CHAPTER 2

CATCHMENT CHARACTERISTICS,
HYDROLOGY, LIMNOLOGY AND
SOCIO-ECONOMIC FEATURES OF THREE
RESERVOIRS IN SRI LANKA
1
* E. Ivan L. Silva, 2 David Simon & 3 Fritz Schiemer

1
Institute of Fundamental Studies, Hantana Road, Kandy, Sri Lanka
2
Centre for Developing Areas Research, Dept. of Geography, Royal Holloway,
University of London, EGHAM, Surrey TW20 OEX, UK
3
Department of Freshwater Ecology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna,
Althanstrasse 14, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
(* Author for Correspondence: E-mail: eils@ifs.ac.lk)

Key words: Minneriya reservoir, Udawalawe reservoir, Victoria reservoir, eco-

hydrology, trophic state, biotic community, socio-economy of fisheries

Abstract
A comparative study of morphometry, catchment characteristics, hydrology and basic
limnology of three Sri Lankan reservoirs, namely Victoria, Minneriya and Udawalawe,
was conducted under the European Union-funded INCO-DC FISHSTRAT project. The
three reservoirs drain watersheds of different magnitudes and are subject to various land
use types. Basin morphometry, prevailing weather and climate and operational properties
regulate different hydrological regimes. Wind induced mixing is more prominent in
Minneriya and Udawalawe than in Victoria. The seasonal water level fluctuations are
primarily influenced by monsoon-driven seasonal rainfall and release patterns for irrigation
and power generation but showed marked changes during different years. Victoria had the
highest flushing rate but lowest littoral exposure of the three reservoirs.
Water temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH and electrical conductivity in Victoria, a
deep hydropower reservoir located in the central highlands, showed marked differences
from Minneriya and Udawalawe, two shallow reservoirs located in the lowland Dry Zone.
Similarities in ionic compositions and concentrations of the three reservoirs primarily
reflect comparable catchment geochemistry. Udawalawe received the highest flux of
suspended solids and Minneriya the lowest.
20 E. Ivan L. Silva, David Simon & Fritz Schiemer

The biotic structure and process dynamics of the three reservoirs are governed by
seasonal hydrological cycles and by strong biotic interactions, especially fish predation.
Periods of lower water are typically linked with high internal nutrient loading and
increased primary production and trophic state. The phytoplankton assemblages of the
three reservoirs are diverse and dominated by blue-green algae and diatoms. The absence
of large-sized zooplankton indicates a generally high predation pressure from fish. In
terms of biomass, the fish community is dominated by Amblypharyngodon melettinus, a
seston-filtering species, followed by minor carps, e.g. Puntius filamentosus and P. chola.
Despite historical and physiographic differences among the reservoirs, their species lists
are remarkably similar.
The size and density of littoral human populations vary considerably, from small
discrete settlements around Victoria to a large and well-established population around
Udawalawe. These differences reflect the usability of the respective reservoirs and their
immediate hinterlands for fishing and other livelihood activities. Some seasonal fisher
migration is evident, and aquaculture is all but absent.

Introduction
Regulation of rivers and streams by dams for the construction of impoundments and
barrages has had profound ecological and socio-economic impacts. The oft-cited
rationales for building artificial inland water bodies are for human benefits such as
irrigation, hydropower generation, flood control, storage, drinking water supply,
recreation and transport. In general, these transitional lotic-lentic ecosystems are more
riverine when they are built by arresting mountain rivers. Manifold impacts resulting
from reservoir building have changed ecological integrity at various levels, especially in
the tropics (Petr, 1978; Obeng, 1981; Milliman, 1997; Schiemer et al., 2001).
In general, catchment characteristics (i.e. landscape, geochemistry, altitude, climate
and weather, vegetation and soil, and the land use pattern) and hydrology are the primary
determinants of the ecological dynamics of lakes and reservoirs. In reservoirs, the
hydrology and water budget are controlled by humans. Duncan et al. (1993) identified
two distinct types of man-made water bodies in Sri Lanka based on basin morphology
and release patterns. The hydrology (i.e., flushing rates, hydrological residence time
and draw-down) determine the nature of the processes involved in material fluxes and
ecological regulation of primary production of the water body. The magnitude and impact
of resulting environmental variables are linked directly with the hydrological residence
time of water storage and its inverse, the flushing rate. Therefore morphometry, catchment
characteristics, hydrology and physicochemical features of three Sri Lankan reservoirs are
described as the basis for distinguishing ecosystem structure, processes and dynamics.

Location and morphology of the reservoirs

Figure 2.1 shows the location of the three reservoirs and their catchments. Minneriya
is an ancient irrigation tank, originally constructed by King Mahasen in 276 C.E. and
renovated during the early twentieth century (Plate 2.1). The reservoir’s natural catchment
is drained by Kiri Oya, a seasonal stream confined to the Dry Zone. In addition, water has
been channelled from the Amban Ganga via the Elahera anicut through the 30-km long
Chapter 2 – Three reservoirs in Sri Lanka 21

Figure 2.1: Catchments of Minneriya, Udawalawe and Victoria reservoirs and their major inflows.
The sampling sites in the reservoirs are given in Chapter 1. The insert shows the location of the
three reservoirs in Sri Lanka.
22 E. Ivan L. Silva, David Simon & Fritz Schiemer

Plate 2.1: Satellite image of Minneriya reservoir.

Figure 2.2: A schematic diagram showing the hydrological network and basin morphology of Vic-
toria and Minneriya reservoirs in the Mahaweli basin and the Udawalawe reservoir in the Walawe
basin.
Chapter 2 – Three reservoirs in Sri Lanka 23

Plate 2.2: Satellite image of Victoria reservoir.

Elahera-Minneriya Yoda Ela, an ancient feeder canal (Fig. 2.2). The reservoir’s water
level has been further augmented since 1978 by partially diverted Mahaweli River water
conveyed through the Bowetenna storage reservoir. Udawalawe is an irrigation-cum-
hydropower reservoir (the third largest in Sri Lanka) built in the late 1960s, by damming
the trunk stream of the Walawe River in the southern Dry Zone. By contrast, Victoria, the
deepest (102 m), largest and most technologically sophisticated hydropower reservoir,
in the country was formed by damming the trunk stream of the Mahaweli River in the
Central Highlands by a double curvature concrete arch dam at the Victoria Falls located
near the confluence of the Hulu and Mahaweli rivers in 1984. This W-shaped reservoir can
be divided into two distinct segments, namely the Mahaweli and Hulu sectors (Plates 2.2
& 2.3). Hydrologically, both Minneriya and Victoria reservoirs fall within the Mahaweli
river basin while Udawalawe is fed by the Walawe river, which drains the southern
escarpment of the Central Highlands (Figs 2.1 & 2.2). General characteristics of the three
reservoirs are given in Table 2.1 and details of geographical locations, watercourses, uses
and specific features are described by Silva & Gamlath (2000). Hypsographic curves
were prepared using bathymetric dimensions (Fig. 2.3).

Catchment characteristics
The catchment area of Minneriya is distinctly smaller compared to Udawalawe and
Victoria. Victoria reservoir drains a vast catchment area, which is exclusively confined to
the wet zone of the Central Highlands. A major portion of Udawalawe’s catchment is also
confined to the Central Highlands and experiences both southwest and the second inter-
24 E. Ivan L. Silva, David Simon & Fritz Schiemer

Plate 2.3: Victoria reservoir dam (Photo: F. Schiemer).

Table 2.1: Location and general characteristics of Minneriya, Udawalawe and Victoria reservoirs.
Yield: volume of water available to the reservoir from its own catchment without artificial flows
during the year; Sluice issue: release for command area during the year.
Parameter Minneriya Udawalawe Victoria
type irrigation irrigation hydropower
location 8° 02' N ; 80° 53' E 6° 27' N ; 80° 50' E 7° 13' N ; 80° 47' E
riverbasin Mahaweli Walawe Mahaweli
years of construction 276CE, 1903 ren. 1969 1988
altitude (m-amsl) 95 88.4 438
area (km2) 28.6 34.1 24.3
mean depth (zmean, m) 6.0 7.9 30.3
max. depth (zmax, m) 13.0 20 98.0
volume (x 106 m3) 170.2 268 783
catchment area (km2) 249 1,164 1,891
command area (km2) 178.0 21.6 -
dead storage (x 106 m3) 3.2 26.26 34
shoreline (km) 60.4 53.0 261.0
shoreline development 2.78 4.38 7.92
fetch (km) 9.0 10.7 8.6
sluice issue (x 106 m3) 177.32 425.11 768.44
yield: issue 1.34 3.72 2.32
flushing rate (days) 280 230 372
geology Quartzites, biotite, Quartzites, biotite, Charnokite to sedimentary
biotic horn-blend biotic horn-blend series quartzites,
gneisses gneisses
soils reddish-brown earth reddish-brown earth Reddish brown latzolic and
and low humic gley and low humic gley immature brown loam soils
soils soils
Chapter 2 – Three reservoirs in Sri Lanka 25

Figure 2.3: Hypsographic curves (depth-area and depth-volume) of the three reservoirs. The shaded
area indicates the average seasonal waterlevel fluctuations. The sluice-level is indicated.

monsoonal rains. The local catchment of Minneriya reservoir is situated entirely in the
Dry Zone. With respect to release volumes of the three reservoirs, Victoria is exclusively
a hydropower reservoir with an installed capacity of 3x70 MW whereas Minneriya and
Udawalawe reservoirs feed irrigation commands of 8,900 ha and 21,000 ha respectively.
Udawalawe reservoir also generates 6 MW and in addition provides drinking water for
surrounding urban areas.
Geologically, the three reservoirs are located in the Highland Series, a distinct
geological feature of Sri Lanka (Cooray, 1984). The terrain of the Minneriya catchment
 26
Table 2.2: Climatological data for Minneriya, Udawalawe and Victoria reservoirs; average monthly mean for the years 1998, 1999 and 2000.

Parameter Month
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Minneriya reservoir
rain (mm) 171 98 59 130 49 11 42 59 70 213 332 412
temp. (°C) 26.9 27.6 30.0 30.1 30.7 31.5 30.0 28.4 29.2 29.2 27.6 26.5
evap. (mm) 3.1 4.0 4.6 4.6 4.3 4.3 3.9 4.0 4.0 3.6 3.6 3.0
sunshine (hr) 6.0 8.0 8.4 8.2 7.2 7.0 5.2 6.6 6.4 5.2 6.8 5.0
relative humidity (%) 83.5 80.7 74.3 81.4 78.6 76.4 70.7 77.1. 75.7 77.9 81.4 84.3
wind speed (ms-1) 3.0 2.8 2.8 3.0 3.8 6.0 5.6 4.8 4.2 5.0 2.6 2.8

Udawalawe reservoir
rain (mm) 91 58 174 204 103 38 38 27 42 201 334 221
temp. (°C) 26.9 28.4 28.4 29.2 29.2 28.4 27.6 26.9 27.6 26.1 27.6 26.5

E. Ivan L. Silva, David Simon & Fritz Schiemer

evap. (mm) 4.0 4.1 4.7 4.6 4.4 4.0 4.7 4.4 4.9 4.0 3.6 3.0
sunshine (hr) 7.8 7.6 8.6 8.4 7.4 4.6 6.4 6.4 6.8 6.4 6.4 5.0
relative humidity (%) 81.4 75.7 71.4 77.9 72.9 74.3 71.4 74.3 71.4 82.9 87.1 85.7
wind speed (ms-1) 2.8 2.8 2.6 3.4 4.2 6.5 9.2 6.8 7.4 5.6 4.6 3.2

Victoria reservoir
rain (mm) 72 91 76 214 211 203 128 110 152 304 297 281
temp. (°C) 20.7 21.5 23.7 24.6 23.8 23.7 22.3 21.5 22.3 21.5 20.7 20.0
evap. (mm) 4.1 4.1 3.1 3.1 3.9 3.0 3.1 4.4 3.4 3.2 2.5 2.2
sunshine (hr) 7.0 7.4 8.2 8.4 7.2 5.6 5.2 5.8 6.0 6.2 5.8 5.0
relative humidity (%) 78.6 82.1 83.6 82.9 72.9 74.3 80.0 78.6 74.3 70.7 87.1 81.4
wind speed (ms-1) 2.8 1.2 1.6 1.8 5.0 4.2 4.4 3.2 2.0 2.4 1.4 1.5
Chapter 2 – Three reservoirs in Sri Lanka 27

Figure 2.4: Seasonal water level fluctuation of three reservoirs during the study period (1998-
2000). Solid lines represent the average seasonal water level fluctuation for a period of ten years
(1991-2000). a) Minneriya; b) Udawalawe; c) Victoria.

is undulating with scattered rock-knob plains and eroded land with erosional remnants.
The upper catchment of the Udawalawe reservoir has a rolling, hilly and steeply dissected
terrain while the lower segment of the catchment is undulating and flat with rock-knob
plains. The entire catchment of Victoria reservoir lies in the Central Highlands of the
Mahaweli River basin and on the south-western slopes of the Knuckles Range with steeply
dissected and rolling terrain. Alluvial and erosional deposits of Holocene and Pleistocene
formations (Panabokke, 1996) largely cover the terrain of the catchments of the three
reservoirs. Minneriya and Udawalawe’s catchments are mainly covered with reddish-
brown earth and low humic gley soils. Reddish brown latzolic and immature brown loam
soils are found in hilly and steeply dissected terrain of the Victoria catchment.

Climate and weather

Data on seasonal fluctuations of air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed,
evaporation and sunshine obtained from the Sri Lankan Meteorological Department
for the study period show that the three reservoirs experience different conditions with
respect to prevailing weather and climate (Tab. 2.2). Mean air temperature in the vicinity
28 E. Ivan L. Silva, David Simon & Fritz Schiemer

of Victoria reservoir – situated at higher altitude and in more humid conditions – was
relatively low compared to Minneriya and Udawalawe reservoirs. Although there was no
marked difference in relative humidity and sunshine duration among the three reservoirs,
the prevailing wind at Victoria was lower compared to Minneriya and Udawalawe, which
experience wind during the southwest (SW) monsoon. Evaporation at Victoria is slightly
lower than in Minneriya and Udawalawe, especially from November to January.

Seasonal hydrology and draw-down

Although the area of Victoria reservoir is comparable to that of Minneriya, it has the
steepest gradient and the largest capacity (783 x 106 m3 at full supply level, FSL). The
capacities of Minneriya and Udawalawe reservoirs at FSL are distinctly lower (Tab. 2.1).
The changes in storage capacity of water volume with decreasing water levels are markedly
different among the three reservoirs. Hydrological data such as water level, inflow and
volume release recorded on a daily basis by the Irrigation Department for Minneriya
reservoir and Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka for Udawalawe and Victoria reservoirs,
were analyzed for our specific purposes. Water level data were used to compare monthly
water level fluctuations during the study period (1998–2000) with a ten-year average
(Fig. 2.4). In Minneriya and Udawalawe, almost half of the effective reservoir area dries
out when the water level drops by 7.25 m and 8.25 m respectively. In contrast, in Victoria
reservoir, the water level has to recede by 72 m to result in a similar littoral exposure.

Figure 2.5: Annual draw-down of the three reservoirs in 1998, 1999 and 2000 in metres and as a
percentage of reservoir area at FSL. (MIN – Minneriya; UDA – Udawalawe; VIC – Victoria)
Chapter 2 – Three reservoirs in Sri Lanka 29

The multiple use of tropical reservoirs for irrigation, generation of hydropower, storage,
supply of potable water and natural processes such as evaporation and seepage result in
marked seasonal changes in water level and hydrological residence time. The hydraulic
balance, to a large extent controlled by humans, is a key factor determining the nature
of the production, decomposition and nutrient recycling processes and the ecosystem
balance of the respective water bodies.
The three reservoirs start filling with the onset of the second inter-monsoonal rains
in November, reaching the highest water level in January (Fig. 2.4). In Minneriya, the
average water level shows a progressive decrease from mid April with irrigation release
for Yala crop season and reaches its lowest in September. Average monthly water level
in Udawalawe reservoir shows two prominent peaks (i.e., December–January and
May–June), indicating that the reservoir also receives a fair amount of water with the
onset of the southwest monsoon. The reservoir’s water level decreases gradually from
July, reaching its lowest level in September. Although the second inter-monsoon filling
of Victoria reservoir is similar to that of Minneriya and Udawalawe, there is a marked
decrease in water level from January to April and the water level remains at its lowest
from June to August (Fig. 2.4).
The hydrological regimes of Dry Zone irrigation reservoirs in Sri Lanka are characterized
by high water levels from December to April due to the second inter-monsoonal rain
(October–December) and low water level from June to September resulting from water
release for the irrigation of rice fields in their command areas. As a consequence, the
water renewal rates exhibit strong seasonal differences, with highest relative rates in July
and lower ones from December to May (Schiemer & Duncan, 1983).
Marked deviations in water level fluctuation of the years 1998 to 2000 from their
ten-year average are noticeable in all three reservoirs. This results mainly from different
release patterns in different years. Normally, irrigation reservoirs release water from April
to August for the Yala crop, resulting in rapid drops in water level, and they start refilling
with the onset of the second inter-monsoonal rains. Although inflow from the watershed is
insignificant, Minneriya receives additional water via the Bowetenna storage tank during
the dry season (see above). Silva & Schiemer (2000) showed that the monthly release
volume of Victoria was relatively consistent throughout the year except in November
and December. Further, they showed that the water release was high from May to July
and lowest in February and in September. The annual release was lowest in Minneriya
in 1999, namely 2.2 times its storage capacity at FSL, whereas Udawalawe released 3.3
times its FSL capacity and Victoria 2.3 times its FSL capacity (Silva & Schiemer, 2000).
Figure 2.5 depicts variations of annual draw-down in 1998, 1999 and 2000. The annual
variation in draw-down for all three reservoirs is high and must be understood in relation
to prevailing conditions in the catchments as well as electricity generation demands.
Victoria reservoir releases water throughout the year for the generation of electricity
while Udawalawe reservoir also releases water throughout the year for irrigation of two
paddy crops (Yala, May–September and Maha, October–April), other cash crops and for
generation of electricity. In the case of Minneriya reservoir, water is released mainly
for one crop of paddy. Figure 2.5 shows also the littoral exposure or land-water ecotone
of the three reservoirs resulting from the annual draw-down during the study period
as a percentage of reservoir area at FSL. The maximum littoral exposure in Minneriya
reservoir was 75.4% of the reservoir area in 1999 with its corresponding draw-down of
30 E. Ivan L. Silva, David Simon & Fritz Schiemer

8.7 m. In Udawalawe, littoral exposure was highest (74.9%) in 2000 and it was less than
fifty percent in 1998 and 1999. Victoria reservoir had the highest littoral exposure of 41%
in 1998 compared to less than 33% in 1999 and 2000.
The variation in littoral exposure resulting from draw-down is primarily determined
by basin morphology. Studies of the biological consequences of fluctuations in water
level indicate the importance of draw-down areas for tropical reservoirs with regard
to nutrient recycling and productivity (McLachalan 1971, 1981; Chapter 22). Further,
long-term water level fluctuations in reservoirs affect fish population structures and the
estimates of fish yields and management (Duncan & Kubečka, 1995; Nissanka et al.,
2000; Amarasinghe et al., 2001).
Annual changes in draw-down and flushing rate (inverse of residence time) are primarily
influenced by rainfall in the respective watersheds and the water demand for irrigation
and hydropower. These requirements play important roles in sustainable management of
reservoir ecosystems in the tropics. Relatively low flushing rates in Victoria reservoir may
be attributed to its deep basin and large storage capacity. However, relatively high flushing
rate in Udawalawe compared to Minneriya is certainly related to its large volume of inflow
water and resulting release for hydropower generation and irrigation (Plates 2.4-7).

Limnological conditions
Limnologically, reservoirs in Sri Lanka differ fundamentally in their basin and catchment
morphology, depth, flow-through regime, nutrient status, underwater light regime and
consequently their biological productivity (Duncan et al., 1993). The V-shaped mountain
basins of the upland reservoirs (two of which have been joined to form Victoria) have
narrow littoral zones and a greatly reduced extent of bottom sediment compared to those
of shallow irrigation reservoirs located in the lowland Dry Zone (e.g. Minneriya and
Udawalawe). This conclusion confirms the results of an extensive limnological study
conducted in Parakrama Samudra, an ancient reservoir in the north central Dry Zone
(Schiemer, 1983) and other related limnological studies in Sri Lanka (Silva & Davies,

Plate 2.4: Udawalawe reservoir at low water level (Photo: U.S. Amarasinghe).
Chapter 2 – Three reservoirs in Sri Lanka 31

Plate 2.5: Fishermen at Udawalawe (Photo: U.S. Amarasinghe).

Plate 2.6: Minneriya reservoir at conditions of low water level and strong winds
(Photo: F. Schiemer).

Plate 2.7: Water buffalo in the draw-down area of Minneriya (Photo: F. Schiemer).
32 E. Ivan L. Silva, David Simon & Fritz Schiemer

1986, 1987; Piyasiri, 1991; Duncan et al., 1993; Silva et al., 2002). However no
comparative limnological study had been conducted on two distinct types of Sri Lankan
reservoirs simultaneously before the implementation of the FISHSTRAT project in 1998.
Therefore the results of this comparative study are important to explain the limnological
processes and dynamics of and in turn the fisheries potential of anthropogenic Sri Lankan
water bodies.
Water samples collected bimonthly for a period of two years from August 1998 to July
2000 from pelagic and littoral sites of Minneriya (MIN2 and MIN3) and Udawalawe
(UDA2 and UDA3) reservoirs and from the Hulu (VICH) and Mahaweli (VICM) sectors
of the Victoria reservoir (Fig. 2.1) were analysed for their physicochemical characteristics
under field and laboratory conditions. Temperature, pH, conductivity and alkalinity were
determined in situ while major cations (Na+, K+, Ca2+ and Mg2+), anions (Cl- and SO42-),
and dissolved silicon analyzed at the Institute of Fundamental Studies, Kandy (Sri Lanka)
using standard methods (APHA, 1989). Hydrochemical data given in Table 2.4 were
analysed at the Department of Freshwater Ecology, University of Vienna.

Temperature, stratification, transparency

The ranges of physicochemical characteristics of open waters of Minneriya and
Udawalawe reservoirs and the Hulu and Mahaweli sectors of Victoria reservoir are given
in Table 2.3. Surface water temperatures (measured during the day) ranged between 26.5
– 31.5°C in Minneriya, between 27.5 and 30.1°C in Udawalawe and from 24.5 to 29.2°C
in the Victoria reservoir. The strongest seasonal change occurred in Minneriya. In the
shallow lowland reservoirs a diurnal stratification builds up at conditions of low wind.
Depending on the depth of the water column, this diel stratification is partially or totally
broken down by convective currents at night. These short term temperature stratifications
of polymictic reservoirs lead to short phases of oxygen under-saturation at the bottom
layers. In the deep reservoirs, longer lasting thermal stratifications build up coupled with
severe oxygen depletion (Piyasiri, 1991). This indicates that these deep reservoirs are
very sensitive to eutrophication. Duncan et al.’s (1993) review of limnological aspects of
landscape management in Sri Lanka concluded that the deep modern upland reservoirs
are much more susceptible to eutrophication because of the water depth and the longer
thermal stratification.
Secchi disk visibility, a measure of light penetration, showed a wide seasonal range
in all three reservoirs (Tab. 2.3; Chapter 6). The physical structure of the water column,
namely the relationship between the depth of mixing respectively water circulation and
the depth of the euphotic zone, determined by the light attenuation in the water column,
is decisive for the primary production of the phytoplankton, the trophic state and the
delicate balance between the autotrophic or heterotrophic status of the water column. This
is highlighted in Chapter 22.

Water chemistry, nutrients, trophic state

The electrical conductivity ranged from 98 - 213 μS in Minneriya, from 103 - 134 μS in
Udawalawe, and from 66 - 81 μS and 69 - 93 μS, in VICH and VICM respectively (Tab.
2.3). The relatively wide seasonal range in conductivity in Minneriya may be attributed
 Chapter 2 – Three reservoirs in Sri Lanka
Table 2.3: Seasonal change in physiographic conditions.
1998 98/99 1999 2000
Aug/Sept Oct/Nov Dec/Jan Feb Apr Jul Aug/Sept Oct/Nov Dec Jan/Feb Mar May Jul/Aug
Minneriya reservoir
water level (masl) 91.2 90.8 93.0 92.4 92.0 88.8 87.0 85.5 92.0 92.1 93.7 92.9 89.0
mean depth (m) 4.2 4.0 5.0 4.7 4.5 3.0 2.1 1.6 4.5 4.5 5.4 5.0 3.1
temp. (at surface, °C) 28.5 28.5 28.5 27.3 27.0 27.0 - 28.0 28.5 28.0 31.0 30.5 26.5
O2 (at surface, mg l-1) 6.3 6.3 6.2 8.2 7.5 7.8 - 7.2 7.9 7.6 7.7 7.1 8.0
conductivity (
S cm-1) 155 123 97 - 164 155 - 134 98 128 157 177 203
Secchi-depth, zSD (cm) 135 135 185 240 180 105 60 45 145 155 280 210 128
chl-a (
g l-1) 19.0 12.0 12.0 6.5 13.0 18.0 39.0 40.0 12.0 10.0 6.0 12.0 18.0

Udawalawe reservoir
water level (masl) 85.3 81.9 87.1 86.6 87.9 85.8 83.9 83.9 - 84.6 - 87.2 78.7
mean depth (m) 7.1 6.0 7.6 7.5 7.7 7.3 6.8 6.8 - 6.9 - 7.6 5.3
temp. (at surface, °C) 28.0 29.5 29.5 - 29.0 28.5 28.5 30.1 - - 29.5 29.5 29.5
O2 (at surface, mg l-1) 6.0 6.5 7.4 7.8 7.9 7.6 7.5 7.2 - 7.4 6.5 6.9 7.1
conductivity (
S cm-1) 160 126 127 - 130 123 113 105 - 110 105 102 134
Secchi-depth, zSD (cm) 180 125 - 200 250 90 135 180 - 175 - 170 50
chl-a (
g l-1) 9.8 5.0 8.5 6.1 8.8 12.0 8.1 14.0 - 7.7 7.6 8.0 10.5

Victoria reservoir
water level (masl) - 422.4 436.9 - 426.7 - 423.2 407.0 - 412.8 - 406.1 -
mean depth (m) - 26.0 29.8 - 27.0 - 26.2 23.1 - 23.6 - 23.1 -
temp. (at surface, °C) - 25.0 26.0 - 26.5 27.0 26.5 27.2 - 26.5 - 29.1 -
O2 (at surface, mg l-1) - 8.0 7.9 - 6.6 8.1 7.7 7.9 - 8.0 - 6.7 -
conductivity (
S cm-1) - 70 65 74 68 66 70 72 - 70 - ..80 -
Secchi-depth, zSD (cm) - 240 260 250 200 180 250 200 250 190 170 170 -
chl-a (
g l-1) - 10.5 11.0 13.9 14.0 22.0 13.0 6.8 9.6 22.0 11.0 11.0 -

33
 34
Table 2.4: Hydrochemical characteristics of Minneriya (Min), Udawalawe (Uda) and Victoria (Vic) reservoirs. The samples were taken during the Euro-
pean field visits and analysed by standard techniques in Vienna.

Location Date Lf Ca Mg Na K A Cl P-PO4 P-s P-t N-NO3 N-tKj Si-SiO4 Chl-a

S mval mval mval mval mval mval µg/l µg/l µg/l µg/l µg/l mg/l
g/l
Min 2.2.99 - 0.70 0.40 0.22 0.04 - 0.25 1 6 15 55 224 - 6.5
Min 11.8.99 - 0.78 0.60 0.33 0.05 - 0.23 3 9 64 44 590 7.3 39.0
Min 8.2.00 213 1.10 0.95 0.49 0.04 2.1 0.31 - - - - - 8.7 -

E. Ivan L. Silva, David Simon & Fritz Schiemer

Vic 7.2.99 58-73 0.35 0.20 0.20 0.04 0.28 1 5 18 52 236 3.2 13.9
Vic 6.8.99 - 0.28 0.30 0.15 0.04 0.14 1 4 15 55 237 2.0 13.0

Uda 10.2.99 - 0.65 0.45 0.30 0.06 0.20 1.5 5 14 30 345 8.0 6.1
Uda 9.2.00 117 1.05 0.35 0.21 0.05 0.98 0.11 0 4 12 128 228 8.1 8.1
Chapter 2 – Three reservoirs in Sri Lanka 35

to evaporation loss during the prolonged dry season whereas Victoria and Udawalawe
reservoirs experience both southwest and northeast monsoonal rains. Low pH and electrical
conductivity and alkalinity of the two major sectors of Victoria reservoir compared to the
two lowland Dry Zone reservoirs may be attributed to the geology of the catchment in the
highlands (Cooray, 1984). The occurrence of hard rocks results in rainwater discharges
after percolating a short distance on steep slopes. Red-yellow podzolic soils and soft
laterite of the catchment of Victoria is acidic (Panabokke, 1996). This explains the low
concentrations of total dissolved salts and subsequently the low electrical conductivity of
the inflows of Victoria reservoir. Weninger (1972) already emphasised the poor content of
dissolved salts content in mountain streams of Sri Lanka.
The ionic composition in all three reservoirs is within the standard range for freshwater.
With respect to cations, calcium showed the highest concentration but it was relatively
low in Victoria compared to Minneriya and Udawalawe (Tab. 2.4). When the percentage
of the sum of equivalents of cations is considered, it can be seen that Ca2+ dominance
is followed by Na+, Mg2+ and K+ in all three reservoirs. Ca2+ and Na+ are generally
the dominant cations in Sri Lankan surface waters (Gunatilaka & Senaratne, 1981;
Gunawardhana & Adikari, 1981). However, according to Dissanayake & Weerasooriya
(1986), a sodium-potassium type of water is generally prevalent in the wet zone of Sri
Lanka, while calcium-magnesium types are more common in the Dry Zone.
Salt detached in wind-driven oceanic spray and borne in rain contributes to fairly high
concentrations of major ions, especially Na+ and Cl-, that are likely to decline sharply
towards the hinterland (e.g. Lewis et al., 1987). Relatively high concentrations of Na+ and
Cl- were found in the headwaters of Sri Lanka with the onset of the southwest monsoon
(May-September), which drives oceanic winds toward the mainland. Burning vegetation
in the tropics is also a major contributor of salts into surface waters (Crutzen & Andreae,
1990). Burning of scrub jungles for the preparation of land for chena (slash-and-burn)
cultivation is a common practice in Sri Lanka. Of the three reservoirs, Udawalawe
catchment has the highest percentage of chena.
The anion composition is generally dominated by bicarbonate (HCO3-). The open water
was alkaline throughout the study period in the two Dry Zone reservoirs, Minneriya and
Udawalawe except in a few instances during the high water level. A more or less similar
pattern was observed in both sectors of the Victoria reservoir. The lowest concentration
of chloride ions (2.09 mg l-1) was found in the Udawalawe reservoir, while it was highest
in Minneriya (14.8 mg l-1). Sulphate ion concentration was relatively low in Victoria
compared to Minneriya and Udawalawe. The sources of sulphate in surface waters include
rocks, fertilizer, atmospheric precipitation and dry deposition. Large volumes of sulphate-
containing nitrogenous fertilizers are regularly applied to tea plantations in Sri Lanka but
their behaviour in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems is unknown.
Plant nutrients – phosphorus, nitrogen and silicon – to a large extent control the
primary production of phytoplankton and thus the trophic state. Phosphorus levels
– which are generally the limiting nutrient in Sri Lankan reservoirs (Duncan et al.,
1993) – lie in a meso- to eutrophic range with respect to temperate zone conditions
(Vollenweider & Kerekes, 1982). Especially in shallow reservoirs, nutrient availability
changes seasonally and depends on three main sources: a) the external loading via rain
and inflows, b) the local lateral import from the littoral zones and the draw-down areas
from the expanding and shrinking water levels, and c) the internal loading from the
36 E. Ivan L. Silva, David Simon & Fritz Schiemer

sediments – which depend on shallowness and wind. For example, in the shallowest
basins such as Minneriya, the total phosphorus (P-t) was about four times higher at low
water levels compared to high water levels. Shallowness in combination with wind fetch
is responsible for such seasonal changes, which are less pronounced in the deep Victoria
reservoir (see Chapters 6 and 22).
The measured dissolved silicon was highest in Minneriya while Victoria reservoir had
the lowest range among the three reservoirs (Tab. 2.4). Rock minerals are the primary
source of silica but the concentration changes in inflow and open water as a result of bio-
assimilation within the reservoir ecosystems. Silica depletion at conditions with dense
growth of diatom population (e.g., Aulocoseira granulata) is a prominent feature in Sri
Lankan reservoirs (Silva, 2007).

Biotic communities
The biotic features and ecosystem characteristics of Sri Lankan reservoirs are
comparatively well studied (e.g. Fernando, 1980, 1984; Schiemer, 1983; Piet et al., 1999).
Detailed assessments of phytoplankton (Chapter 5; Rott, 1983; Silva, 2007), zooplankton
and aquatic invertebrates (Duncan & Gulati, 1983; Fernando, 1980), fish (Schiemer &
Hofer, 1983; Piet et al., 1999), and water birds (Winkler, 1983) have been carried out
over the past 25 years in order to understand the reservoir systems and improve their
management.
The detailed studies carried out during the FISHSTRAT project contributed to our
comparative understanding of community composition with regard to phytoplankton,
mesozooplankton and fish. The phytoplankton assemblages of the three reservoirs are
highly diverse. Rott et al. (Chapter 5) list 74 species for Victoria and 62 and 50 species
for Udawalawe and Minneriya respectively. In terms of phytoplankton biomass, blue-
greens and diatoms are of importance. Of the blue-green algae, Microcystis aeruginosa,
M. wesenbergii are frequently dominant and to a lesser extent M. flos-aquae. Other
common cyanobacteria are Cyanodictyon imperfectum, Merismopedia spp., Aphanocapsa
and Aphanizomenon. The second major group in terms of biomass is diatoms, with a
frequent predominance of small centric forms Stephanodiscus neostreaea and Cyclotella
pseudostelligera. Under high water conditions, Aulacosira granulata prevails. In Victoria
reservoir, however, there are also characteristic differences, especially the significance
of Desmidiaceae, e.g. the genus Staurastrum in Victoria and the characteristically
larger-sized phytoplankton assemblage in this deep reservoir. The seasonal dynamics in
community composition are high and especially strong in shallow Minneriya between
low water and high water periods.
In the tropics zooplankton is characteristically small-sized (Duncan, 1999). This holds
good for the present analysis, although we did not encounter the extreme situation as
described by Duncan & Gulati (1983), who found the open water zooplankton to consist of
very small-sized rotifers in Parakrama Samudra reservoir in the vicinity of Minneriya. In
this reservoir, crustaceans and large-sized rotifers were virtually absent. It was suggested
that this situation resulted from extremely high predation pressure by a small-sized fish
of brackish-water origin, Ehirava fluviatilis, which was encountered in high densities
in Parakrama Samudra reservoir. E. fluviatilis was not present in the three FISHSTRAT
reservoirs. However, the low densities of larger-sized zooplankton may also be attributed
Chapter 2 – Three reservoirs in Sri Lanka 37

Table 2.5: Fish composition in three reservoirs based on experimental gill net fishing carried out
from January 1999 to January 2001 (U.S. Amarasinghe & P.A.D. Ajith Kumara, unpublished data).
Mean catch per unit effort (n . 100m-2 hr-1).
Family/species Minneriya Udawalawe Victoria
Cyprinidae
Amblypharyngodon melettinus (Val.) 88.961 37.325 38.570
Catla catla (Ham.-Buch.) 0.013
Chela laubuca (Ham.) 0.396
Danio malabaricus (Jerdon) 0.043 2.719
Esomus danrica (Val.) 0.071 0.384
Garra ceylonensis Bleeker 0.120
Labeo dussumieri (Val.) 0.012 0.098
L. rohita (Ham.) 0.060
Puntius bimaculatus (Bleeker) 0.107
P. chola (Ham.-Buch.) 19.948 1.356 14.607
P. dorsalis (Jerdon) 0.561 0.926 0.452
P. filamentosus (Val.) 8.942 7.260 15.325
P. sarana (Ham.-Buch.) 0.010 0.003
P. ticto (Ham.-Buch.) 0.043
P. vittatus Day 1.300
Rasbora daniconius (Ham.-Buch.) 8.067 2.240 0.061
Tor khudree (Sykes) 0.003
Bagridae
Mystus keletius (Val.) 0.002 0.002
M. vittatus (Bloch) 1.665 0.084 0.515
Cichlidae
Etroplus maculatus (Bloch) 0.406 0.018
E. suratensis (Bloch) 0.048 0.255 0.002
Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters) 0.252 0.037 0.381
O. niloticus (L.) 0.359 0.085 0.074
Tilapia rendalli (Boulenger) 1.407 0.004 0.023
Gobiidae
Glossogobius giuris (Ham.-Buch.) 0.335 0.273 0.128
Hemirhamphidae
Hyporhamphus limbatus Val. 0.947 0.625
Anabantidae
Anabas testudineus (Bloch) 0.088
Trichogaster pectoralis (Regan) 0.014
Siluridae
Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch) 0.033 0.022 0.000
Mastacembelidae
Mastacembelus armatus (Lacapede) 0.052 0.001
Ophicephalidae
Ophicephalus striatus (Bloch) 0.002
Heteropneustidae
Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch) 0.208 0.014 0.045
Number of species 29 19 18

to high predation pressure. We placed specific emphasis on crustacean zooplankton,

which forms the main food base for zooplanktivorous fish. Species composition in all
three reservoirs was similar. The calanoid copepods are represented by Phyllodiaptomus
annae, a species widely distributed in Sri Lankan water bodies. The dominant cyclopoids
are Mesocyclops thermocyclopoides and Thermocyclops decipiens. The main cladocerans
were Bosminopsis deitersi, Ceriodaphnia cornuta, Moina micrura, Diaphanosoma
 č

38 E. Ivan L. Silva, David Simon & Fritz Schiemer

exisum and D. modigliani. Representatives of the genus Daphnia are missing (see Chapter
8). Zooplankton densities and biomass and the estimated zooplankton production are
generally low in all three reservoirs (Chapter 9). There is good evidence that the high
predation pressure by small-sized fish is responsible both for the community composition
and low production (Chapter 13).
The composition and abundance of zoobenthos was not particularly investigated in the
present study. Schiemer & Duncan (1983, 1988) indicated the low densities and small-
sized macrozoobenthos and the predominance of meiobenthos in Parakrama Samudra as
an obvious effect of predation pressure by benthivorous species, especially Puntius chola
and P. dorsalis. The littoral zones with rocks and flooded vegetation develop a dense and
diverse periphyton community with freshwater shrimps and various aquatic insects of
quantitative importance. Dense mollusc populations (Parreysia corrugate, Lamellidens
marginalis, Melanoides tuberculatus, Bellamya dissimilis and Thiara scabra) appear to
be restricted to a belt above the deeper soft-mud layers and the longer and more frequently
exposed draw-down zones. Predation by mollusc-eating birds appears to be an important
factor in population dynamics.
The fish fauna of the Sri Lankan reservoirs is well studied. Experimental fishing in a
wide range of reservoirs (e.g. De Silva & Sirisena, 1987; Amarasinghe, 1990; Pet & Piet,
1993) confirmed the finding of Schiemer & Hofer (1983) of high population densities of
small-sized species which dominate the ichthyo-biomass and occur in a characteristic
species assemblage in all the perennial reservoirs besides the exotics Oreochromis
mossambicus and O. niloticus. The most frequent species present in all the reservoirs
are Amblypharyngodon melettinus, Puntius chola, P. dorsalis, P. filamentosus and
Rasbora daniconius. Table 2.5 outlines the species list and numerical dominance of each
species of the three FISHSTRAT reservoirs based on the experimental fishing (multi-
mesh gillnetting; U.S. Amarasinghe & P.A.D. Ajith Kumara, unpublished data) carried
out during the study. Altogether 31 fish species were encountered, of which 29 were

Plate 2.8: Waterbirds play an important ecological role (Photo: W.S. Weliange).
Chapter 2 – Three reservoirs in Sri Lanka 39

present in Minneriya reservoir whereas 19 and 18 species were recorded in Victoria and
Udawalawe reservoirs respectively.
Of the less frequent species (Danio malabaricus, Etroplus suratensis, E. maculatus,
Glossogobius giuris, Heteropneustes fossilis, Mastacembalus armatus, Mystus vittatus,
M. keletius, Ompok bimaculatus and Puntius sarana), Danio malabaricus and E.
maculatus were not reported from Udawalawe reservoir. Furthermore, P. sarana was
absent from Victoria reservoir during the period under investigation, although this species
was reported to be caught in the commercial catches during the 1980s (Silva, 1991). A
rare species, Esomus danrica, was found in both Minneriya and Victoria reservoirs. Of
the other cyprinids, two exotic species, namely Catla catla and Labeo rohita, were found
in Udawalawe whereas Garra ceylonensis, Puntius bimaculatus, P. ticto and P. vittatus
were found only in Minneriya. Tor khudree was caught only in Victoria. Although not
reported during the present study, exotic carp species, Cyprinus carpio and Labeo rohita,
were reported to be present in the commercial catches at Victoria reservoir (Nathanael &
Silva, 1996).
It is apparent that A. melettinus is of highest significance and numerical dominance in
all three reservoirs. P. chola, a more flexible species which shows a broader occurrence,
was the second most dominant in Victoria and Minneriya reservoirs but found in
relatively small numbers in Udawalawe reservoir. The abundance of P. filamentosus
was broadly comparable in Minneriya and Victoria reservoirs but it was twice that in
Victoria reservoir. P dorsalis, a more selective benthivorous species, was rare in all three
reservoirs. The abundance of Rasbora daniconius, a small species with a wide food range
from zooplanktivorous to periphyton feeding or piscivorous (Kumar & John, 1985), found
everywhere in Sri Lankan inland waters, was relatively low in Udawalawe and Victoria
reservoirs compared to Minneriya (Tab. 2.5). Besides the marked dissimilarity in the
basic species list of three reservoirs in different localities and of different type (lowland
vs upland), some clear differences exist with respect to the occurrence of marine invaders

Table 2.6: Land use in the catchment of Minneriya, Udawalawe and Victoria reservoirs.

Land use type Minneriya Udawalawe Victoria

area (km2) % area (km2) % area (km2) %
forest 114.92 47.4 283.35 24.8 272.60 20.4
scrub 76.33 31.5 151.61 13.3 -
chena 4.33 1.8 281.89 24.7 -
tea - 84.34 7.4 320.84 24.0
rubber - 5.01 0.4 -
coconut - 8.45 0.7 -
paddy 8.00 3.3 54.10 4.7 107.84 8.1
grassland 0.49 0.2 31.72 2.8 131.10 9.8
home gardens 8.22 3.4 92.23 9.1 381.83 28.6
other plantations 3.71 1.5 73.35 6.4 -
annual crops - - 42.09 3.1
bare lands 0.20 0.1 12.81 1.1 44.11 3.3
water bodies 26.36 10.8 60.56 5.3 36.53 2.7
40 E. Ivan L. Silva, David Simon & Fritz Schiemer

like Ehirava fluviatilis or Hyporhamphus limbatus, as reported in earlier studies (Newrkla

& Duncan 1984; Silva & Davies 1988). Although H. limbatus was present in two lowland
reservoirs, E. fluviatilis reported in Parakrama Samudra (Schiemer, 1983) was absent in
all three FISHSTRAT reservoirs.
The role of predatory water birds, especially cormorants, is highly significant in fish
population balance in Sri Lankan reservoirs. Winkler (1983) reported a significant role of
fish-eating birds in his study in the Parakrama Samudra area, and similar situations occur
in Minneriya and Udawalawe but cormorant visits were observed to be less frequent in
Victoria reservoir during the course of the present investigation (Plate 2.8).
A comparative assessment of ecosystem structure indicated the significance of the
monsoonal cycle and hydrological management by resource users as well as the significance
of food chain processes and top-down regulatory mechanisms by phytoplanktivorous,
zooplanktivorous and benthivorous fish (Schiemer & Duncan, 1983; Piet et al., 1999).

Land use in the catchment

Table 2.6 summarizes the major land use types of Minneriya, Udawalawe and Victoria
reservoirs. Dry Zone secondary forest and scrub are the major land use types in the
Minneriya watershed. The land use for paddy cultivation and home gardens is more
or less double that of chena (slash-and-burn) cultivation, which comprises 1.8% of the
total catchment area. The predominant natural land use types in the watershed of the
Udawalawe are montane forest and scrub while an extensive area has been utilized for
chena cultivation, which is more or less similar to that of the area covered by montane
forest. In addition, tea plantations and paddy fields cover 7.4% and 4.7% of the watershed
of the Udawalawe reservoir respectively, while home gardens are confined to 9,223 ha
(9.1%). Other plantations are also a prominent feature of the Udawalawe watershed.
Home gardens (28.6%) are the predominant land use type in the Victoria watershed,

Table 2.7: Socio-economic features in the catchments of Minneriya, Udawalawe and Victoria res-
ervoirs. Note: GN Division (Grama Niladhari Division, a cluster of villages under Divisional Sec-
retariat).
Parameter Minneriya Udawalawe Victoria
divisional secretariat Hingurakgoda Embilipitiya Kundasale
Mededumbara
number of GN divisions 53 41 174
number of villages 117 159 508
population size 60,959 118,307 164,689
no of households 14,483 30,242 23,937
no of fishing households 300 (2.1%) 268 (0.8%) 150 (0.5%)

Other means of income

agriculture 52 % 64 % 44 %
government employment 20 % 7% 30 %
private sector industry 18 % 8% 5%
self employment 10 % 5% 21 %
others 16 %
Chapter 2 – Three reservoirs in Sri Lanka 41

which is the largest of the three reservoirs. Tea plantations, which rank as the second
largest category, cover 24% of the watershed, while 20.4% of the land area is left as
natural forest. Grasslands (9.8%) and paddy fields (8.1%) are also prominent land use
types in the Victoria watershed.

Socio-economics and demographic conditions

The watershed boundaries are not compatible with the administrative boundaries within
which the respective reservoirs are situated. Therefore the most closely matching
administrative boundaries are used as an approximation to watershed boundaries in order
to demonstrate the demographic and socio-economic characteristics of the three water
bodies. In the case of Minneriya reservoir, Hingurakgoda Divisional Secretariat, which
has a land area of 470.5 km2 within the watershed, was considered as a demographic
and socio-economic unit. Embilipitiya Divisional Secretariat (176.6 km2) falls within the
Udawalawe watershed while Kundasale and Medadumbara Divisional Secretariats (213
km2) were considered for the Victoria reservoir.
Table 2.7 shows the total population size, number of fishing and non-fishing households,
and percentage distribution of employment patterns other than fishing industry for each
reservoir. With respect to fishing households, only the males are engaged in the fishing
industry at all three reservoirs. This is a common feature in Sri Lanka. The fishing
households are clustered in small groups within the villages located in the immediate
vicinity of the reservoir. In Minneriya, fisherfolk are clustered in three villages, namely
Bathgampaththuwa, Henyaya and Katukeliyawa, whereas a majority of the fisherfolk
live in just one village, Maha Ara, at Udawalawe. In contrast, fishermen are scattered in
several villages (i.e., Kumbukkandura, Ambekotte, Haragama, Oruthota, Gurudeniya etc.)
in the periphery of the Victoria reservoir which has an extensive shoreline. The fishing
communities were organized into Fisheries Co-operative Societies under the patronage
of the Inland Fisheries Division of the Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resource
Development until 1990. As a result, fishing operations were conducted under certain
regulations imposed by the government. With the abolition of government patronage of
the inland fisheries sector in 1990, fishing operations were no longer conducted under the
stipulated guidelines. Detailed demographic features, socio-economics and livelihoods of
the riparian communities of the three reservoirs are described in Chapter 20.

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