Information

Job Sheet 1
Thermal Energy Fundamentals
More than 2,000 years ago, the Romans used south-facing windows to capture warmth
generated by sunlight. Since 1767, many famous discoveries and inventions helped to define
how we use solar thermal energy today to heat and cool our homes and businesses.

Basic Principles and Terminology

Thermal energy is simply heat that normally flows from high to low temperature areas. In
order to understand thermal energy, we should become familiar with some important physical
principles regarding temperature. These effects are directly related to a branch of physics called
thermodynamics.

Equilibrium Effect
Heat continually travels to cooler regions until thermal equilibrium is achieved. Thermal
equilibrium is reached when two systems in thermal contact with each other are balanced,
and cease to exchange heat, because their temperatures remain identical. A heated object
ultimately returns to thermal equilibrium within its environment, due to heat loss by conduction,
convection, and radiation.

Delta-T Effect
The difference in temperature between two systems is commonly represented by the Greek
letter delta (Δ). Large temperature differentials cause an increase in flow rate during the
transfer of heat between two substances. Thermal energy is lost or gained more rapidly with
significant thermal gradients.

The total energy of a system includes its potential and kinetic energy (E), the work (W) done
by the system, and the flow or transfer of heat (Q) through the system. Temperature (T),
pressure (p), and volume (V) are properties that determine the state of matter and the total
energy in mass (m). Mass is simply a body of material such as a gas, liquid, or solid that is
required to store thermal energy (heat).

Fluid dynamics (the motion of fluid) can be described by the conservation of mass, momentum,
and energy. Thermal energy can travel by means of conduction, convection, or radiation.
Natural convection (sometimes called the chimney effect) occurs as thermal energy rises
in a material, due to differences in density. Stratification is a term used to describe a material
that has developed a hot area within its upper portion and a cold area within its lower portion,
usually due to natural convection. Forced convection often involves the use of a pump or
blower to control the flow of fluids. During natural and forced convection, the pattern of fluid flow
can be laminar (straight and consistent) or turbulent (containing disturbances). Transitional
flow is a combination of laminar and turbulent flow.

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Thermal Energy Fundamentals

Figure 1-1. Laminar and Turbulent Fluid Flow.

Units of Measure
The basic units of measure often used when working with thermal energy are listed below.

Flow Rate—measured in gallons per minute (gpm) or liters per minute (lpm) for water, and
cubic feet per minute (cfm) or cubic meters per hour (m3/h) for air.
1 gpm = 3.785 liters per minute (lpm)
1 cfm = 1.699 cubic meters per hour (m3/h)

Temperature—measured in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) or degrees Celsius (°C).

°F = (°C x 1.8) + 32
°C = (°F – 32) / 1.8

Pressure—measured in pounds per square inch (psi), pascals (Pa), or bars (bar).
1 psi = 6,894.8 pascals (Pa) = 68.948 millibars (mbar)
1,000 psi = 1 kilopound per square inch (ksi)
1,000 Pa = 1 kilopascal (kPa)
1 bar = 14.504 pounds per square inch (psi)
0.001 bar = 1 millibar (mbar)
1 mbar = 100 pascal (Pa) = 1 hectopascal (hPa)

Volume—measured in cubic feet (ft3), cubic meters (m3), gallons (gal), or liters (L).
1 gal = 3.7854 liters (L)
1 ft3 = 28.3169 liters (L)
1 L = 1,000 cubic meters (m3)

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Distance (or Length)—measured in inches (in), feet (ft), or meters (m).

1 ft = 12 inches (in)
1 m = 3.281 feet (ft)

Weight—measured in pounds (lb) or grams (g).

1,000 g = 1 kilogram (kg)
1 kg = 2.205 pounds (lb)

Instrumentation Types
There are many different types of devices available commercially for measuring parameters
such as flow rate, temperature, pressure, and volume of mass (dimensionally or by weight).

Flow Rate—The simplest method to measure liquid flow rate is to time the filling of a bucket
that has a known capacity. However, there are many different types of flow meters available for
fluids. Many of them use a rotating mechanical part, such as a paddle wheel, turbine, propeller,
disk, or piston to determine fluid velocity through a known area. The float-style variable area
flow meter, called a rotameter, is shown in Figure 1-2. This type of flow meter is commonly used
for air or water. It consists of a floating indicator inside a clear tapered tube. Digital versions of
flow meters are also available.

Figure 1-2. Variable Area Flow Meter (Rotameter).

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Temperature—There are two common types of analog thermometers. One consists of a

mercury-filled (or galinstan-filled) glass tube that is calibrated and the other contains a coiled
bimetallic strip with a pointing indicator. Digital thermometers are also popular.

Figure 1-3. Analog Thermometer.

Pressure—Various types of pressure gauges (also called manometers) exist for measuring
the static (non-flowing) pressure or the dynamic (flowing) pressure of fluids, such as air or
water. Many of them are constructed using an aneroid (void of liquid) flexing element, such
as a bourdon tube, diaphragm, capsule, or bellows. Pressure gauges can be referenced to
atmospheric or ambient air pressures. Digital pressure gauges are available as well.

Figure 1-4. Mechanical Pressure Gauge.

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Volume (dimensionally or by weight)—For large solid objects, bodies of water, or airspaces

such as a room in a house, the lengths, widths, and heights can be measured by using simple
rulers, tape measures, or specialized laser-based devices, and generally the volume can be
determined by calculating the total product of all three dimensions. A scale can be used to
measure the weight of smaller mass (solids, liquids, or gases), and a known constant multiplier
for the material can be applied to calculate the total volume.

L
H

Figure 1-5. Dimensional Volume (V = L x W x H).

Material Properties
Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in volume as temperature changes.
When a substance is heated, its particles begin moving, and the average separation (of its
particles) changes. Most materials expand (increase in volume) as they are heated, while
some (rare) materials can contract (decrease in volume) as they heat up. Inversely, thermal
contraction occurs as most materials dissipate or lose thermal energy and cool down to a
lower temperature. When water is heated, its density decreases and its volume expands. For
example, water heated from 90°F to 140°F inside a 40-gallon domestic hot-water (DHW) heater
will expand by almost one half of a gallon. Density increases and volume contracts as water
begins to freeze. However, as ice continues to get colder (below 32°F), it actually expands as
the density decreases again. Assuming pressure is constant, the volumetric thermal expansion
coefficient (beta or β) relates a change in volume (delta-V or ΔV) to a change in temperature
(delta-T or ΔT) for a given material. Coefficients of some common materials are listed in Table 1-1.

Material β (10−6/°C at 20°C)

Gasoline 950

Rubber 231

Water 207

Mercury 182
Oak
162
(across grain)

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Material β (10−6/°C at 20°C)

PVC 156
Pine
102
(across grain)
Aluminum 69

Brass 57

Silver 54

Stainless steel 51.9

Copper 51

Gold 42

Nickel 39

Concrete 36

Iron 33.3

Steel 33-39

Carbon steel 32.4

Platinum 27

Glass 25.5
Glass
9.9
(borosilicate)
Silicon 9

Diamond 3

Table 1-1. Coefficient of Volumetric Thermal Expansion (β).

The coefficient of volumetric thermal expansion (β) for a material listed in Table 1-1 can be
used to determine the change in volume (ΔV) for a given change in temperature (ΔT). See the
formula below.

ΔV = β x V0 x ΔT
Where:
V0 is the material’s volume at room temperature (20°C), ΔT is the temperature difference in °C,
and pressure is constant.
NOTE: Use this equation only for a solid or liquid (as listed in Table 1-1), not for a gas.

For example, 40 gallons of water rising 30°C above room temperature (to 50°C) will increase in
volume by 0.2484 gallons (or about one quart).

0.000207 x 40 gals x 30°C = 0.2484 gals (for 20°C to 50°C)

NOTE: The unit gallon (gal) refers to U.S. gallons (for liquid), not the European unit.

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Sensible heat is defined as the amount of energy that results in a temperature change only
when a heat transfer takes place.

Latent heat (L) is defined as the amount of energy (in BTU) [or in kJ] released or absorbed
by a substance during a change of state (phase transition) that occurs without changing its
temperature. Both, the latent heat of fusion (or melting), and the latent heat of vaporization
(or boiling), define the direction of energy flow when changing phases, such as the transitions
between solid, liquid, and gas. The process absorbs energy (is endothermic) when going from
solid to liquid to gas, and releases energy (is exothermic) when going from gas to liquid to solid.
Latent heat is typically specified in BTU/lb [or kJ/kg].

Specific heat (c) is defined as the amount of energy (in BTU) [or in kJ] that is required to raise
the temperature of one pound (lb) [or one kilogram (kg)] of a material (mass) by one degree
Fahrenheit (°F) [or Celsius (°C)]. As a measure of thermal (heating or cooling) capacity, specific
heat is typically specified in BTU/lb·°F [or kJ/kg·°C]. BTU/lb·°F is equal to cal/g·°C. kWh/g·°C is
also used.

Thermal Properties of Water in Different States

Specific heat capacity of water (at 25°C) = 1 BTU/lb·°F = 4.186 kJ/kg·°C
Specific heat capacity of ice (at 0°C) = 0.504 BTU/lb·°F = 2.108 kJ/kg·°C
Specific heat capacity of water vapor (at 100°C) = 0.477 BTU/lb·°F = 1.996 kJ/kg·°C
British Thermal Unit (BTU) or heat unit equivalents use the following conversion factors:
1 hp = 2,545 BTU/hr
1 kW = 3,412 BTU/hr
1 kJ = 0.948 BTU
1 BTU = 1,055 J
1 therm = 100,000 BTU
1 quad = 1,000,000,000,000,000 BTU

NOTE: A quadrillion BTU (1015) is called a quad.

1 ton (of HVAC capacity) = 12,000 BTU/hr

NOTE: This measure is in US imperial (short) tons, not SI metric tons.

When two bodies not in thermal equilibrium are thermally connected, heat transfer will take
place from one body to the other until thermal equilibrium is established. The thermal energy
that is transferred can be calculated, by using the equation Q = mcΔT, re-written as:
Q = c x m x (T2 – T1)
Where:

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Q is the amount of heat transfer, c is the specific heat (at constant pressure), m is the mass of
the body, and T2 and T1 are the final and initial temperatures of the body, respectively.
For example, if you want to determine the amount of heat transfer required to raise the
temperature of water from 68°F to 118°F, while flowing at 20 gpm, simply calculate the
following.
Q = 1 BTU/lb·°F x (20 gal/min x 60 min/hr x 8.34 lb/gal) x (118°F – 68°F)
Q = 500,400 BTU/hr

NOTE: The weight of water is about 8.34 lb/gal under typical temperature and atmospheric
conditions.

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 Job Sheet 1
Thermal Energy Fundamentals
OBJECTIVES
In this job, you will become familiar with the basic principles and terminology of
solar thermal energy systems, by performing calculations and using some common
thermal energy equations.

PROCEDURE
Use calculations and/or conversions to answer the following questions.

২ 1. Determine the amount of heat transfer required (in BTU/hr) to raise the
temperature of water from 68°F to 140°F (20°C to 60°C), while flowing
at 10 gpm.
_____BTU/hr

২ 2. Determine the amount of heat transfer required (in BTU/hr) to raise the
temperature of water from 68°F to 176°F (20°C to 80°C), while flowing
at 20 gpm.
_____BTU/hr

২ 3. What is the amount of heat transfer required (in therms) for questions 1
and 2? (HINT: 100,000 BTU = 1 therm)
_____therms and _____therms

NOTE: For heating power values, BTU implies BTU/hr, so therm also implies
therms/hr.

২ 4. Determine the amount of volumetric thermal expansion (in gallons) that

will occur if water is heated from 68°F to 176°F (20°C to 80°C) inside a
50-gallon domestic hot-water (DHW) heater.
_____gal

২ 5. Determine the amount of volumetric thermal expansion (in gallons) that

will occur if water is heated from 68°F to 122°F (20°C to 50°C) inside an
80-gallon domestic hot-water (DHW) heater.
_____gal

২ 6. What is the amount of volumetric thermal expansion (in liters) for

questions 4 and 5? (HINT: 1 gal = 3.7854 L)
_____L and _____L

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২ 7. Four tons of cooling capacity is equal to how many therms?

_____therms

২ 8. What is the volume (in cubic feet, ft3) of a thermal storage mass
consisting of a concrete slab that measures 20'L x 10'W x 0.5'H?
_____ ft3

২ 9. What is the volume (in cubic feet, ft3) of a thermal storage mass
containing air in an enclosure that measures 30'L x 15'W x 8'H?
_____ ft3

২ 10. What is the volume (in cubic meters, m3) for questions 8 and 9?
(HINT: 35.314667 m3 = 1 ft3)
_____m3 and _____m3

২ 11. Convert a pressure of 1,379 hPa to psi.

_____ psi

২ 12. Convert a pressure of 3.25 mbar to Pa.

_____ Pa

২ 13. Convert a temperature of 20°C to °F.

_____ °F

২ 14. Convert a water flow of 37.85 lpm to gpm.

_____ gpm

২ 15. Convert an air flow of 5.097 m3/h to cfm.

_____ cfm

Name: ________________________________________ Date: _________________

Instructor approval:____________________________________________________

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