I

AN INDEPENDENT MIND: UNVEILING THE SCOPE OF CRITICAL THINKING

SKILLS AMONG GRADE 11 STUDENTS

A Research Paper Presented to the

Senior High School Department
Tagum National Trade School
Apokon, Tagum City

In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements

In Practical Research I

Dongie Ana Marie A. Arapoc

Ian Miguel T. Coronia
Manuel B. Dela Cruz III
Mckyle Adrian Jake Ducot
Joross Labastida
Jennevel Lacaden
Clark James A. Rinconada
Isagani II D. Salvado
Cathline Kate A. Toledo

June 2023
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Table of Contents

TITLE PAGE i
TABLE OF CONTENTS ii
Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION 1

Rationale 1

Purpose of the Study 5

Research Questions 5

Review of Related Literature 6

Theoretical Lens 11

Significance of the Study 13

Delimitation of the Study 15

Definition of Terms 16

Organization of the Study 17

2 METHODOLOGY 19

Research Design 19

Research Participants 21

Role of the Researchers 22

Data Sources 23

Data Collection Procedure 24

Trustworthiness and Credibility 25

Ethical Consideration 26

Data Analysis 29

REFERENCES 31
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Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Rationale

One of the quality that sets human apart from all other species of known

life is our ability to think, learn, communicate and control our environment makes

humanity genuinely different from all other animals. (Laland, 2018). Numerous

students in every school has an experience in life. It’s either good or bad and any

way one must logically think critically.Critical thinking can be one of the most

effective ways to accomplish decision making task. Students critical thinking

skills where assessed across multiple topics to ascertain in their use and

development of critical thinking skills. (O’ Rourke, 2008). This is the due to the

fact that it perfectly encapsulates the essence of critical thinking, which is the

capacity to query and doubt even the most generally held opinions and beliefs.

(Messerly, 2013). The importance of critical thinking cannot be overstated.

Globally, evidences has also suggested that international students are

regularly criticized as being non-critical thinkers and rote learners because of the

lack of critical thinking in their approaches to studies (Tanaka, 2002; Turner,

2006). Since critical thinking is one of the main requirements for success in

academic disciplines in British universities, this represents a challenge for

students coming from different cultural backgrounds, who are obliged to adapt to

an unfamiliar approach to learning. (Shaheen, 2016). The United States, Japan,

Germany, and Canada are known for their high levels of Scientific Literacy and
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Critical thinking skills. Teaching critical thinking skills in schools can help

students develop the skills necessary to engage the world around them in a more

thoughtful and informed way. It is important to note that critical thinking is not

limited to scientific inquiry and can be applied in many areas of life, including

politics, economics, and social issues. Therefore, the global scale of critical

thinking may vary depending on the context and the specific issues being

examined. It is a fundamental component of scientific inquiry and allows

individuals to examine claims and arguments, evaluate, and make informed

decisions. (Papadopoulos, 2021)

Studies, however, demonstrates that critical thinking necessities language

skills, information literacy, and creativity. Graduates in the Philippines are

sometimes criticized for lacking these abilities (The Hanen Center, 2016). Due to

the fact that the nation has not developed in recent years to meet the demons of

the modern world in terms of information processing. Unsettling nowadays, such

as quick dissemination of false informaon social media platforms, are a result of

the critical literacy gap. (Racosta, 2021)

Sacub High School Annex located at Hagonoy, Davao del Sur, Philippines,

a problem on the development of the critical thinking skills of the learners is

prevalent, and educators need to change their teaching strategy catering to the

current needs and behavior of learners enabling them to improve the latter’s

critical thinking skills. (Elarcosa, 2019). Critical thinking seems to be an issue in

education until recently, the recognition of the importance of critical thinking in

education has been a recent development, as it has received increased attention

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and focus. Previously, critical thinking skills were not emphasized or developed

sufficiently in educational settings. However, there is now a growing

acknowledgement of its significance, leading to a shift towards prioritizing the

cultivation of critical thinking in educational practices. Directly towards knowing

how much competency have the education students learned and how they

respond to the demands of critical thinking in education pedagogy. (Visande,

2014). The researchers conducted a purposive interview to evaluate the scope

and boundaries of students’ critical thinking.

Critical thinking skills refer to a set of cognitive abilities that enable

individuals to analyze, evaluate, and interpret information and arguments in a

logical and rational manner. These skills involve careful reasoning, logical

deduction, objective analysis, and independent judgment. Critical thinking skills

involve the ability to analyze, evaluate, and interpret information logically. They

are important because they enhance decision-making, problem-solving, and

communication abilities, while reducing biases. These skills lead to improved

academic performance, better problem-solving and decision-making, effective

communication, adaptability, and innovation. Developing critical thinking skills is

essential for success in various aspects of life.

This statement emphasizes the scope and boundaries of Grade 11 students'

critical thinking skills and highlights the need to equip them with the necessary

abilities to evaluate information, question assumptions, and make informed

judgments. It underlines the urgency of this study, stemming from the prevalent

misinformation, false narratives, and fallacious reasoning in society. By focusing

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on Grade 11 students, who are crucially positioned in their cognitive and

intellectual development, the aim is to empower them with the tools to critically

evaluate information, recognize fallacies, and make responsible decisions. The

urgency is rooted in the necessity to enable these students to navigate the

intricate information landscape, counter misinformation, and emerge as

conscientious, independent thinkers in a world where fallacies can have far-

reaching societal consequences.

The research gap or uniqueness of the study lies in its specific focus on

exploring the scope and boundaries of critical thinking skills among students.

While there may have been previous studies on critical thinking skills, this study

distinguishes itself by delving into the specific context of students' critical thinking

abilities and their limitations. It aims to provide a comprehensive understanding

of the scope to which students can engage in critical thinking, as well as the

specific challenges and boundaries they encounter in this process. By narrowing

the research focus to the scope and boundaries of critical thinking skills, This

study significantly enhances our understanding of students' critical thinking skills

by offering valuable information and insights. It surpasses previous research by

thoroughly exploring the intricate and subtle aspects of these abilities. By doing

so, it provides a comprehensive and detailed comprehension of how students

engage in critical thinking. The study contributes to existing knowledge by

revealing new perspectives and shedding light on overlooked nuances, thus

enriching the field.

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Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this phenomenological research is to comprehensively

examine the scope and limitations of critical thinking skills among Grade 11

students. It aims to understand the specific challenges they encounter in

developing and utilizing critical thinking abilities, with a focus on evaluating

information, questioning assumptions, and making informed judgments. By

informing educational practices, the study seeks to equip students with the

necessary skills to navigate complex information, counter misinformation, and

foster independent, responsible thinking

This study aims to understand and intend to know the scope and limitation

of students critical thinking skills. It explores the challenges they face in school

and personal growth, aiming to provide insights into their journey of developing

individual thinking abilities. The research seeks to gain a comprehensive

understanding of the scope and limitations of critical thinking skills in Grade 11

students by investigating these aspects.

Research Questions

Specifically, this study will seek answer to the following questions:

1. What are the experiences and challenges that students face in the most

difficult situation(s) they have had?

2. How do the students cope with the challenges encountered in the most

difficult situation(s) they have had?

3. What insights can the participants share to the community?

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Review of Related Literature

The review of related literature in this research paper provides a

comprehensive examination and synthesis of existing scholarly works and

studies that are directly relevant to the research topic:

According to Paul and Elder (2007), much of our thinking, left to itself, is

biased, distorted, partial, uninformed or down-right prejudiced. Yet the quality of

our life and that of which we produce, make, or build depends precisely on the

quality of our thought. Critical thinking is therefore the foundation of a strong

education.

On the same source, Systematic method of disciplined questioning that

can be used to explore complex ideas, to get to the truth of things, to open up

issues and problems, to uncover assumptions, to analyze concepts, to

distinguish what we know from what we don’t know, and to follow out logical

implications of thought. (Paul & Elder 2007).

Hashemiannejad (2001) defined critical thinking as a thoughtful and logical

thinking aimed to examine and reconsider beliefs, opinions, actions, and

decisions made about them based on reasons and evidence supporting them

and their logical and correct outcomes. Critical thinking facilitates judgments,

since it relies on a set of criteria and rules, leads to self-correction, and is

relatively sensitive to context. (Lipman 2003).

Skepticism is what allows us the space to investigate before taking action

or making a decision. When we treat what we hear with skepticism that gives us
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the necessary pause to gather more information, process what we’re hearing,

and to form a more balanced opinion. When someone tells you something, you’re

influenced by your own opinions, experiences, and even your level of trust with

the person or entity that is giving you information. You are more likely to believe

what you hear when your opinions and experiences align with what you’re being

told. If you trust the person giving you information, you may also be more likely to

trust the information itself. Be mindful of this, and remember that even if what

you’re hearing is what you want to hear or want to believe, you should still be a

little skeptical until you learn more. (Whitford, 2019).

Educate Yourself and Seek Diverse Perspectives. This means actively

seeking knowledge and information from a variety of sources, exploring different

viewpoints, and engaging with diverse perspectives. By doing so, you expand

your understanding of various topics and avoid relying solely on a single source

or perspective, which can lead to biased thinking. (Kahneman, 2011).

Understanding and analyzing ideas and arguments

Critical thinking refers to the ability to analyze information objectively and

make a reasoned judgment. It involves the evaluation of sources, such as data,

facts, observable phenomena, and research findings.Good critical thinkers can

draw reasonable conclusions from a set of information, and discriminate between

useful and less useful details to solve problems or make decisions. Employers

prioritize the ability to think critically—find out why, plus see how you can

demonstrate that you have this ability throughout the job application process.

(Doyle, 2022).
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Critical thinking is the analytical conceptual method of accurately and

passionately conceptualizing, analyzing, applying, and evaluating information

collected from or created by experience, reflection, communication, or

observation as a mentor to measures and reliance.

In school and college, students require strong critical thinking skills to read

and write effectively. Along with this, the jobs need employees to think critically to

analyze data, opt for the best course of action, and act on their choices.

The previous students propagate critical thinking, the more skilled they will

be at creating refined, thoughtful research of the challenges they face. (Singh,

2022).

Critical thinking is necessary for students because it empowers them to

solve problems, especially during the learning stage and in real-life situations

within society. Based on this fact, the present study proposes a citizenship

project model that aims to enhance the Elementary School Teacher Education

Study Program by emphasizing critical thinking among students during the

teaching of Civic Education at universities in Indonesia. (Witarsa & Muhammad,

2023).

Evaluating ideas and arguments

The critical evaluation of ideas, arguments, and points of view is important

for the development of students as autonomous thinkers. It is only through this

critical evaluation that students can distinguish among competing claims for truth

and determine which arguments and points of views they can trust and those of
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which they should be skeptical. This work lays the foundation for students’

progressing to staking their own claims in an intellectually rigorous fashion.

Learning how to analyze and critically evaluate arguments thus helps them to

develop a sound framework to test their own arguments and advance their own

points of view.(Armstrong, et al. 2019).

Evaluating new ideas is one of the most challenging parts of the job for any

manager or executive. By definition, new ideas always have a lot of uncertainty

involved and little data to back them up. Thus, prioritizing ideas and making

decisions on which ones to implement right away, which ones to test or pilot,

which ones to keep for later, and which ones to outright discard, will often put you

in a bit of a pickle. (Neiminen, 2018).

The relationships between argumentation and critical thinking. The

underlying questions are how argumentation supports the capacity to

discriminate between claims justified by evidence and mere opinion, and how

argumentation can contribute to two types of objectives related to learning

science and to citizenship. First, various meanings for critical thinking in different

communities are reviewed. Then, we propose our characterisation of critical

thinking, which assumes that evidence evaluation is an essential component, but

that there are other components related to the capacities of reflecting on the

world around us and of participating in it (e.g. developing an independent opinion,

including challenging the ideas of one’s own community). This characterisation

draws both from the notion of commitment to evidence and from critical theorists.

Using this frame, it examines the contributions of argumentation in science

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education to the components of critical thinking, and also discusses the

evaluation of evidence and the different factors influencing or even hampering it.

(Jiménez-Aleixandre, & Puig, 2012).

Problem solving and making decision

Problem solving is at the core of human evolution. It is the methods we use

to understand what is happening in our environment, identify things we want to

change and then figure out the things that need to be done to create the desired

outcome. Problem solving is the source of all new inventions, social and cultural

evolution, and the basis for market based economies. It is the basis for

continuous improvement, communication and learning. (Tregoe & Stottler, 2023).

Critical thinking is one of the most important elements of decision-making. It

helps us to evaluate different options, consider alternatives, and weigh the

outcomes before we make a final decision. Critical thinking allows us to go

beyond intuition and emotion to make well-informed decisions based on facts

and evidence. (Jabbar, 2023).

The decision making process is a key part of problem solving. Critical

thinking is one of the basic decision making and problem solving techniques.

Critical thinking is the practice of gathering, analyzing, and evaluating information

in a methodical manner. Essentially, this is a process for thinking clearly through

several options and arriving at the best choice. (McLein, 2016).

Critical thinking and problem-solving are core skills that teach students to

question or reflect on their own knowledge and information presented to them.

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These are essential skills for students working on assignments or conducting

research. They are the ability to actively use reason to analyze issues, make

decisions, and ultimately overcome problems. (Hernandez, 2021).

Theoretical Lens

John Dewey defines critical thinking as an active process that involves

careful consideration, suspending judgment, and maintaining an open mind. He

emphasizes the importance of reflective thinking and the exchange of ideas with

others as essential components of critical thinking. Dewey highlights the need for

students to think through problems, raise questions, and search for information

independently rather than relying on passive learning. ( Dewey, J. 1910, 2004).

Critical Theory, is a philosophical method that incorporates a moral criticism

of culture. In this sense, a critical theory is one that aims to reject or discredit a

widely believed or influential notion or way of thinking in society (Foresman et. al,

2017).

Critical Thinking Theory, is based on the notion of critical thinking, which is

the objective investigation and assessment of a topic in order to make a decision.

When it comes to critical thinking, objective analysis, often known as objectivity,

is essential. Objectivity is the capacity to examine information or subjects without

prejudices or personal opinions, which is essential in the critical thinking process

(Valenzuela and White, 2022).

Schoenfeld Theory, stated that students need to learn to define goals and to

self-regulate their problem solving behaviour in order to improve solving of non-

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standard mathematics problems. Schoenfeld's theory of mathematical problem

solving, emphasizes cognitive processes and metacognitive strategies in

developing robust mathematical thinking. While not explicitly about critical

skepticism, the theory's focus on reflection and evaluation can contribute to the

development of critical thinking skills, including critical skepticism, in students'

problem-solving approaches across different domains. Schoenfeld observed that

during problem solving, students display distinct categories of

behaviour.( Schoenfeld, 1992).

The RED (Recognize assumptions, Evaluate arguments, Draw conclusions)

Model, provides a structured approach to critical thinking. It aims to guide

individuals in thinking critically by helping them recognize assumptions, evaluate

arguments, and draw informed conclusions. This model is closely related to the

development of critical skepticism as it encourages questioning, evidence-based

reasoning, and a cautious approach to information and arguments. Overall, the

RED Model provides a structured approach to foster critical thinking skills and

cultivate critical skepticism. It involves identifying underlying assumptions,

evaluating the strength of arguments, and drawing well-reasoned conclusions

based on evidence and logical reasoning. (Paul & Elder, 1980).

Bloom's Taxonomy Theory, is a framework that categorizes different levels

of thinking skills. It aims to provide a structure for understanding and developing

higher-order thinking. In relation to the development of critical skepticism,

Bloom's Taxonomy emphasizes higher-order thinking skills such as analyzing,

evaluating, and creating, which are essential for questioning, assessing, and
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critically examining information. It offers educators a guide to promote critical

thinking by designing learning experiences and assessments that encourage

students to think critically and evaluate information from multiple perspectives.

Overall, Bloom's Taxonomy supports the development of critical skepticism by

providing a framework for cultivating higher-order thinking skills, this taxonomy

categorizes cognitive processes into six levels, ranging from lower-order thinking

skills (such as remembering and understanding) to higher-order thinking skills

(such as analyzing, evaluating, and creating). Critical thinking is considered a

higher-order cognitive skill within this framework. (Bloom, 1950).

Significance of the study

The result of this study can benefit the following stakeholders:

DepEd Officials. Critical thinking skills are crucial for DepEd officials as they

engage in policy-making, problem-solving, curriculum development, evaluation,

stakeholder engagement, and future readiness. These skills enable officials to

make informed decisions, address challenges, and lead the education system

effectively.

School Head. Critical thinking skills are crucial for school heads as they

facilitate effective decision-making, problem-solving, strategic planning,

leadership, evaluation, collaboration, and role modeling. These skills enable

school heads to analyze complex situations, consider multiple perspectives, and

make informed decisions that align with the school's goals. They also promote a

culture of intellectual curiosity and open-mindedness within the school

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community, leading to continuous improvement and success. It equips them with

the ability to question assumptions, evaluate evidence, and identify biases. It also

fosters analytical thinking and reasoning, enabling them to approach problems

from multiple perspectives. It also enhances their ability to evaluate the credibility,

reliability, and validity of information sources, and promotes a culture of inquiry.

Finally, it includes an awareness of ethical considerations, allowing school heads

to make ethical decisions that benefit students, teachers, and the broader school

community.

Teachers.Critical thinking skills are important for teachers as they enhance

instructional effectiveness, promote student-centered learning, facilitate effective

assessment, nurture independent inquiry, foster creativity and innovation,

address biases, and support continuous professional development. These skills

empower teachers to create engaging learning experiences that foster critical

thinking in students and prepare them for a rapidly evolving world.

Students. Critical thinking skills are highly significant to students as they

enhance academic performance, foster independent thinking, develop problem-

solving and decision-making abilities, navigate the information age, promote

creativity and innovation, improve communication skills, and prepare students for

future success. These skills empower students to become active, engaged

learners and equip them with the tools needed to thrive in various aspects of their

lives. This study would help the students improve their ability to evaluate

information, assess evidence, and make sound judgments. Furthermore, it can

help students will be better equipped to assess the claims of others.

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Future Researchers. Critical thinking skills are highly significant for future

researchers as they facilitate rigorous inquiry, data analysis, problem

identification, literature review, ethical considerations, innovative problem-solving,

and effective communication of research findings. These skills ensure the quality,

validity, and ethical conduct of research, while also promoting innovation and the

advancement of knowledge in various fields. Developing critical thinking skills

can help individuals become more informed, discerning, and thoughtful

consumers of information. This can help them make better decisions in their

personal and professional lives, and avoid being misled or deceived by false or

misleading information.

Delimitation of the Study

This study focuses on understanding how Grade 11 students at Tagum

National Trade School employ critical thinking. It aims to investigate the

limitations and scope of their critical mindset and their experiences. The study

acknowledges that there are multiple ways for students to cultivate their critical

thinking abilities and enhance their mindset. By conducting this research, the

study aims to contribute to addressing the historical challenge of critical thinking

in education.

This study involved a group of 22 senior high school students who are

currently enrolled at Tagum National Trade School. These students are in Grade

11 and possess sufficient knowledge and qualifications to participate in our

research. This research aims to understand the factors influencing critical

thinking in students. It focuses on various aspects, including educational

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background, cultural influences, individual traits, and teaching methods. The

effectiveness of different educational interventions is explored, along with the

cognitive processes involved in critical thinking, such as information evaluation,

bias identification, evidence-based reasoning, and argument analysis.

Definition of Terms

In this section the definition of terms is introduced, these definitions serve as

foundational building blocks that contribute to the overall clarity and coherence of

the study.

Critical Thinking. a mental process of information analysis or evaluation,

particularly Remarks or claims that are made as factual Criticism can be

characterized as a gradual Progression from the simple to the more

complicated .(Mendelman, 2007,).

Senior High School. refers to Grades 11 and 12, the last two years of the K

to 12 Basic Education Program. In SHS, students are required to go through a

core curriculum and subjects under a track of their choice. (DepEd, Memo no.76

in 2016).

Independent Mind. Individuals who are independent minded are inclined to

decide for them attributes selves what to believe and do rather than simply

accept things because others Say they should. (The Critical Thinking Consortium

2009).

Scope and Boundaries. The scope of a study refers to the specific aspects

or elements that will be covered, while the boundaries set limitations or

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constraints on the research. The scope defines what will be included in the study,

while the boundaries establish the parameters within which the research will be

conducted. These parameters can include factors such as the population, sample

size, time frame, resources, or research methods. The scope and boundaries

help ensure that the study remains focused and manageable within its defined

parameters.(SkillMaker, 2016).

Critical Thinking Skills. Critical thinking skills refer to the ability to analyze,

evaluate, and interpret information objectively and independently. They involve

the capacity to assess arguments, recognize logical fallacies, weigh evidence,

and form well-reasoned judgments. Critical thinking skills enable individuals to

think critically, ask thoughtful questions, and approach problems and situations

with a rational and analytical mindset.(Paul & Elder, 2012).

Organization of the Study

In this section, the organization involves arranging various topics within

each chapter.

Chapter 1. This chapter introduces the general question of the research,

the background of the study, research questions, related literature, theoretical

framework, and significance of the study, scope and delimitation, definition of

terms, organization of the study.

Chapter 2. This chapter discuss the methodology of the study, this includes

the research design, research participants, and role of the researchers, data
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sources, data collection procedures, trustworthiness and credibility, ethical

consideration and the data analysis of the research.

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Chapter 2

METHODOLOGY

This section outlines the methodology of the research, including the

research design, participants, researchers' roles, data sources, data collection

procedure, study's trustworthiness, ethical considerations, and data analysis.

Additionally, it provides details regarding the data collection procedures utilized in

this study.

Research Design

This qualitative study will use phenomenological approach. Since the study is all

about the exploration of the scope and boundaries of students critical thinking

skills, the researchers selected the phenomenological technique helps us

understand what it is like to experience a specific situation or life event. By

describing the stories of people who actually lived through a particular

experience and their perceptions of it, your research can cut to the heart of what

it was truly like.(Creswell, 2013)

The sample for this study will be concentrated on participants who are

knowledgeable enough to take part and firsthand experience with the subject.

Qualitative research is concerned with participants' own experiences of a life

event, and the aim is to interpret what participants have said in order to explain

why they have said it. (Austin, et. al, 2014).

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Qualitative research involves the studied use and collection of a variety of

empirical materials – case study, personal experience, introspective, life story,

interview, observational, historical, interaction, and visual texts – that describe

routine and problematic moments and meanings in individuals’ lives. (Lincoln, et

al, 2005).

Qualitative research can be defined as the study of the nature of phenomena

and is especially appropriate for answering questions of why something is (not)

observed, assessing complex multi-component interventions, and focusing on

improvement. (Busetto, et. al, 2020).

Aims to explore the behaviour, perspectives, feelings and experiences of the

people and what lies at the core of their lives.Is used to gain an understanding of

underlying reasons, opinions and motivations, and dive deeper into the problem.

(Shomron, 2022).

The qualitative method of phenomenology provides a theoretical tool for

educational research as it allows researchers to engage in flexible activities that

can describe and help to understand complex phenomena, such as various

aspects of human social experience. This article explains how to apply the

framework of phenomenological qualitative analysis to educational research. The

discussion within this article is relevant to those researchers interested in doing

cross-cultural qualitative research and in adapting phenomenological

investigations to understand students’ cross-cultural lived experiences in different

social educational contexts.

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Phenomenological research design is especially useful for topics in which

the researcher needs to go deep into the audience’s thoughts, feelings, and

experiences. It’s a valuable tool to gain audience insights, generate awareness

about the item being studied, and develop new theories about audience

experience in a specific, controlled situation.(Dovetail, 2023)

A phenomenological study design includes systematic steps in the data

analysis procedures, including identifying a phenomenon to study, interviewing

participants, highlighting common themes, and publishing work. The design

research should work to bracket themself off from the study to not insert any bias

into the interpretation of results or interactions with participants.(Mckoy & Boyd,

2023)

Phenomenology also focuses on humans as embodied beings, meaning

they experience life through their physical bodies. Phenomenologists want to

know what the experience was like to live it, not just the person’s reaction to the

experience (Munhall, 2007). In addition to philosophy, phenomenology as a

research method is used in psychology, education, and in health care. (Connelly,

2010).

Research Participants

Twenty-two (22) senior high school students' enrolled at Tagum National

Trade School was the participant of this study. These students' are Grade 11

student and are knowledgeable enough to be a participant of our study, we

conducted this study in purposive sampling so that we can handpick subject to

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suit in our research and conduct our research in different section and Technical-

Vocational courses. All of 22 participants was subjective to 11 participants will

participate in-depth interview and 11 participants will participate focus group

discussion.

To ensure participants' knowledge is sufficient for a study, researchers can

use screening criteria, pre-assessments, background information, interviews or

discussions, and references or recommendations. These methods help gauge

participants' qualifications and understanding of the research topic.(Cresswell,

2018).

Qualitative analyses typically require a smaller sample size the quantitative

analyses. Qualitative sample sizes should be large enough to obtain feedback for

most or all perceptions. Obtaining most or all of the perceptions will lead to the

attainment of saturation. Phenomenological studies, Creswell (1998)

recommends five to 25. Qualitative sample size may best be determined by the

time allotted, resources available, and study objectives (Patton, 1990).

Role of the Researchers

To ensure the production of high-quality results and obtain valid and reliable

data, the researchers were assigned the following roles:

Interviewer. The researchers themselves acted as interviewers, aiming to

access the thoughts and experiences of the participants in order to gather data

for the study. They prepared sub-questions for the interviews and were

responsible for collecting the data

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Encoder. The encoder's task was to transform the collected information into

a computer-readable format by using words or symbols. They converted the data

into a structured set of letters, characters, or symbols.

Transcriber. Researchers in the role of transcribers listened to the recorded

interviews and meticulously transcribed the spoken content into a written

transcript, capturing the dialogue verbatim.

Analyst. The analysts were responsible for gathering and analyzing data

from various databases and sources. They summarized and interpreted the data

provided by the participants, deriving meaningful insights from the collected

information.

Anonymity. Regarding participant confidentiality and risk avoidance, the

researchers prioritized anonymity. To protect the privacy of the research

participants, pseudonyms were assigned to them, ensuring their identities

remained undisclosed.

Data Sources

The type of data requested is dictated by the research topic, and the

researcher must best match the data to the question or decide whether

secondary data collection is necessary. This chapter examines data source

selection concerns for the study on the scope and limitations of critical thinking

skill among students. The availability of critical variables to properly define an

analytic cohort and identify exposures, outcomes, covariates, and confounders is

an important factor when selecting data. (Kornegay C, Segal JB.,2013).

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The material for this investigation came primarily from an in-depth interview

for a phenomenological research for the exploration of the scope and limitation of

criritcal thinking among students. These methods of data collection enable the

researchers to follow up with further probing inquiries, which can result in richer

data. The main benefit of in-depth interviews is that they give significantly more

extensive information than what can be obtained from other data gathering

techniques (Harell and Bradley., 2009).

Data Collection Procedure

Motivated by the researchers' aim to obtain accurate and dependable data,

the following steps were carried out.

Initially, a request letter was drafted and addressed to the school principal,

seeking permission to conduct the study within the premises of Tagum National

Trade School. Upon receiving approval, the researchers proceeded to distribute

the letters to the participants and their respective advisors. Once the participants

were confirmed, the next step involved formulating the research instrument. The

questions in the instrument were carefully crafted to directly relate to the scope

and limitation of critical thinking skills among students. Following the formulation

of the research instrument, it was necessary to validate it in order to improve its

quality. In-depth interviews were then conducted to gain deeper insights from the

participants. Lastly, the data collected was analyzed, summarizing the

information and interpreting it to derive the study's results.

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Trustworthiness of the Study

To establish trustworthiness in a research study designed by a single

researcher, it is important to incorporate various criteria. These criteria,

influenced by Guba's (1981) suggestions for qualitative researchers aiming to

achieve a trustworthy study, include dependability, credibility, transferability, and

confirmability. Moreover, the research design draws upon the utilization of criteria

employed in previous studies, such as Mafumiko's (2006) thesis on curriculum

redesign and Squire's (2004) thesis on game-based learning, to enhance

reliability and trustworthiness in the study.

Dependability, which is interconnected with credibility and confirmability

(Lincoln & Guba, 1985), plays a crucial role in research. Shenton (2004)

suggests that dependability can be established by obtaining similar results if the

study were replicated in the same context, using the same methods and

participants. Therefore, it is important to draw upon existing research on similar

studies at each stage of the study. Furthermore, to ensure consistency and

minimize researcher bias, it is recommended to repeat the phases of the

investigation in various relevant areas, preventing premature closure (Lincoln &

Guba, 1985).

Reliability, additionally, ensuring the reliability of the research instruments is

paramount. Repeating the use of survey instruments, as emphasized by Leedy &

Ellis Ormrod (2005) and Punch (1998), helps determine the reliability of the

methods employed. This replication testing should be feasible and contribute to

enhancing the reliability of the research approach.

 26

Credibility plays a significant role in establishing the trustworthiness of a

design research study. According to Shenton (2004), credibility is achieved by

ensuring that the study effectively measures or tests what it intends to measure.

The concept of credibility is often used interchangeably with internal validity, and

Lincoln and Guba (1985) propose five strategies to enhance credibility:

prolonged engagement, persistent observation, triangulation, peer debriefing,

and negative case analysis. These approaches contribute to bolstering the

credibility of the study.

Transferability refers to the degree to which the findings of one study can

be applied to another context (Shenton, 2004). According to Lincoln and Guba

(1985), it is the responsibility of the researcher to provide sufficient contextual

information about the research sites, enabling readers to assess the potential

transferability of the findings. In the results section, Grade 11 students should

include this information to clearly outline the boundaries of their study and

facilitate an understanding of the transferability of their findings.

Confirmability, as described by Shenton (2004), is akin to the qualitative

investigator's pursuit of objectivity. It involves taking steps to ensure that the

research.

Ethical Consideration

It is important that researchers take time to consider any possible ethical

issues which could arise throughout the life cycle of their research. Researchers

should start to think about the ethical challenges which may arise within a project
 27

at the earliest possible opportunity. However, no matter what stage you may be

at in your research, it is always sensible to consider and discuss possible ethical

issues that could arise. This applies if you are thinking about starting a new

project, in the process of designing your study, or even if you have started to

collect or analyse your data.

Many of the ethical considerations associated with qualitative research

approaches are similar to those in quantitative approaches. This includes

confidentiality and privacy, and concerns regarding reproducibility and research

quality. Confidentiality and privacy, reproducibility, and research quality are

crucial considerations in research. Confidentiality and privacy involve protecting

participants' personal information. Reproducibility refers to the ability to replicate

findings, ensuring the reliability of research. Research quality encompasses

rigorous design, data collection, analysis, and accurate reporting. Adhering to

ethical guidelines and best practices in these areas ensures the integrity and

credibility of research. It is important to consider possible ethical issues when

undertaking qualitative research as the interpretation of the data and the

conclusions are more subjective. This can make the reproducibility of the data

more difficult to maintain.

General ethical principles for research and statistics. To help researchers

navigate the ethical issues that arise from their work, the UK Statistics Authority

has developed a set of six ethical principles. At a basic level, these principles

focus on ensuring the public good of research and statistics, maintaining

confidentiality of data, understanding the potential risks and limitations in new

 28

research methods and technologies, compliance with legal requirements,

considering public acceptability of the project, and transparency in the collection,

use and sharing of data.

When conducting qualitative research, it’s important to keep in mind the

ethical considerations that come with it. These ethical considerations can be

tricky to navigate. Taking them seriously is crucial to ensure that we conduct our

research in an ethical and responsible manner.

Informed Consent. One of the most important ethical considerations in

qualitative research is informed consent. This means that participants must be

fully informed about the research and participation must be voluntary. This

includes informing them of the purpose of the study, the methods that will be

used, and any potential risks or benefits. It’s also important to ensure that

participants have the right to withdraw from the study at any time

The ethical principles that guide a scientific research are based on the

assurance of human freedom and dignity. They are expressed in ethical codes

and guidelines used by Research Ethics Committees (RECs), which are the

instances that regulate research conducted with human beings. The purpose of

these regulations is to protect participants and ensure research ethicality along

its entire development. However, a number of unexpected situations may arise

during a qualitative research, which require making decisions that are not

comprised within the basic ethical principles. Qualitative research is a dynamic

process and unpredictable events can occur; thus, it is crucial that the researcher

is able to foresee possible hindrances and prevent them from happening. As a

 29

consequence, ethical codes and norms do not always suffice for the solution of

problems that appear in the research practice. Many emergency dilemmas arise

within a given context and therefore require situational solutions, always keeping

in mind primarily the participants’ needs.

The ethical integrity of the research is under the responsibility of the

researcher and is undissociated from its scientific quality. If ethics fails, there is

no quality in data and vice-versa. Ethical issues are present in the entire

trajectory, from the selection of the object, going on to the definition of the

theoretical bases, objectives, methodological framework, and continuing into the

interpretation and dissemination of outcomes, whether to the researched persons,

scientific community, managers or the entire society.

Data Analysis

Thematic analysis is a method of analyzing qualitative data. It is usually

applied to a set of texts, such as an interview or transcripts. The researcher

closely examines the data to identify common themes – topics, ideas and

patterns of meaning that come up repeatedly. (Caulifield, 2019).

Familiarization. Gain a comprehensive understanding of the collected data

before analyzing individual items.

Coding. Identify and label sections of the text with shorthand codes to

represent their content. This may involve transcribing audio, taking initial notes,

and becoming familiar with the data.

 30

Generating themes. Identify patterns and commonalities among the codes to

develop initial themes.

Reviewing themes. Ensure the themes accurately represent the data by

comparing them against the data set. Adjust and refine themes as needed.

Defining and naming themes. Clearly define each theme and articulate its

significance in understanding the data. Give each theme a concise and easily

understandable name.

Writing up. Compile a thorough analysis of the data, following academic

conventions. Include an introduction that establishes the research question, aims,

and approach.We should also include a methodology section, describing how we

collected the data (e.g. through semi-structured interviews or open-ended survey

questions) and explaining how we conducted the thematic analysis itself.

The results or findings section usually addresses each theme in turn. We

describe how often the themes come up and what they mean, including

examples from the data as evidence. Finally, our conclusion explains the main

takeaways and shows how the analysis has answered our research question.
 31

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