growth in less
tough materials leading to ductile fracture.

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 σ

GYFM - σl>σn>σ >σy

The Applied stress in this case is greater than
σl the yield stress of the material. Extensive
σn plasticity develops along the specimen as
well as across the section as the entire
component yields. Component failure is by
plastic collapse or tearing.
σ

Griffith’s Theory
Attempts are made to characterize conditions under which crack growth ⇒ brittle
fracture occurs by considering the energy balance in a stressed elastic material. Consider
an infinite plate of breadth B with a centre crack of length 2a and subjected to a multi-
uniform stress σ

2
If the plate is stressed, it possesses elastic energy. If the length of the crack is increased, the
stiffness of the plate reduces ⇒ some of the P.E in the plate is released but in order to lengthen
the crack, new surfaces need to be created. This is a process which requires energy therefore the
energy goes to create new surfaces.

The energies that play part are:-

(i) Energy due to stress

(ii) Energy used up in creating new surfaces

According to Griffith’s Theory, spontaneous crack extension will occur when the rate of change
of elastic energy with crack length is greater than the rate of increase of surface energy with
crack length. i.e Δ u e > Δ u s

π (σ .a )2
ue = E
.B Plane Stress

π (σ .a )2 (1 − v 2 )
= .B Plane strain
E
(v- Poisson’s ratio)

The elastic energy increases with increase in a.

Surface Energy u s
= 4.a.γ .B Where γ - specific surface energy.
s s

Taking the case of Plane stress

π (σ .a )2
Total Energy u T
= 4.a.γ .B − .B
s E

∂u T
= 4.γ .B −
πσ 2
.B.2a = 0 for the critical case
∂a s E

1
⎡ 2 γ .E ⎤ 2

⇒ Critical stress σ c
= ⎢ s

⎢ π .a ⎥
⎥
⎣ ⎦

3
 At σc Brittle fracture takes place

2γ
Or a = s
c
σ 2

2γ E
Or (a.σ ) 2
c =
π
s
= Constant ( a and σ are variables)

(NB. a = ½ the crack length for a centre crack and

a = the crack length for an edge crack)

For Plane strain:-

2γ E
(a.σ ) 2
=
π (1 − v 2 )
s
c

2γ E
(
The equation a.σ 2 )
c =
π
s
is only applicable to ideally brittle materials such as Glass.

Yielding occurs when σ aplied = σ yield

∴ (a.σ ) 2
c ≡ σ app

2.γ E
s
≡ σ yield
π

For materials not ideally brittle some yielding (plastic deformation) occurs at crack point or tip
and this requires energy. The modified equation becomes:-

(a.σ ) 2
=
(
2γ +γ E
s p
) Where γp is the plastic work factor.
c
π

Energy so absorbed = plastic work factor γp which is added to γs. This modifies the equations
to:-

⎡ 2E γ + γ( )⎤⎥ 1
2

σ = ⎢
s p
Plane stress
c
⎢ π .a ⎥
⎣ ⎦

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 (
⎡ 2E γ + γ )⎤⎥ 1
2

σ = ⎢
s p
Plane strain
c
⎢ π .a(1 − v ) 2
⎥
⎣ ⎦

Unfortunately, γp is not a material constant, it is a function of geometry a, strain rate e.t.c.

Usually γp >> γs hence γs is neglected → Modified Griffith equation.

1
⎡ 2E γ ⎤ 2

σ = ⎢ ⎥
p
c
⎢ π .a ⎥
⎣ ⎦

The above equation can be modified for a penny-shaped crack such that if a is the radius of the
circular cracked material, the stress required for crack propagation under plane stress is given
by:-

1
⎡ π .E γ ⎤ 2

σ = ⎢ ⎥
p
c
⎢ 2.a ⎥
⎣ ⎦

Stress Intensity Factor

The maximum stress developed at the tip of a crack length 2a is equal to the product of the
1
⎛a⎞ 2
applied stress and concentration factor 2⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ where ρ is the radius of the crack tip.
⎝ρ⎠

(The crack here is of a particular configuration)

Westergaard and Irwin developed a more general solution for the elastic stress field around a
sharp crack in an infinitely large plate subjected to tensile stresses.

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 σxy
τxy

σxx

τxy
σxz
θ

2a

The stresses on the element are given by the following:-

(for r << a)

1
⎡ a ⎤2 θ⎛ θ 3θ ⎞
σ xx = σ ⎢ ⎥ cos ⎜1 − sin sin ⎟
⎣ 2r ⎦ 2⎝ 2 2 ⎠

1
⎡ a ⎤2 θ⎛ θ 3θ ⎞
σ yy = σ ⎢ ⎥ cos ⎜1 + sin sin ⎟
⎣ 2r ⎦ 2⎝ 2 2 ⎠

1
⎡ a ⎤2 θ⎛ θ 3θ ⎞
τ xy = σ ⎢ ⎥ cos ⎜ sin cos ⎟
⎣ 2r ⎦ 2⎝ 2 2 ⎠

σ zz = v(σ xx + σ yy ) For plane strain

σ zz = 0 For plane stress

At the plane of the crack i.e along the X-axis, the angle θ=0 and σxx = σyy = σ1
Whereby the local stress σ1 is given by:-

1
⎛ a ⎞2 k
σ1 = σ ⎜ ⎟ = 1
⎝ 2r ⎠ 2(πr ) 2

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k is called the stress intensity factor and is given by the expression:-
1
k = σ (πa ) 2

From the above, it is seen that σ1 varies with the distance from the crack tip.

σ1

k1
σ1 =
2πr

Crack
Distance from crack tip (r)

Engineering
materials may be
subjected to three modes of deformation:-

Tearing
Pure Tension Sliding (Combination of Shear &
(Opening) (Pure Shear) Tension)

The associated intensity factors are KI , KII and KIII

K I = σ (πa )
1
2

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 K II = τ i (πa )
1
2

K III = τ a (πa )
1
2

KII and KIII will not be considered at this level.

Geometric Correction Factor

In the derivation of geometric correction factor, it is assumed that the plate (specimen) is
infinitely large but in practice this is not always the case.

The geometry of components (specimens) affects the crack tip stress field. The intensity factor
has therefore to be modified to take the above into consideration.

K I = Yσ (πa )
1
i.e 2

Y is calculated or obtained from standard tables.

K = 1.12σ (πa )
1
For an edge crack in a semi-infinite sheet, Irwin’s model is:- 2

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 σ
(I)
Long centre-cracked plate of
W infinite width W.

2a
πa
Y = Sec or
W

1
Y=

σ
{ [ W] }
1 − 2a
2
1
2

σ
(II)
W For a single edge notched
plate of width W
a
Y = 1.12 for small cracks
(i.e a/W < 0.3)

Otherwise:-
σ
Y = 1.12 − 0.231( a ) + 10.55( a ) 2 − 21.72( a ) 3 + 30.39( a )4 for (0.3≤ a/W ≤ 0.6)
W W W W

(III) W
Double edge notched plate of
width W
a a
Y = 1.12 for smaller cracks
i.e a/W < 0.3

σ Otherwise:-

1
Y= = 1.122 − 0.561( a ) + 0.205( a ) 2 − 0.471( a ) 3 + 0.190( a )4
( W)
1− a
W W W W

for (0.3≤ a/W ≤ 0.5)

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 σ
(IV) Part through thickness
W semi-elliptical crack of
length 2b and depth a
a
1.12 B
2b Y= for a <
f ( a / b) 2

σ
The elliptical integral is given by:-

a/b 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

F(a/b) 1.00 1.05 1.15 1.28 1.42 π/2

For shallow surface cracks a/b = 0 and Y =1.12

σ
(V) Embedded elliptical crack

1
Y=
⎛a⎞
f⎜ ⎟
2a ⎝b⎠
b
⎛a⎞
Where f ⎜ ⎟ is as for
⎝b⎠
σ case IV above

(VI) σ

Embedded circular crack

(disk shaped crack)

2
2a Y=
π

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Plane Strain Fracture Toughness KIC
The stress intensity factor K specifies the stress field around a crack tip in a purely elastic body.
If it is assumed that fracture is governed by conditions at the crack tip, then the criterion for
fracture must be the attainment of a critical value of stress intensity factor designated KC.

KC
Critical Stress Intensity

KIC

Bm
Increasing Thickness b
Variation of critical stress intensity factor KC with specimen thickness

Irwin showed that although KC was attained at fracture, this quantity depended not only on stress
and crack length, but also on material thickness. It was observed that as the thickness increases,
KC decreases, eventually attaining a minimum value in thick materials which fail under plane
strain conditions. As long as the minimum thickness Bm necessary for plane strain conditions is
maintained, KC attains a constant value which is a minimum for that particular material. This
minimum value of critical stress intensity factor is called the plane strain fracture toughness KIC.

K is a stress field parameter whereas KIC is a characteristic material property that measures
fracture toughness of a material. The concept of fracture toughness arises from the fact that the
critical stress intensity factor measures the severity of the stress field necessary to cause a crack
to propagate. If a material offers high resistance to crack propagation, then a higher value of
critical stress intensity must be attained before a crack can propagate under the influence of the
applied stress. The plane strain fracture toughness of a material is therefore defined as a measure
of the resistance of that material to fail under stress in the presence of a crack-like defect.

Assuming that Y (geometric correction factor) is unity, then the following equation would hold

K I = σ (πa )
1
2 ⇒ K 2 I = σ 2πa = EG where G is the energy release rate
σ πa 2
G= .
E

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When fracture occurs under plane strain conditions, the strain energy release rate attains a critical
value GC and

EGC
K 2 IC =
(1 − υ 2 )

Crack Tip Plasticity

For materials that fail by cleavage, local yielding must first occur at a loaded crack tip before a
crack can extend by cleavage. According to Low (author/researcher) “Plastic flow is necessary
before cleavage fracture can be initiated.

In Linear-Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM), it is assumed that:-

- A material is under purely elastic stress system
- Any plastic deformation occurring must be very small compared to the
material dimensions and must be limited to the crack tip.

The theoretical principal stress immediately ahead of a sharp crack tip is infinitely high but in
reality σ 1 cannot exceed σ y ∴a certain volume of material must yield.

Yielding develops a plastic zone whose size is dependent on both the stress intensity factor and
yield stress of the material.

σ1

σy p

Crack
0 rp r

At P, the principal stress σ1 = σy.

Assuming zero work hardening, the point P is located some distance rp ahead of the crack tip
KI
σ1 = σ1 = σy at rp
(2πrp )12
KI
∴ σy =
(2πr )
p
1
2

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⇒ Plastic zone size under plane stress is given by:-

2
1 ⎡KI ⎤
rp = ⎢ ⎥
2π ⎣⎢ σ y ⎦⎥

Although the crack tip yields when σ1 = σy at point p, the energy represented by the shaded area
is already available due to stress intensification associated with the sharp crack. This energy is
in essence used to produce further yielding ahead of the crack ∴ plastic zone is normally larger
than that predicted above.

1
⎛ 2r p ⎞
rp 2
KI
Total area under curve = ∫ .dr = K ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
0 (2πr ) ⎝ π
1 I
2 ⎠

1
⎛ 2r p ⎞ 2
Therefore, plastic energy = K 1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ π ⎠

Crack Resistance
The elastic energy released by a system per unit crack extension per unit thickness is;-
1 dU e
G= (Energy release rate)
2 da

Where
Ue = total reduction in elastic strain energy accompanying the introduction
of a crack of length 2a in a plate of unit thickness.

− σ 2πa 2 dU e 2σ 2πa
But U e = ∴ =−
E da E

σ 2πa
⇒G= Neglecting the negative sign.
E

At fracture, the strain energy release rate attains a critical value Gc

Therefore, from the above

1
⎛ EG ⎞ 2
σf =⎜ c ⎟
⎝ πa ⎠
It can be proved that GC = 2rp.
For plane stress

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 σ f 2πa
GC = =R
E
And for plane strain

G IC =
(1 − v )σ
2
f
2
πa
=R
E

Where R is the crack tip resistance.

Considering the energy balance approach, instability occurs when the critical strain energy
release rate GC attains a constant value equal to R. When a relatively thin specimen containing a
crack is loaded, slow stable crack growth normally takes place before final fracture.

Effect of grain size on fracture mechanics

σf

σy
Stress

σf = σy

(Grain size)1/2

Effect of grain size on the fracture stress (mild steel at -196 oC) – according to Low

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