SS 2 Physics Second Term E-Note - 092926

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2023
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SCHEME OF WORK
WEEKS TOPICS CONTENT
1 REVISION OF FIRST REVISION OF FIRST TERM WORK

TERM WORK
2 LINEAR MOMENTUM Newton’s first law of motion, impulse and

moment Newton’s second law of motion,
Calculations on the two laws, Newton’s third law
of motion.Applications of third law
.
MECHANICAL ENERGY (a) Principleof linear momentum, (b) Types of

3
collision - elastic and inelastic, (c) Simple
machine – definition, mechanical advantage,
velocity ratio, derivation of efficiency of
machine.
4. SIMPLE MACHINES Levers and pulleys, inclined plane and Hydraulic

(CONTD) press , Wheel and Axle, Gear
5 HEAT ENERGY: Temperature and its measurement, liquid-in-glass

thermometer, Constant volume gas thermometer,
Resistance thermometer and Thermocouple.
6
Temperature scales of thermometers and
HEAT ENERGY: conversion from one scale to another, Molecular
explanation of temperature, Measurement of heat
energy, Concept of Heat capacity and specific
heat capacity.
7 MID-TERM BREAK
Determination of specific heat capacity of liquid,
8 HEAT ENERGY: Latent heat, Determination of specific latent heat
of fusion of ice, Determination of specific latent
heat of vaporization of steam.

Evaporation: Meaning, Factors that affects
9 HEAT ENERGY: evaporation and applications of evaporation and
latent heat. Boling point: Meaning, determination
of boiling point,Effect of pressure and impurities
on boiling and freezing point, Relative humidity,
mist, cloud, dew point
Measurement of Gas pressure, Pressure law,

10 GAS LAWS: Boyle’s law and its Application, Charles’ law
and its application, General gas law.
11 Revision.
12
Examination.
WEEK: TWO
TOPIC: LINEAR MOMENTUM
LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson the students should be able to :
i. State Newton’s first law of motion.
ii. Explain three applications of Newton’s law of motion.
iii. Differentiate between impulse and momentum.
iv. State Newton’s second law of motion.
v. Derive the formular F=ma.
vi. State Newton’s third law of motion
vii. Explain at least three applications of Newton’s third law of motion.
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students have studied motion and force in ss1
SUB-TOPIC 1: Newton’s first law of motion and its applications, impulse and momentum.
CONTENT:

The influence of unbalanced forces and the laws governing the motion are discussed in this topic.
Newton’s first law of motion: The first law states that every object continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a
straight line unless acted upon by an external force.
Inertia: It is the tendency of a body to remain in its state of rest or uniform linear motion. Newton’s law of motion is
called law of inertia.
Applications of Newton’s first law:
1. When a moving vehicle is suddenly brought to rest by the application of the brakes, the passengers suddenly jerk
forward as they tend to continue in their straight line motion. That is why it is advisable to use a safety belt.
2. A car driver in a stationary car hit by another car from behind is likely to suffer neck injuries because when the car is
hit, his body is pushed forward, but his head stays still and is jerked backward in relation to his body. It is advisable to
have a headrest to protect the driver and passengers from injury.
3. A moving body comes to rest due to opposing forces such as air resistance , friction or pull of gravity.
Momentum (p): The momentum of a body is defined as the product of its mass and its velocity. The S.I unit is
kgms-1or Ns
𝑷 = 𝒎𝒗
M =mass in kg, V= velocity in ms-1
Impulse: it is the product of the average force acting on a particle and the time during which it acts. It is numerically
equal to change in momentum.
𝑰 = 𝑭 × 𝒕, 𝑭𝒕 = 𝒎𝒗 − 𝒎𝒖.
mv is final momentum, mu is initial momentum
The unit of impulse is Newton-second (Ns) or kgms – 1
Newton’s second law of motion: The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the applied
force and takes place in the direction in which the force acts.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
force ∝
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢
f∝
𝑡
𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑢)
f∝
𝑡
𝑣−𝑢
but =a
𝑡
f ∝ 𝑚𝑎, 𝑓 = 𝑘𝑚𝑎, 𝑖𝑓𝑘 = 1,
𝑓 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑎𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑚s −2

𝑓𝑖𝑠𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛.
Calculations:
1. A net force of magnitude 0.6N acts on a body of mass 40g, initially at rest.
Calculate the magnitude of the resulting acceleration.
SOLUTION:
𝑓 = 0.6𝑁, 𝑚 = 40𝑔 = 0.04𝑘𝑔

𝑢 = 0, 𝑎 =?
𝑓 = 𝑚𝑎
0.6 = 0.04 𝑥𝑎
0.6
𝑎= = 15𝑚s−2
0.04
2.A ball of mass 5.0kg hits a smooth vertical wall normally with a speed of 2ms-1 and rebounds with the same speed.
Determine the impulse experienced by the ball.
𝑓 = 0.6𝑁, 𝑚 = 5.0𝑘𝑔
𝑢 = 2𝑚𝑙𝑠, 𝑣 = −2𝑚/𝑠, (𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢
𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 5(−2 − 2) = 5 × (−4) = −20𝑁𝑠
PRACTICE EXERCISE:
1. The property of a body to remain at rest or to continue in a uniform motion in a straight line is called
A. momentum B. inertia C. impulse D. energy
2. If no net force acts on an object, the object maintains a state of rest or constant speed in a straight line.
The above is a statement of Newton’s A. first law of motion. B. second law of motion. C. third law
of motion. D. law of universal gravitation.
3. When the linear momentum of a body is constant, the net force acting on it A. is zero. B. increases
C. decreases. D. remains constant
4. From Newton’s first law of motion, A. a body can only undergo translational motion. B. once a body
remains at rest no force acts on it. C. the net force acting on a body in uniform linear motion is zero. D.
a body’s inertia is its weight.
5. An object of mass 5.0𝑘𝑔 moves with a velocity of 10𝑚𝑠 −1 . Calculate its momentum. A. 50.0𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1
B. 15.0 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1 C. 2.0 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1 D. 0.5 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1
ccc
THEORY
1. Aball of mass 0.1kg approaching a tennis player with a velocity of 10ms-1, is hit back in the opposite direction with a
velocity of 15ms-1. If the time of impact between the racket and the ball is 0.01s, calculate the magnitude of the force with
which the ball is hit.
2.A body of mass 20kg is set in motion by two forces 3N and 4N, acting at right angles to each other. Determine the
magnitude of its acceleration.
SUB-TOPIC 2: Newton’s second law of motion
CONTENT:
Newton’s second law of motion: The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the applied
force and takes place in the direction in which the force acts.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
force ∝
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢
f∝
𝑡
𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑢)
f∝
𝑡
𝑣−𝑢
but =a
𝑡
f ∝ 𝑚𝑎, 𝑓 = 𝑘𝑚𝑎, 𝑖𝑓𝑘 = 1,
𝑓 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑎𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑚s −2
𝑓𝑖𝑠𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛.
Calculations:
1. A net force of magnitude 0.6N acts on a body of mass 40g, initially at rest.
Calculate the magnitude of the resulting acceleration.
SOLUTION:
𝑓 = 0.6𝑁, 𝑚 = 40𝑔 = 0.04𝑘𝑔

𝑢 = 0, 𝑎 =?
𝑓 = 𝑚𝑎
0.6 = 0.04 𝑥𝑎
0.6
𝑎= = 15𝑚s−2
0.04
2.A ball of mass 5.0kg hits a smooth vertical wall normally with a speed of 2ms-1 and rebounds with the same speed.
Determine the impulse experienced by the ball.
𝑓 = 0.6𝑁, 𝑚 = 5.0𝑘𝑔
𝑢 = 2𝑚𝑙𝑠, 𝑣 = −2𝑚/𝑠, (𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢
𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 5(−2 − 2) = 5 × (−4) = −20𝑁𝑠
PRACTICE EXERCISE: (5 fill in the gap question per subtopic, 3 short answer questions)
1. If the total force acting on a body is zero, the linear momentum will be
a. increased b. decreased c. constant d. zero
2. An external force of magnitude 100N acts on a particle of mass 0.15kg for 0.03s. calculate the change in speed of
the particle. a. 50m/s b. 25m/s c. 20m/s d. 5m/s
3. A force of 15N acts on a body of mass 3kg for 5s. calculate the change in the magnitude of the velocity of the
body. a. 1.0m/s b. 9.0m/s c. 22.5m/s d. 25.0m/s
4. A force acting on a body causes a change in the momentum of the body from 12kgm/s to 16kgm/s in 0.2s.
calculate the magnitude of the impulse. a. 28Ns b. 20Ns c. 4Ns d. 0.8Ns
5. A force of 50N acts on a small ball of mass 4kg travelling at 0.8m/s for 0.2s in the direction of its motion. What is
the final velocity of the ball? a. 3.3m/s b. 5.5m/s c. 2.0m/s d. 1.0m/s
THEORY
1. (a)State Newton’s second law of motion. (b) Explain the term inertia.
(c)
𝑭𝑰 𝑭
The diagram above illustrates a body of mass 5.0𝑘𝑔 being pulled by a horizontal force 𝑭. If the body
accelerates at 2.0𝑚𝑠 −2 and experiences a frictional force of 5𝑁, calculate the; (i) net force on it;
(ii) magnitude of 𝑭; (iii) coefficient of kinetic friction. [𝑔 = 10𝑚𝑠-2] WAEC 2014

2. A body of mass 5.5𝑘𝑔 moving with a velocity of 2𝑚𝑠 −1 is acted upon by two forces 4𝑁 and 3𝑁 at
right angle to each other. Calculate the ; (i) resultant force (ii) final velocity of the body if the forces
acted for five minutes. NECO 2017
3. During a tug of war game, team 𝐵 was able to drag team 𝐴 through a horizontal distance of 2.0𝑚 with a speed
of 1.2𝑚𝑠 −1 . Given that the total mass of team 𝐴 is 210𝑘𝑔, and the frictional force acting is 10% of the total
weight of team 𝐴, calculate the magnitude of the net force on team 𝐴. [𝑔 = 10𝑚𝑠-2]
SUB-TOPIC 3: Newton’s third of motion and applications
CONTENT:
Newton’s third law of motion: It states that Action and Reaction are equal and opposite. Or to every Action
there is an equal and opposite Reaction.
Applications of Newton’s third law:

1. Gun and bullet: When a bullet is shot out of a gun the person firing it experiences the backwards recoil force
of the gun. The recoil force of the gun ( reaction) is equal to the propulsive force(action) acting on the bullet.
Force is proportional to change in momentum,

Momentum of bullet is equal and opposite to momentum of gun.
mb – mass of bullet
vb - velocity of bullet
mg - mass of gun
vg – velocity of gun
𝒎𝒃 𝒗𝒃 = −𝒎𝒈 𝒗𝒈
−𝒎𝒃 𝒗𝒃
𝒗𝒈 =
𝒎𝒈
2. Rocket and Jet propulsion: The momentum of the stream of hot gases issuing out of the nozzle behind the
jet or rocket impacts an equal and opposite momentum to the rocket or aeroplane which undergoes a forward
thrust.

Action force(jet of hot gas) Reaction force(forward thrust)
mr – mass of rocket
vr - velocity of rocket
mg - mass of hot gas
vg – velocity of hot gas
𝒎𝒓 𝒗𝒓 = −𝒎𝒈 𝒗𝒈
−𝒎𝒃 𝒗𝒃
𝒗𝒓 =
𝒎𝒈
NEWTON THIRD LAW OF MOTION

This states that when a body acts on another body with a force F, the second body acts on the first body with an equal
amount of force but in the opposite direction.
That is, for every action, there is an equal but opposite reaction.
Application of the Newton third law of motion
1. Garden sprinkler: this has a Z- shaped tube mounted on a pivot and through which water flows into the tube.As
water is forced out of the open end of the tube, the tube is pushed backward with a equal but opposite reaction.
This way, the tube is able to spin round and round and water the field all around it.
2. Weightlessness or weight loss in a lift: a person standing on a weighing machine in a

lift descending with a certain acceleration will experience weight loss and if the
downward acceleration of the lift is equal to the prevailing acceleration due to gravity at that
location, the person becomes weightless and float around in the lift.
I. when the lift is ascending with acceleration a;
R - reaction
Net force
ma
mg
R – mg = ma
R= ma + mg
R = m(a + g)
(Note: the value of R represents the reading on the weighing machine on which the person stands).
In this case, the reading on the machine is greater than the usual weight W. The person will feel
heavier as the lift ascends.
II. When the lift is ascending but at constant velocity.
Net force =
R - reaction
0; v is
constant
mg
R – mg = net force
R – mg = 0
R = mg
( note that in this case, the reading recorded on the weighing machine is the exact weight of the body at that
location)
III. When the lift is descending with acceleration a
R - reaction
Net force
ma
mg
mg – R = ma
R = mg – ma
R = m( g – a)
In this case, the person will feel lighter as the lift descend.
However, if the lift is descending with acceleration a = g
R = m(g – g)
R = m(0)
R=0
In this case, the person will weightlessness (free fall). In fact, he will float around in the lift
Worked Problem:
1. A tight rope walker of mass 60 kg stands in the middle of a rope and such that at his feet, the rop makes angle 50 to
the horizontal. Calculate the tension in the rope.
T
T
T sin 5
T sin 5 T sin 5
Component of the
tension in the rope along
the vertical
Weight of the walker = mg

mg = T sin 5 + T sin 5
60 x 10 = T ( 2 x 0.087
600/0.174 = T
T = 3448 N
Worked Example 2:
A brave but inadequate ruby player is being pushed backward by an opposing player who is exerting a force of 800 N on
him. The mass of the losing player is 90.0 kg and he is accelerating at 1.2 m/s2. What is the force of friction between the
losing player’s feet and the grass?
ma
800N
fr
𝑚𝑎 = 800 − 𝑓𝑟
90 𝑥 1.2 = 800 − 𝑓𝑟
𝑓𝑟 = 800 − 108
𝑓𝑟 = 692 𝑁
Worked Example 3:
A woman of mass 57 kg stands on a weighing machine inside a lift ascending at 0.2 m/s2. What is the reading on the
machine?
𝑅 − 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑅 = 𝑚𝑎 + 𝑚𝑔
ma
𝑅 = 𝑚(𝑎 + 𝑔) R
𝑅 = 57(0.2 + 10)
𝑅 = 57 𝑥 10.2 mg
𝑅 = 581.4 𝑁
PRACTICE EXERCISE:

1. A girl stands on a scale in a lift. If the reading on the scale is less than her weight, then the lift is moving
A. Upward at uniform speed B. Upward with uniform acceleration C. Downward with uniform speed
D. Downward with uniform acceleration
TOPICAL TEST:
1. The product of mass and velocity is A. momentum B. moment C. acceleration D. force

2. !. The time rate of change of momentum is
(A) Impulse (B) Force (C) Power (D) Moment (E) Inertia
2. What change in velocity would be produced on a body of mass 4kg if a constant force of 16N acts
on it for 2s?
(A) 0.5ms-1 (B) 2.0ms-1 (C) 8.0ms-1 (D) 32.0ms-1 (E) 128.0ms-1
3. A stationary object of mass 4kg is set in motion by a net force of 50N. If the object attains a speed
of 5ms-1 in time t, calculate the value of t.
(A) 0.20s (B) 0.40s (C) 0.63s (D) 0.80s (E) 1.30s
4. The unit of impulse of a force is
(A) N (B) Ns (C) N/s D. Nm
5. A resultant force of 15.0N acts on a body for 4s, mass 4kg. Calculate the change in
momentum.
THEORY
1a. Derive the relationship F = ma, where F is the force applied, m is the mass of the object and
a is the acceleration.
b. The engine of a vehicle moves it forward with a force of 9600N against a resistive force of
2200N. If the mass of the vehicle is 3400kg, calculate the acceleration produced.
c. A bullet of mass 120g is fired horizontally into a fixed wooden block with a speed of
20m/s. If the bullet is brought to rest in the block in 0.1s by a constant resistance, calculate
the
i. Magnitude of the resistance ii. Distance moved by the bullet in the wood.
2a. Define the term impulse.
b. A tractor of mass 5.0 × 103 kg is used to tow a car of mass 2.5 × 103kg. The tractor
moves with a speed of 3.0m/s just before the towing rope becomes taut. Calculate the
i. speed of the tractor immediately the rope becomes taut.
ii. loss in kinetic energy of the system just after the car starts moving.
c. A stone weighing 500g is pushed along a tarmac by a horizontal force of 10N. If a force of
4N opposes its motion, calculate the magnitude of the acceleration of the stone.
3. A ball of mass 0.10𝑘𝑔 projected horizontally onto a vertical wall with a speed of 17ms-1. The ball
makes contact with the wall for 0.15𝑠 and rebounds horizontally with a speed of 13ms-1. Calculate the:
(i) change in momentum of the ball; (ii) average force exerted on the ball during its collision with the
wall. WAEC 2012
GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:
PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:
i. Explain why the velocity of a recoiling gun is lower than that of the bullet shot out of the gun.
ii. A rocket of mass 500kg
INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES: "The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing." - Socrates

WEEK: THREE
TOPIC: MECHANICAL ENERGY
i. State the principle of conservation of linear momentum.
ii. Apply the principle in solving mathematical problems.
iii. Explain what is meant by machine.
iv. Mention at least five types of simple machines.
v. Explain the terms mechanical Advantage, Velocity ratio, efficiency.
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students can define and calculate momentum.
SUB-TOPIC 1: Principle of linear momentum
CONTENT:
Sub –topic 1. Principle of conservation of linear momentum
Principle of conservation of linear momentum: In a closed system of colliding bodies, the total momentum
after the collision is equal to the total momentum before the collision provided there is no net external force
acting on the system.
Case 1: Consider two bodies A and B of masses m1 and m2 moving in the same direction with velocities u1 and
u2 respectively. After collision their velocities were V1 and V2 as shown below.
U1 U2 V1 V2
A B A B
Before collision After collision
Applying the principle of conservation of linear momentum,
M1U1 + M2U2 = M1V1 + M2V2

Case 2: Consider two bodies A and B of masses m1 and m2 moving towards each other with velocities u1 and u2
respectively. After collision there velocities were V1 and V2 .
U1 U2 V1 V2
A B A B
Before
Assuming m1collision
u1> m2u2, After collision
M1U1 - M2U2 = M1V1 + M2V2

Case 3: Consider two bodies A and B of masses m1 and m2 moving in the same direction with velocities u1 and
u2 respectively. If after collision they coalesce and move together with common velocity V.
U1 U2
V
A B A B
Before collision After collision
M1U1 + M2U2 = (M1 + M2)V

CALCULATIONS:
Example 1: A trolley of mass 4kg moving on a smooth horizontal platform with a speed of 1.0ms-1 collides perfectly
with a stationary trolley of the same mass on the same platform. Calculate the total momentum of the two trolleys
immediately after the collision.
SOLUTION:
M1 = 4kg, U1 = 10m/s, U2 = 0, M2 = 4kg
Total momentum before the collision = total momentum after the collision.
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
since u2 = 0,
m2u2 = 0
Momentum after collision (m1v1 + m2v2) = m1u1 = 4 x 1 = 4.0 kgms – 1
Example2. A ball of mass 0.5kg moving at 10ms-1 collides with another ball of equal mass at rest. If the two balls move
off together after the impact, calculate their common velocity.
M1 = 0.5kg, U1 = 10m/s, U2 = 0, M2 = kg
SOLUTION:
M1U1 + M2U2 = (M1 + M2)V

0.5 x 10 + 0.5 x0 = (0.5 +0.5)V
5 = 1.0V
V = 5m/s
PRACTICEQUESTIONS
1. In an elastic collision, momentum is conserved as well as A. velocity B. kinetic energy C. potential

energy D. speed
2.An 800𝑘𝑔 car moving at 80 kmhr-1 collides with a 1200𝑘𝑔 car moving at 40 kmhr-1 in the same direction.
If the cars stick together, calculate their common velocity. A. 60 kmhr-1 B. 8 kmhr-1 C. 40 kmhr-1 D.
56 kmhr-1
THEORY
1. State the following:
a. Newton’s third law of motion
b. Principle of conservation of linear momentum.
2. A ball P of mass 0.25kg loses one-third of its velocity when it makes a head-on collision with an identical ball Q at
rest. After the collision, Q moves off with a speed of 2m/s in the original direction of P. Calculate the initial velocity of
P.
SUB-TOPIC 2: Types of collisions
CONTENT
Types of collision: There are two major types of collisions, elastic and inelastic collisions.

Elastic collision: In an elastic collision both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved. This means that for two
colliding bodies with masses m1 and m2 and initial velocities u1 and u2 and final velocities after collision V1 and V2
,
M1U1 + M2U2 = M1V1 + M2V2,

1 1 1 1
M1U12 +2 M2U22 =2 M1V12 +2M2V22
2
An example of perfectly elastic collision is a ball which bounces off the ground back to its original height.
Inelastic collision: In this case momentum is conserved but kinetic energy is not conserved. The energy lost is usually
converted to heat, sound or elastic potential energy.
M1U1 + M2U2 = M1V1 + M2V2,

1 1 1 1
M1U12 +2 M2U22 ≠ 2 M1V12 + M2V22
2 2
Example 3
1. A body of mass 5kg moving with a velocity of 20m/s due south hits a stationary body of mass 3kg.
If they move together after collision with a velocity v due south, find the value of v.
Solution
M1U1 + M2U2 = (M1 + M2)V

5 x 20 + 3 x0 = (5+ 3)V
100 = 8V
V = 12.5m/s
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1a. Distinguish between perfectly elastic collision and perfectly in elastic collision.
b. A tractor of mass 5.0 × 103kg is used to tow a car of mass 2.5 × 103 kg. The tractor
moves with a speed of 3.0m/s just before the towing rope becomes taut. Calculate the
i. speed of the tractor immediately the rope becomes taut.
ii. loss in kinetic energy of the system just after the car starts moving.
SUB-TOPIC 3: SIMPLE MACHINES

An arrangement by which work can be done conveniently on a load or against a resistance is known as machine
Simple machine is a machine in its simplest form. They are devices that use energy to do work. The work is being
done by the machine when a small effort is used to overcome a large resistance.
A machine can be define as a tool or devices that allows a force (or effort) applied to one point to overcome a
resisting force (or load) at another point.
Simple machine can be classified into different categories namely the lever, the pulley, the inclined plane, the
wedge, the wheel and axle, the screw, the hydraulic press.
Some common examples of simple machines are, scissors, drill brace, the shovel (a form of lever), the pulley at
the top of a flagpole, the steering wheel of an automobile (a form of wheel and axle), and the wheelchair ramp (a
form of inclined plane). Aneveryday example of a complex machine is the can opener, which combines a lever
(the hinged handle), a wheel and axle (the turning knob), and a wedge (the sharpened cutting disk).
SCISSORS DRIL BRACE AND BITS
Mechanical advantage/Force ratio of a machine is defined as the ratio of the load to the effort.
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐿
Mechanical Advantage = =
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑒
If the laod is bigger than the effort, the mechanical Advantage is greater than one.
In pratice,all machines have some friction in them and this reduces the efficiency. Part of the work put into a machine is
thus always wasted in overcoming friction and in moving some parts of the machine. Thus, no machine is hundred percent
(100%) efficient.
Velocity Ratio of a machine is defined as the distance moved by the effort to the distance moved by the load.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑦𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑑𝑒
Velocity ratio = =
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑦𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝐿
EFFICIENCY OF A MACHINE

The efficiency of a machine is defined as the ratio of work obtained from the machine to work put into the machine
expressed in percentage.
It also defined as the ratio of work output of the machine to the total work input expressed in percentage.
Efficiency = Work output X 100%

Workinput
𝑴𝑨
DERIVATION OF THE FORMULA - 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝑬 = 𝑽𝑹
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎
The efficiency of a machine can be determined by taking ratio of the work output to work input of the machine or its
velocity ratio and mechanical advantage.
Therefore:
Efficiency (E) = Workoutput x 100%
Workinput
Efficiency (E) = Work done in load x 100%

Work done in effort
Since Work = force x distance
Efficiency (E) = Load(L) x distance moved by load(dL) x 100%

Effort(e) x distance moved by effort(𝑑𝑒 )
𝐿 × 𝑑𝐿
Therefore E = × 100
𝑒 × 𝑑𝑒
𝐿
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑀𝐴 =
𝑒
1 𝑑𝐿
𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
𝑉𝑅 𝑑𝑒
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝑀.𝐴
Therefore E = 𝑉.𝑅
× 100%
𝐿
Mechanical advantage (M.A) = 𝑒
Efficiency (E) = Mechanical Advantage x 100%

Velocity Ratio
Example 1:
A system of lever with velocity ratio 30 overcomes resistance of 2500 Newton when an effort of 125 Newton is applied
to it, calculate
(a) The mechanical advantage of the system.
(b) It’s efficiency.

SOLUTION:
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 2500
Mechanical Advantage = = = 20N
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 125
𝑀. 𝐴
Efficiency = x 100
𝑉. 𝑅
20 200
Efficiency = x 100 = = 66.75%
30 3
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. A machine has an efficiency of 60%. If the machine is required to overcome a load of 30N with a
force of 20N, calculate its mechanical advantage.
(A) 0.7 (B) 0.9 (C) 1.5
(D) 2.5 (E) 10.
2. Which of the following equations for the efficiency of a machine is correct?
[ E = efficiency, V = velocity ratio, M= mechanical Advantage].
(A) E = V/M x100% (B) E = input/output x 100%
(C) E = load distance/effort distance x 100% (D) E = M/V x 100%
3. A machine of velocity ratio 5 is used in lifting a load with effort of 500N. If the machine is 80%
efficient, determine the magnitude of the load.
(A) 2500N (B) 2000N (C) 900N (D) 625N
4. The velocity ratio and efficiency of a system of pulleys are 6 and 80%, respectively. How much effort
Is required to lift a load of mass 120kg with this system? [g = 10ms-1]
(A) 25N (B) 90N (C) 96N (D) 250N (E) 960N
5. Which of the following statements correctly defines a simple machine?
(A) that can produce electric current.
(B) which can only carry people from one place to another.
(C) with which work can be done easily.
(D) which changes the state of rest or uniform motion of an object
THEORY
(a) A drum of mass 1000kg is rolled into the deck of a lorry 1.5m above a horizontal floor

using a plank 4m long. calculate the work done against gravity during the process.
( g = 10m/s2 ).
(b) A stone of mass 1.0kg is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 10m/s.
Find (i) the potential energy at the greatest height h and the value of h.
(ii) the kinetic energy on reaching the ground again ( g = 10m/s2).
(C). The efficiency of a machine is 80%. Determine the work done by a person using this machine
to raise a load of 200kg through a vertical distance of 3.0m (Take g= 10m/s2 ).
TOPICAL TEST
1. Explain what is meant by a machine.
2. Define the terms: mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and efficiency as applied to a machine.
3. Show that the efficiency E, the force ratio M.A and the velocity ratio V.R of a machine are related
M.A
by the equation. 𝐸 = x 100%
V.A
4. Explain why the efficiency of a machine is usually less than 100%.
5. A screw-jack has the distance between its successive threads as P and the length of its tommy bar as r. Its
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑟 2 2 𝑃
velocity ratio is given by the expression A. B. C. 𝜋𝑟𝑃 D. 2𝜋𝑟
𝑃 𝑃
6. Which of the following statements correctly defines a simple machine? A device A. that can produce
electric current B. which can only carry people from one place to another C. with which work can be
done easily D. which changes the state of rest or uniform motion of an object
7. A block and tackle system of n pulleys has a velocity ratio of A. n B. 𝑛2 C. 2𝑛−1 D. 2𝑛
8. A machine requires 900 J of work to raise a load of 450 N through a vertical distance of 1.2 m. Calculate
the efficiency of the machine. A. 30 % B. 60 % C. 65 % D. 75 %
9. Mention the class of lever that each of the following simple machine belongs to:
(i) sugar tongs; (ii) nutcracker; (iii) pliers; (iv) bottle openers.

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER: Why is it that objects in a satellite orbiting close to the earth are said to experience
apparent weightlessness.
INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES: "The important thing is to never stop questioning." - Curie Skłodowska

WEEK: FOUR
TOPIC: SIMPLE MACHINE
i. Mention at least five simple machine.
ii. Explain the three classes of lever with examples.
iii. Draw the pulley system and determine the velocity ratio.
iv. Draw the inclined plane and determine the velocity and efficiency.
v. Determine the velocity ratio of the screw and jack.
vi. Determine the velocity ratio of wheel and axle and the gear.
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students have seen simple machines like scissors, plier, wheel barrow.
SUB-TOPIC 1: Lever and pulley
CONTENT:
LEVER: In a lever the relative positions of force(F), Effort(e) and Load(L) may vary and this leads to different types of
lever. The lever operates on the principle of moment.
FIRST ORDER LEVER: In first order lever, the fulcrum is between the load and the effort e.g crowbar, claw hammer,
pliers, scissors, see-saw e.t.c

F
Y X
E
L
taking moment about F gives;

clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment
Y x L=X x E
𝐿 𝑋
= = M. A = V. R
𝐸 𝑌
SECOND ORDER LEVER: In second order lever, the load is between the effort and the fulcrum. E.g wheelbarrow, bottle
opener, nut cracker

THIRD ORDER LEVER: In third order lever, the effort is between the load and fulcrum. E.g Forearm of a human being,
tongs e.t.c
F L
SUGAR TONG
PULLEYS:
E
E
MOVABLE PULLEY
FIXED
T
T
T
T
E L L
A simple pulley is a fixed wheel with a rope passing round a groove in its rim. A load is attached to one end of the rope
while effort is applied at the other end. If there is no friction, load is equal to the effort which is equal to the tension in the
rope.
L =T =E, therefore M.A =V.R
For a block and tackle or systems of pulley of n pulleys, the velocity ratio is equal to the number of pulley.
Velocity ratio = number of pulley = n
VELOCITY RATIO = NUMBER OF PULLEYS =N
A system of pulley is used for lifting loads. They are used by builders for hauling heavy loads to high floors or in loading
and unloading ships.
CALCULATIONS:
Example 1. The velocity ratio and efficiency of a system of pulleys are 6 and 80% respectively. How much effort is
required to lift a load of mass 120kg with this system? [g = 10ms-1]
SOLUTION:

V.R = 6, Efficiency = 80%, Load = 1200N, e = ?
Calculating M.A,
𝑀. 𝐴
Efficiency = x 100
𝑉. 𝑅
𝑀. 𝐴
80 = x 100
6
80 𝑋 6
M. A = = 4.8
100
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
M. A =
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 1200
Effort = = = 250N
𝑀. 𝐴 4.8
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. A pulley system with a velocity ratio of 6 is used to raise a load of 80N through a vertical
height of 16m,
i. Draw a diagram of this arrangement
ii. Calculate the effort required in the system, if its efficiency is 70%.
iii. Calculate the workdone.
2. List four types of machines.
3. A pulley system with a velocity ratio of 6 is used to raise a load of 80N through a vertical
height of 16m,
i. Draw a diagram of this arrangement
ii. Calculate the effort required in the system, if its efficiency is 70%.
iii. Calculate the workdone.
4. A block and tackle system of n pulleys has a velocity ratio of A. n B. 𝑛2 C. 2𝑛−1 D. 2𝑛
SUB-TOPIC 2: Inclined plane and hydraulic press.

INCLINED PLANE:

An inclined plane is a sloping surface used for pulling or pushing a load up, rather than lifting them vertically.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑦𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
L= 𝑥
Velocity ratio = θ
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑦𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 ℎ
1
Velocity ratio =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
HYDRAULIC PRESS:
Hydraulic press is a device used to produce a very large force to compress or lift up a heavy load. It is used in the printing
press where a large force presses the type with ink on it against the paper. Pressure is transmitted equally to all parts of a
liquid at the same level.
Effort
E R =radius of large
piston
L
r = radius
A1
of small A2
piston
If A1 is the area of small piston and A2 area of the large piston, pressure(P) is transmitted equally at the same level, then
𝐸
P=𝐴 , E = P X A1
1
𝐿
P = 𝐴 , L = P X A2
2,
Therefore a small effort lifts a large load.
𝐿 𝐴2, 𝑅 2
M. A = = =
𝐸 𝐴1, 𝑟 2

If x and y are the distances moved by E and L respectively, A1x = A2y
𝑥 𝐴2, 𝑅 2
= = = V. R⬚
𝑦 𝐴1, 𝑟 2
CALCULATIONS:
Example 2. An inclined plane of angle 150 is used to raise a load of 4500N through a height of 2m. If the plane is 75%
efficient, calculate i. Velocity ratio of the plane ii. Work done on the load
SOLUTION:
1. 𝜃 = 150, Load = 4500N, Distance moved by load = 2m, efficiency = 75%
1 1
Velocity ratio = = = 5.76
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1.736
ii. Workdone on the load = Load x distance moved by load

Workdone on the load = 4500 x 2 = 9000J.
Example 3. In a hydraulic press, a force of 40N is applied to the smaller piston of area 10cm2. If the area of the large piston
is 200cm2, calculate the force obtained.
SOLUTION:
𝐿 𝐴2, 𝑅2
M. A = = =
𝐸 𝐴1, 𝑟 2
𝐿 𝐴2,
=
𝐸 𝐴1,
𝐴2 𝑋𝐸 200 X 40
L= = = 800N
𝐴1, 10
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
A man pulls up a box of mass 70kg using an inclined plane of effective length 5m onto a platform 2.5m high at uniform
speed. If the frictional force between the box and the plane is 100N, draw the
diagram of all the forces acting on the box when in motion and calculate the
i. Minimum effort applied in pulling up the box
ii. Velocity ratio of the plane
iii. Mechanical advantage of the plane
iv. Efficiency of the plane
v. Energy lost in the system
vi. Work output of the man
vii. Total power developed by the man given that the time taken to raise the box onto the platform is 50s. ( g
= 10m/s2)
SUB-TOPIC 3: SCREW, WHEEL AND AXLE, GEAR.
Screw
Screw, mechanical fastening device consisting essentially of an inclined plane wound spirally around a cylinder
or a cone. The ridges formed by the winding planes are called threads, and depending on the intended use, the
threads may be square, triangular, or rounded in cross section.

PARTS OF A SCREW THREAD
A screw thread is made of the following parts:
1. Thread or Lead: Is the distance along the screw's axis that is covered by one complete
rotation of the screw (360°).

2. Pitch: The distance between two corresponding points on adjacent threads
3. Plane or Start : It can be Single-start or double-start.Single-start- means that there is only one "ridge" wrapped around
the cylinder of the screw's body.Double-start" -means that there are two "ridges" wrapped around the cylinder of the
screw's body Each time that the screw's body rotates one turn (360°), it has advanced axially by the width of two ridges.
Another application of the screw is Screw jack , Ratchet brace.

When a screw is turned through one complete revolution by the application of an effort ( on the screw head, using the
handle of the ratchet brace, or the Tommy bar of the screw jack), the load moves a distance equal to the pitch(P), which is
the distance between consecutive threads.
2𝜋𝑅
V. R =
𝑃
R = Radius of the screw or length of the handle of the ratchet brace of length of the tommy bar.
WHEEL AND AXLE

A wheel and axle is really two machines in one because it consists of a wheel mounted rigidly upon an axle or
drum of smaller diameter, the wheel and the axle having the same axis.
The wheel & axle device is similar to the lever simple machine. The wheel acts as the lever and the axle acts as
a fulcrum. The lever applies force to the fulcrum, causing something to move.
If a rope is fixed onto the wheel and wound round it, leaving a free end where an effort E is to be applied, the
rope attached to the axle is wound round in the opposite direction and the load attached to the free end, For
each complete rotation of the wheel, there is one complete rotation of the axle.
Let a and b be the radii of the wheel and axle respectively. Then
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 2ᴨ𝑎
Velocity ratio = =
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 2ᴨ𝑏
⬚
𝑎
=
𝑏
Applications of the wheel and axle are:
steering wheel of an automobile
Doorknob
windlass.
treadmill
windmill
waterwheel
PRACTICE QUESTION
1 .A screw jack with a tommy bar oflength 12cm is used to raise a car through a vertical height of 25cm
by turning the tommy bar through 50 revolutions. Calculate the approximate velocity ratio of the
jack. [𝜋 = 3 .14]
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 13 (D) 151 (E) 654
2. A screw jack with a tommy bar of length 12cm is used to raise a car through a vertical height of
25cm by turning the tommy bar through 50 revolutions. Calculate the approximate velocity ratio
of the jack. [𝜋 = 3.14]
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 13 (D) 151 (E) 654
3. The radius of a wheel is 30.0cm and that of its axle is 6.0cm. Calculate the effort required to lift a
load of 12.0N using this machine assuming 100% efficiency.
(A) 12N (B) 120 (C) 24N (D) 30N
4. A wheel and axle of radii 800mm and 200mm respectively is used to raise a body of weight 800N
by the applicationof 250N. Calculate the efficiency of the machine.
(A) 85% (B) 80(C) 60% (D) 20%
5. Which of the following statements correctly defines a simple machine?
(A) that can produce electric current.
(B) which can only carry people from one place to another.
(C) with which work can be doneeasily.
(D) which changes the state of rest oruniform motion of an object.
ESSAY
1a. List two examples of a simple machine.
b. Explain the statement that the velocity ratio of a machine is 5.
c. A screw jack, 25% efficient and having a screw of pitch 0.4cm is used to raise a load through
a certain height. If in the process the handle turns through a circle of radius 40.0cm, calculate
the i. Velocity ratio of the machine. ii. Mechanical advantage of the machine.
iii. effort required to raise a load of 1000N with the machine. ( take π = 3.14)
2. A screw jack whose pitch is 4.4mm is used to raise a body of mass 8000kg through a height of
20cm. The length of the tommy bar of the jack is 70cm. If the efficiency of the jack is 80%, calculate the:
i. velocity ratio of the jack. ii. Mechanical advantage of the jack
iii. Effort required in raising the body. Iv. Work done by the effort in raising the body
2
(g = 10m/s ,𝜋 = 22/7)
Sub-topic 4: GEAR:
Gear is a toothed wheel or cylinder used to transmit rotary or reciprocating motion from one part of a machine to
another. Two or more gears, transmitting motion from one shaft to another, constitute a gear train.
Gear work on the wheel and axle principle. If toothed wheel A drives wheel B resulting in turning forces,
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟

Velocity ratio =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟
TOPICAL QUESTIONS
1. The velocity ratio of an inclined plane A. increases with increase in the angle of inclination.
B. increases with decrease in the angle of inclination. C. decreases with decrease in the angle of inclination.
D. is independent of the angle of inclination.
2. The radius of a wheel is 30.0𝑐𝑚 and that of its axle is 6.0𝑐𝑚. Calculate the effort required to lift a load of
120.0𝑁 using this machine, assuming 100% efficiency. A. 600.0𝑁 B. 40.0𝑁 C. 24.0𝑁 D. 20.0𝑁
3. Mention two types of simple machines other than a lever.
(b) Draw a labeled diagram of a named first class lever.

4.
10𝑁
Piston E Piston L
In the hydraulic press illustrated in the diagram above, a downward force of 10𝑁 is applied to piston E of
cross-sectional area 4𝑐𝑚2. If the upward force on piston L is 2000𝑁. calculate its cross-sectional area.
A. 500𝑐𝑚 2 B. 800𝑐𝑚 2 C. 5000𝑐𝑚2 D. 8000𝑐𝑚2.
5. The diagram here illustrates a block and tackle system in which an effort 𝑬 supports a
load of 100.0𝑁. If the efficiency of the machine is 75%, calculate the value of 𝑬.
A. 22.2𝑁 B. 38.0𝑁 C. 67.0𝑁 D. 75.0𝑁
6. How can the mechanical advantage of gear system be increased?

(b)
Pedal rod
The diagram above illustrates the fears system of a bicycle.

(i) Determine its velocity ratio. (ii) If the bicycle has an efficiency of 90%, calculate the effort required to
overcome a load of 70𝑁. (iii) Why is the calculated effortless that the actual effort required? WAEC
2012/12

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY: Hydraulic jack; it is a machine in which a liquid is used to
transmit pressure and lift an object.
i. The power supplied by a machine will always be ……… the power supplied to the machine.
ii. Deferentiate between input force and output force in a machine.
iii. Give three reasons why a machine cannot be 100% efficient.
INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES: "The pursuit of science is a never-ending journey into the unknown, fueled by curiosity and
guided by reason." - Neil Armstrong
WEEK: FIVE
TOPIC: HEAT ENRGY
i. Mention the Liquid-in-glass thermometers.
ii. Differentiate between the school thermometer and clinical thermometer.
iii. Describe the constant volume gas thermometer.
iv. Differentiate between the resistance thermometer and thermoelectric thermometer.
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students can differentiate between heat and temperature.

SUB-TOPIC 1: Temperature and its measurement, liquid-in-glass thermometer.
CONTENT:
TEMPERATURE AND ITS MEASUREMENT

Temperature is a measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. It is measured by means of a
thermometer. The S. I. Unit of temperature is the Kelvin. However, it is also measured in degree Celsius.
THE THERMOMETER
The thermometer is the instrument used for measuring temperature. There are various types of thermometer, e.g. liquid-in-
glass thermometer and the thermocouple. Each one makes use of the change in the physical properties of materials they are
made of, to indicate temperature change.
1. The liquid-in-glass thermometer. The liquid-in-glass thermometer uses liquid(mercury) as thermometric substance.
In which the change in volume of the liquid measures the change in temperature. Any liquid that will be used as a
thermometric liquid must be a good conductor of heat, be easily seen in glass, have a high boiling point, have a low
freezing point, have a low specific heat capacity, must not wet glass and must expand uniformly. The liquid-in-glass
consists of the school thermometer, clinical thermometer, maximum and minimum thermometer.
1. The clinical thermometer has a constriction and it has a short range (35 0C – 430C). The narrow constriction
prevents the mercury from flowing back into the bulb immediately after the thermometer has been removed from
the patient’s body.
Constriction
0 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43
CLINICAL THERMOMETER
2. The school thermometer is used in school laboratory, it ranges from 00C – 1000C. It has no constriction.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
School thermometer

Maximum and minimum Thermometer
Mercury
Steel index
Maximum
Alcohol
3. The Maximum and minimum thermometer is used to measure the maximum and minimum temperatures of the day. It
contains alcohol at two upper part of the bent tube and mercury below. A steel index is seen in the two tubes. When
the temperature rises, since alcohol expands more than mercury, The alcohol expands and flows in clockwise
direction and the mercury pushes steel index x upwards. The maximum temperature is read from the lower end of
x. When the temperature falls the alcohol contracts and moves in anticlockwise direction, the mercury pushes steel
index Y up. The lower end of Y indicates the minimum temperature.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. State three desirable properties of a thermometric liquid.
2. List four advantages of mercury over alcohol as a thermometric thermometer.
SUB-TOPIC 2: Constant volume gas thermometer and platinum resistance thermometer.

Constant – volume gas thermometer
The constant – volume gas thermometer depends on the variation in the pressure of a gas at constant
volume with changes in the temperature of the gas. On heating the bulb to a specific temperature, the gas
expands and pushes the mercury down to tube A and consequently mercury level at C rises. The right side
of AC of the manometer is moved up and down in order to bring the mercury level on the other side to its
original position D to ensure that the volume of gas is constant. The pressure of gas is read from the
manometer.
Air
Heat
Constant volume gas thermometer

When the level of mercury in A is higher than that of D, then
P = h + H, where H is the atmospheric pressure.
But when the level of mercury is lower, then
P=H-h
To use the thermometer it must be calibrated by getting the gas pressure at 00C , when the bulb containing is placed in
pure melting ice. The pressure at 1000C is also gotten by placing it over stem.
𝜃−0 𝑝𝜃− 𝑝0
=
100 − 0 𝑝100− 𝑝0
𝑝𝜃− 𝑝0
θ= x 100
𝑝100− 𝑝0
pθ – resistance at temp θ0c
p0 – resistance at O0C
P100 – resistance at 1000C
Example 1: A constant volume gas thermometer records pressure of a body as 250mm of Hg at 00C and 350mmHg at 1000C.
Calculate the temperature of the body when the gas pressure reads 300mmHg.
SOLUTION:
𝑝𝜃= 300𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔, 𝑝0=250𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔, 𝑝100=350𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔, 𝜃= ?
𝑝𝜃− 𝑝0
θ= x 100
𝑝100− 𝑝0
300− 250
θ= x 100
350 − 250
50
θ= x 100 = 500
100
3. Platinum resistance thermometer. This thermometer depends on the variation in the electrical resistance of a
conductor with temperature. The higher the temperature the greater the resistance. The ends of the wire are
connected to a wheatstone bridge which measures the resistance at 00C, at 1000C and the resistance at the desired
temperature. The temperature can be calculated using the equation below.

Comparison lead platinum wire
Resistance Thermometer
𝜃−0 𝑅𝜃− 𝑅0
=
100 − 0 𝑅100− 𝑅0
𝑅𝜃− 𝑅0
θ= x 100
𝑅100− 𝑅0
Rθ – resistance at temp θ0c
Ro – resistance at O0C
R100 – resistance at 1000C
Example 2: The electrical resistance of the element in a platinum resistance thermometer at 100 0C, 00C and room
temperature are 75.000Ω, 63.000Ω and 64.992Ω respectively. Determine the room temperature.
𝑅𝜃 = 64.992Ω, 𝑅100 = 75.000Ω, 𝑅0 = 63.000Ω
𝑅𝜃− 𝑅0
θ= x 100
𝑅100− 𝑅0
64.992 − 63.000
θ= x 100
75.000 − 63.000
1.992
θ= x 100 = 166.00 C
1.200
4. The Thermocouple
A thermocouple consists of two different metals joined together by a circuit containing a galvanometer.
The working of a thermocouple depends on the variation of the electromotive force (e.m.f) between
junctions. The equation of the relationship is
E = a + bt + ct2, (a, b, c are constants)

G
constantan
Copper
Thermocouple
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. A thermocouple works on the principle of
A. variation of e.m.f with temperature
B. variation of volume with temperature.
C. variation of resistance with temperature
D. variation of pressure with temperature
2. A constant volume gas thermometer works on the principle of

D. variation of pressure with temperature
3. A liquid-in-glass thermometer works on the principle of

D. variation of pressure with
temperature
4. The clinical thermometer differs from other mercury in glass thermometer because it has
A. a constriction
B. a narrow bore
C. a wide range
D. steel index
1a. Draw a labeled diagram of a clinical thermometer and explain how it works.

b. Give the reasons for the following features of the thermometer
i. a bulb of thin glass.
ii. the constriction on the bulb.
iii. a tube of fine bore.
2a. State one advantage which a constant-volume gas thermometer has over other
thermometers and one reason why it is seldom used as an everyday laboratory
instrument.
3a. State three physical properties of substances which may be used to measure temperature.
b. State three desirable properties of a thermometric liquid.
c. List four advantages and four disadvantages of mercury as thermometric liquid.
d. Why is water considered as an unsuitable liquid for a thermometer.
e. The resistance in the element in a platinum resistance thermometer is
6.750Ω at 00c, 7.750Ω at 1000c and 6.900Ω at room temperature.
SUB-TOPIC 3: Temperature scales of thermometers and conversion from one scale to another.
TEMPERATURE SCALES:
1. Celsius scale: The lower and upper fixed points are 00C and 1000C. The fundamental interval is divided into 100 equal
parts.
2. Fahrenheit scale: The lower and upper fixed points are 320F and 2120F. The fundamental interval is divided into 180
equal parts.
3. Absolute scale/Thermodynamic scale: The lower and upper fixed points are 273k and 373k. The fundamental interval
is divided into 100 equal parts.
The absolute scale of temperature is thermodynamic scale because it gives us the idea of the lowest possible temperature or
absolute zero with the value of –2730C.
–2730C = 0k = 273k
The absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature below which nothing can be cooled since temperature is the measure
of the average or mean kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance. It follows that as we subtract heat from a substance,
its temperature drops and hence its kinetic energy until it eventually becomes zero under which the molecules remain
stationary.
Upper fixed point
1000C 2120F 373k
Fundamental Fundamental Fundamental

interval interval interval

00C 320F 273k Lower fixed point
CONVERSION FROM ONE SCALE TO ANOTHER:
To convert from one scale to another, use interpolation technique.
1000C 2120
200C
θ
00C 320F
𝑈𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 − 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 known temperature − lower fixed point

=
𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 − 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 upper fixed point − lower fixed point
20 − 0 θ − 32
=
100 − 0 212 − 32
20 x 180
θ − 32 = = 36
100
θ − 32 = 36
θ = 36 + 32 = 680 F
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. A faulty thermometer indicates – 0.40c and 100.60c at the ice and steam points respectively.
What will be the reading of this thermometer in a liquid whose true temperature is 800c?
A. 80.40c B. 80.80c
C. 84.00c D. 88.80c

2. The lower and upper fixed points of a mercury-in-glass thermometer are marked X and 180mm respectively. On a
particular day the mercury meniscus in the thermometer rises to 60mm. If the corresponding reading on a Celsius
scale is 200c, what is the value of X?
A. 6.0mm B. 18.0mm
C. 30.0mm D. 60.0mm
3. The ice point on the absolute scale of temperature is A. 0𝐾 B. 32𝐾 C. 100𝐾 D. 273𝐾.
4. The ice point on the absolute scale of temperature is A. 0𝐾 B. 32𝐾 C. 100𝐾 D. 273𝐾.
TOPICAL QUESTIONS
1. 1. Which of the following types of thermometers can be used to measure a range of temperatures from
−50℃ to 50℃? I. Clinical II. Mercury-in-glass III. Alcohol-in-glass
A. I only B. II only C. III only D. I and II only
2. In the clinical thermometer, the function of the kink is (i) Prevent the back flow of mercury after use.
(ii) Ensure the back flow of mercury after use. (iii) Maintain the thermometric property of mercury.
(iv) Allow the temperature attained to be read. A. I only B. i and ii only C. I and iv only
D. iii and iv only.
𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎
3.
𝟑𝒄𝒎
𝟎° 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
4. The diagram above illustrates the mercury- in- glass thermometer used for determining the room
temperature of a room. Use the data on it to determine the room temperature. A. 3.3℃ B. 7.0℃
C. 13.0℃ D. 30.0℃
5. The wire of a platinum resistance thermometer has a resistance of 3.5Ω at 0℃ and 10.5 Ω at 100℃.
Calculate the temperature of the wire when its resistance is 7.5 Ω. A. 78℃ B. 25℃ C. 36℃ D. 57℃
6. The maximum and minimum thermometer reads the A. maximum temperature during the day and
minimum temperature at night at all times B. maximum temperature at night and minimum
temperature during the day from the last reset C. maximum temperature at night and minimum
temperature during the day at all times D. maximum temperature during the day and minimum
temperature at night from the last reset.
7. The anomalous expansion of water occurs in the range A. 0 0C to 1000C B. 00C to 40C C. 40C to
0 0
100 C D. –4 C to 0 C0
8. Which of the following thermometers is used to measure the temperature of the human body?
A. Thermocouple B. Alcohol-in-glass thermometer C. Gas thermometer D. Platinum resistance
thermometer
9. List two advantages of a 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 over a mercury-in-glass thermometer.
10. State two advantages of alcohol over mercury as a thermometric liquid.

I. Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. It determines the direction in which thermal energy
flows; it is also a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules of the body.
ii. Thermometer is a device for measuring temperature.
PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER: When the bulb of a thermometer is placed in a beaker of hot water, the level of the
mercury first falls and then rises gradually. Explain this observation.
INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES: "The only thing standing between you and your goal is the story you keep telling yourself as
to why you can't achieve it." - Jordan B. Peterson

WEEK: SIX
TOPIC: HEAT ENERGY
i. Mention the factors that affect quantity of heat supplied to a body.
ii. Calculate the quantity of heat supplied to a body.
iii. Describe an experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of a solid by method of mixture
iv. Describe an experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of a solid using the electrical method.
v. Describe an experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of a liquid by method of mixture
vi. Describe an experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of a liquid using the electrical method.
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students can differentiate between heat and temperature.
SUB-TOPIC 1: MEASUREMENT OF HEAT ENERGY
CONTENT:
MOLECULAR EXPLANATION OF TEMPERATURE

According to the molecular theory solids vibrate about their mean position, when heat is applied to solid, the
amplitude of vibration of these molecules become larger and their kinetic energy increases. From kinetic theory, the
total translational kinetic energy of the molecules is directly proportional to the absolute temperature, thus increase
in kinetic energy implies increase in temperature.
MEASUREMENT OF HEAT ENERGY
Heat is a form of energy called thermal energy that flows due to temperature difference. It is measured in joules.
The quantity of heat Q received by a body is proportional to its mass (m), and temperature change (02 - 01) and on the
nature of the material the body is made of.
This Q ∝ m (02 - 01)
Q = MC (02 - 01)
C is a constant of proportionality called the specific heat capacity of the body, which depends on the nature of the body.
The quantity of heat energy possessed by a body depends on these three quantities:
(i) the change in temperature (θ2 – θ1)
(ii) the specific heat capacity of the body (C)
(iii) mass of the body (m)
HEAT CAPACITY
This is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of the entire body by one degree rise in temperature(1k). It is
measured in Joules/K.
H = MC
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

Specific heat capacity of a substance is the heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass(1kg) of the substance
through a degree rise in temperature( 10C or 1K)
Q = MC (02 - 01)
Q is quantity of heat, C is specific heat capacity, 𝜃2 − 𝜃1 change in temperature and m is the mass of the
substance.
Q
C=
m(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )
The unit is JKg-1K-1
Example 1. What is meant by the statement: The specific heat capacity of copper is 400Jkg-1k-1?
SOLUTION:
1. It means the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of copper through one degree rise in
temperature is 400J
Example 2. How much heat is given out when a piece of iron of mass 50g and specific heat
capacity 460Jkg-1K-1 cools from 85℃ to 250C
SOLUTION:
M= 50g = 0.05kg, C = 460Jkg-1k-1, θ2 – θ1 = 85 -25 = 600C.
Q = MC (02 - 01)
Q = 0.05 x 460 x 60 = 1380J

DETERMINATION OF THE SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF A SOLID BY METHOD OF MIXTURES
Thermometer
stirrer
stirrer
water
lead calorimeter
Bunsen burner
The solid lead block is weighed on a balance to be M1. A lagged calorimeter is dried and weighed to be
The solid lead block is weighed on a balance to be M1. A lagged calorimeter is dried and weighed to be M2. It is then
reweighed to be M3 when half filled with water. The initial temperature of the water is taken to be 01.
The lead block is suspended in boiling water with a temperature 02 after which it is transferred to the calorimeter and the
mixture stirred to maintain a uniform temperature 03.
The specific heat capacity of the lead can be calculated using the fact that heat loss by the lead = heat gained by calorimeter
and water. Given the specific heat capacity of calorimeter and water to be Cc and Cw respectively.
M1 Cc (02 – 03) = M2 Cc (03 – 01) +(M3 – M2) Cw ((03 – 01))
Cl = M2 Cc (03 – 01) + (M3 – M2) Cw (03 – 01)
M1 (02 – 03)
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The calorimeter should be well lagged.
2. The mixture should be well stirred to ensure even distribution of heat.
3. The hot solid should be quickly transferred to prevent loss of heat.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. A quantity of water of mass 100𝑔 at 800 𝐶 is mixed with 50𝑔 of water at 360 𝐶. Determine the final
temperature of the mixture. A. 41.40 𝐶 B. 44.60 𝐶 C. 59.20 𝐶 D. 65.30 𝐶
2.The table below contains different metals and their corresponding specific heat capacities in 𝐽𝑔−1 𝐾 −1.
11. 𝐴𝑙 12. 𝐶𝑢 13. 𝐴𝑔 14. 𝐹𝑒
15. 0.22 16. 0.05 17. 0.06 18. 0.11
Which metal requires the largest amount of heat energy to change its temperature by 10 𝐶?
A. 𝐴𝑙 B. 𝐶𝑢 C. 𝐴𝑔 D. 𝐹𝑒
3.An electric heater rated 500𝑊 was used to heat 1𝑘𝑔 of water at 28℃. Assuming there were no heat
losses to the surroundings, calculate the time required to heat the water to 60℃. [Specific heat
−1 −1
capacity of water is 4.2 kJ k𝑔 K ] A. 5.0 𝑠 B. 100.8 𝑠 C. 268.8 𝑠 D. 504.1 𝑠
4.The amount of heat energy needed to change 1 kg of ice to water at constant temperature is known as
A. specific latent heat of vaporization of ice B. heat capacity of water C. specific heat capacity of ice
D. specific latent heat of ice
5. Which of the following statements about anomalous expansion of water are correct?
(I) There is contraction between 0℃ and 4℃ (II) There is expansion between 0℃ and 100℃
(III) The volume is minimum at 4℃ (IV) The volume is maximum at 4℃
A. I and II only B. II and III only C. I and III only D. II and IV only
SUB-TOPIC 2:
(1) CALCULATIONS USING METHOD OF MIXTURES
(2) DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF SOLID BY ELECTRICAL METHOD.
(1)Calculations.
Example 3:
An iron rod of mass 2kg and at a temperature of 280℃ is dropped into some quantity of water initially at a
temperature of 30℃. If the temperature of the mixture is 70℃, calculate the mass of the water. [Neglect heat
losses to the surroundings.] [Specific heat capacity of iron = 460Jkg-1K-1, Specific heat capacity of water =
4200Jkg-1K-]
SOLUTION:
Mass of iron rod = M1 = 2kg
Temperature of hot iron rod = θ2=2800C
Initial temperature of water = θ1= 30oC
Final temperature of mixture = θ3= 700
Specific heat capacity of iron = CI = 460Jkg-1K-1
Mass of water = M2= ?
Heat lost by hot iron = heat gained by water
M1 Ci (02 – 03) = M2 Cw (03 – 01)
M2 = M1 Ci (02 – 03)
CW (03 – 01)
M2 = 2 x460 x (280 – 70)

4200 (70 – 30)
2 x 460 x 210
𝑚2 =
4200 x 40
193200
𝑚2 = = 1.15kg
168000
Example 4:Example 3: A piece of copper of mass 120g is heated in an enclosure to a temperature of 1250C. it is
then taken out of the enclosure and held in air for half a minute and dropped carefully into a copper calorimeter
of mass 105g containing 200g of water at 200C. The temperature of the water rises to 250C. Calculate the rate at
which heat is being lost from the piece of copper when it is held in air. (specific heat capacity of water is 4200Jkg
–1 0 –1
C , specific heat capacity of copper is 400J kg – 10C – 1 Waec)
Solution
𝜃1 = 1250C, 𝜃2 = 250C, mass of copper (Mc) = 120g = (120/1000)kg = 0.12kg

Heat lost by copper = Mc cc (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) = 0.12 x 400 x (125 – 25) = 4800J
Mass of calorimeter (mc) = 105g = (105/1000)kg = 0.105kg, specific heat capacity of calorimeter (cc) = 400J kg
– 10 – 1
C mass of water = (200/1000)kg = 0.2kg. Change in temperature 𝛥𝜃 =
0
(25 − 20) C
Heat gained by calorimeter and water = mcCc𝛥𝜃 + mwCw𝛥𝜃
= 0.105 x 400 x (25 – 20) + 0.2 x 4200 x (25 – 20) = 4410J
Heat lost to air = 4800 – 4410 = 390J
Therefore, rate of lost of heat to air = 390/30 = 13Js – 1

SUB-TOPIC 3: DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY BY ELECTRICAL METHOD
Thermometer
Brass block ELECTRIC HEATER
Lagging
To calculate the specific heat capacity Cb of a solid brass block, we make two holes in a weighed brass block into which a
thermometer and a heating element connected to a source of power supply are inserted. Oil is poured in the holes to ensure
thermal conductivity. Assuming no heat is lost to the surrounding, the total amount of electrical heat energy supplied by the
coil, Ivt = heat gained by the brass, MCb0
Ivt = MCb0……………(1)
From v = IR (ohms law)
I2 Rt = MCb0………….(2)
V2 t = MCb0………(3)
R
Example 5: A liquid of specific heat capacity 3Jg – 1 k – 1 rises from 150C to 650C in one minute when an electric
heater is used. If the heater generates 63KJ per minute, calculate the mass of the liquid.
Solution
Specific heat capacity of liquid Cl = 3Jg – 1 k – 1 = 3000Jkg – 1 k – 1𝛥𝜃 = 65 − 15 = 500C
Heat supplied by heater = heat gained by water
Ivt = Ml x Cl 𝛥𝜃 where Ml = mass of liquid
63000 = Ml x 3000 x 50
Ml = 63000 / 3000 x 50 = 0.42kg.
Example 6: A certain metal of mass 1.5kg at initial temperature of 27 0C, absorb heat from electric heater of 75W rating
for 4 minutes. If the final temperature was 470C, calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal and its heat capacity.
Solution:
Time ‘t’ = 4 minutes = 4 x 60 = 240s. power IV = 75W, mass of metal ‘m’ = 1.5kg.
Heat supplied by electric heater = heat gained by the metal
IVt = mc 𝛥𝜃
75 x 240 = 1.5 x c x ( 47 – 27)
75 x 240 = 1.5 x c x 20
75×240
C= = 600 Jkg – 1 K – 1
1.5×20
Heat capacity = mc = 1.5 x 600 = 900JK – 1
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. The absolute zero temperature is defined as the temperature at which
(A) thermal motion ceases (B) the volume of a real gas is maximum
(C) the temperature of a substance is 0℃ (D) the temperature of a gas is 273℃
(E) ice melts
2. Two samples of pure naphthalene of masses 100g and 200g are heated through temperature
differences of 10℃ and 20℃ respectively. What is the ratio of the heat energy absorbed by the
smaller sample to that absorbed by the larger sample?
(A) 1:4 (B) 1:2 (C) 1:1 (D) 2:1 (E) 4:1
3. Thermal equilibrium between two objects exists when

(A) one object loses heat continuously to the other
(B) the heat capacities of both objects are the same
(C) the quantity of heat in both objects is the same
(D) the temperatures of both objects are the same
(E) the volumes of both objects are the same
4. A 2000W electric heater is used to heat a metal object of mass 5kg initially at 10℃. If a
temperature rise of 30℃ is obtained after 10min, the heat capacity of the material is
(A) 8.0 × 103 J℃−1 (B) 1.2 × 104 J℃−1(C) 4.0 × 104 J℃−1
(D) 6.0 × 104 J℃−1(E) 1.2 × 106 J℃−1
5. A piece of copper of mass 30g loses 60J of heat energy. If the specific heat capacity of copper is
400Jkg-1K-1, calculate the change in temperature of the copper.
(A) 5.0K (B) 2.5K (C) 2.0K (D) 0.8K (E) 0.2K
ESSAY
1. Describe an experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of copper using a copper ball.
State two precautions necessary to obtain accurate result.
2. A piece of copper ball of mass 20g at 2000C is placed in a copper calorimeter of mass 60g containing
50g of water at 300C. Ignoring heat losses, calculate the final steady temperature of the mixture.
( Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2Jg-1k-1, specific heat capacity of copper = 0.4Jg-1k-1).
3. 250g of lead at 1700C is dropped into 100g of water at 00C. If the final steady temperature is 120C, calculate the specific
heat capacity of lead. (Cw = 4.2 x 103 J/kgk)
4 A 2000W electric heater is used to heat a metal object of mass 5kg initially at 10℃. If a temperature
rise of 30℃ is obtained after 10min, calculate the heat capacity of the material.

SUB-TOPIC 4: Determination of specific heat capacity of liquid by electrical method.
Apparatus: Thermometer, liquid, calorimeter, heater, stop clock, chemical/ beam balance
Diagram:
Thermometer
Connected to electric supply

Liquid
Lagging
Method:
A calorimeter of known heat capacity (McCc) is used and a known mass of liquid( M1) is placed in the calorimeter, the
temperature of the liquid is recorded (θ1)). The known quantity of heat (VIt) is recorded by taking readings from the
voltmeter, ammeter and stop watch. The final temperature is recorded (θ2).
Calculations:
Electrical energy supplied by the heater = Heat energy absorbed by the calorimeter and water.
VIt = M1CL(θ2 – θ1) + McCc (θ2 –θ1)
CL = VIt - Mc Cc (02 – 01)

C1 (02 – 01)
TOPICAL TEST
1. Water of mass 120g at 50℃ is added to 200g of water at 10℃ and the mixture is well stirred.
Calculate the temperature of the mixture. [Neglect heat losses to the surroundings].
(A) 60.0℃ (B) 40.0℃(C) 30.0℃ (D) 25.0℃ (E) 22.5℃
2. Hot water at a temperature of t is added to twice that amount of water at a temperature of 30℃. If the resulting
temperature of the mixture is 50℃, calculate t.
(A) 100℃ (B) 90℃ (C) 80℃ (D) 70℃ (E) 60℃
3. A tap supplies water at 26℃ while another supplies water at 82℃. If a man wishes to bathe with water at 40℃, the ratio
of the mass of hot water to that of cold water required is
(A) 1:3 (B) 3:1 (C) 3:7 (D) 7:3 (E) 15:8
4. A metal of mass 200𝑔 at a temperature of 100℃ is placed in 100𝑔 of water at 25℃ in a container of
negligible heat capacity. If the final steady temperature is 30℃, calculate the specific heat capacity of the
metal. [Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 ] A. 150 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 B. 300 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 C.
−1 −1 −1 −1
320 𝐽𝑘𝑔 𝐾 D. 1960 𝐽𝑘𝑔 𝐾
5. A quantity of water 20 is mixed with another quantity of water at 70. The final steady temperature of the
mixture is 40. Determine the ratio of the mass of the cold water to that of the hot water.
A. 7 : 2 B. 3 : 2 C. 2 : 5 D. 1 : 2
6. A quantity of hot water at 1000C is added to 400𝑔 of water at 100C until the temperature of the mixture is
600C.Calculate the mass of the hot water added. [Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1
A. 200𝑔 B. 320𝑔 C. 400𝑔 D. 500𝑔
7. Which of the following units is the S. I. unit of heat capacity? A. 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 B. 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1
C. 𝐽𝐾 −1 D. 𝐽𝑔−1 𝐾 −1
8. The continuous stirring in the method of mixtures to determine the specific thermal capacity of a substance
ensures A. continuous dissipation of heat to the room. B. uniform distribution of thermal energy to all parts
of the mixture. C. that thermal energy is confined to the mixture. D. that there is rapid heat exchange.
Explain why moisture is deposited on the outside of a glass bottle containing very cold water
INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES: "The scientific method is nothing but the expression of the necessity of the elementary rules
of formal logic." - Albert Einstein

WEEK: EIGHT
TOPIC: LATENT HEAT
i. differentiate between latent heat and specific latent heat.
ii. Describe an Experiment to determine the specific latent heat of ice.
iii. Describe an Experiment to determine the specific latent heat of steam.
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students have seen ice block, water and steam.
SUB-TOPIC 1: LATENT HEAT AND SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT
CONTENT:
LATENT HEAT
Latent heat or hidden heat is experienced when there is a change of state ( melting, vaporization, condensation,
freezing, sublimation), it is not visible in the thermometer because there is no change in temperature. There are
latent heat of fusion and latent heat of vaporization.
Latent heat of fusion is the heat energy required to convert a substance from its solid form to its liquid form
without change in temperature.
Specific latent heat of fusion of a substance is the quantity of heat required to change unit mass of a substance
from solid to liquid without change in temperature. The unit is Jkg-1.
Q = quantity of heat(in joules)
m = mass of substance(kg)
Q = ml
Q
𝑙= 𝑙 = specific latent heat of fusion.
m
Specific latent heat of vaporization of a substance is the quantity of heat required to change unit mass of
substance from liquid to vapour without change in temperature.
Q = ml

Q
𝑙=
m
Example 1: How much heat is required to convert 20g of ice at 0℃ to water at the same temperature? [Specific latent heat
of ice = 336Jg-1]
M= 20g = , 𝑙 = 336Jg-1
Q
𝑙=
m
Q = 𝑚𝑙
Q = 336 X 20 = 6720J
Example 2: Calculate the quantity of heat released when 100g of steam at 100℃ condenses to
water. [Take specific latent heat of vaporization of water as 2.3 × 106 Jkg-1]
M= 100g = 0.1kg , 𝑙 =2.3 x 106Jkg-1
Q
𝑙=
m
Q = 𝑚𝑙
Q = 2.3 x 106 X 0.1 = 2.3 x 105J
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
i. Calculate the energy required to vapourise 50g of water initially at 800C. [Specific heat capacity of water =
4.2Jg-1K-1; specific latent heat of vapourisation of water = 2260Jg-1]
SUB-TOPIC 2: Determination of specific latent heat of fusion of ice.
Thermometer
Stirrer
calorimeter
Connected to electric supply

Ice block
Lagging

Dried ice is dropped in weighed calorimeter(M1) containing water of known mass(M2-M1) and known
temperature(θ1). The mixture is stirred continuously and more ice is added until the temperature of the mixture
falls to about 100C below the room temperature(θ2). The content is reweighed to find the mass of the ice.
Heat lost by calorimeter and water in cooling from θ1 to θ2 = Heat gained by ice in melting to water at 00c +
Heat gained by melted ice when its temperature rises from 00C to θ2.
M1C1(θ1-θ2) + (M2-M1) CW( θ1-θ) = (M3-M2)L + (M3-M2) CW θ1
L = M1C1(θ1-θ2) + (M2-M1) CW( θ1-θ) - (M3-M2) CW θ1
(M3-M2)
PRECAUTIONS:
3. The ice must be dried before it is put in the calorimeter.
Example 3: Calculate the heat energy required to change 0.1kg of ice at 0℃ to water boiling at 100℃. [Specific
heat capacity of water = 4200Jkg-1K-1; specific latent heat of fusion of ice =336000Jkg-1].
Q = m 𝑙 + 𝑚𝑐𝑤 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )
Q = 0.1 x 336000 + 0.1 x 4200 x (100 − 0)
Q = 33600 + 42000 = 75600 = 7.56 X 104J
1. Calculate the heat required to convert 20g of ice at 0℃ to water at 16℃. [Specific latent heat of fusion of
ice = 336Jg-1; specific heat capacity of water = 4.2Jg-1K-1]
2. Explain what is meant by the following statements: The specific latent heat of fusion of ice is
3.4 x 105Jkg-1.

Determination of specific latent heat of vaporization of stem.
Connecting rubber tube
Safety expansion
tube
screen
Steam trap
Boiling water
Thermometer
Lagging
The calorimeter is weighed empty and the mass(M1) is recorded. Water is poured into the calorimeter and the
mass(M2) recorded. Dried steam is passed into the lagged calorimeter containing water until the temperature of
water rises to 250and the steam is removed and the content stirred. The mass(M3 )is recorded and the final
steady temperature taken(θ2).
Mass of water = M2 – M1 , Mass of steam= M3 – M2
Heat lost by stem in condensing + Heat lost by condensed stem in cooling from 1000C to θ2 = Heat gained by
water and calorimeter during the experiment.
(M3 – M2)L + (M3 – M2)(100 – θ2)Cw = ( M2 – M1)Cw(θ2 – θ1) + M1C(θ2 – θ1)
L = ( M2 – M1)Cw(θ2 – θ1) + M1C(θ2 – θ1) - (M3 – M2)(100 – θ2)Cw

(M3 – M2)
PRECAUTIONS:
3. The Steam must be dried

Example 4: Calculate the energy required to vaporize 50g of water initially at 80℃. [Specific heat capacity of
water = 4.2Jg-1K-1; specific latent heat of vaporization of water = 2260Jg-1]
SOLUTION
Q = Heat required to raise the temperature of water from 800C to 1000C + Heat required to vaporize water
Q = 𝑚𝑐𝑤 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) + m 𝑙
Q = 50 x 42 x (100 − 80) + 50 x 2260
Q = 42000 + 113000 = 155000 = 1.55 X 105J
Example 5: heat is supplied to a liquid of mass 500g contained in a can by passing a current of 4A through a
heating coil of resistance 12.5Ω immersed in the liquid. The initial temperature of the liquid is 240C. The liquid
reaches its boiling point in 10 minutes after the current is switched on. It takes a further 2 minutes after the
liquid starts to boil away. Calculate
(a). The specific heat capacity of the liquid
(b). The specific latent heat of vaporization of the liquid
(boiling point of liquid = 840C, thermal capacity of can = 400J/K)
Solution
(a) Mass of liquid = 500g = 0.5kg
Heat required to raise temperature of liquid from 240C to 840C (boiling point of liquid) is given as
Q = mc(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) = 0.5 x c x (84 – 24) = 30c. c is the specific heat capacity of the liquid.
Heat required to raise temperature of can from 240C to 840C = 400 x 60 = 24000J (thermal capacity x
change in temperature).
Heat supplied by heating coil is
Ivt = I2Rt = 4 x 4 x 12.5 x 10 x 60 = 120000J
Since this heat is used to raise the temperature of the can and the liquid to boiling point, we have
30c + 24000 = 120000
30c = 120000 – 24000
c = 3200Jkg – 1
(b) let L be the specific latent heat of vaporization of the liquid.
Heat required to vaporize liquid = mL = 0.5L
Heat supplied by current = I2Rt = 4 x 4 x 12.5 x 2 x 60 = 24000J
Since this heat is required to boil away the liquid at 840C, we have
0.5L = 24000 (neglecting heat loss to the surrounding)
L = 24000/0.5 = 4.8 x 104 Jk – 1
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. 80% of the heat supplied to a 30g block of ice at 0℃ completely melts it to water at 0℃. Calculate the total
heat energy supplied. [Specific latent heat of ice = 336Jg-1].
(A) 26880J (B) 12600J (C) 10080J (D) 8064J (E) 4200J
2. Which of the following best explains why a person suffers a more severe burn when his skin is exposed to
steam than when boiling water pours on his skin?
(A) Steam is at a high temperature than boiling water.
(B) Steam possesses greater heat energy per unit mass than boiling water.
(C) Steam spreads more easily over a wider area of the skin than boiling water.
(D) Steam penetrates more deeply into the skin than boiling water.
(E) The specific latent heat of vaporisation is released in changing from boiling water to steam.
3. A steam trap is a component of the apparatus used in determining the specific latent heat of
vaporization of steam. In steady state, the steam trap
(A) stores the steam for future use
(B) prevents the steam from escaping
(C) ensures that only dry steam gets into the calorimeter
(D) determines the quantity of steam used
(E) allows condensed steam to go into the calorimeter
4. Water of mass 5kg at 30℃ absorbs 8.4 × 105 J of heat. Neglecting heat
losses to the surroundings, calculate the final temperature of the water.
[Specific heat capacity of water = 4200Jkg-1K-1]
(A) 30℃ (B) 34.0℃ (C) 37℃ (D) 40℃ (E) 70℃
5. A block of ice at its melting point is left on a table in the atmosphere and it is observed to melt gradually.
Which of the following statements is true about the melting process?
(A) Heat extracted from the ice block makes the ice block cold.
(B) he atmosphere absorbs heat from the ice block and the temperature of the ice block falls.
(C) The ice block absorbs heat from the atmosphere and the temperature of the ice block remains constant
as it melts.
(D) The ice block absorbs heat from the atmosphere and the temperature of the ice block rises.
(E) The reaction force of the table on the ice breaks the ice into water molecules.
ESSAY
i. A piece of copper of mass 300g at a temperature of 9500C is quickly transferred to a vessel of negligible
thermal capacity containing 250g of water at 250C. If the final steady temperature of the
mixture is 1000C, calculate the mass of the water that will boil away.
(Specific heat capacity of copper = 4.0 x 102Jkg-1K-1, Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 x 103Jkg-1k-1
Specific latent heat of vapourization of steam = 2.26 x 106Jkg-1)
2. Using the kinetic theory of matter. Explain why ice can change to water at 00C without any change in
temperature.
3.A piece of copper of mass 20𝑔 at a temperature of 110℃ was dropped into a mixture of ice and water at
0℃ If the final steady temperature of the mixture is 0℃, calculate the amount of ice that melted. (Specific
heat capacity of copper = 0.4 𝐽𝑔-1𝐾 -1; Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 330𝐽𝑔 -1) A. 0.37𝑔
B. 0.60𝑔 C. 2.40𝑔 D. 2.70𝑔

SUB-TOPIC 3: Evaporation: Meaning, Factors that affects evaporation and applications of Evaporation
and latent heat.
EVAPORATION
Evaporation is a change of state from the liquid to the gaseous state. It takes place at all temperatures and from the surface
of the liquid. Volatile liquids such as Freon, ether, alcohol, vaporize easily. Evaporation causes cooling because latent heat
is taken from the body to change the liquid to the gaseous state. Example the human utilizes the process of evaporation in
cooling after exercise.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF EVAPORATION
Temperature: The rate of evaporation increases as temperature increase.
Pressure: The rate of evaporation decreases with increase in pressure.
Area of liquid surface exposed: The greater the surface area of liquid exposed, the more rapid will be the evaporation.
The nature of the liquid: The lower the boiling point of the liquid, the greater will be the rate of evaporation.
Wind and dryness of the air: Dryness of the air around the body causes rapid evaporation from the body. Wind blows
away liquid vapour and causes rapid evaporation.
APPLICATION OF COOLING EFFECT OF EVAPORATION AND LATENT HEAT
1. Refrigerator
2. Air conditioner

APPLICATION IN REFRIGERATORS
Refrigerators make use of the cooling effect of evaporation. The volatile liquid such as liquid ammonia or freon evaporates
inside copper coil surrounding the freezing compartment, supported by electric pump which reduced the pressure. As the
volatile liquid evaporates in those coils, it absorbs heat from the surround air, consequently cooling the inside of the
refrigerator and its content.
The vapour produced is pumped off into the condenser, where it is compressed by the pump and condenses back to liquid.
The latent heat given out during this condensation is quickly dissipated by an arrangement of cooling fins at the back of
refrigerator.
Heat is eliminated by convection and radiation to the surroundings and by conduction into fins. The liquid is again passed
into the evaporator coil and thus the level of cooling is regulated by a thermostat connected to the switch.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. What is Evaporation?
2. Mention and explain the factors that affect the rate of evaporation
3. Explain the mode of operation of the refrigerator.
SUB-TOPIC 4: Boling point: Meaning, determination of boiling point
Boiling happens at a particular temperature and pressure, the temperature of the liquid remains steady during boiling. Boiling
occurs throughout the entire volume of the liquid and wind has no effect on boiling.
Boiling point of a liquid is that temperature at which its saturated vapour pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
Saturated vapour is a vapour that is in contact with its own liquid within a confined space. The pressure exerted by the
saturated vapour is known as saturated vapour pressure.
Saturated vapour pressure can be define as the pressure exerted by the vapour of the liquid which is in dynamic
equilibrium with its own liquid.
Effect of temperature on S.V.P
Increase in the temperature will increase the S.V.P of the liquid.
S.V.P
temp
Determination of boiling point of a liquid

The J-shaped tube is filled with mercury and a drop of liquid is introduced into the space on top of the mercury in the shorter
arm. The liquid evaporates and the pressure of the vapour depresses the mercury level slightly. The tube is heated in a beaker
of water as the temperature increases, the liquid evaporates and more drops introduced. The s.v.p of the liquid increases. At
a stage the mercury levels in both arms of the tubes become equal and the temperature is read at this point. This temperature
is the boiling point of the liquid because at this temperature s.v.p of the liquid is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. A pure sample of the liquid must be used.
EFFECT OF PRESSURE AND DISSOLVED SUBSTANCES ON BOILING AND FREEZING POINT
Effect of pressure on boiling point:
Reduced pressure lowers the boiling point: If a flask of boiling water is allowed to cool until the water stops boiling and
cold water is now poured over the bottom of the flask, boiling resumes and cease when the pouring of water stops. The
poured cold water causes condensation of the vapour inside the flask, which consequently reduced the pressure on the
surface of the water. This reduced pressure lowers the boiling point of the liquid and make it boils again. Hence reduced
pressure always lowers the boiling point of a liquid. Dissolved impurities raises the boiling point of liquid.
Increased pressure raises the boiling point: The fact that increased pressure raises the boiling point is put into a useful
application in the pressure cooker. The increased pressure of the trapped gas above the liquid raises the boiling of the
liquid inside the cooker. This provides a high cooking temperature needed to conserve fuel and save time. Pressure cookers
are advantageous especially in mountainous area where atmospheric pressure is low.
Effect of pressure on freezing point:
Increase pressure lowers the melting point of all substances that expand on solidifying(ice block), but for substances that
contracts on solidifying(paraffin), their melting point is raised by increased pressure.
Effect of dissolved impurities on boiling point:
Dissolved impurities raises the boiling point of pure liquid.
Effect of dissolved impurities on melting/freezing point:
Dissolved impurities lowers the melting point of pure solid or the freezing point of pure liquid.
HUMIDITY: It is the water vapour content in the atmosphere. If there is high percentage of water in the air, the air is humid
or moist.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY: It describes how moist the air is. It is defined as the ratio of the mass of water vapour present
in a certain volume of air to the mass of water vapour required to saturate the same volume of air at the same temperature.
It is expressed in percentage. Very high humidity or very low humidity makes one uncomfortable.
MEASUREMENT OF RELATIVE HUMIDITY (HYGROMETER)

Hygrometer is used to measure relative humidity. It consists of the dry bulb thermometer which reads temperature of dry
air, and the wet bulb thermometer which records a lower temperature because evaporation of water from the moist cloth
cools the bulb. The lower the humidity, the lower the temperature of the wet bulb thermometer relative to the dry bulb
thermometer. The difference between the two temperatures is high. If the humidity is high water evaporates slowly from
the wet bulb. The difference between the two temperatures is small. The difference in the readings of the thermometers is
a measure of the relative humidity.
DEW POINT: it is the temperature at which the water vapour present in the air is just sufficient to saturate it.
MIST: They are condensed water vapour( droplets) suspended in air near the earth surface when air have been cooled
below its dew point. Mist reduces visibility. In severe mist situation, we have fog.
CLOUD: Cloud is a mass of small water droplets that float in the air. Cloud is high up in the atmosphere.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. The temperature at which the water vapour present in the air is just sufficient to saturate it is called the
(A) saturation point
(B) steam point
(C) ice point
(D) dew point
(E) boiling point
2. Which of the following will affect the saturation vapour pressure of a liquid?
(A) Temperature of the liquid
(B) Humidity of air
(C) Volume of vapour
(D) Volume of the liquid
(E) Mass of the liquid
3. The boiling point of a liquid depends on the following except the

(A) volume of the liquid
(B) nature of the liquid
(C) impurities present in the liquid
(D) external pressure
(E) degree of its molecular
cohesive force
4. Water in an open container boils at a lower temperature when heated at

the top of a mountain than at sea level because at the top of a mountain
(A) impurities are less than at sea
level
(B) pressure is less than at sea level
(C) rays of the sun add more heat to
the water
(D relative humidity is higher than
that at sea level
(E) temperature is lower than that at
sea level
5. When an athlete perspires after running

A. Evaporation occurs and helps to cool the body.
B. Convection cools the body
C. The body absorbs cold from the surrounding air
D. Heat is conducted away from the body.
THEORY
1. Explain the following;
a. When methylated spirit is poured on the skin, it has cooling effect
b. Moisture is deposited on the outside of a glass bottle containing very cold water.
c. Explain the following terms i. Humidity ii. Mist iii. Dew point iv. Cloud.

TOPICAL QUESTIONS
1. Calculate the heat required to convert 20g of ice at 0℃ to water at 16℃. [Specific latent heat of fusion of
ice = 336Jg-1; specific heat capacity of water = 4.2Jg-1K-1]
2. Explain what is meant by the following statements: The specific latent heat of fusion of ice is
3.4 x 105Jkg-1.
3. A cup containing 100g of pure water at 20℃ is placed in a refrigerator. If the refrigerator extracts heat at the
rate of 840J per minute, calculate the time taken for the water to freeze. [Neglect the heat capacity of the
material of the cup.] [Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2Jg-1K-1;
specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 336Jg-1].
4. Which of the following statements correctly defines the boiling point of a liquid? The temperature at which
the A. saturated vapour pressure equals the atmospheric pressure. B. molecules leave the liquid at a rate
equal to the rate at which they return. C. molecules leaves the liquid at a rate higher than that at which they
return. D. molecules leaves the liquid at a rate lower than the rate at which they return.
5. Which of the following statements is correct about the effect of dissolved salt on the freezing point of
water? A. The freezing point is lowered B. The freezing point is increased C. There is no change
in the freezing the surrounding
6. An instrument used to measure relative humidity is the A. hygrometer B. hydrometer C. pyrometer
D. manometer
𝜽
Q
P
t
7. The graph above illustrates the variation of temperature 𝜽 with time t for a solid that is being heated.
Which processes take place at segments P and Q respectively? A. Freezing and vaporization
B. Evaporation and solidification C. Melting and boiling ondensation and evaporation.

Explain why methylated spirit when rubbed on the body have a cooling effect.
INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES: "The scientific method is nothing but the expression of the necessity of the elementary rules
of formal logic." - Albert Einstein

WEEK: NINE
TOPIC: GAS LAW
I. calculate the pressure in a gas,
ii. state the pressure law.
iii. state Charle’s law
iv. Describe an experiment to illustrate Charle’s law
v. State Boyle’s law.
vi. Describe an experiment to illustrate Boyle’s law.
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students have blown balloon.
SUB-TOPIC 1: Measurement of Gas pressure, Pressure law
CONTENT:
Measurement of Gas pressure

A manometer is used to measure Gas pressure gas pressure. One end of the tube is open to the atmosphere while the
other end is connected the gas supply. When the gas is released, the gas exerts pressure on the water causing it to rise
up to a height h, When the water levels are steady;
Pressure of gas = pressure of liquid at B (pressure at the level in a liquid are equal)
Pressure of gas = H + h (H = Atmospheric pressure)
GAS LAW
In an attempt to study the behaviour of gases in relation to volume, temperature and pressure, the following
conditions were investigated
(a) variation of volume with pressure at constant temperature, Boyle’s law (Pv = constant)
(b) variation of pressure with temperature at constant volume, pressure law (P/T = K)
(c) variation of volume with temperature at constant pressure, Charles law( V/T= constant)
Pressure Law or Gay- Lussac’s Law
Gay-Lussac’s law states that the pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume is proportional to the absolute
temperature of the gas.
𝑃 𝑃1 𝑃2
T
= Constant, =
𝑇1 𝑇2
Experimental verification of pressure law
It is performed using a constant volume Gas thermometer. The pressure of the gas at 00C is first obtained by addition of
ice shavings to water originally cooled to 00C and the manometer is adjusted until the mercury level coincides with the
fixed mark C. The difference between the mercury levels (h) is the pressure of the gas at that temperature. The water is
heated increasing the temperature at intervals of 200C up to 1000C and corresponding heights (h) taken. A graph of
pressure against temperature plotted gives a straight line proving that pressure increases linearly with temperature.
P(cmHg)
T( 0C)
-273
Precautions:
1. The bulb must be dry and contain only dry air.
2. Position of the fixed mark must not shift throughout the experiment.
QUESTION1: A given mass of gas has a pressure of 80Nm-2 at a temperature of 47℃. If the temperature isreduced to 27℃
with the volume remaining constant, the new pressure is
SOLUTION
𝑃 𝑃1 𝑃2
T
= Constant, =
𝑇1 𝑇2
T1 = 47 + 273 = 320K, T2 = 27 + 273 = 300K, P1 = 80Nm-2, p2 = ?
𝑃1 𝑃2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
80 𝑃2
=
320 300
80 X 300
𝑃2 = = 75N𝑚−2
320
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. The pressure of a given mass of gas changes from 200Nm-2 to 100Nm-2 while its temperature drops
From 1270c to -730c. Calculate the ratio of the final volume of the gas to its initial volume.
(A) 2.4:1 (B) 2.0 : 1 (C) 1.2 : (D) 1.0 :1 (E) 1.0 : 2
2. The pressure of air in a tyre is 22.5Nm-2 At 270c. If the air in the tyre heats up to 470c, calculate the
new pressure of the air, assuming that no air leaks out and that the change in volume of the air
can be neglcted.
SUB-TOPIC 2: Boyle’s law and its application
BOYLE’S LAW: It states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas varies inversely as its pressure, provided the
temperature remains constant.

𝑃1 𝑉1= 𝑃2 𝑉2
Experimental verification of Boyle’s law
Dry air is introduced into the tube B and the atmospheric pressure noted(H). The tube is kept steady while tube A is
raised or lowered to obtain at least five different heights(h) of mercury and the corresponding lengths of the dry air in
tube B. Since the tube is of uniform cross-sectional area, The length L is proportional to the volume of air.
A graph of pressure against inverse of volume gives a straight line.
P(cmHg)
1/v cm-3
-273
1. The set-up illustrated above shows a capillary tube of uniform cross-sectional area in two different
arrangements.Using the data in the diagrams, calculate the pressure of the atmosphere.
15cm 45cm
Dry air 30cm

15cm mer-
cury
SOLUTION
P1 =( A + 15)cmHg, V1 = 30cm, P2 = (A – 15)cmHg, V2 = 45cm

𝑃1 𝑉1= 𝑃2 𝑉2
(A + 15)(30) = (A − 15)(45)
30A + 450 = 45A − 675
450 + 675 = 45A − 30A
1125 = 15A
A = 75cmHg
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. An air bubble of volume 2cm3 isformed 20cm under water. What willbe its volume when it rises to just below the
surface of the water if the atmospheric pressure is equivalent to a height of 10cm of water?
(A) 6cm3 (B) 4cm3 (C) 3cm (D) 2cm3 (E) 1cm3
2. The pressure exerted a given mass of gas in a container

(A) decreases if the container is heated.
(B) increases if the molecules of the gas move faster.
(C) increases if the volume of the container is doubled.
(D) decreases as the kinetic energy of the gas molecules increases.
3. A pressurized perfume bottle is left on the window pane of a room. What happens to the gas molecules of
the perfume on a sunny day? They A. expand. B. collide less often. C. move more rapidly. D. contract.
4.
P
The diagram above illustrates a simple barometer. Which distance measures the atmospheric pressure?
A. PQ B. QR C. RS D. QS

SUB-TOPIC 3: Charle’s law and its application, General gas law.
CHARLE’S LAW: It states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature (T),
provided the pressure remains constant.
𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
Experimental verification of Charle’s Law
Dry gas is trapped by pellet of mercury in the capillary tube of uniform diameter. The temperature of the gas at 00C is
obtained by adding ice shavings to the water in the beaker until the temperature is 00C. The water is heated and lengths
of the gas column at different temperatures taken and recorded. The water must be stirred before taken the readings.
The length of the gas column is taken as the volume of the gas because the capillary tube is of uniform cross sectional
area.
A graph of length of gas column against corresponding temperature is plotted, a straight line is obtained with slope
approximately 1/273.
V/L
T(0C)
Cubic or volume expansivity(γ) of Gas

It is defined as the increase in volume per unit volume at 00C per degree rise in temperature

Increase in volume V1 − 𝑉0
γ= =
volume 00 C x temperature rise V0 (T1 − 𝑇0 )
V1 − 𝑉0 = increase in volume or expansion

T1 − 𝑇0=𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒
0
𝑉0 = volume at 0 C
V1 = 𝑉0 {𝛾 (T1 − 𝑇0 ) + 1}
QUESTION 1: Dry hydrogen is trapped by a pellet of mercury in a uniform capillary tube closed at one end. If the lenght of
the column of hydrogen at 2700C is 1.0m, at what temperature will the lenght be
1.20m.
T1 = 270 + 273 = 543K, T2 = ?, V1 = 1.0m, V2 = 1.20m
𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
1.0 1.20
=
543 𝑇2
543 x 1.20
𝑇2 = = 651.6k
1.0
QUESTION 2: The cubic expansivity of a certain gas at constant pressure is 1/273K-1. If a given mass of the gas is held at
constant pressure and its volume at 00c is 273m3. Determine the volume of the gas at 2730c.
SOLUTION
Increase in volume V1 − 𝑉0
γ= =
volume 00 C x temperature rise V0 (T1 − 𝑇0 )
V1 = 𝑉0 {𝛾 (T1 − 𝑇0 ) + 1}
1
V1 = 273{ (273 − 0) + 1}
273
1
V1 = 273{ 𝑋 273 + 1}
273
V1 = 273{1 + 1}
V1 = 273𝑋2 = 546cm3
GENERAL GAS LAW
The general gas law is the combination of the Boyle’s, Charles and Pressure Law.
It follows that
𝑃𝑉
T
= Constant,
𝑃1V1 𝑃2V2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
IDEAL GAS EQUATION.
For an ideal gas of n moles, having a volume V and pressure P, the ideal gas equation is given as:
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
V - volume of gas in m3.
n - number of mole of gas in mol
T - temperature of gas in Kelvin
R - molar constant for an ideal gas ( R = 0.082 Jmol-1T-1)
1. 500cm3 of a gas is collected at 00c and at a pressure of 72.0cm of mercury. What is the volume of
the gas at the same temperature and a pressure of 76.0cm of mercury?
SOLUTION
𝑃1V1 𝑃2V2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
72 X 500 76 X V2
=
273 273
V2 X 76 X 273 = 72 X 500 X 273
72 X 500 X 273
V2 =
76 X273
V2 = 473.7cm3
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. As a bicycle tyre was being pumped up, it was noticed that contrary to Boyle’s law the volume
increased as the pressure increased. The best explanation of this is that Boyle’s law is only true
for
(A) ideal gases
(B) a fixed mass of gases
(C) a mixture of gases
(D) a gas at variable temperature.
2. The pressure P, volume V and absolute temperature T of a given mass of an ideal gas, change
simultaneously, which of the following equation is correct about the gas?
(A) PV = constant/T
(B) PV/T = constant
(C) PT= constant/V
(D) PV = T
3. The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is 2.0 x 105Nm-2 at a known temperature, assuming that the
temperature remains constant, what will be the pressure of the gas if its volume is halved?
(A) 1.0 x 105Nm-2
(B) 2.0 x 105Nm-2
(C) 3.0 x 105Nm-2
(D) 4.0 x 105Nm-2
(E) 5.0 x 105Nm-2.
4. A gas of volume 700𝑐𝑚3 at a temperature of 300𝐶has a pressure of 606𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔. If the volume of the gas is
reduced by 300𝑐𝑚3 when the temperature increases to 470𝐶, calculate the pressure of the gas. NECO
2016/4 & 5
TOPICAL TEST
1. The pressure of a given mass of gas changes from 200Nm-2 to 100Nm-2 while its temperature
drops from 1270c to -730c. Calculate the ratio of its the final volume of the gas to its initial
volume.
(A) 2.4:1 (B) 2.0 : 1 (C) 1.2 :1 (D) 1.0 :1 (E) 1.0 : 2
2. A gas has a volume of 546cm3 at 00c, what is the volume of the gas at -1000c, if its pressure
remains constant?
(A) 346cm3 (B) 446cm (C) 546cm3 (D) 646cm3 (E) 746cm3

3. A given mass of gas at a temperature of 300 is trapped in a tube of volume V, calculate the
temperature of the gas when the volume is reduced to two-third of its marginal value by
applying pressure twice the original value?
(A) -710c (B) 400c (C) 1310 (D) 3130c (E) 4040c
a. State Boyle’s law

b. With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe an experiment to illustrate the relationship between the
volume and the temperature of a given mass of air at constant pressure.
c. A thread of mercury of length 15cm is used to trap some air in a capillary tube with uniform cross-
sectional area and closed at one end. With the tube vertical and the open end uppermost, the
length of the trapped air column is 20cm. Calculate the length of the air column when the tube is
held.
i. Horizontally ii. Vertically with the open end underneath.
(Atmospheric pressure = 76cm of mercury)
d. A uniform capillary tube, closed at one end contained dry air trapped by a thread of mercury 8.5 x
10-2m long. When the tube was held horizontally, the length of the air column was 5.0 x 10-2m.
When it was held vertically with the closed end downwards, the length was 4.5 x 10-2m. Determine
the value of the atmospheric pressure. ( g = 10m/s2, density of mercury = 1.36 x 104kgm-3)
4. A closed inexpansible vessel contains air saturated with water vapour at 770c. The total pressure in
the vessel is 1007mmHg. Calculate the new pressure in the vessel if the temperature is reduced to
270C. ( The s.v.p of water at 770C and 270C are 314mmHg and 27mmHg. Treat the air in the vessel
as an ideal gas)
PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER: You are in a rush to work. You pour yourself a cup of black coffee, but it is too hot. You
intend to add a fixed amount of cold milk to it, but you know that even after that, the coffee will need to cool down for a
few minutes before you can drink it.
INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES: "The greatest triumphs of science are born out of the struggles and failures of countless
experiments." - Marie Curie


SS 2 Physics Second Term E-Note - 092926

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©Deeper Life High School.

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WEEKS TOPICS CONTENT

1 REVISION OF FIRST REVISION OF FIRST TERM WORK

2 LINEAR MOMENTUM Newton’s first law of motion, impulse and

MECHANICAL ENERGY (a) Principleof linear momentum, (b) Types of

4. SIMPLE MACHINES Levers and pulleys, inclined plane and Hydraulic

5 HEAT ENERGY: Temperature and its measurement, liquid-in-glass

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Measurement of Gas pressure, Pressure law,

TOPIC: LINEAR MOMENTUM

i. State Newton’s first law of motion.

ii. Explain three applications of Newton’s law of motion.

iii. Differentiate between impulse and momentum.

iv. State Newton’s second law of motion.

v. Derive the formular F=ma.

vi. State Newton’s third law of motion

vii. Explain at least three applications of Newton’s third law of motion.

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𝑓 = 0.6𝑁, 𝑚 = 40𝑔 = 0.04𝑘𝑔

SUB-TOPIC 2: Newton’s second law of motion

𝑓 = 0.6𝑁, 𝑚 = 40𝑔 = 0.04𝑘𝑔

a. increased b. decreased c. constant d. zero

the particle. a. 50m/s b. 25m/s c. 20m/s d. 5m/s

the final velocity of the ball? a. 3.3m/s b. 5.5m/s c. 2.0m/s d. 1.0m/s

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SUB-TOPIC 3: Newton’s third of motion and applications

Applications of Newton’s third law:

Force is proportional to change in momentum,

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NEWTON THIRD LAW OF MOTION

2. Weightlessness or weight loss in a lift: a person standing on a weighing machine in a

II. When the lift is ascending but at constant velocity.

Weight of the walker = mg

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1. The product of mass and velocity is A. momentum B. moment C. acceleration D. force

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

ii. A rocket of mass 500kg

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TOPIC: MECHANICAL ENERGY

i. State the principle of conservation of linear momentum.

ii. Apply the principle in solving mathematical problems.

iii. Explain what is meant by machine.

iv. Mention at least five types of simple machines.

v. Explain the terms mechanical Advantage, Velocity ratio, efficiency.

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students can define and calculate momentum.

SUB-TOPIC 1: Principle of linear momentum

Before collision After collision

Applying the principle of conservation of linear momentum,

M1U1 + M2U2 = M1V1 + M2V2

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Applying the principle of conservation of linear momentum,

M1U1 - M2U2 = M1V1 + M2V2

Before collision After collision

Applying the principle of conservation of linear momentum,

M1U1 + M2U2 = (M1 + M2)V

M1U1 + M2U2 = (M1 + M2)V

1. In an elastic collision, momentum is conserved as well as A. velocity B. kinetic energy C. potential

SUB-TOPIC 2: Types of collisions

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M1U1 + M2U2 = M1V1 + M2V2,

M1U1 + M2U2 = M1V1 + M2V2,