Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry

Effect of novel ionic additives on the performance of lithium batteries

--Manuscript Draft--

Manuscript Number: JIEC-D-23-02077

Article Type: Full Length Article

Keywords: ionic additives; non-ionic additives; lithium ion transference number; cell
performance; device stability

Abstract: With the increasing demand for high-performance lithium batteries, various strategies
have been proposed to improve the corresponding device performance. Among these
approaches, incorporating additives into the electrolyte is considered the simplest but
most effective approach. Herein, we designed a new ionic additive and systematically
compared its effects on the device performance with those of the corresponding
nonionic additive. The ionic additive, containing less mobile cation components,
strongly interacts with the anions of lithium salts. This results in a marked increase in
the lithium ion transference number, leading to a higher cell capacity, faster
charge–discharge process, and more stable cyclic operation. These results provide
useful information to design effective electrolyte additives for higher-performance
batteries.

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5 Effect of novel ionic additives on the performance of
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7 lithium batteries
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13 Da Eun Goo, Seong Hyuk Hong, Gyeong Rok Lee, Hong Chul Moon*
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19 Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Seoul, Seoul 02504, Republic of Korea
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50 *Corresponding author: hcmoon@uos.ac.kr
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2 Abstract
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5 With the increasing demand for high-performance lithium batteries, various strategies have
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7 been proposed to improve the corresponding device performance. Among these approaches,
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9 incorporating additives into the electrolyte is considered the simplest but most effective
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11 approach. Herein, we designed a new ionic additive and systematically compared its effects on
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13 the device performance with those of the corresponding nonionic additive. The ionic additive,
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15 containing less mobile cation components, strongly interacts with the anions of lithium salts.
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17 This results in a marked increase in the lithium ion transference number, leading to a higher
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cell capacity, faster charge–discharge process, and more stable cyclic operation. These results
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22 provide useful information to design effective electrolyte additives for higher-performance
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24 batteries.
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26 Keywords: ionic additives, non-ionic additives, lithium ion transference number, cell
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performance, device stability
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2 Introduction
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5 Lithium batteries (LBs) are considered the most promising energy storage devices, owing
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7 to their light weight, long cycle life, and high energy density, among other characteristics [1-
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9 6]. LBs are extensively utilized in various applications, ranging from portable electronic
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11 devices such as smartphones, laptops, and digital cameras to electric vehicles and aerospace
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13 systems [7-13]. The increasing demand for LBs promotes continued attempts to achieve higher-
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15 performance batteries with higher energy and power densities, longer cycle life, improved
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17 safety, and more reasonable costs [14-17].
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20 In this context, numerous efforts have been conducted to significantly enhance the
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22 performance of LBs. The introduction of electrolyte additives is among the most
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24 straightforward yet effective strategies to achieve this goal [18-23]. For example, when a
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26 lithium salt-type additive such as lithium difluoro(bisoxalato)phosphate (LiDFBP) was
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introduced into the liquid electrolyte, it facilitated the formation of a uniform and
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31 electrochemically robust cathode–electrolyte interface, owing to its high-lying HOMO energy
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33 level. As a result, cracking of the cathodic material was effectively prevented and the
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35 performance of Li/NCM811 cells could be dramatically improved [24]. In addition to
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37 engineering the cathode interface, several studies have attempted to improve the solid
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39 electrolyte interface (SEI) on the anode. A representative example for this purpose is the use of
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41 additive mixtures consisting of AgNO3, LiDFBP, and lithium nitrate. When a Li/NCM84 full
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43 cell was fabricated with this additive mixture, a lithiophilic and robust multilayer SEI was
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created on the Li metal anode, leading to a more stable cycle performance [25]. In addition to
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48 the interfacial engineering mentioned above, other additive-based approaches have also been
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50 explored. For instance, when the salt-type additive NaNO3 was incorporated into the electrolyte,
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52 it effectively interacted with the Li+ solvation shells. This promoted Li+ desolvation and
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54 resulted in increased Li+ diffusivity, leading to improved battery performances [26].
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57 Herein, we propose a novel ionic additive, poly[(3-acryloamidopropyl)-
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59 trimethylammonium][bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide] (PAATFSI), containing ionic
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2 moieties in its side chains. To clearly understand the impact of the ionic components on the cell
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4 performance, we also prepared a corresponding nonionic additive, poly(N-[3-
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6 (dimethylamino)propyl]acrylamide) (PDA), as a reference. The comparison of the effects of
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8 the two additives revealed that the ionic additive significantly outperformed its nonionic
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counterpart. The comparison also revealed that the use of PAATFSI resulted in superior
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13 properties. This improvement can be attributed to the interaction between the cation
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15 components of PAATFSI and the anions of the lithium salts. As the mobility of the
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17 counteranions of Li+ was limited, the Li+ transference number (tLi+) increased by more than
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19 three times (~ 305%). As a result, the migration of Li+ was facilitated and the concentration
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21 polarization could be reduced, leading to a higher performance and reliability of the cell. These
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23 findings provide valuable insights for the design of novel additives to effectively enhance the
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25 performance of LBs.
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31 Results and Discussion
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33 Fig. 1a shows a schematic illustration of the effects of ionic additives on the Li + mobility
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35 and the corresponding tLi+. The polymeric PAATFSI was designed to incorporate cationic
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moieties coupled with free TFSI– anions on its side chains. These cationic components can
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40 interact strongly with the PF6– anions of lithium salts, facilitating the dissociation of LiPF6 and
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42 limiting the movement of the PF6− species [27-29]. As a result, ionic additives are expected to
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44 lead to higher tLi+ values. To demonstrate this concept, we estimated the tLi+ values of two
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46 systems with PDA (nonionic) and PAATFSI (ionic) additives using the Bruce–Vincent equation:
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48 𝐼𝑠𝑠 ( 𝛥 𝑉 − 𝐼0 𝑅0 )
𝑡𝐿𝑖 + = (1)
49 𝐼0 ( 𝛥 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑠𝑠 )
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52 where I0 and Iss are the initial and steady-state currents, respectively, ΔV represents the applied
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54 voltage (10 mV in this study), while R0 and Rss are the interphase resistance values before and
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56 after cell polarization, respectively, calculated from the impedance spectra. Table 1 lists all
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58 parameters for the two systems. The obtained tLi+ value of the PDA electrolyte was 0.20 (Fig.
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2 1b). However, a three times higher tLi+ (0.61) was found for the PAATFSI-containing system
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4 (Fig. 1c). The higher tLi+ value is likely due to the effects of the ionic moieties on PAATFSI,
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6 such as promoting the lithium salt dissociation and reducing the mobility of the PF6− anion [30-
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8 33]. The higher tLi+ of the PAATFSI-containing cell may contribute to limit side reactions,
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increase cycling rates, reduce dendrite formation, and improve the device lifetime [34-40].
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55 Fig. 1. (a) Schematic illustration of effects of PDA (non-ionic) (left) and PAATFSI (ionic) (right)
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57 additives. Chronoamperometry profiles and Nyquist plots (insets) of Li/Li symmetric cells with
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59 electrolytes including (b) non-ionic and (c) ionic additives.
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2 Table 1. Characteristics of ionic and non-ionic additive-containing cells.
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5 Additive I0 (μA) Iss (μA) R0 (Ω) Rss (Ω) ΔV (mV) tLi+
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7 PDA (non-ionic) 171.2 67.2 42.7 69.7 10 0.20
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10 PAATFSI (ionic) 108.6 60.4 13.7 36.3 10 0.61
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Fig. 2. Electrodeposition stability of Li metal electrodes with different electrolytes. (a) Voltage
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51 profiles of Li/Li symmetric cells at a fixed current density (1.0 mA cm-2) and capacity (1mAh
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53 cm-2). (b) Enlarged voltage profiles between 0 and 40 h in (a). (c) Rate performance at various
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55 current densities of 1, 2, and 4 mA cm−2, in which Li plating/stripping period was fixed at 0.5
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57 h. (d) Enlarged view of voltage profiles between 0 and 50 h in (c).
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2 The beneficial effects of the increased tLi+ on the electrochemical stability of the Li metal
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4 electrode were investigated through plating/stripping cycle tests of Li/Li symmetric cells. The
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6 voltage profile of the Li/Li symmetric cell containing PDA revealed a relatively poor stability
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8 (Fig. 2a). The overpotential increased gradually as the cycling test proceeded (Fig. 2b). Then,
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an abrupt increase in overpotential was observed after ~ 60 h and the cell eventually failed after
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13 160 h. This behavior indicated a severe instability of the lithium electrode with the PDA-
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15 containing electrolyte. In contrast, the cell containing PAATFSI exhibited a much more stable
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17 operation up to 300 h at the same current density of 1 mA cm−2 (Fig. 2a), with no significant
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19 increase in overpotential (Fig. 2b).
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22 The stability of the two Li/Li symmetric cells was further compared at various current
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24 densities (Fig. 2c). In both cells, a larger overpotential was observed at higher current densities
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26 in Li plating/striping cycles. However, the overpotential was much higher for the PDA-
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28 containing cell, irrespective of the current density (Fig. 2d); this demonstrated the suitability
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30 of the PAATFSI-containing electrolyte for preparing reliable cells. After the test, further Li
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32 plating/striping cycles were conducted at 1 mA cm−2. Again, the polarization of the PDA-
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34 containing cell became larger after ~ 60 h and the cell eventually failed. In contrast, the cell
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containing PAATFSI exhibited stable operation without significant variations in overpotential
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39 (Fig. 2c), which was attributed to its higher tLi+.
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41 The cell behaviors were recorded during charge–discharge cycles between 2.7 and 4.3 V at
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43 different rates (0.1, 0.3, 0.5, and 1 C). Fig. 3a illustrates the C-rate dependence of the specific
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capacity of each cell. The general behaviors of the cells, such as the decrease in capacity at
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48 high C-rates, were similar. However, the capacity degradation of the high-tLi+, PAATFSI-
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50 containing cell at high C-rates was lower, owing to the reduced concentration polarization and
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52 effective Li+ transport [32,34,35,41,42]. For example, the cell with the nonionic PDA additive
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54 exhibited capacities of 207.3, 176.1, 152.5, and 116.1 mAh g−1 at 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, and 1 C,
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56 respectively (Fig. 3b). However, the use of the ionic PAATFSI additive resulted in a higher
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58 capacity retention; for example, capacities of 211.5, 200.2, 186.4, and 154.4 mAh g−1 were
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2 measured at 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, and 1 C, respectively (Fig. 3c). Moreover, a higher reversibility was
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4 achieved using the PAATFSI additive. When the specific capacity was measured again at 0.1
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6 C after the C-rate dependence test from 0.1 to 1 C, the PAATFSI-containing cell showed a
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8 capacity loss of only 4.4% compared to the original test (Fig. 3a). However, a more significant
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capacity loss (~ 17.1%) was observed for the cell containing PDA (Fig. 3a). These results
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13 demonstrate the benefits of using the ionic PAATFSI as additive.
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55 Fig. 3. (a) Rate performances of Li/NCM811 cells with PDA and PAATFSI additives.
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57 Corresponding charge-discharge voltage profiles at various C-rates using (b) PDA and (c)
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59 PAATFSI additives.
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50 Fig. 4. Voltage profiles of Li/NCM811 cells with non-ionic PDA additives at (a) 1.5 and (b)
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52 2C-rates. Variations in voltage profiles of Li/NCM811 cells including ionic PAATFSI as a
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54 function of cycle number at (c) 1.5 and (d) 2 C-rates. (e) Long-term stability tests of cells under
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2 The effects of the additive were further evaluated in terms of long-term cyclic stability. Fig.
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4 4a and b illustrate the charge–discharge performance of PDA-containing cells, which exhibited
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6 capacities of 108.5 and 97.9 mAh g−1 at 1.5 and 2 C-rates, respectively, during the initial cycle.
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8 On the other hand, higher capacities of 145.1 and 120.6 mAh g−1 at 1.5 and 2 C-rates,
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respectively, were obtained using the ionic PAATFSI additives (Fig. 4c and d). Moreover, the
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13 PDA cell failed after 40 cycles. However, the high-tLi+ cell containing PAATFSI could be
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15 successfully operated for 80 cycles, although a certain degree of capacity degradation was
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17 observed (Fig. 4e). These results indicate that the use of the ionic PAATFSI additive improves
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19 not only the energy storage/rate performance, but also reliability of the cell.
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24 Conclusions
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27 In summary, ionic PAATFSI was proposed as an additive to enhance the performance of
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29 lithium batteries, and its effects were compared with those of the corresponding nonionic
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31 additive, PDA. The cationic components of the ionic PAATFSI interacted with the anions of
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33 lithium salts and limited their mobility. As a result, the tLi+ value increased by ~ 305% compared
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35 to that obtained using the nonionic PDA; this improvement led to a higher rate performance,
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capacity, and lifetime of the PAATFSI-containing Li/NCM811 cell. These results demonstrate
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40 the effectiveness of using ionic additives to improve the performance of lithium batteries.
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45 Experimental Section
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48 Materials
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50 NCM811 powder and Li metal chips were purchased from Wellcos Co. (Korea) and MTI
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52 Korea, respectively. LiPF6 (1 M) in EC/DMC (1:1, vol.) and N-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone (NMP)
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were purchased from Sigma Aldrich. CR2023 coin cells were purchased from Sunnytech. 3-
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57 Acrylamidopropyl trimethylammonium chloride solution (AACl, 75 wt.% in H2O), N,N-
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59 dimethylacetamide (DMAc, 99.8%), 2,2′-azobis(2-methylpropionamidine) dihydrochloride
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2 (V-50, 97%), and 2,2′-azobis(2-methylpropionitrile) (AIBN, 98%) were purchased from
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4 Sigma-Aldrich. N-[3-(dimethylamino)propyl]acrylamide (DA, >98.0%) was obtained from
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6 Tokyo Chemical Industry Co., Ltd. Lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide ([Li][TFSI])
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8 was obtained from 3 M (Minnesota, USA).
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11 Synthesis of ionic additives
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14 The AACl monomer (52.82 g, 255.54 mmol) and the V-50 initiator (1.00 mg, 0.0037 mmol)
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16 were placed in a two-neck flask, which was then purged with Ar gas at room temperature for 1
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18 h. The monomer solution was allowed to react at 80 °C for 2 h, and the flask was immersed in
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20 liquid nitrogen to terminate the reaction. To obtain a polymer, the resulting solution was poured
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22 into excess acetone. The collected polymer (PAACl) was dried in a vacuum oven at 60 °C for
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24 24 h to completely evaporate the solvent. In order to replace Cl– with TFSI– ions, PAACl was
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26 fully dissolved in water, and excess [Li][TFSI] was added. The produced PAATFSI was filtered
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and dried in vacuum of 60 °C for 24 h. To remove unreacted [Li][TFSI], the resulting polymer
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31 was dissolved in acetone and then reprecipitated in deionized water.
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33 Synthesis of DA homopolymer
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36 In a two-neck flask, DA monomer (65.93 g, 422.02 mmol) and AIBN initiator (1.00 mg,
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38 0.0061 mmol) were dissolved in 5 mL of DMAc. After purging the flask with Ar gas for 1 h at
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40 room temperature, polymerization was carried out at 80 °C. After 10 h, the polymerization
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42 process was terminated using liquid nitrogen. The resulting solution was precipitated in ether,
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44 yielding the final polymer product, PDA.
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47 Preparation of electrolytes
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50 The 5 wt.% additive was mixed with 95 wt.% electrolyte [1 M LiPF6 in EC/DMC (1:1 vol.)]
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52 and stirred overnight at 40 °C. The amount of electrolyte used in each cell was fixed at 100 μL.
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Preparation of cathode and cell assembly
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57 The cathode slurry for casting was prepared by mixing NMC811 powders, Super-P carbon,
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59 and polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) in NMP in a weight ratio of 90:5:5. The mixture was
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2 mechanically stirred to form a uniform slurry, which was coated onto Al foil using a doctor
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4 blade. The thickness of the active layer was fixed at 100 μm. The as-prepared film was dried
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6 overnight in a vacuum oven at 100 °C and then punched into small discs with a diameter of 16
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8 mm. The loading amount of active materials in the cathode disk was approximately 5 mg cm−2.
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The batteries were assembled in an argon-filled glove box under H2O and O2 concentrations
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13 below 1 ppm. The cells (conventional CR2023 coin cells) were assembled using polished Li
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15 metal as the anode and NCM811 disks as the cathode. A glass microfiber filter (Whatman) was
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17 employed as a separator. Additionally, Li/Li symmetric cells were fabricated using polished Li
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19 metals as both the anode and cathode.
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22 Characterization of battery cells
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24 To analyze the cell performance, charge–discharge profiles were recorded at 50 °C using a
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26 galvanostatic charge–discharge (GCD) cycler (WBCS3000L, WonATech). Li/NCM811 cells
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were cycled from 2.7 to 4.3 V. The tLi+ value was evaluated according to the Bruce–Vincent
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31 method, combining electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS; IM6, Zahner) and
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33 chronoamperometry measurements using a source meter (2420, Keithley, USA). In the EIS
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35 measurements, the amplitude of the applied voltage and the frequency range were fixed at 10
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37 mV and 105–10−1 Hz, respectively.
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42 Acknowledgment
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45 This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded
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47 by the Korea government (MSIT) (NRF-2022R1A2C4001425).
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52 Conflicts of Interest
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55 The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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