LESSON 2.

0 – MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE & SYMBOLS

(Part 2 – Language of Sets)

Class Comment
This is the second part of video presentation of Lesson 2: Mathematical Language and Symbols which concentrates on the
concept of sets as a language with its own symbols, notations, and basic operations.

2.2 The Language of Sets with its own symbols and notations

The use of the word set as a formal mathematical term was introduced in 1879 by Georg Cantor (1845-1918). For most
mathematical purposes, we can think of a set intuitively, as Cantor did, simply as a collection of elements.

The concept of a set is one of the most fundamental in mathematics. It was Georg Cantor (1845-1918) who formally introduced
the word set as a formal mathematical term. Fully developed at the end of the 19th century, the theory of sets is now a universal
part of mathematics, and can be used as a foundation from which nearly all of mathematics can be derived.

Now we can ask ourselves … Why are sets so important?

Sets are the fundamental property of mathematics. Now as a word of warning, sets, by themselves, seem pretty pointless. But it's
only when we apply sets in different situations do they become the powerful building block of mathematics that they are.

As one expert puts it … Mathematics can get amazingly complicated. Think of Graph Theory, Abstract Algebra, Real Analysis,
Complex Analysis, Linear Algebra, Number Theory, and the list goes on and on. But there is one thing that all of these share in
common: and that is … Sets.

In mathematics, a set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects, considered as an object in its own right. Sets can be denoted
using capital English letters A, B, C. They may be denoted by placing its objects between a pair of curly braces. For example, the
numbers 2, 4, and 6 are distinct objects when considered separately; and when considered collectively, they form a single set of
size three, and can be written as set B = {2, 4, 6}, which could also be written as {2, 6, 4}, {4, 2, 6}, {4, 6, 2}, {6, 2, 4} or {6, 4, 2}.
Take note that arrangement of the objects in a set does not matter.

Notation
If S is a set, the notation x  S means that x is an element of S. The notation x  S means that x is not an element of S.
Now let us take a look at the second bullet in the slide. If S is a set and x is one of the objects of S, this is denoted by symbols x
epsilon capital S (“x ∈ S”), and is read as "x is an element of S", also can be read as "x belongs to S", or "x is in S". However, if x
is not a member of S then this is written with symbols x epsilon slashed capital S (“x ∉ S”), read as "x is not an element of S", or
"x is not in S". A variation of the notation is sometimes used to describe a very large set, as when we write C = {1, 2, 3,… , 100} to
refer to the set of all integers from 1 to 100. A similar notation can also describe an infinite set, as when we write D = {1, 2, 3, …}
[and can be read as “D equals 1, 2, 3 and followed by three dots”] to refer to the set of all positive integers. The symbol … [read
as ‘three dots’] is called an ellipsis and is read “and so forth.”

There are two common ways of describing or specifying the members of a set. They are roster notation and rule or defining property
method.

Ways of Describing a Set

1. The Roster or Tabulation Method (also known as Set-Roster Notation) lists the elements and encloses them in braces.
Examples are given in the slide …
M = {m, i, s, p} = {i, m, p, s} = {s, m, i, p}
G = {11, 6, 6} identical to H = {11, 6}

In roster notation, the order in which the elements of a set are listed is irrelevant. Thus, M = {m, i, s, p} = {i, m, p, s} = {s, m,
i, p}. Moreover, listing a member repeatedly does not change the set, for example, the set G = {11, 6, 6} is identical to the
set H = {11, 6}.

2. The Rule or Defining Property Method uses descriptive phrases in braces.

M = {distinct letters in “Mississippi”}
F = {n | n is an integer, and 0 ≤ n ≤ 19} – this type of describing a set is also known as set-builder notation

On the other hand, the Rule or Defining Property Method uses descriptive phrases in braces.
For example, M is a set of distinct letter in “Mississippi”.

Definition: Set-Builder Notation

As can be seen in the slide, in set-builder notation, the set is specified as a selection from a larger set, determined by a
condition involving the elements. For example, a set F can be specified as follows: F = {n | n is an integer, and 0 ≤ n ≤ 19}

In this notation, the vertical bar ("|") means "such that", and the description can be interpreted as "F is the set of all numbers
n, such that n is an integer in the range from 0 to 19 inclusive".

Examples

1. Using the set-roster notation:

a. Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {3, 1, 2}, and C = {1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 3}. What are the elements of A, B, and C? How are A, B, and C related?
b. Is {0} = 0?
c. How many elements are in the set {1, {1}}?
d. For each nonnegative integer n, let Un = {n, -n}. Find U1, U2, and U0?

Solution:
Using the set-roster notation:
a. A, B, and C have exactly the same three elements: 1, 2, and 3. Therefore, A, B, and C are simply different ways to represent
the same set.
b. {0}  0 because {0} is a set with one element, namely 0, whereas 0 is just the symbol that represents the number zero.
c. The set {1, {1}} has two elements: 1 and the set whose only element is 1.
d. U1 = {1, -1}, U2 = {2, -2}, and U0 = {0, 0} = {0}.
2. Using the set-builder notation: Given that R denotes the set of all real numbers, Z the set of all integers, and Z + the set of all
positive integers, describe each of the following sets.
a. {x  R | -2 < x < 5}
b. {x  Z | -2 < x < 5}
c. {x  Z+ | -2 < x < 5}

Solution:
a. {x  R | -2 < x < 5} is the open interval of real numbers (strictly) between -2 and 5. It is pictured as follows:

b. {x  Z | -2 < x < 5} is the set of all integers (strictly) between -2 and 5. It is equal to the set {-1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}.
c. Since all the integers in Z+ are positive, {x  Z+ | -2 < x < 5} = {1, 2, 3, 4}.

Certain sets of numbers are so frequently referred to that they are given special symbolic names. These are summarized in the
table below.

Symbol Set
R Set of all real numbers
Z Set of all integers
Q Set of all rational numbers, or quotients of integers
R+ Set of positive real numbers
Z nonneg Set of nonnegative integers: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and so forth
N Set of nonnegative integers as the set of natural numbers

Certain sets of numbers are so frequently referred to that they are given special symbolic names. These are summarized in the
table shown in the slide.

Addition of a superscript + or – or the letters nonneg indicates that only the positive or negative or nonnegative elements of the
set, respectively, are to be included. Thus, R+ denotes the set of positive real numbers, and Znonneg refers to the set of nonnegative
integers: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and so forth. Some authors refer to the set of nonnegative integers as the set of natural numbers and
denote it N. Other authors call only the positive integers natural numbers or counting numbers.

Definitions.
1. Set is a collection or aggregate of objects of any sort.
2. An element of a set, Є, is an object belonging to the set.
3. Universal set, U, is a set consisting of all elements under consideration.
4. A set A is said to be subset of a set B, A  B, if every element of A is an element of B.
5. A set A is a proper subset of B, A  B, A is a subset of B but B is not a subset of A (i.e., at least one element of B is not
in A).
6. An empty or null set, Ø, is a set with no element.
7. If A is a subset of a universal set, then the complement of A, A’ (read as, ”A prime” or the “complement of A”), is defined
to be the set of elements of universal set which are not in A.
8. Venn diagrams are pictorial representation of sets showing their relations.
9. The cardinal number of a finite set A, n(A), is the unique counting number n such that the elements of A are in one-to-
one correspondence with the elements of the set {counting numbers from 1 to n}.

Examples:

Venn Diagram
 Let L be the universal set
L = {all letters in the alphabet}
P = {distinct letters in “prism”}
M = {distinct letters in “Mississippi”}
M = {m, i, s, p} = {i, m, p, s} = {s, m, i, p}

L is a universal set
a Є L; P  L; M  L
P is a proper subset of L

Let U = P = {p, r, i, s, m} and M = {m, i, s, p}, then M’ = {r}.

n(L) = 26; n(M) = 4; n(F) = 4; n(P) = 5

The following are other important terms often encountered when discussing sets and set notations. First, we have universal set
which is referred to as a set consisting of all elements under consideration. Then, a set A is said to be a subset of B if every
element of A is an element of B. However, if A is a subset of B but B is not a subset of A, that is, at least one element of B is not
in A, then set A is considered a proper subset of B. An empty set, on the other hand, is a set with no element.

Furthermore, if A is a subset of a universal set, then the complement of A, A’ (read as, ”A prime”), is defined to be the set of
elements of universal set which are not in A. The pictorial representation of sets showing their relation is called a Venn diagram.
And finally, the cardinal number of a finite set A, n(A), is the unique counting number n such that the elements of A are in one-
to-one correspondence with the elements of the set.
To further understand the terminologies just defined, let us consider the Venn diagram in the slide.

It is given that set L is the universal set and we can define in details the sets in the Venn diagram as …

Set L = {all letters in the alphabet}

P = {distinct letters in “prism”}
M = {distinct letters in “Mississippi”} which could have elements, in the order, m, i, s, p and these elements can be jumbled
to elements i, m, p, s or elements s, m, i, p
M = {m, i, s, p} = {i, m, p, s} = {s, m, i, p}

From the slide, we could also deduce that …

L is a universal set
a Є L; P  L; M  L
a is an element of L; and P as a proper subset of L as well as M is also a proper subset of L
Meanwhile, if we consider P with elements p, r, i, s, m as our universal set and set M with elements m, i, s, p, we could conclude
then that the complement of M or M prime will have an element r. Furthermore, the cardinal number of P is 5; the cardinal number
of M is 4; the cardinal number of M complement is one.

Let U = P = {p, r, i, s, m} and M = {m, i, s, p}, then M’ = {r}.

n(L) = 26; n(M) = 4; n(F) = 4; n(P) = 5

Examples: Subsets

Let A = Z+, B = {n  Z | 0 ≤ n ≤ 100}, and C = {100, 200, 300, 400, 500}. Evaluate the truth and falsity of each of the following
statements.
a. B  A
b. C is a proper subset of A
c. C and B have at least one element in common
d. C  B
e. C  C

Solution:
a. False. Zero is not a positive integer. Thus, zero is in B but zero is not in A, and so B  A.
 b. True. Each element in C is a positive integer, and hence, is in a, but there are elements in A that are not in C. for instance,
1 is in A and not in C.
c. True. For example, 100 is in both C and B
d. False. For example, 200 is in C but not in B.
e. True. Every element in C is in C. In general, the definition of subset implies that all sets are subsets of themselves.

Kind of Sets

1. Finite sets are sets whose elements can be written down in a complete list.
2. Infinite sets are sets with infinite number of elements.
3. Equal sets are two or more sets with precisely the same elements. If A=B and B=A, then A = B.
4. Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent (or the same), ↔, if there is one-to-one correspondence between their
elements. A one-to-one correspondence exists between two sets A and B if it is possible to associate the elements of
A with the elements of B in such a way that each element of each set is associated with exactly one element of the other.
5. Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if they have no elements in common.

6. The power set of A, denoted by P(A), is the set whose elements are all subsets of A. Let A = {a, b, c}, then P(A) = {Ø,
{a}, {b}, {c}, {a,b}, {a,c}, {b,c}, {a,b,c}}.

The slide shows different kind of sets … The first two bullets show two contrasting types of sets … finite sets are those whose
elements can be written down in a complete list whereas infinite sets, otherwise, can’t be enumerated. On the other hand, equal
sets are two or more sets with precisely the same elements. Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent if there is one-to-one
correspondence between their elements. A one-to-one correspondence exists between two sets A and B if it is possible to
associate the elements of A with the elements of B in such a way that each element of each set is associated with exactly one
element of the other.

Meanwhile, two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if they have no elements in common. Finally, the power set of A, denoted by
P(A), is the set whose elements are all subsets of A.

Operations on Sets
 1. The union of two sets A and B, A U B, is defined to be the set of elements that belong to A or to B, i.e., A U B = {x | x Є
A or x Є B}.

a. The operation of set union is commutative, i.e., A U B = B U A.

b. For any finite sets A and B, the counting formula is
n(A U B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B).
2. The difference of sets A and B, A – B, is the set of elements which belong to A but not to B, i.e., A – B = {x | x Є A but
x Є B}.
3. The intersection of two sets A and B, A ∩ B, is defined to be the set of all elements that belong to both A and B. A ∩
B = {x | x Є A and x Є B}.

The operation of set intersection is commutative, A ∩ B = B ∩ A.

4. The set product or Cartesian product of two sets A and B, A x B, is the set of all possible ordered pairs (a, b) where
a is in A and b is in B, i.e., A x B = {(a, b) | a Є A, b Є B}. Let C = {1, 2} and D = {x, y}, then C x D = {(1, x), (1, y), (2, x),
(2, y)}. The operation of set product is not commutative, i.e., C x D ≠ D x C.

In the slide, we could see the different operations on sets. The first of which is the union of two sets which is defined as the set
of elements that belong both to the two sets. Since "union" means "anything that is in either set", the union will be everything from
A plus everything in B. This operation is commutative, that is, A U B = B U A.

On the other hand, the difference of sets A and B is the set of elements which belong to A but not to B whereas the intersection
of two sets is defined to be the set of all elements that belong to both sets which is also commutative like the union operation, that
is, A ∩ B = B ∩ A.

Meanwhile, the set product or Cartesian product of two sets A and B is the set of all possible ordered pairs (a, b) where a is in
A and b is in B. in other words, a new set can be constructed by associating every element of one set with every element of another
set. The Cartesian product of two sets A and B, denoted by A × B, is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) such that a is a member of
set A and b is a member of set B. This particular operation is considered not commutative, that is, A x B ≠ B x A.

1. The union of two sets A and B, A U B, is defined to be the set of elements that belong to A or to B, i.e., A U B = {x | x Є
A or x Є B}.
 a. The operation of set union is commutative, i.e., A U B = B U A.
b. For any finite sets A and B, the counting formula is
n(A U B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B).
2. The difference of sets A and B, A – B, is the set of elements which belong to A but not to B, i.e., A – B = {x | x Є A but
x Є B}.
3. The intersection of two sets A and B, A ∩ B, is defined to be the set of all elements that belong to both A and B. A ∩
B = {x | x Є A and x Є B}.

The operation of set intersection is commutative, A ∩ B = B ∩ A.

4. The set product or Cartesian product of two sets A and B, A x B, is the set of all possible ordered pairs (a, b) where
a is in A and b is in B, i.e., A x B = {(a, b) | a Є A, b Є B}. Let C = {1, 2} and D = {x, y}, then C x D = {(1, x), (1, y), (2, x),
(2, y)}. The operation of set product is not commutative, i.e., C x D ≠ D x C.

Ordered Pair
Given elements a and b, the symbol [open parenthesis a comma b close parenthesis] (a, b) denotes the ordered pair consisting
of a and b together with the specification that a is the first element of the pair and b is the second element.

Furthermore, this entity subscribes to the validity of the statement that two ordered pairs (a, b) and (c, d) are equal if, and only if,
a = c and b = d. Symbolically, an ordered pair of (a, b) = an ordered pair (c, d) means that first elements a = c and second elements
b = d.

Examples: Cartesian Products (Set Product)

Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {u, v}.

a. Find A x B.
b. Find B x A.
c. Find B x B.
d. How many elements are in A x B, B x A, and B x B?
e. Let R denote the set of all real numbers. Describe R x R.

Solution:
a. A x B = {(1, u), (1, v), (2, u), (2, v), (3, u), (3, v)}
b. B x A = {(u, 1), (u, 2), (u, 3), (v, 1), (v, 2), (v, 3)}
c. B x B = {(u, u), (u, v), (v, u), (v, v)}
d. A x B has six elements. Note that this is the number of elements in A times the number of elements in B. B x A has six
elements, the number of elements in B times the number of elements in A. B x B has four elements, the number of elements
in B times the number of elements in B.
e. R x R is the set of all ordered pairs (x, y) where both x and y are real numbers. If horizontal and vertical axes are drawn on a
plane and a unit length is marked off, then each ordered pair is R x R correspondents to a unique point in the plane, with the
first and second elements of the pair indicating, respectively, the horizontal and vertical positions of the point. The term
Cartesian plane is often used to refer to a plane with this coordinate system.
 Let us now apply Cartesian product to sets A and B. In the exercise in our slide, we are asked to find A x B, B x A, and B x B.
For A x B, the result is a set of the following ordered pairs of numbers - {(1, u), (1, v), (2, u), (2, v), (3, u), (3, v)}. For B x A, the
result is a set with ordered pairs {(u, 1), (u, 2), (u, 3), (v, 1), (v, 2), (v, 3)}. And for B x B, the result is a set with ordered pairs {(u,
u), (u, v), (v, u), (v, v)}.

As for letter (d) question, how many elements are in A x B, B x A, and B x B?

A x B has six elements. Note that this is the number of elements in A times the number of elements in B. B x A has six elements,
the number of elements in B times the number of elements in A. B x B has four elements, the number of elements in B times the
number of elements in B.

Finally, for letter (e), we are given this statement - let R denote the set of all real numbers. Describe R x R.

R x R is the set of all ordered pairs (x, y) where both x and y are real numbers. If horizontal and vertical axes are drawn on a plane
and a unit length is marked off, then each ordered pair is R x R correspondents to a unique point in the plane, with the first and
second elements of the pair indicating, respectively, the horizontal and vertical positions of the point. The term Cartesian plane is
often used to refer to a plane with this coordinate system.