FURTHER MATHEMATICS NOTE FOR FIRST TERM

2020/2021 SESSION
CLASS: SS 1
WEEK 1 & 2

TOPIC: SET THEORY

The set theory was developed by George Cantor in 1845-1918. Today, it is used in
almost every branch of mathematics and serves as a fundamental part of presentday
mathematics.

In set theory we will learn about representation in roster form and set builder form
, types of sets (Empty set, singleton set, finite and infinite sets, equal and
equivalent sets), cardinal number of a set, subsets (Proper subset, super set, power
set), number of proper subsets, universal set, operation on sets (Union, intersection,
difference and complement of sets).

In everyday life, we often talk of the collection of objects such as a bunch of keys,
flock of birds, pack of cards, etc. In mathematics, we come across collections like
natural numbers, whole numbers, prime and composite numbers.

Let us examine the following collections:

● Even natural numbers less than 20, i.e., 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18.

● Vowels in the English alphabet, i.e., a, e, i, o, u.

● Prime factors of 30 i.e. 2, 3, 5.

● Triangles on the basis of sides, i.e., equilateral, isosceles and scalene.

We observe that these examples are well-defined collections of objects.

Let us examine some more collections.

● Five most renowned scientists of the world.

● Seven most beautiful girls in a society.

● Three best surgeons in America.

These examples are not well-defined collections of objects because the criterion for
determining as most renowned, most beautiful, best, varies from person to person.
Sets:
A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects.

We assume that,

● The word set is synonymous with the word collection, aggregate, class and
comprises of elements.

● Objects, elements and members of a set are synonymous terms.

● Sets are usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C, ....., etc.

● Elements of the set are represented by small letters a, b, c, ....., etc.

If ‘a’ is an element of set A, then we say that ‘a’ belongs to A. We denote the
phrase ‘belongs to’ by the Greek symbol ‘∈‘ (epsilon). Thus, we say that a ∈ A.

If ‘b’ is an element which does not belong to A, we represent this as b ∉ A.

Some important sets used in mathematics are
N: the set of all natural numbers = {1, 2, 3, 4, .....}

Z: the set of all integers = {....., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, .....}

Q: the set of all rational numbers

R: the set of all real numbers

Z+: the set of all positive integers

W: the set of all whole numbers

Representation of a Set

In representation of a set the following three methods are commonly used:

(i) Statement form method
(ii) Roster or tabular form method (iii) Rule or set
builder form method

1. Statement form:
In this, well-defined description of the elements of the set is given and the same are
enclosed in curly brackets.

For example:
(i) The set of odd numbers less than 7 is written as: {odd numbers less than 7}.

(ii) A set of football players with ages between 22 years to 30 years.

(iii) A set of numbers greater than 30 and smaller than 55.
(iv) A set of students in class VII whose weights are more than your weight.
2. Roster form or tabular form:
In this, elements of the set are listed within the pair of brackets { } and are
separated by commas.

For example:
(i) Let N denote the set of first five natural numbers.
Therefore, N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} → Roster Form

(ii) The set of all vowels of the English alphabet.

Therefore, V = {a, e, i, o, u} → Roster Form
(iii) The set of all odd numbers less than 9.
Therefore, X = {1, 3, 5, 7} → Roster Form

(iv) The set of all natural number which divide 12.

Therefore, Y = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12} → Roster Form
(v) The set of all letters in the word MATHEMATICS. Therefore, Z = {M, A, T,
H, E, I, C, S} → Roster Form (vi) W is the set of last four months of the
year.

Therefore, W = {September, October, November, December} → Roster Form

Note:
The order in which elements are listed is immaterial but elements must not be
repeated.

3. Set builder form:

In this, a rule, or the formula or the statement is written within the pair of brackets
so that the set is well defined. In the set builder form, all the elements of the set,
must possess a single property to become the member of that set.

In this form of representation of a set, the element of the set is described by using a
symbol ‘x’ or any other variable followed by a colon The symbol ‘:‘ or ‘|‘ is used
to denote such that and then we write the property possessed by the elements of the
set and enclose the whole description in braces. In this, the colon stands for ‘such
that’ and braces stand for ‘set of all’.

For example:
(i) Let P is a set of counting numbers greater than 12; the set P in
set-builder form is written as :
P = {x : x is a counting number and greater than 12}
or
 P = {x | x is a counting number and greater than 12}
This will be read as, 'P is the set of elements x such that x is a counting number and
is greater than 12'.

Note:
The symbol ':' or '|' placed between 2 x's stands for such that.
(ii) Let A denote the set of even numbers between 6 and 14. It can
be written in the set builder form as;

A = {x|x is an even number, 6 < x < 14}

or A = {x : x P, 6 < x < 14 and P is an even number}

(iii) If X = {4, 5, 6, 7} . This is expressed in roster form.

Let us express in set builder form.

X = {x : x is a natural number and 3 < x < 8}

(iv) The set A of all odd natural numbers can be written as

A = {x : x is a natural number and x = 2n + 1 for n W} Solved

example using the three methods of representation of a set:
The set of integers lying between -2 and 3.

Statement form: {I is a set of integers lying between -2 and 3}

Roster form: I = {-1, 0, 1, 2}

Set builder form: I = {x : x I, -2 < x < 3}

Types of Sets
What are the different types of sets?
The different types of sets are explained below with examples.
Empty Set or Null Set:

A set which does not contain any element is called an empty set, or the null set or
the void set and it is denoted by ∅ and is read as phi. In roster form, ∅ is denoted
by {}. An empty set is a finite set, since the number of elements in an empty set is
finite, i.e., 0.

For example: (a) The set of whole numbers less than 0.

(b) Clearly there is no whole number less than 0.

Therefore, it is an empty set.

(c) N = {x : x ∈ N, 3 < x < 4}

• Let A = {x : 2 < x < 3, x is a natural number}
Here A is an empty set because there is no natural number between 2
and 3.

• Let B = {x : x is a composite number less than 4}.

Here B is an empty set because there is no composite number less than 4.

Note:
∅ ≠ {0} ∴ has no element.

{0} is a set which has one element 0.

The cardinal number of an empty set, i.e., n(∅) = 0

Singleton Set:
A set which contains only one element is called a singleton set.

For example:
• A = {x : x is neither prime nor composite}

It is a singleton set containing one element, i.e., 1.

• B = {x : x is a whole number, x < 1}

This set contains only one element 0 and is a singleton set.

• Let A = {x : x N and x² = 4}

Here A is a singleton set because there is only one element 2 whose square is 4.

• Let B = {x : x is a even prime number}

Here B is a singleton set because there is only one prime number which is even,
i.e., 2.

Finite Set:
A set which contains a definite number of elements is called a finite set. Empty set
is also called a finite set.

For example:
• The set of all colors in the rainbow.

• N = {x : x N, x < 7}

• P = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, ...... 97}

Infinite Set:

The set whose elements cannot be listed, i.e., set containing never-ending elements
is called an infinite set.

For example:
• Set of all points in a plane

• A = {x : x N, x > 1}

• Set of all prime numbers

• B = {x : x W, x = 2n}

Note:
All infinite sets cannot be expressed in roster form.

For example:
The set of real numbers since the elements of this set do not follow any particular
pattern.

Cardinal Number of a Set:

The number of distinct elements in a given set A is called the cardinal number of
A. It is denoted by n(A).

For example:
• A {x : x N, x < 5}

A = {1, 2, 3, 4}

Therefore, n(A) = 4
• B = set of letters in the word ALGEBRA

B = {A, L, G, E, B, R}

Therefore, n(B) = 6

Equivalent Sets:

Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent if their cardinal number is same, i.e.,
n(A) = n(B). The symbol for denoting an equivalent set is ‘↔’.

For example:
A = {1, 2, 3} Here n(A) = 3

B = {p, q, r} Here n(B) = 3

Therefore, A ↔ B

Equal sets:
Two sets A and B are said to be equal if they contain the same elements. Every
element of A is an element of B and every element of B is an element of A.

For example:
A = {p, q, r, s}

B = {p, s, r, q}

Therefore, A = B

The various types of sets and their definitions are explained above with the help of
examples.
Finite Sets and Infinite Sets

What are the differences between finite sets and infinite sets?

Finite set: A set is said to be a finite set if it is either void set or the process of
counting of elements surely comes to an end is called a finite set.
In a finite set the element can be listed if it has a limited i.e. countable by natural
number 1, 2, 3, ……… and the process of listing terminates at a certain natural
number N.

The number of distinct elements counted in a finite set S is denoted by n(S). The
number of elements of a finite set A is called the order or cardinal number of a set
A and is symbolically denoted by n(A).
Thus, if the set A be that of the English alphabets, then n(A) = 26: For, it contains
26 elements in it. Again if the set A be the vowels of the English alphabets i.e. A =
{a, e, i, o, u} then n(A) = 5.

Note:
The element does not occur more than once in a set.
Infinite set: A set is said to be an infinite set whose elements cannot be listed if it
has an unlimited (i.e. uncountable) by the natural number 1, 2, 3, 4, ………… n,
for any natural number n is called a infinite set.

A set which is not finite is called an infinite set.

Now we will discuss about the examples of finite sets and infinite sets.
Examples of finite set:
1. Let P = {5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30}
Then, P is a finite set and n(P) = 6.
2. Let Q = {natural numbers less than 25} Then, Q is a finite set and
n(P) = 24.
3. Let R = {whole numbers between 5 and 45} Then, R is a finite
set and n(R) = 38.

4. Let S = {x : x ∈ Z and x^2 – 81 = 0} Then, S = {-9, 9} is a finite

set and n(S) = 2.

5. The set of all persons in America is a finite set.

6. The set of all birds in California is a finite set.

Examples of infinite set:

1. Set of all points in a plane is an infinite set.
2. Set of all points in a line segment is an infinite set.
3. Set of all positive integers which is multiple of 3 is an infinite set.

4. W = {0, 1, 2, 3, ……..} i.e. set of all whole numbers is an infinite set.

5. N = {1, 2, 3, ……….} i.e. set of all natural numbers is an infinite set.

6. Z = {……… -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, ……….} i.e. set of all integers is an infinite set.
Power Set

Definition of power set:

We have defined a set as a collection of its elements so, if S is a set then the
collection or family of all subsets of S is called the power set of S and it is denoted
by P(S).

Thus, if S = a, b then the power set of S is given by P(S) = {{a}, {b}, {a, b}, ∅}

We have defined a set as a collection of its elements if the element be sets

themselves, then we have a family of set or set of sets.
Thus, A = {{1}, {1, 2, 3}, {2}, {1, 2}} is a family of sets.
The null set or empty set having no element of its own is an element of the power
set; since, it is a subset of all sets. The set being a subset of itself is also as an
element of the power set.
For example:
1. The collection of all subsets of a non-empty set S is a set of sets. Thus, the
power set of a given set is always non-empty. This set is said to be the power set of
S and is denoted by P(S). If S contains N elements, then P(S) contains 2^n subsets,
because a subset of P(S) is either ∅ or a subset containing r elements of S, r = 1, 2,
3, ……..
Let S = {1, 2, 3} then the power set of S is given by P(S) = {{1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2},
{2, 3}, {1, 3}, ∅, S}.

2. If S = (a), then P(S) = {(a), ∅}; if again S = ∅, then P(S) = {∅}. It should be
notated that ∅ ≠ {∅}. If S = {1, 2, 3} then the subset of S {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1,
3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}, ∅.

Hence, P(S) = {{1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}, ∅}.

3. We know, since a set formed of all the subset of a set M as its elements is
called a power set of M and is symbolically denoted by P(M). So, if M is a void set
∅, then P(M) has just one element ∅ then the power set of M is given by P(M) =
{∅}

Union of Sets
The union of two or more sets is a set which contains all the elements in those sets.
Solved problems on union of sets:
1. Let A = {x : x is a natural number and a factor of 18} and B = {x : x is a natural
number and less than 6}. Find A ∪ B.

Solution:

A = {1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18}
B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Therefore, A B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 18}
2. Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8} and C = {1, 3, 5, 7}
Verify (A B) C=A (B C) Solution:

(A B) C=A (B C)

L.H.S. = (A B) C

A B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8}

(A B) C = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} ……………….. (1)

R.H.S. = A (B C)

B C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}

A (B C) = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} ……………….. (2)

Therefore, from (1) and (2), we conclude that;

(A B) C=A (B C) [verified]

More worked-out problems on union of sets to find the union of three sets.
3. Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Y = {2, 3, 5} and Z = {4, 5, 6}.

(i) Verify X Y=Y X

(ii) Verify (X Y) Z=X (Y Z)

Solution:

(i) X Y=Y X
L.H.S = X Y
= {1, 2, 3, 4} {2, 3, 4} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

R.H.S. = Y X

= {2, 3, 5} U {1, 2, 3, 4} = {2, 3, 5, 1, 4}

Therefore, X Y=Y X [verified]

(ii) (X Y) Z=X (Y Z)

L.H.S. = (X Y) Z

X Y = {1, 2, 3, 4} U {2, 3, 5}

= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Now (X Y) Z

= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} {4, 5, 6}

= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

R.H.S. = X U (Y Z)

Y Z = {2, 3, 5} {4, 5, 6}

= {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

X (Y Z) = {1, 2, 3, 4} {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

Therefore, (X Y) Z=X (Y Z) [verified]

Intersection of Sets
The intersection of two or more sets is a set which contains all the elements that are
common in those sets.
Solved problems on intersection of sets:

1. Let A = {x : x is a natural number and a factor of 18}

B = {x : x is a natural number and less than 6}

Find A B and A ∩ B.

Solution:

A = {1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18}

B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Therefore, A ∩ B = {1, 2, 3}
2. If P = {multiples of 3 between 1 and 20} and Q = {even natural numbers upto
15}. Find the intersection of the two given set P and set Q.

Solution:
P = {multiples of 3 between 1 and 20}
So, P = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18}
Q = {even natural numbers upto 15}
So, Q = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}
Therefore, intersection of P and Q is the largest set containing only those elements
which are common to both the given sets P and Q

Hence, P ∩ Q = {6, 12}.

More worked-out problems on union of sets to find the intersection of three sets.
3. Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8} and C = {1, 3, 5, 7}
Verify (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C) Solution:

(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)

L.H.S. = (A ∩ B) ∩ C

A ∩ B = {2, 4}

(A ∩ B) ∩ C = {∅} ……………….. (1)

R.H.S. = A ∩ (B ∩ C)

B ∩ C = {∅}

A ∩ {B ∩ C} = {∅} ……………….. (2)

Therefore, from (1) and (2), we conclude that;

(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C) [verified]

Difference of Two Sets

How to find the difference of two sets?
If A and B are two sets, then their difference is given by A - B or B - A.

• If A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {4, 5, 6}

A - B means elements of A which are not the elements of B.

i.e., in the above example A - B = {2, 3}

In general, B - A = {x : x ∈ B, and x ∉ A}
• If A and B are disjoint sets, then A – B = A and B – A = B Solved
examples to find the difference of two sets:

1. A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5, 6}.

Find the difference between the two sets:
(i) A and B
(ii) B and A
Solution:

The two sets are disjoint as they do not have any elements in common.

(i) A - B = {1, 2, 3} = A
(ii) B - A = {4, 5, 6} = B

2. Let A = {a, b, c, d, e, f} and B = {b, d, f, g}.

Find the difference between the two sets:
(i) A and B
(ii) B and A

Solution:

(i) A - B = {a, c, e}
Therefore, the elements a, c, e belong to A but not to B

(ii) B - A = {g)
Therefore, the element g belongs to B but not A.
3. Given three sets P, Q and R such that:
P = {x : x is a natural number between 10 and 16},
Q = {y : y is a even number between 8 and 20} and
R = {7, 9, 11, 14, 18, 20}
(i) Find the difference of two sets P and Q
(ii) Find Q - R
(iii) Find R - P
(iv) Find Q – P Solution:

According to the given statements:

P = {11, 12, 13, 14, 15}
Q = {10, 12, 14, 16, 18}
R = {7, 9, 11, 14, 18, 20}
(i) P – Q = {Those elements of set P which are not in set Q}
= {11, 13, 15}
(ii) Q – R = {Those elements of set Q not belonging to set R}
= {10, 12, 16}
(iii) R – P = {Those elements of set R which are not in set P}
= {7, 9, 18, 20}
(iv) Q – P = {Those elements of set Q not belonging to set P} = {10, 16,
18}

Complement of a Set
In complement of a set if ξ be the universal set and A a subset of ξ, then the
complement of A is the set of all elements of ξ which are not the elements of A.

Symbolically, we denote the complement of A with respect to ξ as A’.

For Example; If ξ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}

A = {1, 3, 7} find A'.

Solution:

We observe that 2, 4, 5, 6 are the only elements of ξ which do not belong to A.

Therefore, A' = {2, 4, 5, 6}

Note:
The complement of a universal set is an empty set.

The complement of an empty set is a universal set.

The set and its complement are disjoint sets.

For Example;
1. Let the set of natural numbers be the universal set and A is a set of even natural
numbers,

then A' {x: x is a set of odd natural numbers}

2. Let ξ = The set of letters in the English alphabet.

A = The set of consonants in the English alphabet

then A' = The set of vowels in the English alphabet.

3. Show that;

(a) The complement of a universal set is an empty set.

Let ξ denote the universal set, then

ξ' = The set of those elements which are not in ξ.

= empty set = ϕ

Therefore, ξ = ϕ so the complement of a universal set is an empty set.

(b) A set and its complement are disjoint sets.

Let A be any set then A' = set of those elements of ξ which are not in A'.

Let x ∉ A, then x is an element of ξ not contained in A'

So x ∉ A'

Therefore, A and A' are disjoint sets.

Therefore, Set and its complement are disjoint sets

Similarly, in complement of a set when U be the universal set and A is a subset of
U. Then the complement of A is the set all elements of U which are not the
elements of A.

Symbolically, we write A' to denote the complement of A with respect to U.

Thus, A' = {x : x ∈ U and x ∉ A}

Obviously A' = {U - A}

For Example; Let U = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16}

A = {6, 10, 4, 16}

A' = {2, 8, 12, 14}

We observe that 2, 8, 12, 14 are the only elements of U which do not belong to A.
Some properties of complement sets
(i) A ∪ A' = A' ∪ A = ∪ (Complement law)

(ii) (A ∩ B') = ϕ (Complement law)

(iii) (A ∪ B) = A' ∩ B' (De Morgan’s law)

(iv) (A ∩ B)' = A' ∪ B' (De Morgan’s law)

(v) (A')' = A (Law of complementation)

(vi) ϕ' = (Law of empty set

(vii) ' = ϕ and universal set)

Venn Diagrams
Venn diagrams are useful in solving simple logical problems. Let us study about
them in detail. Mathematician John Venn introduced the concept of representing
the sets pictorially by means of closed geometrical figures called Venn diagrams.
In Venn diagrams, the Universal Set ξ is represented by a rectangle and all other
sets under consideration by circles within the rectangle. In this chapter, we will use
Venn diagrams to illustrate various operations (union, intersection, difference).

What are Venn Diagrams?

Pictorial representations of sets represented by closed figures are called set
diagrams or Venn diagrams.

Venn diagrams are used to illustrate various operations like union, intersection
and difference.

We can express the relationship among sets through this in a more significant way.
In this,
• A rectangle is used to represent a universal set.

• Circles or ovals are used to represent other subsets of the universal set.
Venn diagrams in different situations

• If a set A is a subset of set B, then the circle representing set A is drawn inside the
circle representing set B.

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• If set A and set B have some elements in common, then to represent them, we
draw two circles which are overlapping.

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• If set A and set B are disjoint, then they are represented by two non-intersecting
circles.
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In this diagrams, the universal set is represented by a rectangular region and its
subsets by circles inside the rectangle. We represented disjoint set by disjoint
circles and intersecting sets by intersecting circles.

Venn Diagrams in Different Situations

To draw Venn diagrams in different situations are discussed below:
How to represent a set using Venn diagrams in different situations?
1. ξ is a universal set and A is a subset of the universal set.

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ξ = {1, 2, 3, 4}

A = {2, 3}

• Draw a rectangle which represents the universal set.

• Draw a circle inside the rectangle which represents A.

• Write the elements of A inside the circle.

• Write the leftover elements in ξ that is outside the circle but inside the rectangle.

• Shaded portion represents A’, i.e., A’ = {1, 4}

2. ξ is a universal set. A and B are two disjoint sets but the subset of the
universal set i.e., A ξ, B ξ and A ∩ B = ф

For example;

ξ = {a, e, i, o, u}

A = {a, i}

B = {e, u}

• Draw a rectangle which represents the universal set.

• Draw two circles inside the rectangle which represents A and B.

• The circles do not overlap.

• Write the elements of A inside the circle A and the elements of B inside the circle
B of ξ.

• Write the leftover elements in ξ , i.e., outside both circles but inside the rectangle.

• The figure represents A ∩ B = ф

3. ξ is a universal set. A and B are subsets of ξ. They are also overlapping sets.

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For example;

Let ξ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}

A = {2, 4, 6, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3, 5}

Then A ∩ B = {2, 5}

• Draw a rectangle which represents a universal set.

• Draw two circles inside the rectangle which represents A and B.

• The circles overlap.

• Write the elements of A and B in the respective circles such that common
elements are written in overlapping portion (2, 5).

• Write rest of the elements in the rectangle but outside the two circles.

• The figure represents A ∩ B = {2, 5}

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4. ξ is a universal set and A and B are two sets such that A is a subset of B and
B is a subset of ξ.

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For example;

Let ξ = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}

A= {3, 5} and B= {1, 3, 5}

Then A B and B ξ

• Draw a rectangle which represents the universal set.

• Draw two circles such that circle A is inside circle B as A ⊆ B.

• Write the elements of A in the innermost circle.

• Write the remaining elements of B outside the circle A but inside the circle B.

• The leftover elements of are written inside the rectangle but outside the two
circles.

Observe the Venn diagrams. The shaded portion represents the following sets.

(a) A’ (A dash)

(b) A ∪ B (A union B)
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(c) A ∩ B (A intersection B)

(d) (A B)’ (A union B dash)

(e) (A ∩ B)’ (A intersection B dash)

(f) B’ (B dash)
(g) A - B (A minus B)

(h) (A - B)’ (Dash of sets A minus B)

(i) (A ⊂ B)’ (Dash of A subset B)

For example;
Use Venn diagrams in different situations to find the following sets.
 0Save
(a) A ∪ B

(b) A ∩ B

(c) A'

(d) B - A

(e) (A ∩ B)'

(f) (A ∪ B)'

Solution:

ξ = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j}

A = {a, b, c, d, f}

B = {d, f, e, g}

A B = {elements which are in A or in B or in both}

= {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}

A ∩ B = {elements which are common to both A and B}

= {d, f}

A' = {elements of ξ, which are not in A}

= {e, g, h, i, j}

B - A = {elements which are in B but not in A}

= {e, g}
(A ∩ B)' = {elements of ξ which are not in A ∩ B}

= {a, b, c, e, g, h, i, j}
(A B)' = {elements of ξ which are not in A B}

= {h, i, j}

Word Problems on Sets

Word problems on sets are solved here to get the basic ideas how to use the
properties of union and intersection of sets.

Solved basic word problems on sets:

1. Let A and B be two finite sets such that n(A) = 20, n(B) = 28 and n(A B) = 36,
find n(A ∩ B).
Solution:

Using the formula n(A B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∩ B).

then n(A ∩ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A B)

= 20 + 28 - 36

= 48 - 36

= 12

2. If n(A - B) = 18, n(A B) = 70 and n(A ∩ B) = 25, then find n(B).

Solution:

Using the formula n(A B) = n(A - B) + n(A ∩ B) + n(B - A)

 70 = 18 + 25 + n(B - A)

70 = 43 + n(B - A)

n(B - A) = 70 - 43

n(B - A) = 27
Now n(B) = n(A ∩ B) + n(B - A)

= 25 + 27

= 52
Different types on word problems on sets:
3. In a group of 60 people, 27 like cold drinks and 42 like hot drinks and each
person likes at least one of the two drinks. How many like both coffee and tea?
Solution:

Let A = Set of people who like cold drinks.

B = Set of people who like hot drinks.

Given

(A B) = 60 n(A) = 27 n(B) = 42 then;

n(A ∩ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A B)

= 27 + 42 - 60

= 69 - 60 = 9

=9
Therefore, 9 people like both tea and coffee.
4. There are 35 students in art class and 57 students in dance class. Find the number
of students who are either in art class or in dance class.
• When two classes meet at different hours and 12 students are enrolled in both
activities.

• When two classes meet at the same hour.

Solution:

n(A) = 35, n(B) = 57, n(A ∩ B) = 12

(Let A be the set of students in art class.

B be the set of students in dance class.)

(i) When 2 classes meet at different hours n(A B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∩ B)

= 35 + 57 - 12
= 92 - 12
= 80

(ii) When two classes meet at the same hour, A∩B = ∅ n (A ∪ B) = n(A) +
n(B) - n(A ∩ B)

= n(A) + n(B)
= 35 + 57
= 92 `

Further concept to solve word problems on sets:

5. In a group of 100 persons, 72 people can speak English and 43 can speak
French. How many can speak English only? How many can speak French only and
how many can speak both English and French?

Solution:

Let A be the set of people who speak English.

B be the set of people who speak French.

A - B be the set of people who speak English and not French.

B - A be the set of people who speak French and not English.

A ∩ B be the set of people who speak both French and English.

Given,

n(A) = 72 n(B) = 43 n(A ∪ B) = 100

Now, n(A ∩ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∪ B)

= 72 + 43 - 100

= 115 - 100

= 15

Therefore, Number of persons who speak both French and English = 15

n(A) = n(A - B) + n(A ∩ B)

⇒ n(A - B) = n(A) - n(A ∩ B)

= 72 - 15

= 57

and n(B - A) = n(B) - n(A ∩ B)

= 43 - 15

= 28

Therefore, Number of people speaking English only = 57

Number of people speaking French only = 28

Word problems on sets using the different properties (Union & Intersection):

6. In a competition, a school awarded medals in different categories. 36 medals in

dance, 12 medals in dramatics and 18 medals in music. If these medals went to a
total of 45 persons and only 4 persons got medals in all the three categories, how
many received medals in exactly two of these categories?

Solution:

Let A = set of persons who got medals in dance.

B = set of persons who got medals in dramatics.

C = set of persons who got medals in music.

Given,
n(A) = 36 n(B) = 12 n(C) = 18 n(A
B C) = 45 n(A ∩ B ∩ C) = 4
We know that number of elements belonging to exactly two of the three sets A, B,
C
= n(A ∩ B) + n(B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ C) - 3n(A ∩ B ∩ C)
= n(A ∩ B) + n(B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ C) - 3 × 4 ……..(i)

n(A B C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) - n(A ∩ B) - n(B ∩ C) - n(A ∩ C) + n(A ∩ B

∩ C)

Therefore, n(A ∩ B) + n(B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C)

- n(A B C)

From (i) required number

= n(A) + n(B) + n(C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C) - n(A B C) - 12

= 36 + 12 + 18 + 4 - 45 - 12
= 70 - 67

=3

Apply set operations to solve the word problems on sets:

7. Each student in a class of 40 plays at least one indoor game chess, carrom and
scrabble. 18 play chess, 20 play scrabble and 27 play carrom. 7 play chess and
scrabble, 12 play scrabble and carrom and 4 play chess, carrom and scrabble. Find
the number of students who play (i) chess and carrom. (ii) chess, carrom but not
scrabble.

Solution:

Let A be the set of students who play chess

B be the set of students who play scrabble

C be the set of students who play carrom

Therefore, We are given n(A B C) = 40,

n(A) = 18, n(B) = 20 n(C) = 27,

n(A ∩ B) = 7, n(C ∩ B) = 12 n(A ∩ B ∩ C) = 4

We have

n(A B C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) - n(A ∩ B) - n(B ∩ C) - n(C ∩ A) + n(A ∩ B

∩ C)

Therefore, 40 = 18 + 20 + 27 - 7 - 12 - n(C ∩ A) + 4

40 = 69 – 19 - n(C ∩ A)

40 = 50 - n(C ∩ A) n(C ∩ A) = 50 - 40
n(C ∩ A) = 10

Therefore, Number of students who play chess and carrom are 10.

Also, number of students who play chess, carrom and not scrabble.

= n(C ∩ A) - n(A ∩ B ∩ C)

= 10 – 4

=6
Therefore, we learned how to solve different types of word problems on sets
without using Venn diagram.

WEEK 3 & 4

TOPIC: BINARY OPERATION

Binary Operation

The two factors (or quantity) of a set combined to form the new factor (or quantity)
is termed as binary. That is, a binary operation on a nonempty set X is a map
, such that it satisfies the conditions given below:

Condition (1): f is defined for all pair of factors (elements) in set X.

Condition (2): There exist distinct associates for f to every pair of factors
(elements) in the set X to some element of X.
The basic binary operations on X from X×X to X are given as follows:

Properties of binary operation for addition and multiplication are given below:

Commutative property:

Addition:

Changing the order of addends does not change the sum. The addends may be
numbers or expressions. That is (a+b)=(b+a) where a and b are any scalar.

If , then the binary operation of a set is

called commutative binary operation.

Multiplication:

Changing the order of factors does not change the product. The factors may be
numbers or expressions. That is, (a × b )=(b × a ).

If , then the binary operation of a set is called

commutative binary operation.

Associative property:

The associate property defines that grouping of more than two numbers and
performing the basic arithmetic operations of addition and multiplication does not
affect the final result. Note that grouping means placing the parenthesis.

Addition:
If a, b, and c are any numbers, then (a+b)+c=a+(b+a) holds true.

Multiplication:

If a, b, and c are any numbers, then (a * b ) * c =a * (b * c ) holds true.

Identity property:

Addition:

The additive identity is zero. That is, the sum of any number and zero is the same
number.

a +0=0+ a= a.

Multiplication:

The multiplicative identity is 1. That is, the product of any number and 1 is same
number,

a × 1=1 × a= a .

Inverse binary operation:

Addition:
The additive inverse of a is −a.

For every real number, a+(−a)=0=(− a)+ a.

Multiplication:

The multiplicative inverse of a non-zero real number a is . That is, .

Distributive property:
Left distributive over 0:

If a, b, and c are any numbers and * and ° are any two binary operations on the set,
then .

Right distributive over 0:

If a, b, and c are any numbers and * and ° are any two binary operations on the set,
then .

EVALUATION

1. Suppose a ♠ b = 3a + 2b. Find 3 ♠ 2

2. Which of the following operations is commutative?

I.
a
♦
b
a ♣ b = b − 2a
=
3a + 2 b II. a♥
b = a^b

III.
IV.

3. * is a binary operation on Z such that: a * b = a + b + ab. The solution of

(3* 4) *x = – 1 is

4. The identity element for the binary operation * defined by a * b = ,

where a, b are the elements of a set of non-zero rational numbers, is
WEEK 5

TOPIC: INDICES AND INDICIAL EQUATIONS

A knowledge of powers, or indices as they are often called, is essential for an
understanding of most algebraic processes. In this section of text you will learn about
powers and rules for manipulating them through a number of worked examples.
In order to master the techniques explained here it is vital that you undertake plenty
of practice exercises so that they become second nature.
After reading this text, and/or viewing the video tutorial on this topic, you should
be able to:

• simplify expressions involving indices

• use the rules of indices to simplify expressions involving indices

• use negative and fractional indices.

Contents
LAWS OF INDICES
1. The first rule: am ×an = am+n
2. The second rule: (am)n = amn
3. The third rule: am ÷an = am−n
4. The fourth rule: a0 = 1

5. The fifth and rule: 6. The sixth rule:

7. A final result: and

Introduction
In the section, we will be looking at indices or powers. Both name can be used, and
both names mean the same thing.
Basically, they are a shorthand way of writing multiplications of the same number.
So, suppose we have
4×4x4

We write this as ‘4 to the power 3’:

 43

So
4×4×4 = 43

The number 3 is called the power or index. Note that the plural of index is indices.

Key Point
An index, or power, is used to show that a quantity is repeatedly multiplied by itself .

This can be done with letters as well as numbers. So, we might have:
a×a×a×a×a

Since there are five a’s multiplied together we write this as ‘a to the power 5’.
a5

So a × a × a × a × a = a5.
What if we had 2x2 raised to the power 4 ? This means four factors of 2x2 multiplied
together, that is,
2x2 ×2x2 ×2x2 ×2x2

This can be written

2×2×2×2× x2 × x2 × x2 × x2

which we will see shortly can be written as 16x8.

Use of a power or index is simply a form of notation, that is, a way of writing
something down. When mathematicians have a way of writing things down they
like to use their notation in other ways. For example, what might we mean by
a−2 or or a0 ?

To proceed further we need rules to operate with so we can find out what these
notations actually mean.
EVALUATION
1. Evaluate each of the following.
a) 35 b) 73 c) 29
d) 53 e) 44 f) 83

The first rule

Suppose we have a3 and we want to multiply it by a2. That is

a3 × a2 = a×a×a×a×a

Altogether there are five a’s multiplied together. Clearly, this is the same as a5.
This suggests our first rule.
The first rule tells us that if we are multiplying expressions such as these then we
add the indices together. So, if we have am × an

we add the indices to get

am × an = am+n

Key Point
a × an = am+n
m

The second rule

Suppose we had a4 and we want to raise it all to the power 3. That is

(a4)3
This means a4 × a4 × a4

Now our first rule tells us that we should add the indices together. So that is
a12

But note also that 12 is 4×3. This suggests that if we have am×n, or simply am all
raised to the power amn. n the result is obtained by multiplying the two powers to
get

Key Point
(am)n = am

The third rule

Consider dividing a7 by a3.

We can now begin dividing out the common factors of a. Three of the a’s at the top
and the three a’s at the bottom can be divided out, so we are now left with a4
The same answer is obtained by subtracting the indices, that is, 7−3 = 4. This
suggests that

Key Point am
÷ an = am−n
 The fourth rule
Let’s have a look at a3 divided by a3. We know the answer to this. We are dividing
a quantity by itself, so the answer has got to be 1.
a3 ÷ a3 = 1

Let’s do this using our rules; rule 3 will help us do this. Rule 3 tells us that to
divide the two quantities we subtract the indices:
a3 ÷ a3 = a3−3 = a0

We appear to have obtained a different answer. We have done the same calculation
in two different ways. We have done it correctly in two different ways. So the
answers we get, even if they look different, must be the same. So, what we have is
a0 = 1.

Key Point

0
a =1

This means that any number raised to the power zero is 1. So

20 = 1 (1,000,000)0 = 1 =1 (−6)0 = 1

However, note that zero itself is an exception to this rule. 00 cannot be evaluated.
Any number, apart from zero, when raised to the power zero is equal to 1.

The fifth rule

Let’s have a look now at doing a division again.
Consider a3 divided by a7.
Again, we can now begin dividing out the common factors of a. The 3 a’s at the
top and three of the a’s at the bottom can be divided out, so we are now left with

Now let’s use our third rule and do the same calculation by subtracting the indices.
a3 ÷ a7 = a3−7 = a−4

We have done the same calculation in two different ways. We have done it correctly
in two different ways. So the answers we get, even if they look different, must be
the same. So

So a negative sign in the index can be thought of as meaning ‘1 over’.

Key Point

1 1
a -1 = a-−m =
a am

Now let’s develop this further in the following examples.

In the next two examples we start with an expression which has a negative index,
and rewrite it so that it has a positive index, using the rule . Examples

We can reverse the process in order to rewrite quantities so that they have a
negative index.
Examples
One you should try to remember is as you will probably use it the most. But
now what about an example like

This illustrates another way of writing the previous keypoint:

Key Point

1
= am
a−m

EVALUATION
2. Evaluate each of the following leaving your answer as a proper fraction.
a) 2−9 b) 3−5 c) 4−4
d) 5−3 e) 7−3 f) 8−3

The sixth rule

So far we have dealt with integer powers both positive and negative. What would
we do if we had a fraction for a power, like . To see how to deal with fractional
powers consider the following:
Suppose we have two identical numbers multiplying together to give another
number, as in, for example
7×7 = 49

Then we know that 7 is a square root of 49. That is, if

72 = 49 then
Now suppose we found that ap × ap = a
That is, when we multiplied ap by itself we got the result a. This means that ap must
be a square root of a.
However, look at this another way: noting that a = a1, and also that, from the first
rule, ap × ap = a2p we see that if ap × ap = a then

a2p = a1

from which
2p = 1
and so

This shows that a1/2 must be the square root of a. That is

Key Point

the power 1/2 denotes a square root:

Similarly this is the cube root of a

and this is the fourth root of a

Work through the following examples:

Example
What do we mean by 161/4 ?

For this we need to know what number when multiplied together four times gives
16. The answer is 2. So 161/4 = 2.
Example
What do we mean by 811/2 ? For this we need to know what number when
multiplied by itself gives 81. The answer is 9. So .
Example
What about 2431/5 ? What number when multiplied together five times gives us 243
? If we are familiar with times-tables we might spot that 243 = 3×81, and also that
81 = 9×9. So

2431/5 = (3×81)1/5 = (3×9×9)1/5 = (3×3×3×3×3)1/5 So 3

multiplied by itself five times equals 243. Hence

2431/5 = 3

Notice in doing this how important it is to be able to recognise what factors

numbers are made up of. For example, it is important to be able to recognise that:
16 = 24, 16 = 42, 81 = 92, 81 = 34 and so on.

You will find calculations much easier if you can recognise in numbers their
composition as powers of simple numbers such as 2, 3, 4 and 5. Once you have got
these firmly fixed in your mind, this sort of calculation becomes straightforward.
EVALUATION
3. Evaluate each of the following.
a) 1251/3 b) 2431/5 c) 2561/4
d) 5121/9 e) 3431/3 f) 5121/3

A final result
What happens if we take ? We
can write this as follows:

using the 2nd rule (am)n = amn

Example

What do we mean by 163/4

 16 = (161/4)3
= (2)3
=8

We can also think of this calculation performed in a slightly different way. Note that instead of
writing (am)n = amn we could write (an)m = amn because mn is the same as nm.

Example
What do we mean by 82/3 One way of calculating this is to write

8 = (81/3)2

= (2)2
=4

Alternatively,

8 = (82)1/3

= (64)
=4
Evaluation

4. Evaluate each of the following.

a) 3432/3 b) 5122/3 c) 2563/4
d) 1254/3 e) 5127/9 f) 2436/5

5. Evaluate each of the following.

a) 512−7/9 b) 243−6/5 c) 256−3/4

d) 125−4/3 e) 343−2/3 f) 512−2/3

Further examples
Write 4x−2a3 using positive indices.
Example
1
Write using a positive index.
4a−2

Example
Simplify .

adding the indices

Example

Simplify .

subtracting the indices

Example
Simplify 16 .

16 = (161/4)3 = 23 = 8

Example
Simplify .

Example
Simplify 125 .

125 = (12531)2 = 52 = 25

Example
Simplify .

Example
1
Simplify .
25−2

Example
Simplify (243) .

(243) = (24351)3 = 33 = 27

Example

Simplify .

ASSIGNMENT

6. Evaluate each of the following.

 c)
f)
a) b)
d) e)

7. Evaluate each of the following.

c)
f)
a) b)
d) e)

8. Evaluate each of the following.

a) b) c)
d) e) f)

9. Each of the following expressions can be written as an for some value of n.

In each case determine the value of n.
a) a × a × a × a b)
c) 1
d) e) a3 × a5 f)
g) (a4)2 h) i)
j) a1/2 × a2 k) l)

WEEK 6 INDICIAL EQUATION

Exponential (Indicial) Equations

Exponential or Indicial Equation is a combination of indices and all other forms of

equations, it is very easy to solve provided you have excellent knowledge of the laws
of Indices.
 Rules for Solving Exponential (Indicial) Equations
1. The two sides i.e LHS and RHS of the equation must be expressed in index form.
2. The two sides of the equation must also have the same values for you to cancel
them out.
3. You’ll always solve for an unknown value which can be represented by any
letter of the alphabet.
Note
You will need to master all the laws of indices, if you must properly understand
exponential equations.

Examples
1. If 3x = 32, find x.

Solution
3x = 32

Step 1
Note that the equations above are already expressed in index form, so just cancel
the similar ones out;

3 cancels 3.

x = 2.

2. If 2x + 1 = 23, find x.

Solution
2x + 1 = 23

Step 1
The equation is already in index form, so just cancel out the similar ones;
2 cancels 2; x
+1=3

Step 2
Make x the subject by carrying +1 to the RHS;
x = 3 – 1 x = 2.
3. If 3x = 9, solve for x.

Solution
3x = 9

Step 1
Express 9 in index form; expressing 9 in index form is 32 which gives (3 x 3).
3x = 32

Step 2 3
cancels 3;
x = 2.

4. 16x = 0.125. Solve for x.

Solution
16x = 0.125

Step 1
Express 0.125 in fraction by carrying the points out;

Step 2
Cancellation Process;
5 goes in 125 gives 25 while 5 goes in 1000 gives 200;

Cancellation Process;
5 goes in 25 gives 5 while 5 goes in 200 gives 40;

Cancellation Process;
5 goes in 5 gives 1 while 5 goes in 40 gives 8;
Step 3
Apply Negative index law to the fraction at the right;
16x = 8-1

Step 4
Take both values to index form;
24(x) = 23(-1)

Step 5
2 cancels 2; 4(x)
= 3(-1)

Step 6
Remove the brackets;
4x = -3

Step 7
Divide both sides by 4;

Cancellation Process;
4 cancels 4;

EVALUATION
Solve the exponential equations :
WEEK 7 LAWS OF LOGARITHM
LOGARITHM
Logarithms appear in all sorts of calculations in engineering and science, business and economics.
Before the days of calculators they were used to assist in the process of multiplication by replacing
the operation of multiplication by addition. Similarly, they enabled the operation of division to be
replaced by subtraction. They remain important in other ways, one of which is that they provide
the underlying theory of the logarithm function. This has applications in many fields, for example,
the decibel scale in acoustics.

Introduction
In this unit we are going to be looking at logarithms. However, before we can deal with logarithms
we need to revise indices. This is because logarithms and indices are closely related, and in order
to understand logarithms a good knowledge of indices is required.
We know that
16 = 24

Here, the number 4 is the power. Sometimes we call it an exponent. Sometimes we call it an index.
In the expression 24, the number 2 is called the base.

Example
We know that 64 = 82.
In this example 2 is the power, or exponent, or index. The number 8 is the base.

Why do we study logarithms ?

In order to motivate our study of logarithms, consider the following:

we know that 16 = 24. We also know that 8 = 23 Suppose
that we wanted to multiply 16 by 8.
One way is to carry out the multiplication directly using long-multiplication and obtain 128. But
this could be long and tedious if the numbers were larger than 8 and 16. Can we do this calculation
another way using the powers ? Note that
16 × 8 can be written 24 × 23

This equals
27
using the rules of indices which tell us to add the powers 4 and 3 to give the new power, 7. What
was a multiplication sum has been reduced to an addition sum.
Similarly if we wanted to divide 16 by 8:

16 ÷ 8 can be written 24 ÷ 23

This equals
21 or simply 2

using the rules of indices which tell us to subtract the powers 4 and 3 to give the new power, 1.
If we had a look-up table containing powers of 2, it would be straightforward to look up 27 and
obtain 27 = 128 as the result of finding 16 × 8.

Notice that by using the powers, we have changed a multiplication problem into one involving
addition (the addition of the powers, 4 and 3). Historically, this observation led John Napier
(15501617) and Henry Briggs (1561-1630) to develop logarithms as a way of replacing
multiplication with addition, and also division with subtraction.
What is a logarithm ?
Consider the expression 16 = 24. Remember that 2 is the base, and 4 is the power. An alternative,
yet equivalent, way of writing this expression is log2 16 = 4. This is stated as ‘log to base 2 of 16
equals 4’. We see that the logarithm is the same as the power or index in the original expression. It
is the base in the original expression which becomes the base of the logarithm.
The two statements
16 = 24 log2 16 = 4

are equivalent statements. If we write either of them, we are automatically implying the other.
Example
If we write down that 64 = 82 then the equivalent statement using logarithms is log8 64 = 2.

Example
If we write down that log3 27 = 3 then the equivalent statement using powers is 33 = 27.

So the two sets of statements, one involving powers and one involving logarithms are equivalent.
In the general case we have:
 Key Point
if x = an then equivalently loga x = n

Let us develop this a little more.

Because 10 = 101 we can write the equivalent logarithmic form log10 10 = 1. Similarly, the
logarithmic form of the statement 21 = 2 is log2 2 = 1.

In general, for any base a, a = a1 and so loga a = 1.

Key Point

loga a = 1

We can see from the Examples above that indices and logarithms are very closely related. In the
same way that we have rules or laws of indices, we have laws of logarithms. These are
developed in the following sections.

EVALUATION
1. Write the following using logarithms instead of powers
a) 82 = 64 b) 35 = 243 c) 210 =d) 53 = 125
1024
e) 106 = 1000000 f) 10−3 = 0.001 g) h) 60 = 1
i) j) k) 272/3 = l)
9
2. Determine the value of the following logarithms
a) log3 9 b) log2 32 c) log5 125 d) log10 10000

e) log4 64 f) log25 5 g) log8 2 h) log81 3

 i) j) log7 1 k) l) log4 8

m) loga a5 n) logc√c o)logs s p)

The first law of

logarithms
Suppose and y = am
x = an then the equivalent

logarithmic forms are and loga y = m

loga x = n
Using the first rule of indices (1)
xy = an × am = an+m

Now the logarithmic form of the statement xy = an+m is loga xy = n + m. But n = loga x and m = loga
y from (1) and so putting these results together we have

loga xy = loga x + loga y

So, if we want to multiply two numbers together and find the logarithm of the result, we can do
this by adding together the logarithms of the two numbers. This is the first law.

Key Point

loga xy = loga x + loga y

The second law of logarithms

Suppose x = an, or equivalently loga x = n. Suppose we raise both sides of x = an to the power m:
xm = (an)m

Using the rules of indices we can write this as

xm = anm
Thinking of the quantity xm as a single term, the logarithmic form is

loga xm = nm = mloga x

This is the second law. It states that when finding the logarithm of a power of a number, this can
be evaluated by multiplying the logarithm of the number by that power.

As before, suppose

x = anand y = am
with equivalent logarithmic forms

loga x = n and loga y = m (2)

Consider x ÷ y.

x
n m

Key Point

loga xm = mloga x

The third law of logarithms

y ÷ = a a
= an−m

using the rules of indices.

In logarithmic form

which from (2) can be written x loga = loga x − loga

y y This is the third law.
 Key Point

x
loga = loga x − loga y
y

The logarithm of 1
Recall that any number raised to the power zero is 1: a0 = 1. The logarithmic form of this is
loga 1=0

Key Point

loga 1 = 0

The logarithm of 1 in any base is 0.

Examples
Example
Suppose we wish to find log2 512.
This is the same as being asked ‘what is 512 expressed as a power of 2 ?’ Now 512
is in fact 29 and so log2 512 = 9.

Example
1
Suppose we wish to find log8 .
64
 1
This is the same as being asked ‘what is expressed as a power of 8 ?’
64

1 −1. Noting also that 82 = 64 it follows that

Nowcan be written 64
64

using the rules of indices. .

So Example

Suppose we wish to find log5 25.

This is the same as being asked ‘what is 25 expressed as a power of 5 ?’

Now 52 = 25 and so log5 25 = 2.

Example

Suppose we wish to find log25 5.

This is the same as being asked ‘what is 5 expressed as a power of 25 ?’

1

We know that 5 is a square root of 25, that is . So 252 = 5 and so log25 5 = .

Notice from the last two examples that by interchanging the base and the number

1
log25 5 =
log5
25

This is true more generally:

Key Point
1
logb a =
loga b
EVALUATION
Each of the following expressions can be simplified to logN. Determine the value of N in each
case. We have not explicitly written down the base. You can assume the base is 10, but the
results are identical whichever base is used.

a) log3 + log5 b) log16 − log2 c) 3log4 d) 2log3 − 3log2

e) log236 + log1 f) log236 − log1 g) 5log2 + 2log5 h) log128 − 7log2

i) log2 + log3 + log4 j) log12 − 2log2 + log3

k) 5log2 + 4log3 − 3log4 l) log10 + 2log3 − log2

Standard bases
There are two bases which are used much more commonly than any others and deserve special
mention. These are base 10 and base e
Logarithms to base 10, log10, are often written simply as log without explicitly writing a base
down. So if you see an expression like logx you can assume the base is 10. Your calculator will be
pre-programmed to evaluate logarithms to base 10. Look for the button marked log.
The second common base is e. The symbol e is called the exponential constant and has a value
approximately equal to 2.718. This is a number like π in the sense that it has an infinite decimal
expansion. Base e is used because this constant occurs frequently in the mathematical modelling
of many physical, biological and economic applications. Logarithms to base e, loge, are often
written simply as ln. If you see an expression like lnx you can assume the base is e. Such logarithms
are also called Naperian or natural logarithms. Your calculator will be pre-programmed to evaluate
logarithms to base e. Look for the button marked ln.
 Key Point
Common bases:

log means log10 ln means loge where e is the exponential

constant.
Useful results:
log10 = 1, lne = 1

Using logarithms to solve equations

We can use logarithms to solve equations where the unknown is in the power.
Suppose we wish to solve the equation 3x = 5. We can solve this by taking logarithms of both sides.
Whilst logarithms to any base can be used, it is common practice to use base 10, as these are readily
available on your calculator. So,

log3x = log5

Now using the laws of logarithms, the left hand side can be re-written to give

xlog3 = log5

This is more straightforward. The unknown is no longer in the power. Straightaway

If we wanted, this value can be found from a calculator.

Example
Solve 3x = 5x−2. Again, notice that the unknown appears in the power. Take logs of both sides.

log3x = log5x−2

Now use the laws of logarithms. xlog3 = (x − 2)log5

Notice now that the x we are trying to find is no longer in a power. Multiplying out the brackets
xlog3 = xlog5 − 2log5
Rearrange this equation to get the two terms involving x on one side and the remaining term on the
other side.
2log5 = xlog5 − xlog3

Factorise the right-hand side by extracting the common factor of x.

using the laws of logarithms.

And finally

If we wanted, this value can be found from a calculator.

Inverse operations
Suppose we pick a base, 2 say.
Suppose we pick a power, 8 say.
We will now raise the base 2 to the power 8, to give 28.
Suppose we now take logarithms to base 2 of 28. We
then have
log2 28
Using the laws of logarithms we can write this as

8log2 2

Recall that loga a = 1, so log2 2 = 1, and so we have simply 8 again, the number we started with.
So, raising the base 2 to a power, and then finding the logarithm to base 2 of the result are inverse
operations.
Let’s look at this another way.
Suppose we pick a number, 8 say.
Suppose we find its logarithm to base 2, to evaluate log2 8.
Suppose we now raise the base 2 to this power: 2log2 8.
Because 8 = 23 we can write this as 2log2 23. Using the laws of logarithms this equals 23log2 2 which
equals 23 or 8, since log2 2 = 1. We see that raising the base 2 to the logarithm of a number to base
2 results in the original number.
So raising a base to a power, and finding the logarithm to that base are inverse operations. Doing
one operation, and then following it by the other, we end up where we started.
Example
Suppose we are working in base e. We can pick a number x and evaluate ex. If we follow this by
taking logarithms to base e we obtain lnex

Using the laws of logarithms this equals xlne but lne = 1 and so we are left with simply x again.
So, raising the base e to a power, and then
finding logarithms to base e are inverse operations.
Example
Suppose we are working in base 10. We can pick a number x and evaluate 10x. If we follow this
by taking logarithms to base 10 we obtain

log10x

Using the laws of logarithms this equals

xlog10

but log10 = 1 and so we are left with simply x again. So, raising the base 10 to a power, and then
finding logarithms to base 10 are inverse operations.

Key Point

lnex = x, elnx = x

Similarly,
log10x = x, 10logx = x

These results will be useful in doing calculus, especially in solving differential equations.
EVALUATION
Use logarithms to solve the following equations
a) 10x = 5 b) ex = 8 3x c) d) ex = 0.1
e) 4x = 12 f) = 2 e = g) 7x = 1
x
h)
π
i) π = 10 j)
x
k) l) 10x = e2x−1

WEEK 8 SURDS
Introduction
Surds are numbers left in root form (√) to express its exact value. It has an infinite
number of non-recurring decimals. Therefore, surds are irrational numbers. There
are certain rules that we follow to simplify an expression involving surds.
Rationalising the denominator is one way to simplify these expressions. It is
done by eliminating the surd in the denominator. This is shown in Rules 3, 5 and
6.
It can often be necessary to find the largest perfect square factor in order to
simplify surds. The largest perfect square factor is found by looking at any possible
factors of the number that is being square rooted. Lets say that you are looking at
the square root of 242. Can you simplify this? Well, 2 x 121 is 242 and we can take
the square root of 121 without leaving a surd (because we get 11). Since we cannot
take the square root of a larger number that can be multiplied by another to give 242
then we say that 121 is the largest perfect square factor.

Six Rules of Surds

Rule 1:
An Example:
:
, as 9 is the largest perfect square factor of 18.

Simplify
Since

Rule 2:
 An Example:

Simplify :

Rule 3:
By
multiplying
both
the :

numberator and denominator by the denominator you can rationalise the

denominator. An Example: rationalise

Rule 4:
An Example:
Simplify :

Rule 5:
Following this rule enables you to rationalise the denominator. An
Example:
 :

Rationalise

Rule 6:
Following this rule enables you to rationalise the denominator. An
Example:
:

Rationalise
 EVALUATION

2)

3)
4)
WEEK 9 MEASURE OF CENTRAL LOCATION

Mean, Median, Mode

Mean:

-- Also known as the average. The mean is found by adding up all of

the given data and dividing by the number of data entries.

Example:
- the grade 10 math class recently had a mathematics test and the grades were as
follows:

78
66
82 464 / 6 = 77.3
89
75 Hence, 77.3 is the mean average of the
class.
+ 74
464

Median:

-- The median is the middle number. First you arrange the numbers in
order from lowest
to highest, then you find the middle number by crossing off the numbers
until you reach the middle.

Example:
- use the above data to find the median:

66 74 75 78 82 89\

- as you can see we have two numbers, there is no middle number. What do we do?
 It is simple; we take the two middle numbers and find the average, ( or
mean ).

75 + 78 = 153

153 / 2 = 76.5

Hence, the middle number is 76.5.

Mode:

-- this is the number that occurs most often.

Example:
- find the mode of the following data:

78 56 68 92 84 76 74 56 68 66 78 72 66
65 53 61 62 78 84 61 90 87 77 62 88 81
The mode is 78.

Mean of Ungrouped Data

We will explain to find mean of ungrouped data through an example.
Find the mean of the marks (out of 15) obtained by 20 students.
12 10 5 8 15 5 2 8 10 5 10
12 12 2 5 2 8 10 5 10
This data is in the form of raw data. We can find mean of the data by using the
formula (I),
 Marks Number of
students
(xi) (fi)
2 4
5 5
8 3
10 5
12 2
15 1
Σfi = 20

Marks Number of students Fixi

(xi) (fi)

2 4 2×4 = 8
5 5 5× 5 = 25
8 3 3× 8 = 24
10 5 5 × 10 = 50
12 2
2 × 12 = 24
15 1 1 × 15 = 15
∑ xi
 i.e., . But this process will be time consuming.
n
We can also find the mean of this data by first making a frequency table of the
data and then applying the formula:
n

mean = x = i =1 f i x i (II)
∑ fi
i=1

where fi is the frequency of the ith observation xi. Frequency table of

the data is :

To find mean of this distribution, we first find fi xi, by multiplying each xi with its
corresponding frequency fi and append a column of fixi in the frequency table as
given below.
Σfi = 20 Σfi xi = 146

Mean = 146/20 = 73

Example: The following data represents the weekly wages (in rupees) of the
employees:
 Weekly 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
wages
(in `)

Number of 12 13 14 13 14 11 5
employees
Find the mean weekly wages of the employees.
Weekly wages (in Number of fixi
`) employees
(xi) (fi)

900 12 10800
1000 13 13000
1100 14 15400
1200 13 15600
1300 12 15600
1400 11

1500 5

Σfi = 80
Solution: In the following table, entries in the first column are xi’s and entries in
second columen are fi’s, i.e., corresponding frequencies. Recall that to find mean,
we require the product of each xi with corresponding frequency fi. So, let us put them
in a column as shown in the following table:
Using the Formula II,

∑ fi xi 93300
Mean weekly wages = `
∑ fi 80
= ` 1166.25

Mean, Median and Mode from

Grouped Frequencies

Explained with Three Examples

The Race and the Naughty Puppy

This starts with some raw data (not a grouped frequency yet) ...
 Alex timed 21 people in the sprint race, to the nearest second:

59, 65, 61, 62, 53, 55, 60, 70, 64, 56, 58, 58, 62, 62, 68, 65, 56, 59, 68, 61, 67

To find the Mean Alex adds up all the numbers, then divides by how many
numbers:

Mean
= 59+65+61+62+53+55+60+70+64+56+58+58+62+62+68+65+56+59+68+61+67
21
= 61.38095...

To find the Median Alex places the numbers in value order and finds the middle
number.

In this case the median is the 11th number:

53, 55, 56, 56, 58, 58, 59, 59, 60, 61, , 62, 62, 61 62, 64, 65, 65, 67, 68, 68, 70

Median = 61

To find the Mode , or modal value, Alex places the numbers in value order then
counts how many of each number. The Mode is the number which appears
most often (there can be more than one mode):
53, 55, 56, 56, 58, 58, 59, 59, 60, 61, 61, , 64, 65, 62, 62, 65, 67, 68, 68, 70

62 appears three times, more often 62 than the other values, so

Mode = 62

Grouped Frequency Table

Alex then makes a Grouped Frequency Table :

Seconds Frequency

51 - 55 2

56 - 60 7

61 - 65 8

66 - 70 4

So 2 runners took between 51 and 55 seconds, 7 took between 56 and 60 seconds,

etc

Oh No!
 Suddenly all the original data gets lost (naughty pup!)

Only the Grouped Frequency Table survived ...

... can we help Alex calculate the Mean, Median and Mode from just that table?

The answer is ... no we can't. Not accurately anyway. But, we can make estimates.

Estimating the Mean from Grouped Data So

all we have left is:

Seconds Frequency

51 - 55 2

56 - 60 7

61 - 65 8

66 - 70 4

The groups (51-55, 56-60, etc), also called class intervals, are of width 5

The midpoints are in the middle of each class: 53, 58, 63 and 68

We can estimate the Mean by using the midpoints.

So, how does this work?

 Think about the 7 runners in the group 56 - 60: all we know is that they ran
somewhere between 56 and 60 seconds:
Maybe all seven of them did 56 seconds,
Maybe all seven of them did 60 seconds,
But it is more likely that there is a spread of numbers: some at 56, some at 57, etc
So we take an average and assume that all seven of them took 58 seconds.

Let's now make the table using midpoints:

Midpoint Frequency

53 2

58 7

63 8

68 4

Our thinking is: "2 people took 53 sec, 7 people took 58 sec, 8 people took 63 sec
and 4 took 68 sec". In other words we imagine the data looks like this:

53, 53, 58, 58, 58, 58, 58, 58, 58, 63, 63, 63, 63, 63, 63, 63, 63, 68, 68, 68, 68
Then we add them all up and divide by 21. The quick way to do it is to multiply
each midpoint by each frequency:

Midpoint Frequency Midpoint

x f ×
Frequency
fx
 53 2 106

58 7 406

63 8 504

68 4 272

Totals: 21 1288
And then our estimate of the mean time to complete the race is:

Estimated Mean = 1288/21 = 61.333...

Very close to the exact answer we got earlier.

Estimating the Median from Grouped Data

Let's look at our data again:

Seconds Frequency

51 - 55 2

56 - 60 7

61 - 65 8

66 - 70 4
 The median is the middle value, which in our case is the 11th one, which is in the
61 - 65 group:

We can say "the median group is 61 - 65"

But if we want an estimated Median value we need to look more closely at the 61 -
65 group.

We call it "61 - 65", but it really includes values from 60.5 up to (but not including)
65.5.
Why? Well, the values are in whole seconds, so a real time of 60.5 is measured as
61. Likewise 65.4 is measured as 65.

At 60.5 we already have 9 runners, and by the next boundary at 65.5 we have 17
runners. By drawing a straight line in between we can pick out where the median
frequency of n/2 runners is:

And this handy formula does the calculation:

Estimated Median = L + ((n/2) – B / G )× w

where:

• L is the lower class boundary of the group containing the median

• n is the total number of values
• B is the cumulative frequency of the groups before the median group
• G is the frequency of the median group
• w is the group width For our example:

• L = 60.5
• n = 21
• B=2+7=9
• G=8
• w=5
Estimated Median= 60.5 +( (21/2) – 9 / 8 )× 5
= 60.5 + 0.9375
= 61.4375

Estimating the Mode from Grouped Data

Again, looking at our data:

Seconds Frequency

51 - 55 2

56 - 60 7

61 - 65 8

66 - 70 4
We can easily find the modal group (the group with the highest frequency), which
is 61 - 65
 We can say "the modal group is 61 - 65"

But the actual Mode may not even be in that group! Or there may be more than one
mode. Without the raw data we don't really know.

But, we can estimate the Mode using the following formula:

Estimated Mode = L + fm − fm-1 X W

(fm − fm-1) + (fm − fm+1)

where:

• L is the lower class boundary of the modal group

• fm-1 is the frequency of the group before the modal group
• fm is the frequency of the modal group
• fm+1 is the frequency of the group after the modal group
• w is the group width In this example:

• L = 60.5
• fm-1 = 7
• fm = 8
• fm+1 = 4
• w=5
Estimated Mode= 60.5 + 8–7 x 5
(8 − 7) + (8 − 4)
= 60.5 + (1/5) × 5
= 61.5

Our final result is:

Estimated Mean: 61.333...
Estimated Median: 61.4375
Estimated Mode: 61.5
(Compare that with the true Mean, Median and Mode of 61.38..., 61 and 62 that we
got at the very start.)

And that is how it is done.

Now let us look at two more examples, and get some more practice along the way!

Baby Carrots Example

Example: You grew fifty baby carrots using special soil. You dig them up and
measure their lengths (to the nearest mm) and group the results:

Length
(mm) Frequency

150 - 154 5

155 - 159 2

160 - 164 6

165 - 169 8

170 - 174 9

175 - 179 11
 180 - 184 6

185 - 189 3

Mean

Length Midpoint Frequency

(mm) x f fx
150 - 154 152 5 760

155 - 159 157 2 314

160 - 164 162 6 972

165 - 169 167 8 1336

170 - 174 172 9 1548

175 - 179 177 11 1947

180 - 184 182 6 1092

185 - 189 187 3 561

Totals: 50 8530

Estimated Mean = 8530/50 = 170.6 mm

Median

The Median is the mean of the 25th and the 26th length, so is in the 170 - 174 group:

• L = 169.5 (the lower class boundary of the 170 - 174 group)

• n = 50
• B = 5 + 2 + 6 + 8 = 21
• G=9
• w=5
Estimated Median= 169.5 + (50/2) − 219 × 5
= 169.5 + 2.22...
= 171.7 mm (to 1 decimal)

Mode

The Modal group is the one with the highest frequency, which is 175 - 179:

• L = 174.5 (the lower class boundary of the 175 - 179 group)

• fm-1 = 9
• fm = 11
• fm+1 = 6
• w=5
Estimated Mode= 174.5 + 11 – 9 x 5
(11 − 9) + (11 − 6)
= 174.5 + 1.42...
= 175.9 mm (to 1 decimal)

Age Example

Age is a special case.

When we say "Sarah is 17" she stays "17" up until her eighteenth birthday. She
might be 17 years and 364 days old and still be called "17".

This changes the midpoints and class boundaries.

Example: The ages of the 112 people who live on a tropical island are grouped as
follows:

Age Number

0-9 20

10 - 19 21

20 - 29 23

30 - 39 16

40 - 49 11

50 - 59 10

60 - 69 7

70 - 79 3

80 - 89 1
A child in the first group 0 - 9 could be almost 10 years old. So the midpoint for
this group is 5 not 4.5

The midpoints are 5, 15, 25, 35, 45, 55, 65, 75 and 85

Similarly, in the calculations of Median and Mode, we will use the class boundaries
0, 10, 20 etc
 Mean
Age Midpoint Number
x f fx

0-9 5 20 100

10 - 19 15 21 315

20 - 29 25 23 575

30 - 39 35 16 560

40 - 49 45 11 495

50 - 59 55 10 550

60 - 69 65 7 455

70 - 79 75 3 225

80 - 89 85 1 85

Totals: 112 3360

Estimated Mean = 3360 / 112 = 30

Median

The Median is the mean of the ages of the 56th and the 57th people, so is in the 20 -
29 group:

• L = 20 (the lower class boundary of the class interval containing the median)
• n = 112
• B = 20 + 21 = 41
• G = 23
• w = 10
Estimated Median= 20 + ( (112/2) – 4)123 × 10
= 20 + 6.52...
= 26.5 (to 1 decimal)

Mode

The Modal group is the one with the highest frequency, which is 20 - 29:

• L = 20 (the lower class boundary of the modal class)

• fm-1 = 21
• fm = 23
• fm+1 = 16
• w = 10
Estimated Mode= 20 + 23 – 21 x 10
(23 − 21) + (23 − 16)
= 20 + 2.22...
= 22.2 (to 1 decimal)

Summary
For grouped data, we cannot find the exact Mean, Median and Mode, we can only
give estimates.

To estimate the Mean use the midpoints of the class intervals:

Estimated Mean = Sum of (Midpoint × Frequency)Sum of Freqency
To estimate the Median use:
Estimated Median = L + (n/2) – B / G × w
 where:
L is the lower class boundary of the group containing the median

n is the total number of data

B is the cumulative frequency of the groups before the median group

G is the frequency of the median group

w is the group width

To estimate the Mode use:

Estimated Mode = L + fm − fm-1 x w

(fm − fm-1) + (fm − fm+1)

where:
L is the lower class boundary of the modal group

fm-1 is the frequency of the group before the modal group

fm is the frequency of the modal group

fm+1 is the frequency of the group after the modal group

w is the group width

EVALUATION
1.The table below gives data on the heights, in cm, of 51 children.

(a)
Estimate the mean height.
(b)
Find the median class.

(c)
Find the modal class.

2. The ages of students in a small primary school were recorded in the table
below.

(a)
Estimate the mean.

(b)
Estimate the median.

(c)
Find the modal class.

3. The number of days that students were missing from school due to sickness
in one year was recorded.

(a)
Estimate the mean.

(b)
Find the median class.

(c)
Find the modal class.
 WEEK 10 PROBABILITY

Probability
How likely something is to happen.

Many events can't be predicted with total certainty. The best we can say is how
likely they are to happen, using the idea of probability.

Tossing a Coin

When a coin is tossed, there are two possible outcomes:

• heads (H) or

• tails (T)

We say that the probability of the coin landing H is ½.

 And the probability of the coin landing T is ½.

Throwing Dice

When a single die is thrown, there are six possible

outcomes: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

The probability of any one of them is 1/6.

Probability
In general:

Probability of an event happening = Number of ways it can happenTotal

number of outcomes

Example: the chances of rolling a "4" with a die

Number of ways it can happen: 1 (there is only 1 face with a "4" on it)

Total number of outcomes: 6 (there are 6 faces altogether)

So the probability = 1/6

Example: there are 5 marbles in a bag: 4 are blue, and 1 is red. What is the
probability that a blue marble gets picked?

Number of ways it can happen: 4 (there are 4 blues)

Total number of outcomes: 5 (there are 5 marbles in total)

So the probability = 45 = 0.8

Probability Line
We can show probability on a Probability Line :

Probability is always between 0 and 1

Probability is Just a Guide

Probability does not tell us exactly what will happen, it is just a guide

Example: toss a coin 100 times, how many Heads will come up?

Probability says that heads have a ½ chance, so we can expect 50 Heads.

But when we actually try it we might get 48 heads, or 55 heads ... or anything
really, but in most cases it will be a number near 50.

Learn more at Probability Index .

Words
Some words have special meaning in Probability:

Experiment or Trial: an action where the result is uncertain.

Tossing a coin, throwing dice, seeing what pizza people choose are all examples
of experiments.

Sample Space: all the possible outcomes of an experiment

Example: choosing a card from a deck

There are 52 cards in a deck (not including Jokers)

So the Sample Space is all 52 possible cards: {Ace of Hearts, 2 of Hearts,

etc... }

The Sample Space is made up of Sample Points:

Sample Point: just one of the possible outcomes

Example: Deck of Cards

the 5 of Clubs is a sample point

the King of Hearts is a sample point

"King" is not a sample point. As there are 4 Kings that is 4 different sample
points.

Event: a single result of an experiment

Example Events:
Getting a Tail when tossing a coin is an event

Rolling a "5" is an event.

An event can include one or more possible outcomes:
Choosing a "King" from a deck of cards (any of the 4 Kings) is an event

Rolling an "even number" (2, 4 or 6) is also an event

The Sample Space is all possible outcomes.

A Sample Point is just one possible

outcome.

And an Event can be one or more of the

possible outcomes.

Hey, let's use those words, so you get used to them:

Example: Alex wants to see how many times a "double" comes up when throwing 2
dice.

Each time Alex throws the 2 dice is an Experiment.

It is an Experiment because the result is uncertain.

The Event Alex is looking for is a "double", where both dice have the same
number. It is made up of these 6 Sample Points:

{1,1} {2,2} {3,3} {4,4} {5,5} and {6,6}

The Sample Space is all possible outcomes (36 Sample Points):

{1,1} {1,2} {1,3} {1,4} ... {6,3} {6,4} {6,5} {6,6}

These are Alex's Results:

Experiment Is it a Double?
{3,4} No
{5,1} No
{2,2} Yes
{6,3} No
... ...

After 100 Experiments, Alex has 19 "double" Events ... is that close to what you
would expect?

Probability: Types of Events

Life is full of random events!

You need to get a "feel" for them to be a smart and successful person.

The toss of a coin, throw of a dice and lottery draws are all examples of random
events.

Events
When we say "Event" we mean one (or more) outcomes.

Example Events:
Getting a Tail when tossing a coin is an event

Rolling a "5" is an event.

An event can include several outcomes:
 Choosing a "King" from a deck of cards (any of the 4 Kings) is also an event

Rolling an "even number" (2, 4 or 6) is an event

Events can be:

• Independent (each event is not affected by other events),

• Dependent (also called "Conditional", where an event is affected by other
events)
• Mutually Exclusive (events can't happen at the same time) Let's look at each

of those types.

Independent Events
Events can be "Independent", meaning each event is not affected by any other
events.

This is an important idea! A coin does not "know" that it came up heads before
... each toss of a coin is a perfect isolated thing.

Example: You toss a coin three times and it comes up "Heads" each time ... what
is the chance that the next toss will also be a "Head"?

The chance is simply 1/2, or 50%, just like ANY OTHER toss of the coin.

What it did in the past will not affect the current toss!

Some people think "it is overdue for a Tail", but really truly the next toss of the
coin is totally independent of any previous tosses.

Saying "a Tail is due", or "just one more go, my luck is due" is called
The Gambler's Fallacy

Learn more at Independent Events .

Dependent Events
But some events can be "dependent" ... which means they can be affected by
previous events.

Example: Drawing 2 Cards from a Deck

After taking one card from the deck there are less cards available, so the
probabilities change!

Let's look at the chances of getting a King.

For the 1st card the chance of drawing a King is 4 out of 52 But for the 2nd card:
If the 1st card was a King, then the 2nd card is less likely to be a King, as
only 3 of the 51 cards left are Kings.

If the 1st card was not a King, then the 2nd card is slightly more likely to be
a King, as 4 of the 51 cards left are King.
This is because we are removing cards from the deck.

Replacement: When we put each card back after drawing it the chances don't
change, as the events are independent.

Without Replacement: The chances will change, and the events are dependent.

You can learn more at Dependent Events: Conditional Probability

Tree Diagrams
When we have Dependent Events it helps to make a Tree Diagram ""

Example: Soccer Game

You are off to soccer, and love being the Goalkeeper, but that depends who is
the Coach today:
with Coach Sam your probability of being Goalkeeper is 0.5

with Coach Alex your probability of being Goalkeeper is 0.3

Sam is Coach

more often ... about 6 of every 10 games (a probability of 0.6).

Let's build the Tree Diagram!

Start with the Coaches. We know 0.6 for Sam, so it must be 0.4 for Alex (the
probabilities must add to 1):

Then fill out the branches for Sam (0.5 Yes and 0.5 No), and then for Alex (0.3
Yes and 0.7 No):

Now it is neatly laid out we can calculate probabilities (read more at " Tree

Diagram s").

Mutually Exclusive
Mutually Exclusive means we can't get both events at the same time.
It is either one or the other, but not both Examples:

• Turning left or right are Mutually Exclusive (you can't do both at the same time)
• Heads and Tails are Mutually Exclusive
• Kings and Aces are Mutually Exclusive

What isn't Mutually Exclusive

• Kings and Hearts are not Mutually Exclusive, because we can have a King of
Hearts!

Like here:

Aces and Kings are Hearts and Kings are

Mutually Exclusive not Mutually Exclusive

Mutually Exclusive Events

Mutually Exclusive: can't happen at the same time.

Examples:
• Turning left and turning right are Mutually Exclusive (you can't do both at
the same time)
• Tossing a coin: Heads and Tails are Mutually Exclusive
• Cards: Kings and Aces are Mutually Exclusive What is not Mutually

Exclusive:

• Turning left and scratching your head can happen at the same time
Kings and Hearts, because we can have a King of Hearts!

Like here:

Aces and Kings are Hearts and Kings are not

Mutually Exclusive (can't Mutually Exclusive (can
be both) be both)

Probability
Let's look at the probabilities of Mutually Exclusive events. But first, a definition:

Probability of an event happening = Number of ways it can happenTotal

number of outcomes

Example: there are 4 Kings in a deck of 52 cards. What is the probability of

picking a King?

Number of ways it can happen: 4 (there are 4 Kings)

Total number of outcomes: 52 (there are 52 cards in total)

So the probability = 452 = 113

Mutually Exclusive
When two events (call them "A" and "B") are Mutually Exclusive it is
impossible for them to happen together:

P(A and B) = 0

"The probability of A and B together equals 0 (impossible)"

But the probability of A or B is the sum of the individual probabilities:

P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)

"The probability of A or B equals the probability of A plus the probability of B"

Example: A Deck of Cards

In a Deck of 52 Cards:
the probability of a King is 1/13, so P(King)=1/13

the probability of an Ace is also 1/13, so P(Ace)=1/13

When we combine those two Events:

The probability of a card being a King and an Ace is 0 (Impossible)

The probability of a card being a King or an Ace is (1/13) + (1/13) = 2/13

Which is written like this:

P(King and Ace) = 0

 P(King or Ace) = (1/13) + (1/13) = 2/13

Special Notation
Instead of "and" you will often see the symbol ∩ (which is
the Venn Diagrams "Intersection"
symbol used in )

Instead of "or" you will often see the symbol (the "Union" symbol)

Example: Scoring Goals

If the probability of:

scoring no goals (Event "A") is 20%

scoring exactly 1 goal (Event "B") is 15%

Then:
The probability of scoring no goals and 1 goal is 0 (Impossible)

The probability of scoring no goals or 1 goal is 20% + 15% = 35%

Which is written:

P(A ∩ B) = 0

P(A B) = 20% + 15% = 35%

Remembering
To help you remember, think:
 "Or has more ... than And"

Also is like a cup which holds more than ∩

Not Mutually Exclusive
Now let's see what happens when events are not Mutually Exclusive.

Example: Hearts and Kings

Hearts and Kings together is only the King of Hearts:

But Hearts or Kings is:

• all the Hearts (13 of them)

• all the Kings (4 of them)

But that counts the King of Hearts twice!

So we correct our answer, by subtracting the extra "and" part:

 16 Cards = 13 Hearts + 4 Kings − the 1 extra King of Hearts

Count them to make sure this works!

As a formula this is:

P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A and B)

"The probability of A or B equals the probability of A plus the probability of B minus

the probability of A and B"

Here is the same formula, but using and ∩:

P(A B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A ∩ B)

A Final Example
16 people study French, 21 study Spanish and there are 30 altogether.
Work out the probabilities!

This is definitely a case of not Mutually Exclusive (you can study French AND
Spanish).

Let's say b is how many study both languages:

• people studying French Only must be 16-b

• people studying Spanish Only must be 21-b
And we get:

And we know there are 30 people, so:

(16−b) + b + (21−b) = 30
37 − b = 30 b
=7

And we can put in the correct numbers:

So we know all this now:

• P(French) = 16/30
• P(Spanish) = 21/30
• P(French Only) = 9/30
• P(Spanish Only) = 14/30
• P(French or Spanish) = 30/30 = 1
• P(French and Spanish) = 7/30

Lastly, let's check with our formula:

P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A and B)

Put the values in:

30/30 = 16/30 + 21/30 − 7/30

 Yes, it works!

Summary:

Mutually Exclusive
• A and B together is impossible: P(A and B) = 0

• A or B is the sum of A and B: P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)

Not Mutually Exclusive

• A or B is the sum of A and B minus A and B: P(A or B) = P(A) +
P(B) − P(A and B)

EVALUATION

Question 1: A die is rolled, find the probability that an even number is obtained.

Question 2: Two coins are tossed, find the probability that two heads are obtained.

Question 3: Which of these numbers cannot be a probability? a)

-0.00001
b) 0.5
c) 1.001
d) 0
e) 1
f) 20%
Question 4: Two dice are rolled, find the probability that the sum is a)
equal to 1
b) equal to 4
c) less than 13
Question 5: A die is rolled and a coin is tossed, find the probability that the die
shows an odd number and the coin shows a head.

Question 6: A card is drawn at random from a deck of cards. Find the probability
of getting the 3 of diamond.

Question 7: A card is drawn at random from a deck of cards. Find the probability
of getting a queen.

Question 8: A jar contains 3 red marbles, 7 green marbles and 10 white marbles. If
a marble is drawn from the jar at random, what is the probability that this marble is
white?

Question 9: The blood groups of 200 people is distributed as follows: 50 have

type A blood, 65 have B blood type, 70 have O blood type and 15 have type
ABblood. If a person from this group is selected at random, what is the
probability that this person has O blood type?

Question 10:
a) A die is rolled, find the probability that the number obtained is greater than 4.
b) Two coins are tossed, find the probability that one head only is obtained.
c) Two dice are rolled, find the probability that the sum is equal to 5.
d) A card is drawn at random from a deck of cards. Find the probability of getting
the King of heart.