CHAPTER – 3: Chemical Bond

Compound and Mixture: Comparison of compounds and mixtures.

Compounds Mixtures
A compound is a single substance. A mixture contains two or more substances.
The composition is always the same. The composition can be varied.
The formation involves a chemical reaction. No chemical change takes place when made.
The properties are very different from the elements The properties of the substances making the
present in the compound. mixture are still present.
Can only be broken down by chemical reactions. The substances present can be separated by
physical methods.
Chemical Bond: It is an attractive force which binds the atom together in the form of molecule or compound.
Why chemical bond is formed: To get the stable electronic configuration according to the nearest noble gas.
Ways through which chemical bond are formed

 Loss of electron
 Gain of electron
 Sharing of electron
Diplet Rule:
Octete Rule
Type of Bonding:
1. Ionic Bond (occurs in metallic compounds)
2. Covalent Bond (occurs in elements and compounds)
3. Metallic Bond (present in metallic elements)

Ionic Bonding:

Compounds between metals and non-metals involve an ionic bonding. Electrons are transferred from
metal atom to non-metal, forming ions. These ionic compounds are held together by electrostatic forces
of attraction between the oppositely charged ions.
Formation of ions
An ion is an electrically charged particle. Ions are formed when atoms lose or gain electrons. Atoms with a
noble gas electronic configuration are particularly stable and unreactive. Noble gas atoms (except helium,
have eight electrons in their outer shells. Most atoms do not have this arrangement of outer electrons and
so are more reactive. One way of gaining this noble gas structure is to completely transfer electrons from
one atom to another.
The metals in Group I all have one electron in their outer energy level. Figure 3.14 shows the loss of an
outer electron from a sodium atom. this results in the formation of a positive sodium ion (Na+). The
sodium ion has a simple positive charge because it now has just 10 electrons in total, but there are still
11 protons in the nucleus of the atom.

Halogen atoms in Group VII of the Periodic Table have seven outer electrons. They can achieve a stable
noble gas configuration by gaining an outer electron (Figure 3.13). The chloride ion (CI-) formed has a
negative charge because it has as one more electron (18) than there are protons in the nucleus (17).
 This is an ion of chlorine [2,8,8]-.
The chlorine atom [2,8,7] needs to gain an
electron to make it more stable.
The ease with which the atoms of Group I and Group VII can lose or gain outer electrons results in these
elements being strongly reactive.

Ionic compounds
Following features are common to the formation of ionic bonds between metallic and non-metallic elements:
• metal atoms always lose their outer electrons to form positive ions (cations)
• the number of positive charges on a metal ion is equal to the number of electrons lost
• non-metal atoms, with the exception of hydrogen, always gain electrons to become negative ions (anions).
• the number of negative charges on a non-metal ion is equal to the number of electrons gained
• in both cases, the ions formed leave a more stable electronic configuration, usually that of the
nearest noble gas to them in the Periodic Table
• ionic bonds result from the electrostatic attraction between appositely charged ions.

In the case of sodium chloride, the ions formed are sodium (Na+) and chloride (CI-) ions.

The sodium ion then has the stable electron arrangement (2,8) of a neon atom — the element just before it in
the Periodic Table. The electron released is transferred to a chlorine atom. The chloride ion formed (electron
arrangement 2,8,8) has the electron arrangement of an argon atom. The positive and negative ions in sodium
chloride are held together by the electrostatic attraction between opposite charges.

Dot-and -cross diagram.

More complex ionic compounds than those formed between the alkali metals and the halogens involve the
transfer of a greater member of electrons. magnesium oxide (MgO), two electrons are being transferred
from a magnesium atom to an oxygen atom. A magnesium atom has two electrons in its outer shell. An
oxygen atom has six outer electrons. By transferring two electrons from magnesium to oxygen to complete
its outer shell, both the magnesium and oxide ions formed have the configuration of a neon atom.

The case of calcium chloride is slightly more complicated. The calcium atom (2,8,6,2) has two
electrons to transfer. So, two chlorine atoms are needed. Each chlorine atom accepts one electron. In
calcium chloride there are two chloride ions (CI-) formed for each calcium ion (Ca2+) produced.
 Physical properties of ionic compounds
The physical properties of ionic compounds are different from simple covalent molecular compounds
because the type of bonding involved is different.
Ionic compounds (such as sodium chloride and magnesium oxide) are solids at room temperature. The
ions arrange themselves into a regular lattice structure (Figure 3. 18}. In this regular arrangement, each
ion is surrounded by ions of the opposite charge. The whole structure is held together by the electrostatic
forces of attraction that occur between particles of opposite charge.

Figure 3.18: An ionic lattice where each ion is surrounded by ions of opposite charge.
.

Properties of typical ionic compounds Reasons for these properties

They have high melting points and boiling points. Ions are attracted to each other by strong
electrostatic farces. Large amounts of energy are
needed to separate them.
They are crystalline solids at room temperature. There is a regular arrangement of the ions in a lattice.
Ions with opposite charge are next to each other.
They are often soluble in water (not usually soluble in Water is attracted to charged ions and therefore
organic solvents, e.g. ethanol, methylbenzene ). many ionic solids dissolve.
They conduct electricity when molten or dissolved in In the liquid or solution, the ions are free to move
water (not when solid). about. They can move towards the electrodes when a
voltage is applied.
Giant ionic lattice structures
Ionic compounds form lattices consisting of positive and negative ions (giant ionic lattice}. In an ionic lattice, the
nearest neighbours of an ion are always of the opposite charge. Thus, in sodium chloride, each sodium (Na +)
ion is surrounded by six chloride (Cl-) ions (Figure 3.21), and each CI- ion is surrounded by six Na+ ions.
Overall, there are equal numbers of Na+ and Cl- ions, so the charges balance. the actual arrangement of the
ions in other compounds depends on the numbers of ions involved and on their sizes. However, it is important
to remember that all ionic compounds are electrically neutral.
Ionic crystals are hard but much more brittle than other types of crystal lattice. This is a result of the structure
of the layers. In an ionic crystal, pushing one layer against another brings ions of the same charge next to each
other. The repulsions force the layers a part (Figure 3.22).

Water can also disrupt an ionic lattice. Many ionic compounds dissolve in water. Water molecules are able to
interact with bath positive and negative ions. When an ionic crystal dissolves, each ion becomes surrounded
by water molecules. This breaks up the lattice and keeps the ions apart (Figure 3.23). For those ionic
compounds that do not dissolve in water, the forces between the ions must be very strong
 Ions in solution are able to move, so the solution can carry an electric current. Ionic compounds can conduct
electricity when dissolved in water. This is also true when they are melted because here, again, the ions are
able to move through the liquid and carry the current.
Ionic crystal lattices are called ' giant' structures because the structure repeats itself in all directions. The
forces involved are the same in all directions holding the whole structure together.
Covalent bonding (in simple molecular elements and compounds )
Elements such as oxygen (O2) and hydrogen (H2) consist of diatomic molecules. Indeed, the only elements
that are made up of individual atoms moving almost independently of each other are the noble gases (Group
VIII). All other elements do form structures; their atoms are linked by some type of bonding.
The main features of covalent bonding are:
• For non- metallic elements the type of bonding involved is covalent bonding
• the bond is formed by the sharing of a pair of electrons between two atoms, leading to noble gas electronic
configurations
• each atom contributes one electron to each bond
• molecules are formed from atoms linked together by covalent bonds.

Simple molecular elements

Hydrogen normally exists in the form of diatomic molecules {H). Two atoms bond together by sharing their
electrons. The orbits overlap with each other and a molecule is formed (Figure 3.3).

Through this sharing, each atom gains a share in two electrons. This is the number of electrons in the outer shell of
helium, the nearest noble gas to hydrogen. (Remember that the electron arrangement of helium is very stable; helium
atoms do nor form Hey molecules.) Sharing electrons like this is known as covalent bonding. It has been shown that
in a hydrogen molecule, the electrons are more likely to be found between the two nuclei. The forces of attraction
between the shared electrons and the nuclei are greater than any repulsive forces. The molecule is held together
by the bond.
Many non-metallic elements form diatomic molecules. However, elements other than hydrogen form bonds in order
to gain a share of eight electrons in their outer shells. This is the number of electrons in the outer shell of all the
noble gases apart from helium. Thus, the halogens (Group VII) fo m covalent molecules (Figure 3.6). In forming
these molecules, each atom pains a share in eight electrons in its outer shell.
A Dot and cross diagram can be drawn showing the outer electrons only (Figure 3.6a), because the inner
electrons are not involved in the bonding.
Molecules of hydrogen and the halogens are each held together by a single covalent bond. Such a singIe
bond uses two electrons, one from each atom. The bond can be drawn as a single line between the two
atoms. Note that, when we draw diagrams showing the overlap of the outer shells, we can show the o uter
electrons only because the inner electrons are not involved in the bonding. Each atom gains are in eight
electrons in its outer shell.
When molecules of Oxygen (O2) or nitrogen (N2} are formed, more electrons leave to be used in handing if
the atoms are to gain a share of eight electrons. These molecules are held together by a double bond (0 2)
of a triple bond (N2)

Simple covalent compounds

In covalent compounds, bonds are again made by sharing electrons between atoms. In simple molecules,
the atoms combine to achieve a more stable arrangement of electrons, most often that of a noble gas. The
formation of hydrogen chloride (HCI) molecules involves the two atoms sharing a pair of electrons.
Physical properties of Covalent
 While considering the properties of simple molecular compound, it is important to be aware of two
levels of interactive forces involved.
 Covalent bonds within the molecules are strong and difficult to break,
 However, the forced between the molecules, the intermolecular forced are only weak and
relatively easily broken,
 Weak intermolecular forces give rise to low melting and boiling point because small amount of
energy is needed by molecules to move away from each other.

Giant covalent structures

Giant molecular crystals are held together by strong covalent bonds. This type of structure is shown by
some elements (e.g .carbon, in the form of diamond and graphite) and also by some compounds (e.g.
silica, SiO2) .
Diamond:
The properties of diamond are due to the fact that the strong covalent bonds extend in all directions through
the whole crystal. Each carbon atom is attached to four others, the atoms are arranged tetrahedrally (Figure
3.27) and all the atoms are bonded to each other.

 Diamond has a very high melting point. The bonding extends throughout the whole structure, it is very
hard and is used in cutting tools.
 The bonds are rigid, however, and these structures are much more brittle than giant metallic lattices.
 Diamond is therefore a typical non -metallic element. It does not conduct electricity All the outer
electrons of the atoms in these structures are used to form covalent bonds. There are no electrons free
to move. Diamond is therefore a typical non -metallic element. It does not conduct electricity
Silicon (IV) oxide
Sand and quartz are examples of silica (silicon (IV) oxide, SiO2). The silicon (IV) oxide found in quartz has a
structure similar to diamond
In this structure, each silicon atom is bounded to four oxygen atoms, but each oxygen is only bonded to
two silicon atoms. This means that the formula for the structure is SiO2
 Both diamond and silicon (IV) oxide structures have a rigid, tetrahedral arrangement of atoms. All the
atoms in these structures are held together through out by strong covalent bonds. As a result, both
diamond and silicon(IV) oxide show similar physical properties. They are both very hard and have
high melting points. Silicon(IV) oxide, like diamond, does not conduct electricity as there are no
electrons free to move through the structure.

Graphite:
Graphite is a different form of carbon that does conduct electricity. The carbon atoms are arranged in a
different way in the molecular structure of graphite. Thev are arranged in flat layers of linked hexagons
(Figure 3.25).

Each graphite layer is a two-dimensional giant molecule. Within these layers, each carbon atom is bonded to
three others by strong covalent bonds. Between the layers there are weaker forces of attraction. The layers
are able to slide over each other easily. This means that graphite feels slippery and can be used as a
lubricant. Graphite is used in pencils. When we write with a pencil, thin layers of graphite are left stuck to
the paper.
The most distinctive property, however, results from the fact that there are free electrons not used for
covalent bonding by the atoms in the layers. These electrons can move between the layers, carrying charge,
so that graphite can conduct electricity in a similar way to metals.
Metallic bonding
Giant metallic lattices
Metal atoms have relatively few electrons in their outer shells. When they are packed together, each metal
atom loses its outer electrons into a ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons. Having lost electrons, the atoms
present are no longer electrically neutral. They become positive ions because they have lost electrons but
the number of protons in the nucleus has remained unchanged. Therefore, the structure of a metal is made
up of positive ions packed together. These ions are surrounded by electrons, which can move freely between
the ions.
These free electrons are delocalised (not restricted to orbiting one positive ions and form a kind of electrostatic
'glue‘ holding the structure together in what is called metallic bonding.

Properties of metal Reasons for these properties

Most metals have high melting and boiling points.
Metals are goad conductors of electricity.
Metals are easily bent and shaped (malleable) or
stretched into wires (ductile).
A large amount of energy is needed to overcome the
strong and extensive force of attraction between the
positive metal ions and the 'sea’ of delocalised
electrons moving within the lattice. These attractive
forces can only be overcome when the temperature
is high.
In an electrical circuit, metals can conduct electricity
because the mobile electrons can move through the
structure, carrying the current. This type of bonding
is present in alloys as well. Alloys such as solder
and brass, for example, will conduct electricity.
The positive ions in a metal are arranged in layers.
When a force is applied, the layers can slide over
each other. The attractive forces in metallic
bonding act in all directions to hold the structure
together. This means that when the layers slide
over each other new bands are easily formed
(Figure 3.29). This movement of layers leaves the
metal with a different shape.