TABLE OF CONTENT

TITLE PAGE

DECLARATION i

CERTIFICATION ii

ACKNOWLEGDEMENT iii

TABLE OF CONTENT iv

LIST OF TABLES v

LIST OF FIGURES 1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

AIMS OF SEMINAR

CHAPTER TWO

HYDROLOGIC CYCLE 2

GROUNDWATER 3

WATER TABLE 3

GROUNDWATER OCCURRENCE 4

GROUNDWATER CONDITIONS 6

GROUNDWATER MOVEMENT 7

GROUNDWATER VELOCITY 8

CHAPTER THREE

ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD 10

PRINCIPLE OF ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY 10

ROCKS VRESISTIVITY 13

TECHNIQUES OF ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY 14

ELECTRODE CONFIGURATION 17

EQUIPMENTS AND FIELD PROCEDURE 19

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTAION 22

DATA INTERPRETATION. 26

CHAPTER FIVE 31

RECOMMENDATION 31

CONCLUSION 31

REFERENCE 32
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 showing the inventory of water at or near the earth surface. 3

Table 1.2 shows the porosities and permeability of crystalline rocks . 4

Table 1.3 shows the range of permeability of aquifer formation. 6

Table 1.4 shows the porosity and permeability for unconsolidated sediments 5

Table 1.5 shows the resistivity values of some rock types 13

Table 1.6 shows the field sheet for schlumberger array 22 .

Table 1.7 shows the table for the interpretation of resistivity data using curve matching 28
LIST OF FIGURES.

Fig 1 hydrological cycle 2

Fig Diagram showing the movement of water in a “U” tube 8

Fig 3 Diagram of an unconfined aquifer 6

Fig 4 Diagram of a confined aquifer 7

Fig 5 Diagram illustrating a perched aquifer 7

Fig 6 Diagram illustrating the principle of resistivity method 11

Fig 7 showing a direct current with strength (A) flowing through a Conductor 12

Fig 8 showing Wenner array 17

Fig 9 showing schlumberger array 18

Fig 10 showing Lee array 19

Fig 11 illustrating the field procedure for schlumbergerv array 15

Fig 12 illustrating the field procedure for Wenner array 16

Fig 13 Diagram showing the various instrument used in resistivity survey 19

Fig 14 showing the types of ves curves 23

Fig 15 showing ves curves with cusps 24

Fig 16 showing ves curve with sharp mximum 25

Fig 17 shows an apparent resistivity contour map 26

Fig 18 shows a ves curve 27

Fig 19 shows a 2-layer master set of curves for Schlumberger array. 29

Fig 20 shows the result of the interpretation by resist software 30

 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Groundwater is a major source of clean drinking water all over the world. It has been an

important resource especially in the dry part of the world. Groundwater has been used in Nigeria for

many decades.

Increased demands for water have stimulated development of underground water resources. As a

result, techniques for investigating the occurrence and movement of groundwater have been improved,

better equipment for extracting has been developed, concepts for resource management have been

established, and the research has contributed to a better understanding of the subject.

The occurrence of groundwater nd its extent in a region are determined by the lithology,

stratigraphy and structure of the geologicl strata present. The lithology refers to the ground

characteristics of the geologic strata in terms of mineral composition, porosity, permeability of the rocks

present. The stratigraphy describes the character of the rocks and their sequence in time as well as the

relationship between various deposits in dfferent localities. The structural fracture is of more importance

in basement terrains, where most rock strata contain little or no pore spaces. it include faults, folds,

joints and others

Generally, materials that lack pore spaces will show high resistivity, materials whose pores

spaces lack water has high resistivity such as dry and gravel. Materials whose water content is clean will

show high resistivity such as clean gravel and sand even if water is saturated. Weathered rocks and clay

will show medium to low resistivity.

Since geophysical exploration is the scientific measurement of physical properties of the earth

crust for investigation of mineral depositsor geologic structure, the present project conducted mainly to

apply electrical resistivity method in groudwater exploration, in particular to estimate the groundwater

reserve within the given area..

1.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

 The target of this work is to provide an insight into the application of the electrical resistivity method in

groundwater.

 To determine the local apparent resistivity of the study area.

 Investigating the hydrogeology of the area by geophysical determination of the thickness of aquifer.

 To know the distribution of rock types and structures in the area.

 To assess the groundwater potential in the given area.

1.2 SCOPE OF WORK

This project encompasses field mapping, geophysical survey (profiling and sounding), analysis and

interpretation of results. It covers an area extent of 250m by 250m

1.3 LOCATION AND ACCESSIBILITY

The study area is part of Bosso, precisely within the federal university of technology, minna premises. It

lies between longitude and latitude and covers an area of .

The presence of minor roads and foot paths aid in making the project site accessible

1.4 RELIEF AND DRAINAGE

The area can be said to have a low relief. it is of a good drainage, though there are places that are

waterlogged due to the presence of the exposed outcrop

1.5 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION

1.5.1 CLIMATE

The study area lies within the middle belt of Nigeria and is within the Guinea savannah, which compose

essentially of shrubs, short trees and scattered grasses.

Foliage is only found along waterlogged portions. The climate is controlled by two different air masses.
 The study area has a mean annual rainfall of about 1334mm. The seasonal rainfall regime gives rise to a

longer wet season of about 7 months, average rainfall of 250mm and a shorter dry season of 5 months,

with little or no rainfall at all.

The range of temperature in the area is from 250C to 400C

1.5.2 VEGETATION

Three major soils types can be encountered, these include ferruginous tropical soils, hydromorphic soils

and ferrosols. The most predominant of which is the ferruginous tropical soils derived from the

Basement complex rocks, these are ideal for the cultivation of guinea corn, maize, millet and groundnut.

1.5.3 PREVIOUS WORK ON THE AREA

Adesoye (1986) carried out geophysical and subsurface investigation in the study area by a team of

geologist and geophysist this reveals the present of a monolithic region consisting of one type of rock.

(Adeniyi et al, 1988).

A regional hydrogeological investigation of Niger State has been work on by series of workers.

Shekwolo (1995) highlighted the influence of Climate Variation on the porosity and Permeability of

Weather and Fractured Aquifer of the Gurara Water River Basin, Central-Nigeria. He suggested that this

Aquifer can be divided into small discrete cells in term of recharge.

Also Babangida (1989) worked on the hydrological aspects to Niger State. He observed the

groundwater in hard rock aquifer is generally stored in weathered zone and to this extent in the fractured

basement. He further explained that in Minna area, the average thickness of regolith varies from 8m to

20m.

In the pre-Cambrian rocks of Nigeria basement complex, groundwater occurs either in the weathered

mantle or in the joint and fractured systems in the unweathered rock (Dupreez and barber, 1965;

Vanderbergh, 1982, Olorunfemi and Olorunmiro, 1985). The highest groundwater yield in basement
terrain is found in area where thick over-burden overlies, and fractured zone (Olorunfemi and

Olorunmiro, 1987 and Fasuyi, 1993).

 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 General Geology of the Area

Nigeria is a country in the African continent. It is bounded to the south by the Atlantic Ocean, east by
the Republic of Cameroon to the North by the Niger Republic and to the west by the Republic of Benin.
It is bounded to the Northeast by the Republic of Chad. Nigeria lies within the latitude 4 0-14N and
longitude 30-14E and is located in the western part of the African continent.

Nigeria therefore lies within the pan-African mobile but with the older west-African Craton to the west
and the Congo carton to the South-East.

Fig 1: Geological Map of Nigeria

Source: Geology Department FUT. Minna

Nigeria can be divided geologically into three main litho chorological divisions namely:

 The Precambrian-late Paleozoic basement complex

 The Jurassic igneous complex of northern Nigeria

 The cretaceous to recent sediments

(1) Precambrian Basement Complex

Geologically, about half of the total area of Nigeria is covered by igneous and metamorphic rock of

which 80% are of Precambrian age and the remaining 20% are younger intrusions and volcanic lava. These

crystalline rocks are collectively called basement complex.

The Nigeria basement complex is a terrain of basement reactivation separating the West African craton

in the west and Congo craton in south easy. These rocks evolve through four major organic events.

Radiometric data have been used to identify at least four major organic belts in the Precambrian of African.

They include:-

 The Silurian Orogeny rocks emplaced about 2800+200my

 The Eburnean Orogeny emplaced about 2000+200my

 The kibarian Orogeny rock emplaced about 1100+ 200my

 The pan African Orogeny rocks emplaced about 600+150my

The pan African Orogeny is the most recent and the most widely spread and it is also the most

significant in Nigeria

The Precambrian basement complex is made up of a verity of migmalised and unmigmatised gneisses,

schist, amphibolites and quantities

transverse by the pan-African (600my) granite to diorite intrusive, Oyawoye (1972), Rahman (1976).

The isotopic age determination is evidence that the basement complex was involved in the tectonic event

of the Archean, early proterozoic an later proterozoic-early Paleozoic times; it shows that there had been

exceptional occurrence of similar lithologies for example; amphibolites, pelitic schist, granite gneisses

during the course of events. (Banke al 1977; Grant 1977, 1978).

 However, the Pre-Pan African which were not reactivated or only weakly affected by the pan-African

events is still preserved. Conventionally, the rocks of the basement complex can be divided into three units

namely:

a. The migmatite-gneiss complex

b. The met sediment or schist belts

c. The older granite suite

(a) Migmatile-gneiss complex

This unit is the most widespread and occupies about 30% of the total surface area of Nigeria. They are

the oldest in the area into which all other rocks are emplaced. Their age varies from Archean to pan-African

(2700my to about 500my). They are most widely spread in the basement complex.

The migmatile-Gneiss complex is an heterogeneous rock group in terms of composition. They are

believed to have been formed from preexisting rocks and comprises largely of migmatitic and granites

gneisses they are associated with intrusive suit of pegmatite’s and dolerites. According to Annor and freeth

(1985) the rocks are all concordant and interbedded forming

a large scale layered rock body. It was suggested that six events took place in basement complex. (Rahman

and Cope 1978).

 Emplacement of dolente dykes

 Emplacement of mafic-ultramafic rocks

 Formation of under formed, slightly deformed, pegmatite, quartz vein and dyes.

 Emplacement of aplitic sheet

 Formation of early gneiss

(b) The schist belt

This group consists of low grade N-S treading schist belt. Schist is a low grade meta-sedimentary and

met volcanic rocks which occur predominately in the north western part of Nigeria.

Litho logically, the schist belt is composed predominantly of pellitic rock, psammite and calcareous

rocks. The schist belt is the host to most solid mineral deposal in Nigeria, Annor (1995).

Fargher (1961), Turner (1964), Ajibade (1980) reported the occurrence of aid and intermediate volcanic

rock interblended in Anka, Biruin Gwari and Zungeru schist belt.

There is also pressure of mafic to ultramafic rocks which signifies the amphibolites component belt of

some of the schist belt.

They exhibit parallel structure to the migmatites gneiss complex and occupy discrete zone separated by

migmatite gneiss complex and granites, Ajibade (1987).

(c) The older granite

Falconer 1911 was the first person to distinguish the older granites from the younger granites. They

consist of rock that range in size from sub elliptical photon to elongated batholiths. The forms of the body

appear to be related to the environment in which the granite is emplaced.

They appear circular to elliptical in schist environment and more elongate body in migmatite and gneiss

terrain granodiorites, quartz-diorite, biotite muscovite granites, syenites and pegmatites. They are therefore,

composed of rocks of predominantly granodioritic composition. The granodiorites are usually medium to

very coarse grained and some are largely prophyric.

These granodiorites and quartz diorite contain biotite and feldspar and therefore tend to weather into

clayey sands and sandy clays depending on the relative abundance of biotite (Rahaman, 1976). The biotite

muscovite granites are usually subordinate to the porphyritic granites. They also weather into clayed soil.
 Syenites occur in place and may also be porphyritic with large crystals of microcline in association with

plagioclase, and ferromagnesian minerals (Oyewoyes 1970).

(2) The Jurassic igneous complex of northern Nigeria

The suite is the younger granite terrain in Nigeria. The major granites are believed to be emplace about

110-145ma. They are seen as ring complexes on the Jos Plateau and it the adjacent part of the country.

The younger granites are high level anaerogenic rock mass falconer (1911). The complexes are circular

or elliptical in form. The major control factor governing the emplacement of younger granites is ring fault

and cauldron subsidence which was recognized by Jacobson et al (1958). This control has operated both

during the volcanic and plutonic stage of emption.

The younger granites suites are characterized by the following major rock types they are reibeckite

granite, fayalite granite, rhyolite granite and biotite granite. The younger granites remain remarkably

constant in character throughout the whole province (Balogun 1991). The mineralization in younger granite

suite is more confined to biotite granite.

(3) The cretaceous to recent sediments

This covers about half of the total area of Nigeria. They made up to sedimentary rocks accumulated in

various sedimentary basins within the country.

2.1 GEOLOGY OF THE STUDY AREA

The area is covered by the basement complex which consists of older granites of various sizes, it

could be said to be an extension of minna batholiths and are of Precambrian and proterozoic age. The

rocks are moderately deformed with the presence of joints. Biological, mechanical weathering

predominates in the area.

Structurally, from the various outcrops encountered in the field, joints, exfoliation are the major

structures visible. Generally, the rocks can be said to be moderately deformed.

2.2 GROUNDWATER

Groundwater is a resource that exists in the pore spaces, fractures in rocks and sediment beneath the

earth surface. It originates as rainfall or snow moves through the soil into the groundwater system where

it eventually makes it’s way back to the surface streams, lakes or oceans. Groundwater makes up about

1% of the earth and its contains about 35 times the amount of water in lakes and streams. It occurs every

where beneath the earth’s surface but is restricted to depth less than about 750 meters.

Generally, it is believed that the volume of groundwater is equivalent to a 55 meters thick layer spread

out over the entire surface of the earth.

Table 1.1: showing the inventory of water at or near the earth surface. After Berner and Berner (1987)

2.3 WATER TABLE

As rain falls on the surface, it seeps down through the soil and into a zone called the zone of aeration or

unsaturated zone where most of the pore spaces are filled with air. As it penetrates deeper, it eventually

enters a zone where all pore spaces and fractures are filled with water. The zone is called the

SATURARTED ZONE. The surface below which all openings in the rocks are filled with water (the top

of the saturated zone) is called the water table. However, the depth to the water table changes with

respect to seasons
2.4 GROUNDWATER OCCURRENCE

Groundwater occupies pore spaces, fractures and fissures in rocks generally, in all rock types (igneous,

metamorphic and sedimentary) Natural variations in the permeability and ease of transmission of

groundwater in different geological materials lead to the recognition of aquifers, aquitards, aquifuge and

aquicludes.

2.4.1 AQUIFER

An aquifer is a body or assemblage of rock that contains water and is able to transmit significant

quantities of water under an ordinary hydraulic gradient. Aquifers therefore have sufficient permeability

to transmit groundwater that can be exploited economically from wells or springs. Good aquifers are

usually developed in sands, gravels, solutionally weathered limestones and fractured sandstones.

AQUIFER TYPES

Any porous and permeable rock formation may be regarded as an aquifer. However 2 (three) main types

of aquifer are differentiated from geological point of view. These are:

CONSOLIDATED (HARD) ROCKS AQUIFER

These are mostly of non-sedimentary origin. In this aquifer types groundwater occurs in cracks, fissures,

and fractures. They have 2nd degree porosity which might have been affected by tectonic or cooling

phenomenon e.g basement complex rocks, such as gneisses and migmatites.

Table 1.2 (a): shows the porosity and permeability of crystalline rocks

Sediment Porosity (%) Permeability

Unfractured 0–5 Very poor
Fractured 5 – 10 Poor
Volcanic rocks 0 – 50 Poor to excellent
Plummer, 2005

UNCONSOLIDATED (SOFT) SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

 These are porous aquifers in which water contained is being transmitted in the pores of the porous

materials. They have first degree porosity and serve as efficient aquifer e.g sand, gravel, boulder clay,

silty clay, sand dune, alluvial deposits e.t.c

The most important aquifer is the unconsolidated sedimentary rock aquifer such as sand and gravel

because they have the best Storage capability and transmitting capability. About 95% of ground water is

contained in this aquifer type.

Table 1.2b): shows the porosity and permeability for unconsolidated sediments.

Sediments Porosity (%) Permeability (k) m/sec

Clay 50 – 60 10-11 – 10-9
Boulder clay 20 – 40 10-9 – 10-5
Alluvial sands 30 – 40 10-5 – 10-2
Alluvial gravels 25- 35 10-2 – 1.0
Source: olugboye, 2008

2.4.2 AQUITARD

The term aquitard is used to describe a formation of low permeability that may transmit quantities of

water that are significant in terms of regional groundwater flow but from which negligible supplies of

groundwater can be obtained. Examples of aquitards are fractured crystalline rocks, sandy clays etc.

2.4.3 AQUIFUGE

An aquifuge is a geologic formation totally neither containing nor transmitting water e.g hard crystalline

igneous rock

2.4.4 AQUICLUDE

An aquiclude is a saturated geologic unit of low permeability that it is incapable of transmitting

significant quantities of water under ordinary hydraulic gradients and can act as a barrier to regional

groundwater flow. Aquiclude rocks include clays, shale and unweathered metamorphic rocks
 Table 1.3: shows the range of permeability of Groundwater formations

Rock formation Coefficient of permeability (m/sec)

Aquifer >10-5
Aquitard 10 -5 – 10-9
Aquiclude < 10-9
Aquifuge 0
Source: Olugboye, 2008

2.5 GROUNDWATER CONDITIONS

UNCONFINED AQUIFER

An unconfined aquifer exists when a water table is developed that seperates the unsaturated zone above

from the saturated zone below. It can develop below the surface of an aquitard layer.

An unconfined aquifer is recharged by precipitation, has a rising and fall water table during the wet and

dry season respectively and has relatively rapid movement of groundwater through it.

Figure 3: shows an unconfined aquifer

2.42 CONFINED AQUIFER

A confined aquifer is contained between two aquifer and aquicludes. Water held in a confined aquifer is

under pressure, such that groundwater in a borehole penetrating a confined unit will rise to a level above

the top of the aquifer

 If groundwater level rises to the top borehole above the ground level and overflows, then an overflowing

artesian groundwater condition is encountered.

Fig 4: illustrating the diagram of a confined aquifer

2.43 PERCHED AQUIFER

This is an isolated body of groundwater suspended above the water table and separated from it by a zone

of aeration. it may form as groundwater collects above a lens of less permeable shale within a more

permeable rock, such as sandstone

Fig 5: ilustrating a perched aquifer

 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION

3.1 GENERAL OVERVIEW OF GEOPHYSICAL METHOD OF SURVEY

Geophysical methods of survey are used to provide information on the depth to bedrock, changes

in the surface layering and lithology, location of sleepy dipping structures such as fault and dykes, can

detect subsurface archeological features that contract with the surrounding soils in terms of resistance,

magnetic susceptibilities or other properties, geophysical methods standout to be the most reliable and

accurate method of groundwater survey method (Breusse, 19633, Palacky et al 1981, Ako and

Olorunfemi, 1989).
 The geophysical methods of exploration are:

i. ` Electrical resistively method

ii. Seismic method

iii. Gravity method

iv. Magnetic method

v. Electromagnetic method

vi. Induced polarization method

3.2 Electrical resistivity method

Electrical resistivity method is a geophysical technique which utilizes current source of e. m. f. to

depict the earth content. This method has been useful in search for water bearing formations,

stratigraphical correlation in field prospecting, as a result of the conductivity of some earth materials.

Electrical resistivity method is the most commonly use geophysical method of ground water

survey. Electrical surveying has many methods some of field within the earth while other requires the

introduction of artificially generated currents into ground and the current will be low as AC or DC.

Although some of the earth contents are conductive they still limit the amount of current passing

them and the distribution of this phenomenon is called electrical resistivity.

These materials can be established by introducing electric current mentioned above from a

transmitter into ground. One of the instrument that can be used for resistivity survey is ABEM

Tetrameter SAS 400 with other accessories like wire reel for current and potential, electrodes and

connection wires.
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
The Hydrological cycle can be thought of as the continuous circulation of water near the surface of the
earth from the ocean to the atmosphere and then via precipitation, surface runoff and groundwater back
to the surface (ocean)Warming of the ocean by solar radiation causes water to land masses where the
vapor condenses and falls as precipitation. This is either returned directly to the atmosphere by evapo-
transpiration collected to form surface runoff, or infiltrated into the soil and underlying rocks to form
groundwater. The surface runoff and groundwater flow contribute to surface streams and rivers that
flows into the ocean subsequently, most groundwater returns either by being pumped or by natural
outflow to the surface water bodies which subsequently, discharge back into sea.
 Fig. 1; The Hydrological cycle (after de Wiest,1965)

2.1

2.5 GROUNDWATER MOVEMENT

Groundwater is in constant motion, although the rate at which it moves is generally slower than it would move
in a stream because it must pass through the intricate passageways between free spaces in the rocks. First,
groundwater moves downward due to the pull of gravity. But, it can also move upward because it flows from
higher pressure areas to lower pressure areas. Groundwater moves in response to differences in water pressure
and elevation. This can be illustrated by a simple experiment. Imagine that we have a ‘U’ shaped tube filled
with water, if we put pressure on one side of the tube, the water level on the other side rises, thus the water
moves from high pressures zones to low pressure zones.
Cork

(a) (b)
Fig 2: Diagram (a) showing the movement of water in a ‘u’ tube (b) demonstrate movement due to
pressure at a particular end.

The same thing happen beneath the earth where pressure is higher beneath the hills and lower beneath the valley

2.6 GROUNDWATER VELOCITY

The velocity of groundwater flow is controlled by both the permeability of the sediment or rock and the
hydraulic gradient. Darcy’s law states that the velocity equals the permeability multiplied by the hydraulic
gradient; this gives the Darcian velocity (or the velocity of water flowing through a pipe). To determine the
actual velocity of groundwater since it only flows through the openings in sediment or rock, the Darcian
velocity must be divided by the porosity.

Groundwater velocity = Permeability X hydraulic gradient

Porosity

Mathematically, V = K/n X ΔH/L

Where k = hydraulic conductivity, it is a measure of permeability and is specific to a particular aquifer.

Generally, how fast or slow the velocity at which groundwater moves is strongly affected by the slope of the
water table and the permeability. The steeper the slope of the water table, the faster groundwater moves. Water
table slopes are controlled largely by topography. The water table roughly parallels the land surface
(particularly in humid region). Even in highly permeable rock, groundwater will not move if the water table is
flat.

The permeability of the rock or other materials through which it passes also affects its velocity, if rock pores
are small and poorly connected, water moves slowly on the other hand when openings are large and well
connected, the flow of water is rapid.

2.61 DETERMINATION OF THE GROUNDWATER VELOCITY

One way of measuring groundwater velocity is to introduce a tracer, such as a dye into the water and then watch
for the colour to appear in a well or spring some distance away, noting the time and actual distance between the
two wells, such experiment has shown that the velocity of groundwater varies widely, averaging a few
centimeters to many meters a day. Impermeable rocks may allow water to move only a few centimeters per year
but highly permeable materials, such as unconsolidated gravel or cavernous limestone, may permit flow of
hundreds or even thousands of meters per day.
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD

This method employs a phenomenon which makes possible the differentiation between types of earth
materials. Resistivity method are made by sending a direct or low frequency alternating current through the
ground between two metal stakes and measuring both the ground and result potential of other stakes or special
electrodes. Electrical resistivity of the earth materials are closely related to the moisture content of the material
and its chemical characteristics. The spacing of the electrodes control the depth of penetration of the current
which can lead to: (a) vertical electro resistivity/depth sounding or simply VES. (b) Electro resistivity
profiling/lateral profiling.

3.1 PRINCIPLE ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD

The principle of electrical resistivity method is based on ohm’s law which states that ‘the current passing
through an electric conductive material is directly proportional to the potential difference across it’s ends and
inversely proportion to it’s resistance

From ohm’s law it is shown that the electric current I in a conducting wire is proportional to the potential
difference V across it (Halliday, 2001) express linearly as

V =IR 2.1

Where R is the Resistance of the conductor whose unit is ohm ( Ω ) . The inverse of resistance is the
−1
conductance of the circuit whose unit is the reciprocal of ohm ( Ω ) (Halliday, 2001)

Experimentally it shows that a long wire has a larger resistance than a short wire and a thin wire has a larger
resistance than a thick wire. (Lowrie 1997) For a given material the resistance is proportional to the length and
inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area A of the given conductor. The relation is expressed as;

l
R= ρ
A

Fig 6: illustrating the principle of resistivity method

Potential difference V applied between the ends of a wire of length L and cross section area A (Halliday 2001)

The proportionality constant ρ is the resistivity of the conductor which is a physical property of the

conductor.

dU V
=
Electric field E= dr L

current I
=
Current density J= area A

V
E L
ρ= =
J i
Resistivity A

V
=R
However, since i

Which implies that;

L
R= ρ
A

The resistivity method is used in the study of horizontal and vertical discontinuities in the electrical properties
of the ground.

● It utilizes direct currents or low frequency alternating currents to investigate the electrical properties
(resistivity) of the subsurface.

● a resistivity contrast between the target and the background geology must exist.
Fig.7: A direct current with strength [A] flows through a conductor of a limited size.

qV
I=
ρl

I : Current strength (A)

V : Voltage (V)

A : Cross section (m²)

L : Length

ρ : Resistivity

1
σ=
ρ : Conductivity

Resistivity is one of the most variable physical properties of a material. Resistance is the property of an object
while Resistivity is the property of a material. (Halliday, 2001).

3.2 ROCKS RESISTIVITY

The resistivity p of rocks and minerals displays a wide range. For example, graphite has a resistivity of the order
of l0-5 ohm-m, whereas ‘some dry quartzite rocks have resistivities of more than 1O-l2ohm-m (Parasnis, 1962).
No other physical property of naturally occurring rocks or soils displays such a wide range of values.
In most rocks, electricity is conducted electrolytically ‘by the interstitial fluid, and resistivity is controlled more
by porosity, water content, and water quality than by the resistivities of the rock matrix. Clay minerals,
however, are capable of conducting electricity electronically, and the flow of current in a clay layer is both
electronic and electrolytic. Resistivity values for unconsolidated sediments commonly range from less than 1
ohm-m for certain clays or sands saturated with saline water, to several thousand ohm-m for dry basalt flows,
dry sand, ,and gravel. The resistivity of sand and gravel saturated with fresh water ranges from about 15 to 600
ohm-m.
 Table 1.4: shows the resistivity values of some rock types

3.3 METHODOLOGY OF RESISTIVITY

In making resistivity surveys a commutated direct current or very low frequency (<l Hz) current is introduced
into the ground via two electrodes. The potential difference is measured between a second pair of electrodes. If
the four electrodes are arranged in any of several possible patterns, the current and potential measurements may
be used to calculate resistivity.

3.4 TECHNIQUES OF ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY SURVEY

The techniques of electrical resistivity investigations; two different techniques are generally available to
examine the resistivity changes within the ground. These are electrical sounding or called vertical electrical
sounding (VES) and Horizontal Resistivity profiling.

3.41 VERTICAL ELECTRICAL SOUNDING (VES).

Vertical electrical sounding is the process by which depth investigations are made. The basis for
making an electrical sounding irrespective of the electrode array used, is that the further away from a current
source the measurement of the potential, the deeper the probing will be successive apparent resistivity values
are determined at the same centre point for increasing values are determined at the same centre point for
increasing values of electrode spacing. A plot of the apparent resistivity values as a function of electrode
spacing on a bilogarithmic paper is drawn to obtain a sounding curve.
 Generally, sounding arrays are aligned parallel to the strike of the rocks to minimize the effect of dip of
the rocks on the curves. The form of the curves obtained by sounding over a horizontally stratified medium is a
function of the number of layers, the resistivity and thickness of each layer as well as the electrode array used.

Principle of
vertical electrical sounding.(Telford,1976).

Field procedures for schlumberger array

Fig 11: Field procedure for schlumberger (Telford, 1976).

1. Selected the centre point and the orientation of the array so that there is a sufficient length on each
direction.

2. Try to describe the location fully on the field sheet

3. Anchor both cables to the centre electrode and start laying at the cables, as shown in figure 3.5

4. Connect the cables and the centre electrode to the switch box, and on the terrameter

5. Always check the battery voltage and then select four cycles. Then start taking reading while the
remaining electrodes are being positioned.

The resistivity is then calculated from

Pa = π ¿ ¿ (Telford,1976)
3.42 ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY PROFILING (ERP)

Horizontal resistivity profiling is used to determine the lateral variation of resistivity. it is usually carried out
when variation in apparent resistivity in a horizontal direction is to be determined (Telford et al, 1976).

The wenner electrode configuration is used in lateral profiling (leourie, 1997). In probing the resistivity
variations laterally, a fixed separation is maintained between the various electrodes and the array is moved
along the traverse.

Generally, the wenner configuration are arranged in a straight line and kept at a fixed distance apart

FIELD PROCEDURES FOR WENNER ARRAY

Fig 12: Field procedure for Wenner array (Telford, 1976).

1. A pair of electrodes C1 and C2 are placed at equal distance as shown on figure

2. Another pair of electrodes P1 and P2 are placed at equal distance placed between C1 and C2.
3. The four electrodes must be on straight line throughout the field work and are been driven into the
ground to about 5-8cm.

4. All connecting chips are been checked

5. Electric current is then passed through C1 and C2 and the potential drop between P1 and P2 are
measured.

6. ABEM Terrameter SAS 300c is then moved to next peak

7. Repeat Step 1-5.

8. Series of reading are then taken at the same station

The resistivity is then calculated from

V
P = 2 πa (Telford,1976)
I

3.5 ELECTRODE CONFIGURATION

The two most frequently used electrode configuration in ground water studies are the WENNER and
SCHLUMBERGER others includes dipole-dipole, pole-pole, pole-dipole and lee partitioning configuration

3.51 WENNER CONFIGURATION

Wenner (1915) was the first to establish a system for the measurement of the electrical resistivity of earth
materials. He proposed the use of four electrodes all in a line and with equal inter-electrode spacing. The current
electrode C1 and C2 are the outermost electrode while the potential electrode P1 and P2 are the innermost
electrodes. The potential difference between two arbitrary located points on the surface of a homogeneous
isotropic ground is given by the general expression
 Figure showing Wenner Array

3.52 SCHLUMBERGER ARRAY

This array is the most widely used in electrical sounding prospecting. Four electrodes are placed along a
straight line on the Earth surface in the same order, AMNB, as in the Wenner array, but with AB>or =5MN.
For any linear, symmetric array AMNB of electrodes, the apparent resistivity can be written in the form:

p= π [(AB/2)2 –(MN/2)2] ΔV

MN I

But if

pa= π (AB/2)2 E

Conrad Schlumberger defined the resistivity in terms of the electric field E rather than the potential difference
AV (as in the Wenner array), It can be seen from equation 13 .that the Schlumberger apparent resistivity 78 is a
function of a single distance-variable (m/2). In practice it is possible to measure ρ, but only in an approximate
manner. The apparent resistivity pa usually is calculated by using equation provided that AB 1 5cm
(Dappermann, 1954).
 Fig 9: A diagram showing the schlumberger array

3.53 LEE- PARTITIONING ARRAY

This array is the same as the wenner array, except that an additional potential electrode O is placed at the centre
of the array between the potentials electrodes M and N. measurement of the potentials differences are made
between O and N. The formula for computing the lee array apparent resistivity is given by;

ρ L.P=4πaΔV/I

Where V is the potential difference between O and M or O and N. This array has been used extensively in the
past (Van Nostrand and Cook, 1966)

AA M O N B
a a/2 a/2 a

Fig 10: Diagram illustrating the Lee partitioning array

A and B are current electrodes, M, O and N are potential electrodes

3.6 INSTRUMENTATION

In carring out electrical resistivity survey, the following instrument are used:

1. Terrameter
2. Cables reels and connection chips
3. Four metal electrodes and metal peaks
4. Hammers
5. Measuring tapes
6. Umbrella (for the equipment).
7. GPS

Fig 13: showing the instrumentation used.

3.61 FIELD PRECAUTION

1. It was ensured that the terrameter is not exposed to high sunlight.

2. It was ensured that, the electrodes are fixed to the ground level.

3. It was ensured that, the cables and electrodes are in straight line

4. The average reading of Abem terrameter was taken

5. It was ensured that all connection are properly connected

3.7 LIMITATION OF ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD

Electrical resistivity method is an efficient method for delineating shallow layered sequence or vertical
discontinuities involving changes of resistivity. it does, however suffer a number of set backs such as:

It can only be applied in underdeveloped area since man-made metallic structure like pipes, rails, wires in
contact with ground in developed regions can divert the flow of current introduce into the ground.
They are also strongly affected by rugged topography since current will tend to follow surface, particularly if
the shallow layers are conductive and same there is no method of removing this effect which may distort the
real anomaly. Thus, it is advisable to avoid such areas.

Also, the interpretation of sounding curve is limited to simple configuration, and the decisive portion of the
curve are left out without being matched to a theoretical curve.

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 DATA PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION

4.1 DATA PRESENTATION

The presentation of electrical resistivity field data could be in any of the following forms

4.11 VES TABLES

The resistivity data obtained in the field are presented in the form of tables which shows the electrode spacing,
apparent resistivity, geometric factors and resistance, though it depends on the type of array used. This can be
shown below

Field Sheet

Location: VES 9 LGA: State:

Electrode Spacing (m)
AB MN Reading G. App.
 2 2 (ohms) Factor Resist
(k) (ohms.m)
1 0.5 68.119 2.892 197.0
1.5 0.5 18.05 6.820 123.1
2 0.5 8.118 12.318 100.0
3 0.5 2.820 28.028 79.0
4.5 1.5 1.03 63.376 65.3
7 1.5 1.07 50.569 54.1
10 1.5 0.682 103.983 70.9
15 1.5 0.464 234.9 109.0
22 1.5 0.248 506.159 125.5
32 1.5 0.129 1071.719 138.3
47 5 0.063 691.568 145.7
70 1.5 0.104 1537.08 160.0
100 15 0.184 1039.83 191.3
Comments: Basement Complex

4.12 PROFILES (VES CURVE)

In profiles, apparent resistivity values are plotted against electrode spacing () on a logarithm or log-log graph.
Layer resistivity as well its thickness can be determined from the VES curve. The shape of a VES curve
depends on the number of layers the subsurface, the thickness of each layer and the ratios of the resistivity’s of
the layers. Generally, the vertical electrical curve can be of different types namely; H-type, K-type, Q-type and
A-type curves as seen below;
 Fig 14: showing the types of Ves curves

DISTORTION OF VES CURVE

Vertical electrical sounding (ves) curve may be distorted by lateral inhomogeneities in the ground, by errors in
measurements or by equipment failure. Common distortions and their causes are discussed below

 FORMATION OF CUSPS
Cusps on vertical electrical sounding curve could be as a result of lateral heterogeneities, by current leakage
from poorly insulated cables, by electrode spacing errors, or by errors in calculation(Zohdy,1968b) as indicated
in the graph below;u

Fig 15: showing Ves curves with Cusps

 SHARP MAXIMUM
The maximum or peak value on a K-curve is always gentle and broad. The formation of a sharp maximum
is always due to limited lateral extent of the buried resistive layer (Alfano, 1959) as indicated in the graph
below;
 Fig 16: showing Ves curve with sharp maximum
 CURVE DISCONTINUITIES

Discontinuities in VES curve can be observed when the spacing MN is enlarged (with AB constant) and the
value of the apparent resistivity for the larger MN spacing, does not conform to the theoretical magnitude for
such a change in MN (Zohdy,1968b)The graph below shows this;

4.13 CONTOUR MAP: This is a plot of apparent resistivity along several traverses and contoured. it shows
points of equal apparent resistivity value. Generally, resistivity data obtained at grid point are preferable to
those obtained from profiles lines unless the lines are closely spaced, because the alignment of data along
profiles tends to distort the contour map and give it an artificial “grain” that is distracting and interferes with
interpretation of the map. This is shown below;
 Fig 17:shows an apparent resistivity contour map.

4.2 DATA INTERPRETATION

Before interpretation is made, the interpreter must be satisfied with the form of the sounding curve, in that it is
sufficiently smooth and not severely distorted by sharp maximum, cusps or discontinuities. The electrical
resistivity data obtained from the field can be interpreted in two major ways namely; Qualitative and
Quantitative interpretation.

 QUALITATIVE INTERPRETATION
The apparent resistivity maps and profiles constitute the basis of the qualitative interpretation. Generally, they
precede quantitative interpretation and involve the studying and proper examination of the field curve obtained
to note potential zones. On an apparent resistivity map or a profile (VES curve) points of high resistivity value
indicates a high resistivity bed rock and vice versa. This can be seen in the VES curve below:
 Source : Abu, 2009.
Fig 18: showing Ves curve.
 QUANTITATIVE INTERPRETATION
The Quantitative interpretation of electrical resistivity data could be indirect and direct
 INDIRECT METHOD
The indirect method consist of Curve matching, and other less common methods like Moore’s cumulative
resistivity method, and Barnes layer method.

CURVE MATCHING: In the curve matching method, field curve are compared with the theoretical curves.
The theoretical curves consist of two types the Master curves and two Auxiliary curves. Generally, before
embarking on curve matching, the type of curve should be determined by inspection and the appropriate sets of
theoretical curves appointed

PROCEDURE OF CURVE MATCHING

 The field curve is plotted on a logarithm (log-log) paper with the apparent resistivity on the x-axis ( )
and half-electrode spacing (AB/2) on the y-axis.
 The field curve is traced on a transparent paper
 A set of curves are appointed (master and auxiliary) depending on the shape of the field curve.
 The traced field curve is then superposed on the master curve (2-layer) and moved along it up, down,
right or left (maintaining the coordinate axes of the two (2) sheets parallel)
 Continue this until a best fit of the field curve against one of the theoretical curve is obtained
 Determined the position of the curves, which is the origin of the coordinates of the theoretical curve and
trace it on the sheet of the field curve.
 The point is traced to the horizontal and vertical axis to give the apparent resistivity and depth of the
layer one (1)
The table below shows the resistivity, thickness and depth obtained after the curve matching method of
interpretation has been applied to a particular field data

TABLE 1.6 INTERPRETATIONS FOR VES 1 USING CURVE MATCHING.

Layer Apparent resistivity Thickness (m) Depth (m)

s (ρ)
1 510Ωm 1.2m 1.2
2 56.67Ωm 4.8m 6.0
3 315Ωm 30m 36
4 665Ωm ∞ ∞

Source; Abu,2010.
 Fig 19: Two-layer master set of sounding curves for the Schlumberger array (Zohdy 1974a,
1974b)

MOORE’S CUMMULATIVE RESISTIVITY: Moore (1945, 1951) developed the so called Cumulative
resistivity method which is an empirical method for determining the depth to horizontal layers (but not the
resistivity). It involves the plotting of cumulative resistivity curve.

BAINES LAYER METHOD: This method assumes erroneously that the electrode spacing in the wenner arrays
is equal to the layer thickness.
 DIRECT METHOD:
COMPUTER ASSISTED INTERPRETATION
` Computer assisted interpretation is usually based on the algorithm which employs digital linear filters
for the fast computation of resistivity function for a given et of layer parameters. This technique involves
seeking a solution to the inverse problem, namely the determination of the subsurface resistivity distribution
from surface measurements.
An important parameter in seeking a solution to the inverse problem is the Kernel function which is useful in
interpreting apparent resistivity measurements in terms of lithological variation with depth. The function
assumes the earth to be locally stratified in homogeneous and isotropic layer and, unlike apparent resistivity
function it is independent of electrode configuration. It cannot be measured in the field but has to be obtained
from a transformation of measured electrical potentials or apparent resistivities. Several different Kernal
functions have been developed.
However, several computer programmes have been written for resistivity interpretations and these can be used
by those who have some knowledge of computer programming.

Resist interpretation

Source:Abu,2009

Fig 20: Showing the result of the interpretation with resist software

CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION

5.1 CONCLUSION

The electrical resistivity method is one of the most useful techniques in groundwater hydrology exploration
because the resistivity of a rock is sensitive to its water content. In turn, the resistivity of water is
very sensitive to its ionic content.
In general, it is able to map different stratigraphic units in a geologic section as long as the units have a
resistivity contrast. Often this is connected to rock porosity and fraction of water saturation of the pore
spaces.

5.2 RECOMMENDATION

Proper interpretation of the resistivity data should be done to ensure accurate result.

REFERENCE
Telford, WM, Geldart L.P, Sheriff K.E, & Kegs D.A , (1976)

Applied Geophysics cambrigde University Press London, New York.

Zohdy, A.A.R, Eaton, G.P and Mabey R.R; (1974):

Application of surface Geophysics to Groundwater Investigation.

Techniques of Water Resources Investigation of the USGs, chapter D1, 5
– 62

Moore, W., (1946):

An empirical method of interpretation of earth resistivity measurements :

A.I.M.E. Geophys. Prosp. Trans., v. 164, p. 197-223.

Van Nostrand, R. G., and Cook, K. L., (1966):

Interpretation of resistivity data: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 499,310 p.

Alfano, Luigi, (1969,):

Introduction to the interpretation of resistivity measurement for
complicated structural conditions: Geophys. Prosp.,
v. 7, p. 311366.

kunetz G. (1966): Principles of Direct current Resistivity prospecting. Berlin Gebruder

Borntraeger, 103pp

Parasnis (1962):
Parasnis, D. S. 1962. Principles of Applied Geophysics,
Methuen and Co., Ltd, London.

Berner, E.K. and Berner, R.A,(1987);

The global water cycle: geochemistry and environment.
Prentice- Hall, Englewood cliffs, New Jersey.

Plummmer, McGeary and Carlson,(2005);

Physical geology,10thedition, p.264-268.