Analytical Geometry

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MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 1 OF 182

EGERTONUNIVERSITY
COLLEGEOFOPENANDDISTANCELEARNING
THEE-CAMPUS
E-LEARNINGCOURSE
MATH132:ANALYTICALGEOMETRY
By
OnyangoLawrenceOmondi,Dr.NjengaandMr.Obonyo
September,2020
_________________________________________________________
MAININFORMATIONPAGE

COURSEPRELIMINARIES
MATH132:ANALYTICALGEOMETRY
Isthiscourseforyou?
Thiscourseiscompulsoryforfirstyearstudentstakingmathematicsasasubjectinth
eFacultiesof;Education,ScienceandArts.Thelearnersareexpectedtocompleteth
ecoursein45hourswithinaperiodofonesemester.Duringthecourse,thelearnerswi
lltaketwocontinuousassessmenttests,averagingto30%andonefinalexamination
markedoutof70%.
Introductiontothecourse
Thiscoursegivesthebasicinformationonthemathematicaloperationsofgeometry
andtheirapplicationinreallifesituation.Thecourseinvolvestheapplicationofgeom
etryinfinding:equationofastraightline,distancebetweentwopointsinaplane,equ
ationsandapplicationsofvariousconics,vectorsanditsapplications,complexnumb
ersandfinally,polarcoordinates.Itcontainsproblemsattheendofeverytopicandyo
uwillbeexpectedtosolvehomeworkproblemsbylookingbackthroughthenotesand
findingsimilarexamples.
CourseContent
ThereareTEN(10)topicsinthiscourse,namely:

TopicOne:CoordinateGeometry
TopicTwo:EquationofaStraightline
TopicThree:EquationofaCircle
TopicFour:EquationofaParabola
TopicFive:EquationofanEllipse
TopicSix:EquationofHyperbola
TopicSeven:VectorOperations
TopicEight:VectorandCartesianEquationofaLine
TopicNine:VectorandCartesianEquationofaPlane
CourseLearningOutcomes
Uponsuccessfulcompletionofthiscourse,youshouldbeableto:
i. Locateapointontheplane
ii. Calculatethedistancebetweentwopointsontheline
iii. Findtheequationofaline
iv. Findtheslopeofalinegiventwopointsontheline
v. Calculatetheangleofinclinationofaline
vi. Defineacircle
vii. Derivetheequationofacircle
viii. Findcenterandradiusgiventheequationofacircle
ix. Findequationofacirclegiventhreepointsonit
x. Convertthegeneralformoftheequationofacircletostandardform
xi. Defineanellipse.
xii. Derivetheequationofanellipse.
xiii. Writeequationsofellipsescenteredattheorigin.
xiv. Writeequationsofellipsesnotcenteredattheorigin.
xv. Identifythecenter,foci,vertices,andendpointsofmajoraxisofanellipsegive
nitsequation.
xvi. Defineaparabola
xvii. Derivetheequationofaparabola

xviii. Determinetheequationofaparabolagivenfocusandvertex
xix. Determinetheequationofaparabolagivendirectrixandvertexorfocus.
xx. Findequationofparabolagivenitsgraph.
xxi. Defineahyperbola
xxii. Derivetheequationofahyperbola
xxiii. Identifythecenter,foci,andvertices
xxiv. Identifythetransverseaxisandconjugateaxis
xxv. Writetheequationsoftheasymptotes
xxvi. Beabletosketchthegraphofahyperbola
xxvii. Addandsubtractvectors
xxviii. Findthemagnitudeofavector
xxix. Findtheunitvectorofavector
xxx. Finddotproduct
xxxi. Applydotproductinmechanics
xxxii. Findcrossproduct
xxxiii. Applycrossproductinmechanicsandsurfaces
xxxiv. Findthevectorequationofaline
xxxv. FindtheCartesianequationofaline
xxxvi. Findthevectorequationofaplane
xxxvii. FindtheCartesianequationofaplane
CourseStudySkills
Asanadultlearneryourapproachtolearningwillbedifferenttothatfromyourschoold
ays:youwillchoosewhatyouwanttostudy,youwillhaveprofessionaland/
orpersonalmotivationfordoingsoandyouwillmostlikelybefittingyourstudyactiviti
esaroundotherprofessionalordomesticresponsibilities.
Essentiallyyouwillbetakingcontrolofyourlearningenvironment.Asaconsequence
,youwillneedtoconsiderperformanceissuesrelatedtotimemanagement,goalsetti
ng,stressmanagement,etc.Perhapsyouwillalsoneedtoreacquaintyourselfinarea
ssuchasessayplanning,copingwithexamsandusingthewebasalearningresource.

Yourmostsignificantconsiderationswillbetimeandspace,thatis,thetimeyoudedic
atetoyourlearningandtheenvironmentinwhichyouengageinthatlearning.
Werecommendthatyoutaketimenow-beforestartingyourself-study-
tofamiliarizeyourselfwiththeseissues.Thereareanumberofexcellentresourceson
theweb.Afewsuggestedlinksare:
http://www.how-to-study.com/
The"Howtostudy”websiteisdedicatedtostudyskillsresources.Youwillfindlinkstos
tudypreparation(alistofnineessentialsforagoodstudyplace),takingnotes,strate
giesforreadingtextbooks,usingreferencesources,testanxiety.
http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
ThisisthewebsiteoftheVirginiaTech,DivisionofStudentAffairs.Youwillfindlinkstot
imescheduling(includinga"wheredoestimego?”link),astudyskillchecklist,basicc
oncentrationtechniques,controlofthestudyenvironment,notetaking,howtoread
essaysforanalysis,andmemoryskills("remembering”).
http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
Thisisanother"Howtostudy”websitewithusefullinkstotimemanagement,efficien
treading,questioning/listening/
observingskills,gettingthemostoutofdoing("hands-
on”learning),memorybuilding,tipsforstayingmotivated,developingalearningpla
n.
NeedHelp?
ThiscoursewasdevelopedinMay2020byDr.OnyangoLawrence,Phone:
+254724568890;Email:lonyango@egerton.ac.ke.Dr.OnyangoisaLecturerofA
ppliedMathematicsintheDepartmentofMathematicsatEgertonUniversity.

Thissession,theinstructorsforthiscourseareDr.OnyangoLawrence,Dr.Njenga,D
r.OgadaandMr.Obonyo.Ourofficesarelocated intheDepartmentofMathematicsi
ntheNewPhysicsLaboratory(N.P.LBlock).Youmayconsultusduringthenormalwo
rkinghoursbetweenMondayandFriday.
Fortechnicalsupporte.g.lostpasswords,brokenlinksetc.pleasecontacttech-
supportviae-mailelearning@egerton.ac.keelearnersupport@egerton.ac.ke.
Assignments/Activities
Assignments/Activitiesareprovidedattheendofeachtopic.Someassignments/
activitieswillrequiresubmissionwhileotherswillbeself-
assessmentsthatdonotrequiresubmission.Ensureyoucarefullycheckwhichassig
nmentrequiresubmissionandthosethatdonot.
CourseLearningRequirements
 Timelysubmissionoftheassignments
 2CATs(30%)
 FinalExamination(70%oftotalscore)
 Calculator,RulerandaPen
Self-assessment
Self-
assessmentsareprovidedinordertoaidyourunderstandingofthetopicandcoursec
ontent.Whiletheymaynotbegraded,youarestronglyadvisedtoattemptthemwhe
nevertheyareavailableinatopic.
TOPICONE:FUNCTIONS
Introduction
ThistopicintroducestheCartesiancoordinatesanditsapplicationsintherealworldsi
tuation.
TopicTime
 Compulsoryonlinereading,activities,self-
assessmentsandpracticeexercises[3hours]
 Optionalfurtherreading[2hours]
 Totalstudentinput[5hours]
TopicLearningRequirements
 Participationinonechat(atleast5entries)
 Atleasttwoelaboratecontributionstothediscussiontopic.Youmayalsostartyou
rowndiscussionthread.
 Solvingproblemsgivenunderactivities
LearningOutcomes
Bytheendofthistopicyoushouldbeableto:
i) Locateapointontheplane
ii) Calculatethedistancebetweentwopointsontheline
iii) Findtheequationofaline
iv) Findtheslopeofalinegiventwopointsontheline
v) Calculatetheangleofinclinationofaline

TopicContent
1.1CARTESIANCOORDINATES
Inordertodeterminethepositionofapointintheplane,weestablishaonetoonecorre
spondencebetweenthepointsontheplaneandorderedpairsofrealnumbers.Wesel
ectanhorizontallineintheplane;thislineextendingindefinitelytotheleftandtotheri
ght,iscalledtheX-
axisandaverticallineextendingindefinitelyupanddownisalsochosen,calledtheY–
axisasshowninfig1abelow
Y axis
y. P(x , y)
x X −axis
O(0,0)
Fig . 1 a
ThepointofintersectionoftheXandYaxesiscalledtheorigin.ItisdenotedbyOandits
coordinateisgivenasO(0,0).ApointPontheplaneisidentifiedbytheorderedpairsof
realnumbers(x,y).ThedistanceofPfromtheY-
axisiscalledtheabscissaofPandisgivenbyX.ThedistanceofPfromtheX-
axisiscalledtheordinateofPandisgivenbyY.TheabscissaandordinateofapointPa
recalledtheRectangularCartesianCoordinateofapointP.
Thetwoaxesdividetheplaneinfourequalpartscalledquadrants.Inthefirstquadra
nt,bothabscissaandordinatearepositive,inthesecondquadranttheabscissaisneg
ativeandtheordinateispositive.Inthethirdquadrantbothabscissaandordinateare
negativeandinthefourthquadranttheabscissaispositiveandordinatenegativeass
howninfig1b

2ndQuadrant1stQuadrant
(-x,y) (x,y)
3rdQuadrant 4thQuadrant
(-x,-y) (x,-y)
Fig .1 b
1.2.DISTANCEBETWEENTWOPOINTSONTHECARTESIANPLANE
IfAispointontheplanewithcoordinatesA(x1,y1)andBisanotherpointonthesamepla
newithitscoordinatesgivenasB(x2,y1),thatisbothAandBhavethesameordinatebu
tdifferentabscissa,thenthedistancebetweenpointAandBisgivenbyx2–x1.
Examples:
a) IfA(3,4)andB(9,4),findthedistancebetweenthepointsAandB.
Solution
ThedistancebetweenAandBisgivenby9–3=6units
b) IfA(-8,0)andB(x,0),findxifthedistancebetweenAandBis14units’
Solution
ThedistancebetweenAandBisx–(-8)=14
x+8=14
x=14–8
=6
IfCisapointontheplanewhosecoordinateisgivenasC(x1,y1)andDisanotherpointo
nthesameplanewhosecoordinatesisgivenbyD(x1,y2),thenthedistancebetweent
MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 10 OF
182
hepointsCandDisgivenbyy2–
y1.HereCandDsharesameabscissabutdifferentordinates.
Examples:
a) IfC(1,-2)andD(1,-8),findthedistancebetweenCandD.
Solution
ThedistancebetweenCandDisgivenby(-8)–(-2)=-6units.
b) IfC(-2,-3)andD(-2,y),findyifthedistancebetweenCandDis7units
Solution
ThedistancebetweenCandDisy–(-3)=7
y+3=7
y=7–3
=4
IfaparticlemovesfromapointAtoapointBwheretheabscissaoftheparticlechanges
from(x1,y)to(x2,y),thenthechangeinabscissaisdenotedas∆ x=x 2−x 1.
Similarly,aparticlemovingalongalineparalleltoyaxisfrom(x,y 1)to(x,y2)hasitscha
ngeinordinategivenas∆ y = y 2− y 1andifP(x1,y1)andQ(x2,y2)aretwodifferentpoints
ontheplaneasshowninfigure1cbelow.
Q¿
P ¿y1¿ R ¿)
Fig . 1 c
182
DistancePRisgivenas∆ x=x 2−x 1andthedistanceRQisgivenas∆ y = y 2− y 1.ByusingP
ythagorastheorem,distancePQcanbeexpressedas|PQ|= √ ∆ x2 + ∆ y 2,whichisthesa
√ 2
meas,distance|PQ|= ( x 2−x 1 ) + ( y 2− y1 ) .
2
Examples
a) CalculatethedistancebetweenpointA(9,4)andpointB(12,18)
Solution
DistanceAB=√ ( 12−9 )2+ ( 18−4 )2
=√ 32 +142
=√ 205
=14.318units
b) Theabscissaofapointis-6anditsdistancefrompoint(1 , 3) is√ 74
,findtheordinateofthepoint.
Solution
Letthetwopointshavethecoordinates¿)and(1 , 3) .
Giventhatthedistancebetweenthetwopointsis√ 74,then,
√ 74=√ (−6−1 ) + ( y −3 ) ...(i)
2 2
Squaringbothsidesof(i),weget
2 2
74=(−7) +( y−3)
=49+y2–6y+9
=y2-6y+58
0=y2-6y–16
=y(y-8)+2(y-8)
y=8ory=-2
c) Giventhatthedistanceofthelinesegmentjoiningthepoints A(x , 9)and B(6 , 21)
is13units.Findthepossiblevaluesof x
Solution
ThedistancebetweenthepointsA(x,9)andB(6,21)is13
13=√ ( 6−x ) + ( 21−9 ) ...(i)

2 2
Squaringbothsidesweget

182
2
169= x −12 x +36+144
2
¿ x – 12 x +180
2
0=x – 12 x +11
x (x−11)−1( x−11)=0
x=1∨x =11
d) IfapointP(x,y)issuchthatitsdistancefromA(3,2)isalwaystwiceitsdistancefr
omB(-4,1),findanequationthatthecoordinatesofPmustsatisfy.
Solution
Fromthestatementoftheproblem,
|PA|=2|PB|,then
√ ( x−3 ) +( y−2 ) =2 √ ( x + 4 ) +( y−1 )
2 2 2 2
Squaringbothsides,weget
x2–6x+9+y2–4y+4=4(x2+8x+16+y2-2y+1)
or3x2+3y2+38x–4y+55=0,whichistherequiredequation.
e) Usingdistanceformula,showthatatrianglewithverticesA(-2,4),B(-5,1)and
C(-6,5)isanisoscelestriangle.
Solution
Thelengthofsides,
AB=√ (−5+ 2)2 +( 1−4 )2=√ 18
BC=√ (−6+5)2+(5−1)2=√ 17
AC=√(−6+2)2+(5−4)2=√ 17
ThereforewecanseeclearlythatsideAC=sideBC,hencetriangleABCisanisos
celestriangle.
f) Proveanalyticallythatthelengthsofdiagonalsofarectangleareequal,
Solution

182
Drawthegeneralrectangle.Sincewemaychoosethecoordinateaxesanywhereinth
eplane,andsincethepositionoftheaxesdoesnotaffectthetruthofthetheorem,wet
aketheoriginasonevertex,thex–axisalongonesideandthey–
axisalonganotherside.Thissimplifythecoordinatesofthetwoverticesonthetwoax
esasshowninfigure1dbelow
Y-axis
C(0,b) B(a,b)
O(0,0) A(a,0)
X-axis
Fig . 1 d
WewanttoprovethatthediagonalsOB=AC.
Proof

182
OB=√ (a−0)2 +(b−0)2 =√ a2 +b 2
CA=√ (0−a)2 +(b−0)2 =√ a2 +b 2
SincelengthOB=lengthCA,thediagonalsareequal
Problemset1.1
1. Findthedistancebetweenthetwopointsgivenbelow
i) A(1,-2)andB(6,8)
ii) P(3,-6)andQ(7,12)
iii) S(0,4)andR(-5,8)
2. Usingdistanceformula,provethatatrianglewithverticesA(3,-6),B(8,-
2)and
C(-1,-1)isarightangledtriangle.Finditsarea.
3. ThedistancebetweenpointsC(9,y)andT(15,3)is10units.Findpossiblevalue
sofy
4. Proveanalyticallythatthelengthsofthediagonalsofasquareareequal
5. Ifthetwoverticesofanequilateraltriangleare(-
4,3)and(0,0),findthethirdvertex
6. Findanequationthatmustbesatisfiedbythecoordinatesofanypointwhosedi
stancefromthepoint(5,3)isalwaystwounitsgreaterthanitsdistancefromth
epoint(-4,-2)
1.3SLOPE
DefinitionofSlope
Consideraparticlemovingalonganon-
verticallinesegmentfromapointP1(x1,y1)toapointP2(x2,y2).Theverticalchangey2–
y1iscalledtherise,andthehorizontalchangex2–x1therun.
y2 P2 (x 2 , y 2 )
(RISE)
MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY x 2−x 1 PAGE 15 OF

y1
182
RUN
x1 x2
Fig.1e
Definition
ThisistherateatwhichanordinateofapointofalineonaCartesianplanechangeswith
respecttoachangeintheabscissa,thatis,ifP1(x1,y1)andP2(x2,y2)arepointsonanon-
verticalline,thentheslopemofthelineisdefinedby:
y 2− y 1 ∆y Change∈ y coordinates
m= ,thatis ,whichis
x 2−x 1 ∆x Change∈ x coordinates
Examples
a) FindtheslopeofthelinepassingthroughthepointsP1(2,3)andP2(4,7)
Solution
7−3
m= =2
4−2
b) AlinelpassingthroughthepointsA(3,6)andB(4,y)hasitsslopeequalto¾,find
thevalueofy.
Solution
y−6 3
m= =
4−3 4
4y–24=3
y=27/4
Notethat,alinelwhoseslopeiszeroisanhorizontallineparalleltothex–
axisandalinewhoseslopeisundefinedisaverticallineparalleltothey–
axisasshownbelow,
y-axis y-axis linel2,misundefined
Linel1,m=0

182
x-axis x-axis
Fig . 1 f
1.4ANGLEOFINCLINATION
Theangleofinclinationofastraightlineistheanglethatthelinemakeswiththex-
axis,withtheanglebeingmeasuredanti-
clockwise.Example,inthediagrambelow,angleθ andangle∅ aretheanglesofinclina
tion.
Y Y
∅
θ
XX
Fig . 1 g shows angles of inclination
Ifalinehasaslopegivenasm,andangleofinclinationθ then,tanθ =m,whichistheslop

eoftheline.Theangleofinclinationofalineparalleltox–axisis0 °
andtheangleofinclinationofalineparalleltothey–axisis90 °

182
.Ifθdenotestheangleofinclinationofanylinethenθmaybeanyangleintheinterval0
≤θ≤180.
Theorem
Ifθistheangleofinclinationoflinel,notparalleltothey–
axisthentheslopemoflisgivenas
m=tanθ
Proof
LetP1(x1,y1)andP2(x2,y2)beanytwodistinctpointsonlinel,consideringthreediffere
ntcaseswehave:
Case1, y 1 < y 2.
DrawingalinethroughP1andP2
y-axis
P1(x2,y2)
∆y
P1(x1,y1) θ
θ ∆x
θ
θ x-axis
1. g , slope of a line
y 2− y Δy
m= 1
=
x 2−x 1 Δx
Δy
Fromdefinitionoftangent,anθ= ,therefore,tanθ=m .
Δx

182
y 1− y y2− y
Case2,IfweinterchangeP1andP2,thenm= = =m,thereforetanθ=m
2 1
x 1−x 2 x 2−x 1
Case3,if y 1= y 2 ,thenm=0givingθ=0.Therefore,tanθ=0 thisimpliesthatthereisnoa

ngleofinclinationthatisthegradientofahorizontalline.
Examples
a) FindtheangleofinclinationofalinepassingthroughthepointsA(4,8)andB(6,
15).
Solution
15−8 7
m= = ,
6−2 2
Thereforetheangleofinclinationis tan
−1 7
2 ()
=74.055°
b) Theangleofinclinationofalinepassingthrough(2,y)and(6,5)is135° .Findthev
alueofy.
Solution
y−5 y−5
m= = ,
2−6 −4
° °
tan135 =tan(180−135)
°
¿−tan 45
=-1
y−5
Hencewehave =−1
−4
y–5=4
y=9
Problemset1.2
1. Findtheslopeandangleofinclinationofalinethroughthegivenpoints

182
i) (2,3)and(5,8)
ii)(a,a)and(-a,2a)
ii) (-1,4)and(4,2)
2. AlinethroughthepointsA(x,4)andB(8,6)hasitsangleofinclinationgivenas
33.7 ,findthevalueofx.
°
3. AlinethroughthepointsA(2,4)andB(6,y)hasitsangleofinclinationgivenas
153.43 ,findthevalueofy.
°
1.5AnglebetweenTwoLines
Iftwolinesintersect,twoanglesareformedattheirpointsofintersection,thetwoang
lesbeingsupplementaryanglesasshowninfig.1hbelow
Y-axis
L2 L1
θ❑
α2
α1

182
α1 α2
X-axis
fig .1 h , angle between two intersecting lines
Todistinguishthesetwoangles,weletl2tobethelinewithagreaterangleofinclination
α 2andl1bethelinewithasmallerangleofinclinationα 1.Thentheangleθ isdefinedby
θ=α 2−¿ α ¿ 1
Ifl1andl2areparallellinesthenα 2=α 1andtheanglebetweenthemis0° .Thusifl1andl2ar

etwodistinctlinesthentheanglebetweenthemrangesfrom0° ≤ θ ≤180 °
Theorem
Ifl1andl2aretwointersectingnon-
perpendicularlineswithslopesm1andm2respectivelywithl2havingagreaterinclinat
ionthen,
m2−m
tanθ= 1
1+m1 m2
Proof
Giventhatθ=α 2−¿ α ¿ ....(i)

1
Takingtangentonbothsidesof(i),weget
tanθ=tan ⁡¿...(ii)
Bytrigonometricexpansionoftangent,(ii)becomes
tan α 2−tan α 1
tanθ=
1+tan α 2 tan α 1 α
m2−¿ m
¿ 1
¿
1+ m2 m1

182
Notethatthisformuladoesapplywhen1+m2m1=0,thisimpliesthatm2m1=-
1hencethetwolinesareperpendicularandtheanglebetweenthemis90° whosetange
ntisundefined.
Examples
a) Findboththeacuteandobtuseanglesbetweenthetwolinesthathavetheirslop
1
esasm 1= andm2=2
2
Solution:
1
2−
2
tanθ=
1+
1
2()2
3
=
4
=0.75
−1
θ=tan ( 0.75 )
=36.87°
NOTE:Tofindtheobtuseanglebetweenthetwolines,justsubtracttheacuteanglebe
tweenthemfrom180°thatis
Obtuseangle=(180−36.87)°
=143.13°
b).FindtotwosignificantfigurestheinterioranglesofatrianglewithverticesA(-2,1),
B(2,2)andC(-3,4).

182
Solution
Sketchingthetriangle
B(2,2)
C(-3,4) β
δ
A(-2,1)
4−2 −2
TheslopeoflineCBis =
−3−2 5
4−1
TheslopeoflineCAis =−3
−3+2
1−2 1
TheslopeoflineABis =
−2−2 4
2
−3+
5
tanβ =
2
1+3( )
5
=-1.8182
−1
β=tan (−1.8182)
=50°
1
−3−
4
tanα=
1
1−3 ( )
4
=-13
−1
α =tan (−13)
=94 °
182
Theremainingangleisgivenas180° −(94+50)°
=36°
ProblemSet1.3
1. Findtheacuteanglebetweenthetwolinesthathavem1=3andm2=7astheirslo
pes.
2. Findtheacuteanglebetweentwolineswhoseslopesarem1=0andm2=1.
(m1=0signifiesthatlineL,ishorizontalandtheformulastillholds.)
3. Findtheacuteanglebetweenthey-axisandalinewithaslopeofm=-8.
4. Findtheobtuseanglebetweenthex-axisandalinewithaslopeofm=-8.
1.6ParallelandPerpendicularLines
Thegeneralequationofastraightlineisoftenwrittenwithcapitallettersforcoefficien
ts,asfollows: Ax+ By+ C=0
Theseliteralcoefficients,astheyarecalled,representthenumericalcoefficientsenc
ounteredinatypicallinearequation.
Supposewearegiventwoequationsthatareduplicatesexceptfortheconstantterm,
asfollows: Ax+ By+ C=0
Ax+ By+ D=0
Byplacingthesetwoequationsinslope-
interceptform,wecanshowthattheirslopesareequal,asfollows: y=− ( AB ) x+( −CB )

y=− ( AB ) x+( −DB )
Thus,theslopeofeachlineis-A/B.WethenseethatParallellineshaveequalslopes.
Sincethetwolinesaboveareparallel,wecanalsosaythat,foranytwolinearequation
s,ifthecoefficientsofthexandytermsareidenticalinvalueandsign,thenthelinesrep
resentedbytheseequationsareparallel.
Example:
182
Writetheequationofalineparallelto3 x− y−2=0andpassingthroughthepoint(5,2).
Solution:
Thecoefficientsofxandyinthedesiredequationarethesameasthoseinthegiveneq
uation.Therefore,theequationis3 x− y + D=0
Sincethelinepassesthrough(5,2),thevalues x=5 and y=2mustsatisfytheaboveeq

uation.Substitutingthese,wehave3 ( 5 )− (2 )+ D=0,giving D=13
Thus,therequiredequationis3 x− y−13=0 .
Alternatively,wecanfindtheslopeofthegivenlineas y=3 x−13 , givingtheslopeas

3.
Wethenfindtheequationoftherequiredlinebyusingapoint(x , y )andthegivenpoint
(5 , 2)
y−2
as =3,givingas y=3 x−13
x−5
Asituationsimilartothatprevailingwithparallellinesinvolvesperpendicularlines
.Forexample,considertheequations Ax+ By+ C=0and Bx−Ay + D=0
Writingtheseequationsintotheslope-interceptform,wehave:
y= ( −AB ) x+( −CB )

y= ( BA ) x+( DA )
Sincetheslopesofthesetwolinesarenegativereciprocals,thelinesareperpendicula
r.Inotherwords,wesaythattwolinesareperpendiculariftheproductoftheirslopesgi
ves-1(negativeone)
Example:
Writetheequationofalineperpendiculartothelinex+3y+3=0andhavingayinterce
ptof5.

182
Solution:
Therequiredequationisoftheform3 x− y + D=0
Noticetheinterchangeofcoefficientsandthechangeofsign.Atthepointwherethelin
ecrossestheY axis,thevalueof x is0andthevalueofyis5.Therefore,theequationis
3(0)−(5)+ D=0,givingDtobe5.Thereforetherequiredequationis3 x− y +5=0
Alternatively,aswedidwithparallellines,wecanfindtheslopeofthegivenlineas
−x
y= −1,thentheslopeofalineperpendiculartothislineis3,andthentheequationis
3
y−5
givenas =3 ,givingtherequiredequationas3 x− y +5=0.(Note,atthey-
x−0
interceptthe x coordinateisequalto0)
Problemset1.4:
1.Findtheequationsofthefollowinglines:
i)passingthrough(1,1)andparallelto5x-3y=9.
ii)passingthrough(-3,2)andperpendiculartox+y=5.
2.Alinepassingthroughthepoints(2,5)and(x,10)isperpendiculartoalinewhosegr
adientis–2/5,findthevalueof x
3.Theangleofinclinationofundirectedlineis120 .Ifthelinepassesthroughpoint(2,
5),findtheequationoftheline.

182
Topictwo:EquationsofaStraightLine
Introduction
ThistopicintroducestheCartesiancoordinatesanditsapplicationsintherealworldsi
tuation.
TopicTime
 Participationinonechat(atleast5entries)
 Atleasttwoelaboratecontributionstothediscussiontopic.Youmayalsostartyou
rowndiscussionthread.
182
LearningOutcomes
Bytheendofthistopicyoushouldbeableto:
i) Definetheslopeofaline
ii) Findtheequationofalinegiventwopoints
iii) Expresstheequationofalineinslope-interceptform
iv) Calculatetheshortestdistancebetweenapointandaline
v) Expresstheequationofalineinnormalform
2.0.Introduction
Equationssuchas2 x+ y=6aredesignatedaslinearequationandtheirgraphsaresho
wntobestraightlines.Thepurposeofthisdiscussionistostudytherelationshipofslop
etotheequationofastraightline.
Point-SlopeForm
Supposethatwewanttofindtheequationofastraightlinethatpassesthroughaknow
npointandhasaknownslope.Let(x,y)representthecoordinatesofanypointontheli
ne,andlet( x 1 , y 1)representthecoordinatesoftheknownpoint.Theslopeisrepresent
edbym.
Recallingtheformuladefiningslopeintermsofthecoordinatesoftwopoints,wehave
y− y 1
m=
x−x 1
Therefore y− y 1=m(x−x 1)
Example:

182
Findtheequationofalinepassingthroughthepoint(2,3)andhavingaslopeof3.
Solution:
x 1=2and y 1=3
y− y=m(x−x 1)
Therefore y−3=3(x −2)❑
y−3=3 x−6❑
or y−3 x=−3
Thepoint-
slopeformmaybeusedtofindtheequationofalinethroughtwoknownpoints.Theval
uesof x 1 , x 2 , y 1and y 2arefirstusedtofindtheslopeoftheline;theneitherknownpointis
usedwiththeslopeinthepoint-slopeform.
Example2.1
Findtheequationofthelinethroughthepoints(-34)and(4,-2).
Solution:
y 2− y 1
m=
x 2−x 1
−2−4 −6
¿ =
4 +3 7
Letting(x,y)representanypointonthelineandusing(-3,4),then
−6
y−4=
7
[ x−(−3 ) ]
7 ( y−4 )=−6( x+3)

182
7 y−28=−6 x−18
7 y +6 x=10
Using(4,-2)astheknownpointwillalsogive7y+6x=10asthelinearequation.
2.1.Slope-InterceptForm
AnylinethatisnotparalleltotheY axisintersectstheY axisatsomepoint.The x -

coordinateofthepointofintersectionis0,becausetheY axisisverticalandpassesthr
oughtheorigin.Lettheycoordinateofthepointofintersectionberepresentedbyb.T
henthepointofintersectioni s ( 0 , b ) , asshowninfigure1i.Theycoordinate,b , i s c
alledtheyi n t e r c e p t .
Δy
Theslopeofthelineinfigure1iisgivenas
Δx
Thevalueof∆ y inthisexpressionisy-
b,whereyrepresentstheycoordinateofanypointontheline.Thevalueof∆ x is x−0=x
,so
∆ y y −b
m= =
∆x x
mx= y−b
y=mx+b
Y −axis

182
(x , y )
∆y
(a ,b)∆ x
α X −axis
Figure1i.-Slope-interceptform.
Thisisthestandards l o p e - i n t e r c e p t formofastraightline.
Example2.2.
FindtheequationofalinethatintersectstheY axisatthepoint(0,3)andhasaslopeof5
/3.
Solution:
y=mx+b
5
y= x +3
3
3 y=5 x +9
or3 y−5 x=9
Problemset2.1:
Writeequationsforlineshavingpointsandslopesasfollows:
i) P ( 3 ,5 ) , m=−2
1
ii) P (−2 ,−1 ) , m=
3
iii) P1 ( 2, 2 ) ,and P2 (−4 ,−1 )
iv) y intercept=2, m=3

182
2.3.Normalformofequationofaline
Methodsfordeterminingtheequationofalineusuallydependuponsomeknowledge
ofapointorpointsontheline.Let'snowconsideramethodthatdoesnotrequireadvan
ceknowledgeconcerninganyoftheline'spoints.Allthatisknownaboutthelineisitsp
erpendiculardistancefromtheoriginandtheanglebetweentheperpendicularandt
he X axis,wheretheangleismeasuredcounterclockwisefromthepositivesideofthe
X axis.
Infigure1j,lineABisadistancepawayfromtheorigin,andlineOMformsanangleθ (th
eGreeklettertheta)withthe X axis.WeselectanypointP(x,y)onlineABanddevelopt
he
N P(x , y)
P
S
θ θ θ
θ
O R B
O
Figure 1 j .−Normal form .
equationoflineABintermsofthe x andyofP.SincePrepresentsanypointontheline,t
hexandyoftheequationwillrepresenteverypointonthelineandthereforewillrepre
sentthelineitself.
PRisconstructedperpendiculartoOBatpointR.NRisdrawnparalleltoAB,andPNisp
aralleltoOB.PSisperpendiculartoNRandtoAB.ArightangleisformedbyanglesNRO
andPRN.TrianglesONRandOMBaresimilarrighttriangles.Therefore,anglesNROa
ndMBOareequalandaredesignatedasθ .Sinceθ +θ =90° intriangleOMBandangleN
ROisequaltoθ ,thenanglePRNequalsθ Finally,the x distanceofpointPisequaltoOR,a
ndtheydistanceofPisequaltoPR.
Torelatethedistanceptoxandy,wereasonasfollows:
ON =(¿)cosθ
182
¿ xcosθ
PS=(PR)sinθ
¿ ysinθ
OM =ON + PS
P=ON + PS
P=xcosθ + ysinθ
Thisfinalequationisthenormalform.Theword"normal"inthisusagereferstotheper
pendicularrelationshipbetweenOMandAB."Normal"frequentlymeans"perpendi
cular"inmathematicalandscientificusage.Thedistancepisalwaysconsideredtobe
θ ° °
positive,and isanyanglebetween0 and360
Example2.3
Findtheequationofthelinethatis5unitsawayfromtheorigin,iftheperpendicularfro
mthelinetotheoriginformsanangleof30° fromthepositivesideofthe X axis.
Solution.
P=5 ; θ=30 °
P=xcosθ + ysinθ
5=xcos 30 °+ ysin30 °
5=x ( √23 )+ y ( 12 )
10=x √ 3+ y
Problemset2.2.
1. Giventhatline L1passesthroughthepoints(2,5)and(6,-7).Find:
i. Theslopeoftheline
ii. Theangleofinclinationoftheline
iii. Theequationoftheline

182
Ifanotherline L2ispassingthrough(-3,6)andperpendicularto L1
,findtheslope,angleofinclinationandequationof L2.
2.4.Perpendicular(Shortest)DistancebetweenaPointandaLine
Wemustoftenexpressthedistancefromapointtoalineintermsofthecoefficientsint
heequationoftheline.Todothis,wecomparethetwoformsoftheequationofastraig
htline,asfollows:
Generalequation: Ax+ By+ C=0
Normalform: xcosθ + ysinθ−P=0
Thegeneralequationandthenormalformrepresentthesamestraightline.Therefor
e,A(thecoefficientof x inthegeneralform)isproportionaltocosθ (thecoefficientof x in
thenormalform).
Bysimilarreasoning,Bisproportionalto sinθ,andCisproportionalto-
P.Recallingthatquantitiesproportionaltoeachotherformratiosinvolvingaconsta
ntofproportionality,letkbethisconstant.Thus,wehave
cos θ
=k
A
sinθ
=k
B
cosθ=kA
sinθ=kB
Squaringbothsidesofthesetwoexpressionsandthenadding,wehave
2 2 2 2 2
cos θ+ sin θ=k ( A + B )
Therefore1=k 2 ( A2 + B2)
2 1
k = 2 2
A +B
182
1
k=
± √ A2 + B2
Thecoefficientsinthenormalform,expressedintermsofA,B,andC,areasfollows:
1
cosθ=
± √ A 2+ B 2
1
sinθ=
± √ A2 + B2
C
−P=
± √ A 2+ B 2
Thesignof√ ( A2 + B2 )ischosensoastomakep(adistance)alwayspositive.
Theconversionformulasdevelopedintheforegoingdiscussionareusedinfindingth
edistancefromapointtoaline.LetprepresentthedistanceoflineL K fromtheorigin.
(Seefig.1k.)Tofindd,thedistancefrompointP,tolineL K , weconstructalinethrough
P,paralleltoL K . ThedistanceofthislinefromtheoriginisOS,andthedifferencebetwe
Y
enOSandpisd.
d P1 (x 1 , y 1 )
P
θ θ
O M KX
Figure 1 k .−Distance ¿ a point ¿ a line .
Weobtainanexpressionford,basedonthecoordinatesofP,asfollows:
OS=x 1 cosθ+ y 1 sinθ
and
d=OS−P

182
¿ x 1 cosθ + y 1 sinθ−P
Returningtotheexpressionsforsinθ ,cosθ ,andpintermsofA,B,andC(thecoefficient

sinthegeneralequation),wehave:
d= x1
( A
± √ A +B
2 2 ) (
+ y1
B
± √ A +B
2 2 )
+
C
± √ A 2 +B 2
Intheformulaford,thedenominatorineachoftheexpressionsisthesame.Therefore
,wemaycombinetermsasfollows:
d=
| x 1 A + y 1 B+C
√ A 2+ B 2 |
Weusetheabsolutevalue,sincedisadistance,andthusavoidanyconfusionarisingfr
omthe±radical.
Notethattheabsolutevalue,||ofanumberisdefinedasfollows:
|b|=bforb ≥ 0
|b|=bforb ≤ 0
and
|−b|=bforb≤ 0
Thatis,forthepositivenumber2,
|2|=2
Forthenegativenumber-2,
|−2|=2
6−12
Theabsolutevalueof is2
3
|6−12
3 |=| |=|−2|=2
−6
3
Example:

182
Findthedistancefromthepoint(2,1)totheline4 x+ 2 y +7=0.
Solution:
d=
|( 4 )( 2 ) + ( 2 ) ( 1 ) +7
√ 4 2 + 22 |
8+2+7
=
√ 20
17
=
2 √5
17 √5
¿
10
Problemset2.4
Findthedistancefromthegivenpointtothegivenline
i)(5 , 2), 3 x− y +6=0
ii)(−2 , 5), 3 x+ 4 y −9=0
AlternativeMethod
Weknowthatshortestdistancebetweentwopointsisastraightline.Whendealingwit
hapointandaline,theshortestdistanceistheperpendicularlineconnectingthepoint
andthegivenlineasshownbelow,
P(x 0 , y 0 )

182
AQ(x , y)B
GiventhattheequationoflineABinthefigureaboveis y=mx+b ,theequationofthesho

rtestdistancewillbegivenas y=−1/m( x−xo)+ yo.SincelineABandlinePQmeetatpoi
ntQ,weequatethetwolinestofindthecoordinatesofpointPQ,thatis,
−1
mx+ b=
m
( x −x o ) + y o,giving
m y o+ x o −mb
x= 2
m +1
and
2
m y o+ m x o +b
y= 2
m +1
√
ThedistancePQisthengivenas ( x−x o ) + ( y − y o )
2 2
Example
Findtheshortestdistancebetweenthelinewhoseequationisgivenas y=2 x +4 andth

epoint
(4,1).
Solution
Giventheline y=2 x +4 ,theslopem=2,theslopeofthelineperpendiculartothislineist

y−1
herefore–½.Theequationoftheperpendicularlineisgivenas =-
x−4
−1
1/2,whichgives y= x +3.Equatingthetwolinestogetthepointofintersection,weh
2
−1
ave2 x+ 4= x+ 3.Onsolvingweget x=−0.4 andy=3.2,hencetheshortestdistancei
2
sgivenby:

182
D=√ ( 1−3.2 )2 + ( 4 +0.4 )2
=4.92units
2.5.PointofIntersectionbetweentwoPoints
Thepointofintersectionbetweentwolinesisobtainedbysolvingtheirequationssim
ultaneously.
Example
Findthepointofintersectionoftwolineswhoseequationsaregivenas 2 x+ 4 y−8=0 an
d3 x−2 y−4=0.
Solution
Equatingthetwolinesandsolvingweget,2 x+ 4 y=8
3 x−2 y=4
Onsolvingsimultaneouslyweget y=1 and x=2,hencethepointofintersectionis(2,1)
2.6.DivisionofaLineSegmentinagivenratio
Let P(x , y)beanypointonthelinethrough P1 ¿)and P2 ( x 2 , y 2 ) ,weneedtodeterminethe

valueof x and y suchthat
P1 P r 1
= ……………………i
P P2 r 2
Todetermine x ,wedrawalinesegmentthrough P1and P2.Let(x , y )beanypointonit,dr

opaperpendicularfrom P1, Pand P2tothe x -axisandcallthepointsQ1,Q andQ2
respectivelyasshownbelow
r 1 P1 P Q 1 Q
= = …………….ii
r 2 P P2 Q Q 2

182
P2 (x 2 , y 2 )
P(x , y)
P1 (x 1 , y 1 )
Q1 (x 1 , 0) Q(x , 0) Q2 (x 2 ,0)
Sincewhenthethreeparallelsarecutbytransversals,thesegmentintowhichthetra
nsversalsaredividedareproportional.ThatisQ1 Q andQ Q2areparalleltothe x−¿ axis,
hence
Q1 Q=x−x 1andQ Q2=x 2−x ……………iii
Q1 Q x−x 1
Then =
QQ2 x 2−x
r 1 x−x 1
= ……………………………………...iv
r 2 x2− x
Solvingequation(iv)givesr 1 x2 −r 1 x=r 2 x−r 2 x 1
r 2 x❑+r 1 x=r 1 x 2+ r 2 x 1
r 2 x 1 +r 1 x2
x= ,providedthatr 1 +r 2 ≠ 0
r 1 +r 2
r 2 y 1+ r 1 y 2
Similarly, y= ,providedthatr 1 +r 2 ≠ 0
r 1+ r 2
Ifweletr 1=r 2,wegetthemidpointsofastraightline,thatis,

182
r 1 y 1 +r 1 y 2 ( y ¿ ¿1+ y2 )
=r 1 ¿,giving
r 1 +r 1 2r 1
x 1+ x 2
x=
2
y1 + y2
y=
2
Example
Determinethecoordinatesofthepoint(x,y)thatdividesthesegmentfrom(2,0)to(7
,10)intheratioof4to1
Solution
Sincethesegmentrunsfrom(2,0)to(7,10),welet P1(2 , 0),P(x , y)and P2(7 , 10),thenr 1

¿ 4 , r 2¿ 1 ,x1=2, x 2¿ 7 , y 1¿ 0and y 2¿ 10.Substitutingthesevaluesintotheformulaweget;
4 (7 ) +1(2)
x= =6
4+1
4 ( 10 ) +1(0)
y= =8,hencethecoordinatesofthepointisgivenas(6,8)
4+ 1
2.6.Problemset
1.FindthedistancebetweenthepointsP1(-3,-2)andP2(-7,I).
2.FindthemidpointofthelinebetweenP1(-8/3,4/5)andP2(-4/3,6/5).
3.FindtheslopeofthelinejoiningP1(4,6)andP2(-4,6).
4.FindtheslopeofthelineparalleltothelinejoiningP1(7,4)andP2(4,7).
5.FindtheslopeofthelineperpendiculartothelinejoiningP1(8,1)andP2(2,4).
6.Findtheobtuseanglebetweenthetwolineswhichhavem1=7andm2=-3forslopes.
7.FindtheobtuseanglebetweentheYaxisandalinewithaslopeofm=-1/4.
8.Findtheequationofthelinethroughthepoints(-6,5)and(6,5).
182
9.Findtheequationofthelinewhoseyinterceptis(0,0)andwhoseslopeis4.
11.Findtheslopeandyinterceptofthelinewhoseequationis4y+8x=7.
12.Findtheequationofthelinethatis3/2unitsawayfromtheorigin,iftheperpendicul
arfromthelinetotheoriginformsanangleof2100fromthepositivesideoftheXaxis.
13.Findtheequationofthelinethrough(2,3)andperpendicularto3 x−2 y=7.
14.Findtheequationofthelinethrough(2,3)andparallelto3 x−2 y=7 .
15.Findthedistancefromthepoint(3,-5)totheline2 x+ y+ 4=0.
16.Findthedistancefromthepoint(3,-4)totheline4 x+3 y =10.

182
TopicThree:TheCircle
LearningOutcome
Bytheendofthistopic,thelearnersshouldbeableto;
 Defineacircle
 Derivetheequationofacircle
 Findcenterandradiusgiventheequationofacircle
 Findequationofacirclegiventhreepointsonit
 Convertthegeneralformoftheequationofacircletostandardform
TopicTime
 exercises[4hours]
3.0Introduction
Acircleisashapeconsistingofallpointsinaplanethatareagivendistancefromagiven
point,thecenter;equivalentlyitisthecurvetracedoutbyapointthatmovesinaplane
sothatitsdistancefromagivenpointisaconstant.Weshallderivetheequationofacir

182
cle.Thegeneralformwillalsobeconsideredanditsconversiontostandardform.Asw
eshallsee,notallgeneralformsrepresentrealcircles.
3.1DefinitionandDerivationofEquationofCircle
3.1.1Definition
Acircleisthesetofallpointswhichareequidistantfromafixedpoint.
3.1.2Derivationofequationofcircle
Letthecenterbeatthepoint(h,k)andradiusequaltor.LetQ(x,y)beanypointinthecir
cle.
Thenwehave
QO=r(1)
Usingdistanceformula
Substitutingin(1)wefindthat
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Squaringbothsideswefindthat
(2)
Equation(2)iscalledthestandardformoftheequationofacirclewithcentre(h,k)and
radiusr.
Example3.1
Writethestandardformoftheequationofacirclewithcenterat(2,-4)andradius4.
Solution
Acirclewithradiusrandcenter(h,k)hasequation
Substituting(h,k)=(2,-4)andr=4,wegettheequation
Example3.2
Findthecoordinatesofthecenterandtheradiusofacirclewhoseequationis
Solution
Comparingthegivenequationwiththestandardform
Wefindthath=-2,k=0,andr=3.
Therefore,centerisat(-2,0)andradiusr=3.

182
3.2GeneralFormoftheEquationofaCircle
Thegeneralformoftheequationofacircleisgivenby
(2)
Where .
Dividingequation(2)byAgivesustheotherformofthegeneralequation
.(3)
Beginningwiththestandardformwecanrewritetheequationinstandardform.Thep
rocessinvolvescompletingthesquareineachvariable.
Example3.3
Writetheequationofthecircleinstandardformandfindthecenterandradius.
Solution
Theequationcanberearrangedas
Dividingallthroughby3weget
Wethencompletethesquareinxandy.
Whichgivesus

182
Thisistheequationofacirclewithcentreat(2,-3)andradiusr= .
Whenthegeneralformoftheequationofacircleisgiven,itcanbechangedintostanda
rdformbycompletingthesquareofthequadraticexpressioninxandiny.Afterthesqu
areofeachquadraticiscompleted,therewillbeaconstanttermastherightmembero
ftheequation.Therearethreepossibilities
 Wehavearealcircleiftheconstantisarealnumber.
 Wehaveapointcircleiftheconstantiszero.
 Wehaveanimaginarycircleiftheconstantisnegative.
Example3.4
Determinethekindofcirclegivenbyeachofthefollowingequations.
(i) .
(ii) .
(ii) .
Solution
(i)Werearrangetheequation as
Wecompletethesquaresinxandy
Theequationrepresentsacirclewithcenterat(1,2)andradiusr=4.

182
(ii) .
Werearrangetheequationandcompletethesquare
Thisimpliesthattheequationrepresentsapointcircle.
(iii) .
Rearrangingtheequationandcompletingthesquareweget
Whichdoesnotrepresentarealcircle.
3.3Equationofcirclegiventhreepoints
Giventhreepoints onacirclewecansubstituteinequation(2)or(
3)togetthreeequationsintheconstants.Solvingthethreeequationssimultaneousl
ygivesusthegeneralform.Ifwecompletethesquareoftheresultingequationweobt
ainthecentreandradius.
Example3.5
Findtheequationofacirclethroughthepoints(2,0),
(4,2),and(5,1).Whatisthecenterandradius.
Solution
Wesubstitutethecoordinatesintheequation

182
Substituting(x,y)=(2,0)givesus
4+2G+I=0
2G+I=-4(i)
16+4+4G+2H+I=0
4G+2H+I=-20(ii)
25+1+5G+H+I=0
5G+H+I=-26(iii)
(ii)-2(iii)givesus
-6G-I=32(iv)
(i)+(iv)
-4G=28 G=-7.
SubstitutingG=-7wefindthat
I=-4-2(-7)=-4+14=10.
Inequation(iii),makingHthesubjectweget
H=-26-5G-I=-26-5(-7)-10=-1.
WehavefoundthatG=-7,H=-1,I=10.Substitutingwefind
Werearrangeandcompletethesquareinxandy.

182
Whichisacirclewithcentreat andradius .
TopicSummary
Wehavelearnedthat;
 Thestandardequationofacirclewithcenterat(h,k)andradiusris
 Thegeneralequationofacircleis
 Theotherformofthegeneralequationofacircleis
.
 Giventhreepointsofacirclewecanusethegeneralformtofindtheequationofa
circle.
Activity
Inproblems1-
5,findthestandardequationofthecirclesatisfyingthegivenconditions.
1.Centre(-2,3);radius=5.
2.Centre(0,1);diameter= .
3.Centre(-4,8);circleistangenttothex-axis.
182
4.Centre(-3,-4);circlepassesthroughtheorigin.
5.Adiameterhasendpoints(6,1)and(-2,3).
Inproblems6-
8,determinewhethertheequationrepresentsacircle,apointornograph.
6. .
7. .
8. .
TopicFour:TheEllipse
LearningOutcome
 Defineanellipse.
 Derivetheequationofanellipse.
 Writeequationsofellipsescenteredattheorigin.
 Writeequationsofellipsesnotcenteredattheorigin.
 Identifythecenter,foci,vertices,andendpointsofmajoraxisofanellipsegive
nitsequation.
TopicTime
182
4.0Introduction
Inthistopicwewilldefineanellipseandderivetheequationforthesimplestform.Belo
wisagraphofanellipse.
Ifastringoflength2aistiedatthepointsindicatedasfocus,andwhileitisfullystretche
dwemarkroundwithapencilwegetthegraphshownabove.Thegraphisanellipse.No
tethatthelengthofthestringremainsthesameaswedrawthecurve.Wegetdifferent
curvesaslengthofstringisincreasedordecreased.Ifwevarythedistancebetweenfo
ciwhilekeepingthelengthofstringconstant,theshapeofthecurvevaries.Themeani
ngsoftheconstantsa,b,andcwillbeexplainedinthistopic.
4.1DefinitionandderivationofequationofEllipse
Inthissectionwegivethedefinitionofanellipseandderivetheequationofellipsewith
fociat(-c,0)and(c,0).
4.1.1Definition
Anellipseisthesetofallpointsintheplane,thesumofwhosedistancesfromtwofixedp
ointsisagivenpositiveconstant.
Note:
(a)Thetwofixedpointsarecalledthefoci.Fociisthepluraloffocus.
(b)Themidpointofthelinesegmentjoiningthefociiscalledthecentreoftheellipse.

182
4.1.2Equationofellipsewithcenteratoriginandfocionx-axis
Letthefocibeat(-
c,0)and(c,0),i,ethedistancebetweenfociis2c,andalsoletthesumofdistancesbe2
.Thesketchofthegraphisgivenbelow:
Fromthedefinitionofellipsewehave
But and ,substitutingintheaboveequationwefi

ndthat
Squaringbothsideswefindthat

182
Simplifyingandrearrangingwefindthat
Squaringthisexpressionweget
Weopenthebracketsandsimplify
Whichsimplifiesto
Thisresultsinthesimplerequation
(1)
Itcanbeshownthat andthereforewecanlet
(2)
Substitutinginequation(2)wefindthat
(3)

182
Inequation(3)itisimportanttonotethatthedenominatorof isgreaterthantheden
ominatorof .Ifwesubstitutey=0inequation(3)wefindthat
Thepoints(-
a,0)and(a,0)arecalledtheendpointsofthemajoraxis,andtheyarealsocalledvert
ices.Thelinefrom(-
a,0)to(a,0)iscalledthemajoraxiswhichisanhorizontallineinthiscase.
Now,ifwesubstitutex=0inequation(3),wefindthat
Thissolutiongivesusthepoints(0,-b)and(0,b).Thelinefrom(0,-
b)to(0,b)iscalledtheminoraxisoftheellipse.
Equation(3)representsanellipsewith:
 Centreat(0,0).
 Fociat(-c,0)and(c,0).
 Majoraxisfrom(-a,0)to(a,0).
 Endpointsofminoraxisat(0,-b)and(0,b).
Example4.1
Theequationofanellipseisgivenby
Findthe(i)foci
(ii)endpointsofmajoraxis

182
(iii)endpointsofminoraxis
Solution
(i)Theequation
Isoftheform
With .
Fociareat(-c,0)and(c,0)i.eat(-3,0)and(3,0).Notethatthefociareonthex-axis.
(ii)Endpointsofmajoraxisareat i.eat(-5,0)and(5,0).
(iii)Endpointsofminoraxisat i.eat(0,-4)and(0,4).
4.2Equationofellipsewithcenterattheoriginandfocionthey-axis
Letanellipsehavefociat(0,-c)and(0,c),andsumofdistancesequalto
2 .Thisisshowninthefigurebelow:

182
ForanypointQ(x,y)ontheellipsewehave
Usingthedistanceequationwegetthat
Onsimplifyingthisexpressionwefindthat
(4)
Where .
Wheny=0,x=-borb,thisgivesthepoints(-
b,0)and(b,0)whicharetheendpointsoftheMinoraxis.
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Whenx=0,y=- or ,whichgivesusthepoints(0,- )and(0,
)whicharetheendpointsoftheMajoraxis.
Insummaryequation(4)representsanellipsewith:
 Centreattheorigin.
 Fociat(0,-c)and(0,c).
 EndpointsofMajoraxisat(0,- )and(0, ).
 EndpointsofMinoraxisat(-b,0)and(b,0).
Example4.2
Theequationofanellipseisgivenby
Findthe(i)thefoci
(ii)theendpointsofmajoraxis
(iii)endpointsofminoraxis.
Solution
(i)Theequation
Isoftheform
Withfocionthey-axisat ,where .
thefociareat(0,-3)and(0,3).

182
(ii)Endpointsofmajoraxisareat .
(iii)Endpointsofminoraxisareat
4.3Ellipsewithcenterat(h,k)andhorizontalmajoraxis
Letanellipsehavecenterat(h,k)andfociat(h-
c,k)and(h+c,k).Letthesumofdistancesbe2a.Thisisshowninthefigurebelow:
Bydefinitionofanellipse
Usingthedistanceformulaweget
Simplifyingthisequationyields

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(5)
 Centreat(h,k)
 Fociat(h-c,k)and(h+c,k)
 Endpointsofmajoraxisat(h-a,k)and(h+a,k)
 Endpointsofminoraxisat(h,k-b)and(h,k+b)
Example4.3
Findtheequationofanellipsewithfocusat ,verticesat(-2,1)and(10,1).
Solution
Lineconnectingfocusandverticesishorizontal,thereforemajoraxisisvertical,thisi
mpliesthattheequationisoftheform
Center =midpointoflineconnectingvertices
Thatish=4andk=1.
2 =distancebetweenvertices=12 =6.
=distancefromcenterat(4,1)tofocusat( )= .
Weknowthat .
Substitutingwegettheequationas

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4.4Ellipsewithcenterat(h,k)andverticalmajoraxis
Letanellipsehavecenterat(h,k)andfociat(h,k-
c)and(h,k+c).Letthesumofdistancesbe2a.Thisisshowninthefigurebelow:
Simplifyingthisequationgivesus
(6)
Where .

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 Centreat(h,k)
 Focusat(h,k-c)and(h,k+c)
 Endpointsofmajoraxisat(h,k-a)and(h,k+a).
 Endpointsofminoraxisat(h-b,k)and(h+b,k).
Example4.4
Findtheequationofanellipsewithfociat(1,-5)and(1,7)andlengthofminoraxis16.
Solution
Lineconnectingfociisvertical,thereforethemajoraxisisvertical.Theequationofthe
ellipseisoftheform
Lengthofminoraxis=2b=16 8.
Distancebetweenfoci=2c=12 c=6.
Wefindthevalueof .
=64+36=100 =10.
Thecentreoftheellipseisthemidpointofthelinesegmentjoiningthefoci.
Centre .
Therefore,theequationoftheellipseis

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4.5Generalequationofanellipse
Ifweopenthebracketsofequations(5)and(6)andsimplify,wegetanequationofthef
orm
(7).
Now,givenequation(7)wecancompletesquaresinxandytogetthestandardformof
theequationofanellipse.
Example4.5
Puttheequationinstandardformandidentifythefociandendpointsofmajoraxis.
Solution
Werearrangetheequationandcompletethesquareinxandy.
Dividingby36weget
Whichistheequationofanellipseoftheform

182
.
Fociareat i.eat(-1,3- )and(-1,3+ ).
Verticesareat i.eat(-1,0)and(-1,6).
Summary
Wehavelearnedthat:
 Theequationofanellipsewithcentreat(h,k),foci(h c,k),andendpointsofm
ajoraxisat(h a,k)hasequation
Setting(h,k)=(0,0)wegettheequation
Where .
 Theequationofanellipsewithcentreat(h,k),foci(h,k c,),andendpointsofm
ajoraxisat(h,k a)hasequation

182
Setting(h,k)=(0,0)wegettheequation
Where .
Activity
Inproblems1-
6,sketchtheellipse,labelthefociandtheendsofthemajorandminoraxes.
Inproblems7-10,findtheequationfortheellipsesatisfyingthegivenconditions.
Endsofmajoraxis ; ofmajoraxis
7.
ends
Endsofmajoraxis ;endsofminoraxis
8.
9.Foci(2,1)and(2,-3);majoraxisoflength6.
10.Foci(1,2)and(1,4);minoraxisoflength2.
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TopicFive:TheParabola
LearningOutcome
 Defineaparabola
 Derivetheequationofaparabola
 Determinetheequationofaparabolagivenfocusandvertex
 Determinetheequationofaparabolagivendirectrixandvertexorfocus.
 Findequationofparabolagivenitsgraph.
TopicTime
5.0Introduction
Aparabolaisacurvedeterminedbyafixedpointandafixedline.Tracingpointsthatar
eatanequaldistancefromthepointandthefixedlinegivesustheparabola.Aparabol
ahasanaxisofsymmetrywhichisthelinethroughthefixedpointperpendiculartothe
fixedline.Thegraphbelow,showsaparabola.Onitisindicatedafixedpoint,calledthe
focus.Afixedline,calledthedirectrix.Alsoshownistheaxisofsymmetry.AParabolaa
lsohasavertexwhichisindicated.Thisinformationisshowninthegraphbelow.

182
5.1DefinitionandDerivationofequationofParabolawithvertexat(0,0)andfocusat(a,0)
5.1.1Definition
Aparabolaisthesetofallpointsintheplanethatareequidistantfromagivenlineanda
givenpointnotontheline.
Note:
 Thegivenlineiscalledthedirectrixoftheparabola
 Thegivenpointiscalledthefocusoftheparabola
5.1.2DerivationoftheequationofaParabola
Letthefocusbeatthepoint( ,o)andthedirectrixbethelinex=- ,andletQ(x,y)bean

ypointontheparabolaasshowninthefigurebelow.

182
Wewanttofindtherelationshipbetweenxandy.
Bydefinitionofaparabola
Simplifyingwefindthat
Equation(1)representsaparabolawith:
 Vertexat(0,0)
 Focusat( ,0)
 Directrixx=-

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Notethatthedirectrixisvertical.
Example5.1
Findthefocusanddirectrixofaparabolawithequation
Solution
Comparing withtheequation wefindthat
4 =4 =1.
Theparabolawithequation has:
Focusat( ,0)=(1,0),anddirectrixx=-1.
Note:
Iftheparabolaopensinthenegativex-
direction,thentheequationisoftheformofequation(1)with <0.
Example5.2
Findthedirectrixandfocusofaparabolawithequation .
Solution
Comparing withtheequation wefindthat
4 =-4 =-1
theparabolawithequation has:
Focusat( ,0)=(-1,0),
Directrixx= i.e.x=-1
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5.2Equationofparabolawithcenteratoriginandfocusat(0, )
Toderivetheequationofaparabolawithfocusat(0, )anddirectrixy=- ,weletQ(x,
y)tobeanypointontheparabola.Thisisshowninthefigurebelow.
Bydefinitionwehave
 Vertexat(0,0)
 Focusat(0,a)
 Directrixy=-a
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Notethatthedirectrixoftheparabolaishorizontal.Ifthe <0,thenthecurveofthepa
rabolaopensinthenegativey-
directionwiththeequationbeingoftheformofequation(2).
Example5.3
Findthefocusanddirectrixofaparabolagivenby
(i) (ii)
Solution
(i)Comparing with wefindthat
4 =8 =2.
Focusisat(0, )=(0,2).
Directrixisy=- i.e.y=-2.
(ii)Wesolve4 =-8 =-2.
Focusisat(0, )=(0,-2).
Directrixisy=- i.ey=2.
5.3Parabolawithvertexat(h,k)andverticaldirectrix
Letaparabolahavevertexat(h,k).Letthedistancefromthevertextothefocusbeequ
alto ,thenthecoordinatesofthefocusare(h+a,k).Thenthedirectrixisthelinex=h-
a.LetQ(x,y)beanypointontheparabolaasshowninthefigurebelow.

182
Theequationoftheparabolaisfoundtobe
 Vertexat(h,k)
 Focusat(h+a,k)
 Directrixx=h-a
Inequation(3)ifwesubstitute(h,k)=(0,0)wefindthat
Whichisequation(1).Therefore,equation(1)isaspecialcaseofequation(3).
Inequation(3),if <0,thenthegraphopensinthenegativex-direction.
Example5.4
Findtheequationofaparabolawithfocusat(1,6)anddirectrixx=7.
Solution
182
Directrixisvertical,thereforeequationisoftheform
Ourproblemistofindthevaluesofa,k,andh.
Focusisat(h+a,k)=(1,6),therefore
h+a=1(i)
andk=6.
Directrixis:
x=h-a=7(ii)
(i)+(ii)givesus2h=4 h=2.
Substitutingh=2in(i)wefindthata=-1.
Therequiredequationis
5.4Parabolawithvertexat(h,k)andhorizontaldirectrix
Consideraparabolawithvertexat(h,k),focusat(h,k+a),anddirectrixy=k-
a.LetQ(x,y)beanypointontheparabolaasshowninthefigurebelow.

182
Usingthedistanceformulaandthedefinitionofaparabola,itcanbeshownthatforany
pointQ(x,y)ontheparabolatheequationisgivenby
(4)
 Vertexat(h,k)
 Focusat(h,k+a)
 Directrixy=k-a
 Axisx=h
Example5.5
Aparabolahasavertexat(-1,-1)anddirectrixy=-2.Find:
(i)Theequationoftheparabola
(ii)Thefocus.
182
Solution
(i)Thedirectrixishorizontal,thereforetheequationisoftheform
Wefindthevaluesofh,a,andkusingthegiveninformation.
Vertexisat(h,k)=(-1,-1)i.e.h=-1andk=-1.
Directrixisy=k-a=-2 a=1.
Theequationis
TopicSummary
 Wehavelearnedthatiftheequationofaparabolaisgivenby
Thenithasvertexat(h,k),focusat(h,k+a),directrixx=h-aaxisisthe
liney=k.
 Wehavealsolearnedthatiftheequationofaparabolaisgivenby:
Thenithasvertexat(h,k),focusat(h,k+a),directrixy=k-a,axisis
X=h.
Activity
Inproblems1-6,findthefocus,vertex,anddirectrix.Sketchtheparabola.
1. .
2. .

182
3. .
Inproblems7-14,findanequationfortheparabolasatisfyingthegivenconditions.
7.Vertex(0,0);direcrixx=4.
8.Vertex(0,0);focus(-4,0).
9.Vertex(0,0);focus(0,3).
10.Vertex(0,0);directrix .
11.Vertex(0,0);symmetricaboutthex-axis,passesthrough(2,2).
12.Focus(-3,0);directrixx=3.
13.Focus(0,6);directrixy=-6.
14.Axisy=0;passesthrough(-1,2)and(5,-4).
TopicSix:TheHyperbola
LearningOutcome
 Defineahyperbola
 Derivetheequationofahyperbola
 Identifythecenter,foci,andvertices
 Identifythetransverseaxisandconjugateaxis
 Writetheequationsoftheasymptotes
 Beabletosketchthegraphofahyperbola

182
TopicTime
6.0Introduction
Ahyperbolaisacurveconsistingoftwodistinctandsimilarbranchesasshowninthe
figuresbelow.Asyoucanseefromthefigureahyperbolahas:
 Acenter
 Foci
 Vertices
 Co-vertices
 Transverseaxisandconjugateaxis
 Asymptotes

182
Asshowninthefiguresbelow,ahyperbolacanbehorizontalorvertical.
6.1Definition
Ahyperbolaisasetofallpointsintheplane,thedifferenceofwhosedistancesfromtwofixedpointsisagive
npositiveconstant.
Note:
Thetwofixedpointsarecalledthefociofthehyperbola.
6.2Equationofhyperbolawithfociat(-c,0)and(c,0)
Letthefocibeat(-
c,0)and(c,0),andthedifferenceofdistancesbe2a,andletQ(x,y)beanypointonthehyperbolaasshownint
hefigurebelow.

182
Bydefinitionofahyperbolawehave
Usingthedistanceformulawefindthat
Whichcanberearrangedas
Wenowsquareandsimplifythisexpression

182
Dividingby-4awegetthat
Wesquarethisequation
Wedividebothsidesby toget
Whichcanbewrittenas
(1)
Now,intriangle
ispositive.Welet
(2)
Substitutingin(1)wefindthat

182
(3)
Equation(3)canbewrittenas
Forlargepositiveandnegativevaluesofxwehave
Thelines
Arecalledtheasymptotesofahyperbolagivenbyequation(3).
Tosummarizewecansaythatequation(3)representsahyperbolawith:
 Centreat(0,0)
 Fociat(-c,0)and(c,0)
 Verticesat(a,0)and(a,0)
 Asymptotes
Thesketchforthehyperbolagivenby(3)isgivenbelow.
Example6.1
Ahyperbolahasequationgivenby

182
(i)Findthefoci(ii)Findthevertices(iii)Findtheasymptotes
Solution
(i)Comparingtheequationwith(3)wefindthat
Fociareat(-c,0)and(c,0)i.eat(-5,0)and(5,0).
(ii)Verticesareat(-a,0)and(a,0)i.eat(-4,0)and(4,0).
(iii)Asymptotesare
6.3EquationofHyperbolawithfociat(0,-c)and(0,c)
Considerahyperbolawithfociat(0,-
c)and(0,c),anddifferenceofdistancesequalto2a.LetQ(x,y)beanypointonthehyp
erbolaasshownbelow.
Fromthedefinitionofahyperbolawehave
182
Onsimplifyingthisequationwefindthat
(4)
where .
Equation(4)representsahyperbolawith:
 Fociat(0,-c)and(0,c).
 Verticesat(0,-a)and(0,a).
 Asymptotesare .
Example6.2
Ahyperbolahasequationgivenby
(i)Findthefoci.
(ii)Findthevertices.
(iii)Findtheasymptotes.
Solution
(i)Comparingwithequation(3)wefindthat

182
Fociareat i.eat(0,-5)and(0,5).
(ii)Verticesareat i.eat(0,-4)and(0,4).
(iii)Asymptotesare
6.4Hyperbolawithfociat(h-c,k)and(h+c,k)
Letahyperbolahavefociat anddifferenceofdistances2a.LetQ(x,y)beanyp
ointonthehyperbolaasshownbelow.
Then,bydefinitionwehave
182
Usingthedistanceformulaweget
Itcanbeshownthatthisequationsimplifiesto
(5)
Wesummarizethatequation(5)representsahyperbolawith
 Centreat(h,k).
 Fociat(h-c,k)and(h+c,k).
 Verticesat(h+a,k)and(h+a,k).
 Asymptotesare
Example6.3
Findtheequationofahyperbolawithfociat(-
12,1)and(8,1)andhavingvertices4unitsapart.
Solution
Lineconnectingfociishorizontal,thereforetheequationisoftheform
Wefindthevaluesofa,b,h,andk.
Center(h,k)=midpointofsegmentjoiningfoci=
2c=distancefrom(-12,1)to(8,1)=20

182
c=10.
2a=distancebetweenvertices=4
a=2.
Theequationisgivenby
6.5Hyperbolawithfociat(h,k-c)and(h,k+c)
Letahyperbolahavefociat anddifferenceofdistances2a.LetQ(x,y)beanyp
ointonthehyperbolaasshowninthefigurebelow.

182
Then,bydefinitionwehave
Usingthedistanceformulawefindthat
Uponsimplificationthisequationreducesto
(6)
Where .
So,tosummarize,equation(6)representsahyperbolawith:
 Centreat(h,k).
 Fociat .
 Verticesat
 Asymptotes .
Example6.4
Findtheequationofahyperbolawithverticesat(-3,4)and(-
3,0)andhavingfoci6unitsapart.
Solution
Lineconnectingverticesisvertical,therefore,theequationisoftheform

182
(h,k)=midpointofsegmentjoining(-3,0)and(-3,4)= .
2c=distancebetweenfoci=6
c=3.
2a=4 a=2.
Thereforetheequationis
6.6Generalequationofahyperbola
Openingthebracketsofequations(5)and(6)andsimplifyingwegetanequationofth
eform
(7)
Thisisthegeneralequationofahyperbola.Startingwithequation(7),wecancomple
tethesquaresinxandyandidentifytheimportantfeaturesofthehyperbolaitreprese
nts.
Example6.5
Findthefociandasymptotesofahyperbolagivenby
Solution
Werearrangetheequationandcompletethesquaresinxandy.
182
Dividingby64weget
Whichistheequationofahyperbolaoftheform
With and
Fociareat .
Theasymptotesare
Summary
Wehavelearnedthat:
 Theequation

182
Representsahyperbolawithcenterat(h,k),fociat( ),vertic-
esat( ),andasymptotes .
Whenthecenterisattheorigin(0,0),theequationreducesto
 Theequation
Representsahyperbolawithcenterat(h,k),fociat( ),verticesat
,andasymptotes .
Whenthecenterisattheorigin(0,0),theequationreducesto
Activity
Inproblems1-
6,findthecoordinatesoftheverticesandfociandfindequationsfortheasymptotes.S
ketchthehyperbola.
1. .
2. .

182
3. .
4. .
5. .
6. .
Inproblems7-10,findanequationforthehyperbolasatisfyingthegivenconditions.
7.Foci ;vertices .
8.Vertices(-3,4)and(-3,0)andfoci6unitsapart.
9.Vertices ;asymptotes .
10.Foci(8,1)and(-12,1);vertices4unitsapart.

182
TopicSeven:VectorOperations
LearningOutcome
 Addandsubtractvectors
 Findthemagnitudeofavector
 Findtheunitvectorofavector
 Finddotproduct
 Applydotproductinmechanics
 Findcrossproduct
 Applycrossproductinmechanicsandsurfaces
TopicTime
7.0Introduction
182
Vectorsareusedinrepresentationofphysicalquantitiessuchaspositionandmomen
tuminmorethanonedimension.Thereforewedefinevectorasanelementofvectors
pace.It’smostlyappliedinmechanicsandalsoinotherareaswhereconceptofdirecti
onplaysakeyrole.Wedefinevectorasaquantitythathasboththemagnitudeanddire
ction.Geometrically,wepicturevectorasadirectedlinesegment,whoselengthisth
esize/
magnitudeofthevectorandanarrowindicatingthedirection.Thedirectionofthevec
torisfromitstailalsocalledtheinitialpointtoitsheadalsocalledtheterminalorthe
endpoint.
7.1TypesofVectors
Vectorsarecategorizedbasedontheirinitialandterminalpointsandalsoontheirma
gnitude.Therearethreetypesofvectorsandthatis;i)Positionvectorsii)Columnvect
orsandiii)Unitvectors.Weproceedtodiscusseach.
7.1.1PositionVectors
Avectoriseitheranorderedpairortripletofnumbers.Onatwodimensionalplanefori
nstanceanypoint(a,b)isavectorthatiscalledpositionvector.Graphically,weoftenr
epresentsuchavectorbydrawinganarrowfromtheorigintothepoint,withthetipoft
182
hearrowrestingatthepoint.Thesituationforthreedimensionvectorsisthesamewh
eretheorderedtriplet(a,b,c)isrepresentedwithanarrowfromtheorigintothecorre
spondingpoint.Itshouldbeunderstoodthattheinitialpointofapositionvectoristheo
riginwhichisO(0 , 0 ,) in2-dimensionandO ( 0,0,0 ) in3-dimension.
Example7.0
Findthepositionvectorofpoint A ( 2,−7 ) .
Solution
→
ThepositionvectorinthiscaseisgivenbyOA
→
OA = ¿ ( 2 ¿ ) ¿ ¿ ¿
¿
Whereiisaunitvectoralongthex-axis,jisaunitvectoralongy-
axisandkisaunitvectoralongthez-axis.
Example7.1
Findthepositionvectorofpoint M (−3,9,−11) .
Solution
→
ThepositionvectorinthiscaseisgivenbyOM
→
OM =¿ (−3 ¿ ) ( 9 ¿ ) ¿ ¿ ¿
¿
182
→
Wethereforenotethattheunitvectorofany P(a , b , c ) pointisgivenbyOP =ai+bj+ck
Activity7.0
Findthepositionvectorofthefollowingpoints
i) B ( 3,−5, ) ii) A ( 1,3,−8, ) iii) N ( 0,−4,−12, ) iv) D (−2,−10 ,8, )

7.1.2ColumnVectors
Acolumnvectorisdirectedfromacertainpoint A ( a , b ) toanotherpoint B ( c , d ) .Itshoul
dbenotedthattheinitialpoint A ( a , b ) canbeanypointandnotnecessarilytheorigin.If
theinitialpoint A ( a , b ) istheoriginthenthecolumnvectoriscalledthepositionvector.
Thereforepositionvectorisatypeofcolumnvectorwhoseinitialpointmustbetheorig
in.
Example7.2
Givenpoints A ( 3,0,−2 ) and B (−3,−7,1 ) ,findthecolumnvectoroflinesegment;

→ →
i) AB ii) BA
Solution
→
AB=¿ ( 3 ¿ ) ( 0 ¿ ) ¿ ¿ ¿
¿
→
AB=¿ (−3 ¿ ) (−7 ¿ ) ¿ ¿ ¿
¿
Fromthisexamplewenotethatwheneverwearegiventwopoints P ( a , b , c ) and
→
Q ( d , e , f ) ,thecolumnvector PQ isgivenby;
→
PQ =( d −a ) i+ ( b−e ) j+ ( c−f ) k
Activity7.1
Findthecolumnvectorsineachofthefollowingcases;
→
i)Givenpoints A (−2,−6 ,5 ) and B (−3,7 ,−9 ) ,find AB
182
→
ii)Givenpoints M ( 0,6 ,−5 ) and N ( 3,−7,10 ) ,find NM
→
iii)Givenpoints S ( 4 ,−1,−3 ) and B ( 2,9,−19 ) ,find BS
7.1.3MagnitudeofaVector
Weconsidertwopoints A ( 2,3 ) and B ( 8,11 ) .
11
B(8,11)
3
A(2,3) C(8,3)
2 8 X
→
→
AB |AB|
Weproceedtofindthecolumnvector andthenfinditsmagnitude whichisgive
nbythelengthofthelineconnectingpointsAandB.
→
AB=( 8−2 ) i+ ( 11−3 ) j
→
AB=6 i+8 j
(1)
→
|AB|= √ AC 2+CB 2

182
→
|AB|= √6 2+8 2=10
(2)
→
P=ai+bj
Comparingequations(1)and(2)wenotethatthemagnitudeofanyvector i
→ →
|P|=√ a2+b2 |M|=√ a2+b2+c2
→
M =ai+bj+ck
sgivenby .Likewiseif then
Example7.3
→
Findthemagnitudeofthevector N =3i−5 j
Solution
→
|N|=√ 32+(−5 )2=4
Example7.4
→
FindthemagnitudeofthevectorQ =i+4 j−2 k
Solution
→
|N|=√ 12+42+ (−2 )2= √21
Activity7.2
Findthemagnitudeofthevectors;
→ → → →
i)Q =i+4 j−2 k ii) P=3 i−7 j iii) M =8 i− j−6 k iv)Q =5 i+4 j
7.1.3UnitVectors
→
It’savectorwhosemagnitudeisone.It’snormallyabbreviatedwithlettern .
→
Aunitvectorofanygivenvector A isgivenby;

182
→
→ A
n= →
|A|
Hencewheneverwedivideavectorbyitsmagnitude,wealwaysgetaunitvector.
Example7.5
→
FindtheunitvectorofthevectorQ =i+4 j−2 k
Solution
→
→ Q
n= →
|Q|
→
|Q|=√ 12+4 2+ (− 2 )2= √21
→ i+ 4 j−2 k
n=
√ 21
→ 1 4 2
n= i+ j− k
√21 √ 21 √ 21
Activity7.3
Findtheunitvectorofthevectors;
→ → → →
i)Q =i+4 j ii) P=3 i−7 j+k iii) M =2 i−3 j−4 k iv)Q =i−7 k
7.2AdditionandSubtractionofvectors
→ →
P=ai+bj+ck Q=di+ej+fk
Weconsidertwovectors and .Wefindthat;
→ → → →
P +Q= ( a+d ) i+ ( b+e ) j+ ( c +f ) k P +Q= ( a−d ) i+ ( b−e ) j+ ( c−f ) k
i) ii)

182
→
λ P=ai+bj+ck
Wealsonotethatif isaconstant,thenforanygivenvector weget
→
λP =λ ai+λj+λk
Example7.6
→ →
P=3 i− j+2 k Q=i+2 j−k
Giventwovectors and ,find;
→ → → → → → → → → →
P +Q P−Q 3 P +2 Q P−2 Q 2 P +Q
i) ii) iii) iv) V)Unitvectorfor
Solution
→ → → → → →
P +Q=4 i+ j+k P−Q =2 i−3 j+3 k 3 P +2 Q=11i+ j+4 k
i) ii) iii)
→ →
iv) P−2 Q=i−5 j+4 k
→ →
→
2P +Q
n= → →
v) |2P +Q|
→ 7 i +3 k
n=
√ 49+9
→ 7 i+3 k
n=
√58
→ 7 3
n= i+ j
√58 √ 58
Activity7.4
→ →
A =−2i+4 j−2k B=5 i− j−3 k
Giventwovectors and ,find;
→ → → → → → → →
2 A +B A −3 B A +4 Q 2 A +B
i) ii) iii) iv)Unitvectorfor

182
→ →
A −3 B
v)Unitvectorfor
7.3DotProduct
→ →
A B
Thedotproductoftwovectors and isdefinedas;
→ → → →
A⋅B =|A||B|cosθ
→ →
A B
Theaboveequationisreadas;vector dotvector isequaltothemagnitude/
→ →
A B
modulusofvector multiplybythemagnitude/modulusofvector
multiplybycosinetheta.
→ →
(θ) A B
Theta istheanglebetweenvector andvector .
→
A
→
B

182
θ 00
It’sveryclearfromtheabovefigurethatangle isgreaterorequalto andislessoreq
1800 0 0≤θ≤1800
ualto .Mathematicallywesaythat .
Fromdefinitionwenotethatdotproductoftwovectorswillalwaysgiveascalarqua
ntityandnotavector.
→ → → → → → → →
A⋅B =|A||B|cosθ B⋅A =|B||A|cosθ
Wealsonotethat while .Therighthandsideoftheset
woequationsisthesameandthereforedotproductoftwovectorsobeyscommutativ
→ → → →
A⋅B =B⋅A
elawi.e
→ →
A =ai+bj+ck B=di+ ej+ fk
→ →
A⋅B =(a )(d )+(b )(e )+(c )(f )
Example7.7
→ → → →
P=3 i− j+2 k Q=i+2 j−k P⋅Q
Giventwovectors and ,find .
Solution
→ →
P⋅Q =(3 )(1)+(−1)(2 )+(2 )(−1)=−1
Example7.8
→ → → →
A =−5 i+2 j−4 k B=6 i+8 j−7 k A⋅B
Solution
→ →
A⋅B =(−5)(6)+(2 )(8)+(−4 )(−7 )=14
Example7.9

182
→ →
A =−i+2 j−3 k B=4 i+2 j+7 k
Giventwovectors and ,findtheanglebetweenthetwov
ectors.
Solution
→ → → →
A⋅B =|A||B|cosθ
Fromdefinition
→ →
|A|=√ 1+4+9=√14 |B|=√16+4+49=√ 69
→ →
A⋅B =(−1)( 4 )+(2)(2 )+(−3)(7 )=−21
−21= ( √14 ) ( √ 69 ) cosθ
cosθ=−0 . 6757
θ=132. 50 or 227 .5 0
θ=132. 50 0 0≤θ≤1800
since
Activity7.5
Findtheanglebetweenthevectors;
→ → → →
A =−3 i+ j−4 k B=4 i+3 j−5 k P=4 i+2 j−k Q=i−3 j+5 k
i) and ii) and
→ → → →
M =i+6 j−k B=4 i+3 j+9 k A =−2i−3 j+4 k B=4 i+3 j+3 k
iii) and iv) and
7.3.1Perpendicularvectors
→ →
A B
Twovectors and aresaidtobeperpendiculariftheanglebetweenthemis900.Hen
θ=900
ce

182
→ → → →
A⋅B =|A||B|cos 900 cos 900 =0
But
→ →
A⋅B =0
Henceweget
Conclusion
Twovectorsaresaidtobeperpendicularifandonlyiftheirdotproductisequaltoze
ro.
Example7.10
→ →
M =−i+2 j+4 k N =4 i+6 j−2 k
Provethatvectors and areperpendicular.
Solution
→ →
A⋅B =(−1)( 4 )+(2)(6 )+( 4 )(−2)
→ →
A⋅B =−4 +12−8=0
Fromdefinition
Activity7.6
→ →
M =5 i− j+9 k N =3i+6 j−k
Provethatvectors and areperpendicular.
NOTE
OntheCartesianplane,theunitvectorsi,jandkareperpendiculartooneanotherand
therefore;
i⋅j = j⋅i=0
i⋅k =k⋅i=0
j⋅k=k⋅j =0
7.3.3ParallelVectors

182
→ →
A B
Twovectors and aresaidtobeparallelandfacinginthesamedirectionifthean
θ=00
glebetweenthemis00.Hence
Fromdefinitionweget;
→ → → →
A⋅B =|A||B|cos0 0
cos 00 =1
But
Henceweget
→ → → →
A⋅B =|A||B|
→ →
A B
Twovectors and aresaidtobeparallelandfacingintheoppositedirectionifth
θ=1800
0
eanglebetweenthemis180 .Hence
→ → → →
A⋅B =|A||B|cos180 0
cos 180 0=−1
But
Henceweget
→ → → →
A⋅B =−|A||B|
7.3.3DotProductofSimilarVectors

182
→ → → →
A A A A
Weproceedtofindthedotproductofvector and .Wenotevector and aresimil
arandfacinginsamedirection(theyarecollinear).Hencetheanglebetweenthemis0
θ=00
0
andtherefore .
→ → → →
A⋅A =|A||A|cos0 0
cos 00 =1
But
Henceweget
→ → → →
A⋅A =|A||A|
→ → →
A⋅A =|A|2
|i|=|j|=|k|=1
Wenotedthatthemagnitudeofaunitvectorisequaltooneandtherefore
.Hencewefindthat;
i⋅i=|i|2 =1
2
j⋅j=|j| =1
k⋅k=|k|2 =1
Example7.11
→ →
Giventwovectors and provethat
→ →
A⋅B =(a )(d )+(b )(e )+(c )(f )
Solution
182
→ →
A⋅B =( ai+bj+ck )⋅( di+ ej+fk )
→ →
A⋅B=(a )(d )(i⋅i)+( a)(e )(i⋅j)+( a)( f )(i⋅k )+(b )(d )( j⋅i)+(b )( e )( j⋅j)+
(b )(f )( j⋅k )+( c )(d )( k⋅i)+( c )(e )(k⋅j)+(c )(f )(k⋅k )
i⋅i=|i|2 =1
i⋅j = j⋅i=0
i⋅k =k⋅i=0 j⋅j=|j|2 =1
j⋅k=k⋅j =0 k⋅k=|k|2 =1
But and
Thereforeweget;
→ →
A⋅B =(a )(d )+(b )(e )+(c )(f )
7.4ApplicationofDotProduct
7.4.1Workdone
→ →
r f
Workdoneonaparticlethatmovesadisplacement afterbeingactedbytheforce ,i
→ →
f r
ssimplydefinedasthedotproductofforce andthedisplacement .
Example7.12
→ →
f =3i−4 j+6 k r =i+2 j+3 k
Thedisplacementofaparticleduetoforce isgivenby .Fin
dtheworkdoneontheparticle.
Solution
→→
Work done=f ⋅r
Work done=(3)(1 )+(−4 )(2)+(6 )(3 )=13 joules
Activity7.7

182
→ →
f =i+8 j−6 k r =4 i+2 j+3 k
Thedisplacementofaparticleduetoforce isgivenby .Fin
dtheworkdoneontheparticle.
7.4.1KineticenergyThekineticenergy(K.E)ofaparticleofmassmkgmovingatav
→
v t =a
elocity atagiventime isgivenby;
1 →→
K . E= m ( v⋅v )
2
Example7.13
Thedisplacementofaparticleofmass400gvarieswithtimetandisgivenby
→
r =t 3 i−6 tj+(t 2 −3t )k t =2 s
.Findthekineticenergyoftheparticleat .
Solution
Fromdefinition
1 →→
K . E= m ( v⋅v )
2
→
→ dr 2
v = =3 t i−6 j+ ( 2 t−3 ) k
dt
→
v =12i−6 j+k
Att=2weget
→ →
v⋅v =144 +36+1=181
K . E= ( )
1 400
2 1000
( 181 )=36 . 2 joules
Activity7.8

182
Thedisplacementofaparticleofmass200gvarieswithtimetandisgivenby
→
r =2ti−( 3 t+t 4 ) j+(7 t 2 −2 t )k t=1 s
.Findthekineticenergyoftheparticleat .
7.5CrossProduct
→ →
A B
Thecrossproductoftwovectors and isdefinedas;
→ →
[ → →
A ×B = |A||B|sinθ n ] →
→ →
A B
Theaboveequationisreadas;vector crossvector isequaltothemagnitude/
→ →
A B
modulusofvector multiplybythemagnitude/modulusofvector
→ →
n n
multiplybysinethetamultiplybyunitvector .Unitvector isperpendiculartothepl
→ → →
A B n
anewherevectors and lies.Wealsosaythatunitvector isperpendiculartothepl
→ → →
A B n
anespannedbythevectors and .Thereforeunitvector isperpendiculartovecto
→ →
A B
r andit’salsoperpendiculartovector .
→ →
(θ) A B
Theta istheanglebetweenvector andvector .
→
A
→
n
θ
→
B

182
θ 00
It’sveryclearfromtheabovefigurethatangle isgreaterorequalto andislessoreq
1800 0 0≤θ≤1800
ualto .Mathematicallywesaythat .
Fromdefinitionwenotethatcrossproductoftwovectorswillalwaysgiveavectorq
uantity.
Itshouldbenotedthatif;
→ → → →
A ×B =C B× A =−C
then
→
→
C A
→ →
A ×B =
θ
→
B
→
A
→ → θ
B× A =
MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY → PAGE 109 OF
B182
→
−C
→ → → →
A ×B =−B× A
Wethereforefindthat andthencecrossproductdoesnotobeycommuta
tivelaw.
→ →
→ →
A×B=¿|i j k¿||a b c¿|¿ ¿¿
¿
Example7.14
→ → → →
P=3 i− j+2 k Q=i+2 j−k P×Q
Solution
→ →
P×Q=¿|i j k¿||3 −1 2¿|¿ ¿¿
¿
→ →
P×Q =¿|−1 2 ¿|¿ ¿ ¿
¿
→ →
P×Q =−3 i+5 j+7 k
Example7.15
→ → → →
A =4 i+5 j−k B=−2 i−3 j+6 k A ×B

182
Solution
→ →
A×B=¿|i j k¿||4 5 −1¿|¿ ¿¿
¿
→ →
A ×B =¿|5 −1 ¿|¿ ¿ ¿
¿
→ →
A ×B =27 i−22 j−2k
Activity7.9
Findthecrossproductofthefollowingvectors;
→ → → →
A =−3 i+ j−4 k B=4 i+3 j−5 k P=4 i+2 j−k Q=i−3 j+5 k
i) and ii) and
→ → → →
M =i+6 j−k B=4 i+3 j+9 k A =−2i−3 j+4 k B=4 i+3 j+3 k
iii) and iv) and
7.4.1ParallelVectors
→ →
A B
Twovectors and aresaidtobeparallelandfacinginthesamedirectionifthean
θ=00 or θ=1800
0 0
glebetweenthemis0 or180 .Hence
→ →
[ → →
A ×B = |A||B|sinθ n ] →
sin 00 =0 and sin 180 0=0

But
Henceforparallelvectorsweget;
→ →
A ×B =0

182
Conclusion
Twovectorsaresaidtobeparallelifandonlyiftheircrossproductisequaltozero.
7.4.2CrossProductofSimilarVectors
→ → → →
A A A A
Weproceedtofindthecrossproductofvector and .Wenotevector and aresim
ilarandfacinginsamedirection(theyarecollinear).Hencetheanglebetweenthemis
θ=00
0
0 andtherefore .
→ →
[ → →
A ×A = |A||A|sinθ n ] →
sin 00 =0
But
→ →
A ×A =0
Henceweget
Wealsofindthat
i×i=0
j× j=0
k ×k =0
7.4.3Perpendicularvectors
→ →
A B
Twovectors and aresaidtobeperpendiculariftheanglebetweenthemis900.Hen
θ=900
ce
→ →
[ → →
A ×B = |A||B|sin90 n 0
] →
cos 900 =1
But

182
Henceweget
→ →
[ ]
→ → →
A ×B = |A||B| n
NOTE
OntheCartesianplane,theunitvectorsi,jandkareperpendiculartooneanotherand
therefore;
i× j=k ⇒ j×i=−k
j×k =i ⇒ k× j=−i
k ×i= j ⇒i×k=− j
Example7.16
→ →
A×B=¿|i j k¿||a b c¿|¿ ¿¿
¿
→ →
Giventwovectors and .Provethat
Solution
→ →
A ×B =( ai+bj+ck )×( di+ej+fk )
→ →
A ×B=(a )(d)(i×i)+(a)(e)(i× j )+(a)(f )(i×k )+(b )(d )( j×i)+(b )( e)( j× j)+
(b )(f )( j×k)+(c)(d )(k×i)+(c)(e)( k× j)+(c )(f )(k×k)
i×i=0 i× j=k ⇒ j×i=−k

j× j=0 j×k =i ⇒ k× j=−i
k ×k =0 k ×i= j ⇒i×k=− j
Butwehave and
→ →
A ×B =( a)(e)k−(a )( f ) j−(b)(d )k+(b)( f )i+(c )( d ) j−(c)(e)i
→ →
A ×B =( bf −ce ) i−( af −cd ) j+ ( ae−bd ) k

182
→ →
A ×B =¿|b c ¿|¿ ¿ ¿
¿
→ →
A×B=¿|i j k¿||a b c¿|¿ ¿¿
¿
Example7.16
→ →
A B 5 i−4 j+k
Thedotproductoftwovectors and is-9whilethecrossproductis
.Findtheanglebetweenthetwovectors.
Solution
Fromdefinition
→ → → →
A⋅B =|A||B|cosθ=−9
(1)
→ →
[ → →
]
A ×B = |A||B|sinθ n =5i−4 j+k
→
(2)
From(1)weget;
→ →
|A||B|cosθ=−9
(3)
Fromequation(3)weget;
→ → −9
|A||B|=
cosθ
(4)
From(2)weget;

182
[|A||B|sinθ] n=5i−4 j+k
→ → →
(5)
Takingthemodulusonbothsidesofequation(5)yields;
[ → →
] →
| |A||B|sinθ n|=|5i−4 j+k|
[ → →
] →
| |A||B|sinθ ||n|=|5i−4 j+k|
(6)
Themodulusofconstantcisequaltocandtherefore;
[ → →
]
| |A||B|sinθ |=|A||B|sinθ
→ →
(7)
Themodulusofaunitvectorisequaltooneandtherefore;
→
|n|=1
(8)
Wealsofindthat;
|5i−4 j+k|=√ 25+16+1=√ 42

(9)
Substituting(7),(8)and(9)in(6)yields;
→ →
|A||B|sinθ=√ 42
(10)
Fromequation(10)weget;
→ → 6.48
|A||B|=
sin θ
(11)

182
Comparing(4)and(11)yields;
−9 6 . 48
=
cos θ sin θ
sin θ −6 . 48
=
cos θ 9
tanθ=−0 . 72
θ=144 . 250
Activity7.10
→ →
A B −4 i+3 k
a)Thedotproductoftwovectors and is7whilethecrossproductis .Findth
eanglebetweenthetwovectors.
→ →
A B 4 i− j+2 k
b)Thedotproductoftwovectors and is-11whilethecrossproductis
.Findtheanglebetweenthetwovectors.
7.6ApplicationofcrossProduct
7.6.1Vectorperpendiculartoaplane
→ → → →
A B A ×B
Iftwovectors and lieonagivenplane,theircrossproduct( )willalwaysgive
avectorperpendiculartothatplane.
Example7.17
→
A =5i+ j−2 k
Findavectorperpendiculartoaplanespannedbythevectors and
→
B=i−2 j+3 k
Solution

182
→ →
A×B=¿|i j k¿||5 1 −2¿|¿ ¿¿
¿
→ →
A ×B =¿|1 −2 ¿|¿ ¿ ¿
¿
→ →
A ×B =−i−17 j−11k
Example7.18
→
A =i+2 j−k
Findaunitvectorperpendiculartoaplanespannedbythevectors and
→
B=2 i− j+3 k
Solution
Vectorperpendiculartotheplaneisgivenby;
→ →
A×B=¿|i j k¿||1 2 −1¿|¿ ¿¿
¿
→ →
A ×B =¿|2 −1 ¿|¿ ¿ ¿
¿
→ →
A ×B =5i−5 j−5k
Unitvectorperpendiculartotheplaneisgivenby;
→ →
→ A ×B
n= → →
|A ×B|

182
→ →
|A ×B|= √25+25+25=√ 75=5 √3
→ 1 1 1
n= i− j− k
√3 √ 3 √3
Activity7.11
→
A =4 i+ j−3 k
a)Findaunitvectorperpendiculartoaplanespannedbythevectors and
→
B=i−3 j+3 k
→
A =−5 i+2 j−k
b)Findaunitvectorperpendiculartoaplanespannedbythevectors an
→
B=4 i− j+3 k
d
7.6.2Equationofaplane
Wecaneasilyobtaintheequationofaplaneusingcrossproductwhengiven;
i)Twovectorsandapointontheplane.
ii)Threepointsontheplane.
Example7.19
→ →
A =4 i+ j−3 k B=i−3 j+3 k
Findtheequationofaplanethatcontainthevectors and ,a
ndthepointC(2,-1,3).
Solution
Wefirstobtainthevectorperpendiculartotheplane
→ →
A×B=¿|i j k¿||4 1 −3¿|¿ ¿¿
¿
182
→ →
A ×B =¿|1 − 3 ¿|¿ ¿ ¿
¿
→ →
A ×B =−6i−15 j−13k
(1)
→
P(x, y ,z) PC
Weintroduceapoint ontheplane.Thereforevector liesontheplaneandh
→ →
A ×B
enceit’sperpendiculartovector .Therefore;
→ → →
PC⋅A ×B=0
(2)
→
PC =( x−2 ) i+ ( y +1 ) j+ ( z−3 ) k
(3)
Substituting(1)and(3)in(2)yields;
−6 ( x−2 ) −15 ( y+1 )−13 ( z−3 )=0
6 x +15 y +13 z=36
Example7.20
A ( 0,−1,4 ) , B (3,5,−2) and C ( 4,0,−3 )

Findtheequationofaplanecontainingpoints .
Solution
Wefirstcomputeanytwovectorsontheplane
→
AB=3 i+6 j−6 k
→
AC =4 i+ j−7 k
Thevectorperpendiculartotheplaneis;

182
→ →
AB×AC=¿|i j k¿||3 6 −6¿|¿ ¿¿
¿
→ →
AB× AC=−36i−3 j−21k
(1)
→
P(x, y ,z) PC
Weintroduceapoint ontheplane.Thereforevector liesontheplaneandh
→ →
AB× AC
enceit’sperpendiculartovector .Therefore;
→ → →
PC⋅AB × AC =0
(2)
→
PC =( x−4 ) i+ yj+ ( z +3 ) k
(3)
−36 ( x−4 ) −3 y−21 ( z+3 )=0
12 x+ y +7 z=27
Activity7.12
→ →
A =3i+ j−8 k B=2 i− j+k
a)Findtheequationofaplanethatcontainthevectors and ,
andthepointC(-2,-1,1).
→ →
A =i+4 j−2 k B=2 i−3 j+k
b)Findtheequationofaplanethatcontainthevectors and
,andthepointC(0,-2,3).
A ( 1,−1,0 ) , B (−2,5,−2) and C (−4 ,2,−3 )

c)Findtheequationofaplanecontainingpoints .
A ( 2,0,−4 ) , B (−3,4 ,−2) and C ( 4 ,−1,3 )

d)Findtheequationofaplanecontainingpoints .
182
7.6.3AreaofaParallelogram
→ →
A B
Weconsideraparallelogramwhoseadjacentsidesareformedbythevectors and
→ →
|A| |B|
.Thelengthofadjacentlinesarethereforegivenby and .
→
|A|
→
A
θ
→ →
B
|B|
(
1 → →
2 |A||B|sinθ
2 )
Areaofparallelogram=
→ →
|A||B|sinθ
Areaofparallelogram= (1)
Fromdefinitionofcrossproductwehave;
→ →
[ → →
]
A ×B = |A||B|sinθ n
→
(2)
Takingthemodulusonbothsidesofequation(2)yields;

182
→ →
[ → →
|A ×B|=| |A||B|sinθ n| ] →
→ →
[ → →
]
|A ×B|=| |A||B|sinθ ||n|
→
→ → → →
|A ×B|=|A||B|sinθ
(3)
Comparingequations(1)and(3)weget;
→ →
|A ×B|
Example7.21
Findtheareaofaparallelogramwhoseadjacentsidesareformedbythevectors
→ →
A =i+4 j−2 k B=2 i−3 j+k
and .
Solution
→ →
|A ×B|
→ →
A×B=¿|i j k¿||1 4 −2¿|¿ ¿¿
¿
→ →
A ×B =−2i−5 j−11 k
→ →
|A ×B|= √ 4+25+121=12.25
Areaofparallelogram=12.25squareunits.
182
Example7.22
A ( 2,0,−4 ) , B (−3,4 ,−2) and C ( 4 ,−1,3 )

Findtheareaofatrianglewhoseverticesare
Solution
C ( 4,−1,3 )
→
AC
θ
A ( 2,0,−4 ) → B (−3,4,−2 )
AB
Wenotefromthefigureabovethat;
Areaofparallelogram=twiceareaoftriangle
→ →
|AC ×AB|
→
AC =2i− j+7 k
→
AB=−5 i+4 j+2 k
→ →
AC×AB=¿|i j k¿||2 −1 7¿|¿ ¿¿
¿
182
→ →
A ×B =−30 i−39 j+3k
→ →
|A ×B|= √900+1521+9=49.3
Areaofparallelogram=49.3squnits
1
( 49 . 3 )=24 .65
2
Areaofatriangle= squnits
Activity7.13
a)Findtheareaofaparallelogramwhoseadjacentsidesareformedbythevectors
→ →
A =2i−3 j+2 k B=5 i+ j+6 k
and .
A ( 1,−3,4 ) , B(−3,0,−2) and C ( 4 ,5,−3 )

b)Findtheareaofatrianglewhoseverticesare
TopicSummary
Wehavenotedthatthemagnitudeofaunitvectorisone.Thedotproductoftwovector
sisascalarquantity.Thecrossproductoftwovectorsisavector.Workdoneisgivenby
dotproductofforceanddisplacement.
TOPICEIGHT-VECTORANDCARTESIANEQUATIONOFALINE
LearningOutcome
182
 Findthevectorequationofaline
 FindtheCartesianequationofaline
TopicTime
8.0Introduction
ThistopicwillfocusonhowtowritethevectorandCartesianequationofalineinthreed
imensions.Findingthepointofintersectionoftwolinesinthreedimensionsandperp
endiculardistancebetweenapointandalinewillalsobediscussed.
8.1VectorEquationofaLine
Toobtainthevectorequationofalinewemustbeprovidedwith;
→
i)Aknownpointontheline Pk ( a , b , c ) andii)Aknownvectorontheline B=ei+fj+gk
Wethereforeproceedtofindthevectorequationofalinethatcontainsthepoint
→
Pk ( a , b , c ) B=ei+fj+gk
andthevector .
→
PM ( x , y , z ) A
Let beanyontheline.Wealsolet tobethepositionvectoroftheknownpoin
→
Pk ( a , b , c ) r PM ( x , y , z )
t and tobethepositionvectorof .Alltheseisdemonstratedinthefi
gurebelow.
182
Wenotethat;
→
A =ai+bj+ck
(1)
→
r =xi+ yj+zk
(2)
→ →
Pk P M B
Vectors and lieonthesamelineandhencetheyarecollinear.Therefore;
→ →
Pk P M = λ B
(3)
Wenotethat;
→ → →
OP M =OP k +Pk P M
(4)
182
Substituting(3)in(4)yields;
→ → →
r= A + λ B
(5)
→
r =ai+ bj+ ck + λ ( ei+ fj+ gk )
(6)
Equation(6)iscalledthevectorequationofline.
Example8.1
→
r =2i−3 j+4 k + λ (−i+2 j−7 k )
Findapointandavectorontheline
Solution
Thevectorequationofalineisgivenby;
→
→
(a , b , c ) B=ei+fj+gk
where isapointonthelineand isavectorontheline.
a=2 , b=−3 c=4

Wefindthat
( 2,−3,4 )
Hencepointonthelineis
e=−1 , f =2 g=−7
Wefindthat
→
B=−i+2 j−7 k
Hencevectoronthelineis
Activity8.1
Findapointandavectorontheline;
→ →
r =−4 i+6 j−k +λ (3 i+2 j+9 k ) r =−i−4 j+8 k +λ (−10 i−13 j+5 k )
i) ii)
182
→ →
r =7 i+4 j−11k +λ ( 2 j−7 k ) r =2i+5 k +λ (−i−12 j )
iii) iv)
Example8.2
(−5 , 2, 9 ) 3 i−4 j−7 k

Findthevectorequationoflineifpoint andvector lieonit.
Solution
Thevectorequationofalineisgivenby;
→
→
a=−5 , b=2 c=9 , e=3 , f =−4 g=−7

Wefindthat
Hencethevectorequationis;
→
r =−5i+2 j+9 k + λ ( 3 i−4 j−7 k )
Activity8.2
( 3,−2,−4 ) −2 i+ j−9 k
FindthevectorequationoflineLifpoint andvector lieonit.
8.2CartesianEquationofaLine
Equation(6)canbeexpressedincolumnformas;
→
r=¿ ( a¿)( b¿ ) ¿ ¿¿
¿ (7)
Substituting(2)in(7)weget;

182
( x¿ )( y ¿) ¿ ¿¿
¿
x=a +λe
y=b+λf
z=c +λg
λe=x−a
λf = y−b
λg=z−c
x−a
λ=
e
y−b
λ=
f
z−c
λ=
g
(8)
Equation(8)yields;
x−a y−b z−c

= =
e f g
(9)
Equation(9)iscalledtheCartesianequationofastraightline.It’sobservedinthisequ
ationthatfromthenumeratorweseeknownpointonthelineandfromdenominatorw
eseeknownvectorontheline.
Example8.3
x−1 y +3 2 z−6
= =
5 −2 4
Findthepointandthevectorontheline
Solution

182
x+ s x−(−s ) s−x −( x−s ) x−s
= = =
t t t t −t
Recallthat;i) ii)
ax +s
=
( as ) = {a ( x + as )} 1a = x + as
a x+
t( )
t t 1 t
a a
iii)
Rearrangingthesecondpartofthegivenequation
y+ 3 y−(−3 )
=
−2 −2
Rearrangingthethirdpartofthegivenequation
2 z−6 2 (z −3) z−3

= =
4 4 2
Hencethegivenequationyields;
x−1 y −(−3) z−3

= =
5 −2 2
(2)
TheCartesianequationofalineisgivenby;
x−a y−b z−c

= =
e f g
(3)
→
where isapointonthelineand isavectorontheline.Comparing(
2)and(3);
a=1 , b=−3 c=3

Wefindthat
( 1,−3,3 )
Hencepointonthelineis

182
e=5 , f =−2 g=2
Wealsonotethat
→
B=5 i−2 j+2 k
Hencevectoronthelineis
Example8.4
3−x 8−3 z
=2 y−3=
5 7
Findthepointandthevectorontheline
Solution
Rearrangingthefirstpartofthegivenequation
3−x −( x−3 ) x −3
= =
5 5 −5
Rearrangingthesecondpartofthegivenequation
2 y−3 2 ( y−1 .5 ) y −1. 5

2 y−3= = =
1 1 0 .5
Rearrangingthethirdpartofthegivenequation
8−3 z −( 3 z −8 )
= =
−3 z− ( 83 ) = z− 83
7 7 7 −7
3
Hencethegivenequationyields;
8
z−
x−3 y−1 .5 3
= =
−5 0.5 −7
3
( 3 , 1. 5 ,
8
3 )
Pointontheline

182
→ 7
B=−5 i+0 .5 j− k
3
Vectorontheline
Activity8.3
Findthepointandthevectorontheline;
x−7 y−1 2 x−12 y 3−z

= =z−8 = =
−3 4 −3 4 2
i) ii)
4 x−1 7−2 y 3+2 z 3x 6 z +5

= = =5−2 y=
9 4 8 2 2
iii) iv)
Example8.5
→
( 1,−9,1 ) r =3i+3 j−k +λ ( i+6 j−k )
Provethatpoint liesontheline
Solution
Wearegiven;
→
r =3i+3 j−k +λ ( i+6 j−k )
→
r =xi+ yj+zk (x , y , z)
But where isanypointontheline
→
r
Wethereforesubstitute inthegivenequationtoget;
xi+ yj+ zk=3i+3 j−k + λ (i+6 j−k )

(1)
Substitutingthegivenpointin(1)
i−9 j+k=3 i+3 j−k +λ ( i+6 j−k )
i−9 j+k=( 3+ λ ) i+ ( 3+6 λ ) j+ (−1−λ ) k

182
3+λ=1
3+6 λ=−9
−1− λ=1
(2)
λ
Aftersolvingequation(1)thevalueof mustbethesameinallthethreeequationsifth
egivenpointliesonthegivenline.
Solvingequations(2)weget;
λ=−2 λ=−2 λ=−2

inpart(i) inpart(ii)and inpart(iii)
λ
Sincethevalueof isthesame,thenthegivenpointliesontheline.
Example8.6
→ →
r =17 i+2 j−6k+λ (−9i+3 j+9k ) r =2i−12 j−k +λ (−3 i+ j+3 k )
Provethatlines and ar
eparallel
Solution
→
r1 λ1
Wefirstdistinguishthetwolinesbynamingthefirstlineas anditsparameter andt
→
r2 λ2
henthesecondlineas anditsparameter
Henceweget;
→
r 1 =17 i+ 2 j−6 k + λ1 (−9 i+3 j+9 k )
→
r 2 =2 i−12 j−k + λ2 (−3 i+ j+3 k )
→ →
r1 r2
Thetwolinescanonlybeparallelifthevectoronline isparalleltothevectoronline .

182
→ →
r 1 B1 =−9 i+3 j+9 k
Vectoronline is
→ →
r 2 B2 =−3 i+ j+ 3 k
Vectoronline is
→ →
B1 B2
Thereforethetwolinesareparallelif isparallelto .
→ → → →
B1 B2 B1 =t B 2
isparallelto if
→
B1 =−9 i+3 j+9 k=3 (−3 i+ j+3 k )
→ →
B1 =3 B2
Wefindthat;
→ →
B1 B2
Therefore isparallelto andhencethetwolinesareparallel.
Example8.7
→
r =2i−3 j+4k+ λ ( 6 i+7 j−k )
Findthepointofintersectionofthelines and
→
r =2i−12 j−k +λ (−3 i+ j+3 k )
.
Solution
→
r1 λ1
Wefirstdistinguishthetwolinesbynamingthefirstlineas anditsparameter andt
→
r2 λ2
henthesecondlineas anditsparameter
Henceweget;
→
r 1 =2 i−3 j+4 k +λ 1 ( 6 i+7 j−k )

182
→
r 2 =2 i−12 j−k + λ2 (−3 i+ j+3 k )
( m ,l , n )
Let bethepointofintersection.Thispointmustlieonthetwolinesatthepointofi
ntersection.
→
r1
Fromline wehave;
→
r 1 =2 i−3 j+4 k +λ 1 ( 6 i+7 j−k )
xi+ yj+ zk =2i−3 j+ 4 k + λ1 ( 6 i +7 j−k )
( m ,l , n )
Substitutingpoint
mi+ lj+nk =2i−3 j+ 4 k+ λ1 ( 6 i +7 j −k )
mi+ lj+nk =( 2+6 λ 1 ) i+ (−3+7 λ 1 ) j + ( 4−λ 1 ) k
m=2+6 λ1
l=−3+ 7 λ1
n=4−λ 1
(1)
→
r2
Fromline wehave;
→
r 2 =2 i−12 j−k + λ2 (−3 i+ j+3 k )
xi+ yj+ zk =2i−12 j−k + λ 2 (−3 i+ j +3 k )
( m ,l , n )
Substitutingpoint
mi+ lj+nk =2i−12 j −k + λ 2 (−3 i+ j +3 k )

182
mi+ lj+nk =( 2−3 λ 2 ) i + (−12+ λ 2 ) j + ( −1+3 λ2 ) k
m=2−3 λ2
l=−12+ λ2
n=−1+3 λ2
(2)
Comparing(1)and(2)yields;
2+6 λ 1=2−3 λ2
−3+7 λ 1=−12+ λ2
4− λ1 =−1+3 λ2
6 λ 1 +3 λ2 =0
7 λ 1−λ 2 =−9
λ 1 +3 λ2 =5
(3)
λ1 λ2
Solveanytwoequationssimultaneouslytoget and
2 λ1 + λ2 =0
7 λ 1−λ 2 =−9
(4)
Solving(4)yields;
λ 1=−1 , λ2 =2
(5)
( m ,l . n )
Wesubstitute(5)ineither(1)or(2)togetthepointofintersection
m=−4 , l=−10 , n=5 (−4,−10,5 )

Aftersubstitutingweget .Hencethepointis
Example8.8
A ( 4 ,−3,10 )
Findtheperpendiculardistancebetweenthepoint andtheline

182
→
r=¿ (1 ¿)( 2¿ ) ¿ ¿¿
¿
Solution
Q(l , m, n )
Welet tobeapointonthegivenlinesuchthatAQisperpendiculartotheline.
A ( 4 ,−3,10 )
→
r
Q ( l, m , n )
Incolumnformthegivenlinecanbewrittenas;
→
r=¿ (1 ¿)( 2¿ ) ¿ ¿¿
¿
( x ¿ )( y ¿ ) ¿ ¿¿
¿
Q(l , m, n )
Point mustsatisfythisequationbecauseitliesontheline.

182
( l ¿ )( m ¿ ) ¿ ¿¿
¿
l=1+3 λ
m=2−λ
n=3+2 λ
Q(l , m, n )
Hencepoint canbeexpressedas;
Q(1+3 λ , 2−λ ,3+2 λ )

(1)
→
AQ
Thecolumnvector isthereforegivenby;
→
AQ =( 3 λ−3 ) i+ (− λ+5 ) j+ ( 2 λ−7 ) k
(2)
Vectoronthegivenlineis;
→
B=3 i− j+2 k
(3)
→ →
AQ B
Vectors and areperpendicularandtherefore;
→ →
AQ⋅B =0
(4)
3 ( 3 λ−3 )−1 (−λ+5 )+2 ( 2 λ−7 ) =0
λ=2
(5)

182
Q ( 7,0,7 )
→
AQ =3 i+3 j−3 k
→
|AQ|= √27
Activity8.4
→ →
r =i−5 j−2 k+λ (2 i− j+4 k ) r =9i+2 j−k +λ ( 4 i−2 j+8 k )
a)Provethatlines and arepa
rallel
b)Findthepointofintersectionofthelines;
→ →
r =3i−2 j−k+λ (−i+3 j+4 k ) r =2i−4 j+k +λ (−i−2 k )
i) and .
→ →
r =3i−2 j−k+λ (−i+3 j+4 k ) r =−2i+ j+ λ ( 2i−3 j+3 k )
ii) and
y−2 x−1 y +3
x= =1−z = =z −2
2 −3 −3
iii) and
c)Findtheanglebetweenthelines;
→ →
r =2i−3 j+4 k+ λ ( 6 i+7 j−k ) r =2i−12 j−k +λ (−3 i+ j+3 k )
i) and .
→ →
r =3i−2 j−k+λ (−i+3 j+4 k ) r =−2i+ j+ λ ( 2i−3 j+3k )
ii) and
y−2 x−1 y +3
x= =1−z = =z −2
2 −3 −3
iii) and
Hint;Thinkofdotproductofvectorsonthelines.

182
TOPICSUMMARY
Wehavenotedthatthevectorequationofalineisgivenby;
→
→
WehavealsonotedthattheCartesianequationofalineisgivenby;
x−a y−b z−c

= =
e f g
It’sobservedinthisequationthatfromthenumeratorweseeknownpointonthelinea
ndfromdenominatorweseeknownvectorontheline.
TOPICNINE-VECTORANDCARTESIANEQUATIONOFAPLANE
LearningOutcome
 Findthevectorequationofaplane
 FindtheCartesianequationofaplane
TopicTime
9.0Introduction
ThistopicwillfocusonhowtowritethevectorandCartesianequationofaplane.Findin
gthelineofintersectionoftwoplanesandanglebetweenalineandaplanewillalsobed
iscussed.

182
9.1VectorEquationofaplane
Toobtainthevectorequationofaplaneweneedaknownpointontheplaneandavecto
rperpendiculartotheplane.Let A( a ,b , c) beaknownpointontheplaneand
→
H =li+mj+nk beavectorperpendiculartotheplane.
→
H =li+mj+nk
Plane
A ( a , b, c ) Q ( x, y , z )
→ →
W r
O ( 0,0,0 )
→
Q ( x, y , z ) W
Welet tobeanypointontheplane.Wealsolet tobethepositionvectorof
→
A ( a , b, c ) r Q ( x, y , z )
and tobethepositionvectorof .
Therefore;
→
r =xi+ yj+zk
(1)
→
W =ai+bj+ck
(2)
→
AQ
Wenotethatvector liesontheplaneandit’sthereforeperpendiculartothevector
→
H
.Wefindthat;
182
→ → →
AQ = AO +OQ
→ → →
AQ =r −W
(3)
→ →
AQ⋅H =0
(4)
Substituting(3)in(5)
→ → →
( r −W )⋅H =0
→ → → →
r⋅H −W⋅H =0
→ → → →
r⋅H =W⋅H
→ →
r⋅H =d
→ →
where d=W⋅H
(5)
Equation(5)iscalledthevectorequationofaplane.Incolumnform,equation(5)c
analsobewrittenas;
→
r⋅¿ (l ¿)(m ¿) ¿ ¿¿
¿ (6)
Equation(6)isthevectorequationofaplaneincolumnform.
Example9.1
( 3,−2,5 )
thevectorequationofplanethatcontainspoint andisperpendiculartoth
Find
i+4 j−2 k
evector
182
Solution
Thevectorequationofplaneisgivenby;
→ →
r⋅H =d
→ →
where d=W⋅H
→
H =li+mj+nk
isavectorperpendiculartotheplane
→
W =ai+bj+ck A ( a , b, c )
isthepositionvectorofknownpointontheplane
Hence
→ →
H =i+4 j−2 k W =3 i−2 j+5 k
d=(1)(3 )+( 4 )(−2 )+(−2)(5 )=−15
→
→ r⋅¿ ( 1 ¿ )( 4 ¿ ) ¿ ¿¿
r⋅( i + 4 j−2 k )=−15
or
¿
Activity9.1
(−4,−1,8 )
Findthevectorequationofplanethatcontainspoint andisperpendiculart
a)
2 i−3 j+k
othevector
Findthevectorequationofplanethatcontainsapointwhosepositionvectoris
b)
6 i−2 j+4 k −i+7 j−9 k
andisperpendiculartothevector
9.1CartesianEquationofaplane

182
Wenotedthatthevectorequationofplaneisgivenby;
→
r⋅¿ (l ¿)(m ¿) ¿ ¿¿
¿ whichcanalsobewrittenas;
→
r⋅( li+ mj+nk )=d
(1)
→
r =xi+ yj+zk
But (2)
→ →
lx+my +nz=d where d=W⋅H
(3)
Equation(3)iscalledtheCartesianequationofplane.
Example9.2
( 3,−2,5 )
FindtheCartesianequationofplanethatcontainspoint andisperpendiculart
i+4 j−2 k
othevector
Solution
TheCartesianequationofplaneisgivenby;
→ →
→
H =li+mj+nk
isavectorperpendiculartotheplane
→
W =ai+bj+ck A ( a , b, c )
isthepositionvectorofknownpointontheplane
Hence

182
→
H =i+4 j−2 k Hence l=1 , m=4 , n=−2
→
W =3 i−2 j+5 k
d=(1)(3 )+( 4 )(−2 )+(−2)(5 )=−15
x +4 y−2 z=−15
Example9.3
3 x+7 y−4 z=12

Findthevectorperpendiculartoaplane
Solution
Equationofaplaneisgivenby;
→ →
Thereforefromthegivenplanewehave;
l=3 , m=7 , n=−4 , and d=12
→
H =li+mj+nk
isavectorperpendiculartotheplane.Therefore;
→
H =3 i+7 j−4 k
Example9.4
→
r =5 i+3 j−k +λ ( i−4 j+2 k )
Findthepointofintersectionoftheline andtheplane
→
r⋅( 2 i+ j+3 k )=12
.

182
Solution
(e , f , g )
Welet tobethepointofintersectionandhenceitmustsatisfyboththeequation
ofaplaneandthatoftheline.
Fromtheequationofthelinewehave;
→
r =5 i+3 j−k +λ ( i−4 j+2 k )
xi+ yj+zk =5i+3 j−k +λ (i−4 j+2 k )
(e , f , g )
Sincepoint mustsatisfythisequationwesubstitutetoget;
ei+ fj+ gk=5 i+3 j−k + λ ( i−4 j+2 k )

(1)
Incolumnform,equation(1)yields;
( e ¿ )( f ¿ ) ¿ ¿¿
¿
e=5+ λ
f =3−4 λ
g=−1+2 λ
(2)
Fromtheequationoftheplanewehave;
→
r⋅( 2 i+ j+3 k )=12
( xi+ yj+ zk )⋅( 2i+ j+3 k )=12
(e , f , g )
Sincepoint mustsatisfythisequationwesubstitutetoget;

182
( ei+ fj+ gk )⋅( 2 i+ j+3 k ) =12
2e+ f +3 g=12
(3)
2 ( 5+λ )+ (3−4 λ ) +3 (−1+2 λ ) =12
1
λ=
2
(4)
e=5 . 5 , f =1, g=0 ( 5.5,1,0 )

Requiredpoint
Example9.5
→ →
r =3i+3 j−2 k +λ ( i+ j−k ) r⋅( 3 i−2 j+k )=1
Showthattheline liesontheplane
Solution
MethodI
→
B
Ifthegivenlineliesonthegivenplane,thenthevectorontheline mustbeperpendic
→ →
H H
ulartovector .Recall isthevectorperpendiculartotheplane.
Therefore;
→ →
B⋅H =0
Fromthegivenequationofalineweget;
→
B=i+ j−k
Fromthegivenequationofaplaneweget;
182
→
H =3 i−2 j+k
→ →
B⋅H =(1)(3 )+(1)(−2 )+(−1)(1)=0
MethodII
Ifthegivenlineliesonthegivenplane,thenthepointonthelinemustalsolieontheplan
e.
Fromthegivenequationofaplanewenotethat;
d=1
Fromthegivenequationofalinewegetpointonthelineas;
( 3,3,−2 )
.Thispointalsoliesontheplaneandhence;
→
W =3 i+3 j−2 k
Fromthegivenequationofaplaneweget;
→
H =3 i−2 j+k
→ →
d=W⋅H
Recall
→ →
W⋅H =(3)(3 )+(3)(−2)+(−2)(1)=1
Example9.6
FindtheCartesianandvectorequationofalinethatisformedbyintersectionofthepla
7 x−4 y +3 z=−3 4 x+2 y +z=4
nes and
Solution
Step1

182
Eliminateybysolvingthetwoequationssimultaneouslyandthenmakexthesubject
;
7 x−4 y +3 z=−3
4 x+ 2 y + z=4
42x−24 y+18z=−18¿ }¿¿+

¿
90x+30z=30
3 x+ z=1
1−z
x=
3
(1)
Step2
Eliminatezbysolvingthetwoequationssimultaneouslyandthenmakexthesubject
;
7x−4 y+3z=−3¿ }¿¿−

¿
5x+10z=15
x +2 y=3
3−2 y
x=
1
(2)
Combiningequations(1)and(2)yields;
3−2 y 1−z
x= =
1 3
x−0 y−1 .5 z−1

= =
1 −0 . 5 −3
(3)

182
Equation(3)istherequiredCartesianequationoftheline.
Vectorequationis;
→
r =1 . 5 j+k +λ (i−0 .5 j−3 k )
Example9.7
x+1 y−2 z−3

= =
4 −1 −1 3 x−5 y +4 z=5
Findtheacutebetweentheline andtheplane
Solution
Vectorperpendiculartotheplaneis;
→
H =3 i−5 j+4 k
Vectoronthelineis;
→
B=4 i− j−k

182
Fromdefinitionofdotproductweget;
→ → → →
H⋅B=|H||B|cos00
→ →
H⋅B=(3)( 4 )+(−1)(−5 )+(−1 )(4 )=13
→
|H|=√ 9+25+16=7.07
→
|B|=√16+1+1=4.24
13=(7 . 07)( 4 . 24 )cos θ
cos θ=0 . 4337

182
θ=64 . 30
α
Let betheanglebetweentheplaneandtheline.Weget;
α=180 0−( 900 +64 .3 0 )

α=25 . 70
Activity9.3
( 2,4,−5 )
FindtheCartesianequationofplanethatcontainspoint andisperpendicula
a)
2 i−6 j+7 k
rtothevector
−2 x+6 y−8 z=12

b)Findthevectorperpendiculartoaplane
→
r =3i+ j−3 k +λ (−i+2 j+4 k )
c)Findthepointofintersectionoftheline andtheplane
→
r⋅( 3 i− j+ 2 k )=8
.
→ →
r =i+4 j+10 k + λ ( 2i−3 j+k ) r⋅( 3 i+ j−3 k )=−23
d)Showthattheline liesontheplane
e)FindtheCartesianandvectorequationofalinethatisformedbyintersectionofthep
x−2 y +3 z=5 3 x+ y+2 z=3
lanes and
x−3 y+ 5 z−1
= =
2 4 5 x− y +4 z=7
f)Findtheanglebetweentheline andtheplane
x+1 z−3 →
= y −2=
4 −1 r⋅( 3 i−5 j+4 k )=5
g)Findtheanglebetweentheline andtheplane
( 1,−2,−3 ) 3 x−5 y +4 z=5

h)Showthatpoint liesontheplane .

182
→
r =2i− j+3 k +λ ( 5 i+3 j+2 k )
i)Findthepointofintersectionoftheline andtheplane
x +2 y−z=15
.
→ →
r⋅( i− j +k ) =7 r⋅( 2 i−3 j+3 k )=10
j)Findtheanglebetweentheplanes and
6 x +2 y+5 z=4 x−4 y +3 z=9

k)Findtheanglebetweentheplanes and
9.1PerpendicularDistancebetweenaPlaneandaPoint
WestatewithoutproofthattheperpendiculardistanceLbetweenaplane
ax +by + cz+ d=0 (e , f , g )

andthepoint isgivenby;
ae +bf +cg +d
L=
√ a2 + b2 + c 2
Example9.8
→
r⋅( 2 i−3 j+3 k )=10
Findtheperpendiculardistancebetweentheplane andthepoint
( 1,−2,−3 )
.
Solution
WefirstfindtheequationoftheplaneinCartesianformwhereweget;
2 x−3 y +3 z=10
(1)
ax +by + cz+ d=0

Weexpressequation(1)intheform whichgives;
2 x−3 y +3 z−10=0
Therefore;

182
a=2 , b=−3 , c=3 , d=−10 , e=1 , f =−2, g=−3
PerpendiculardistanceLisgivenby;
(2 )(1)+(−3 )(−2 )+(3 )(−3 )−10

L=
√ 22+(−3 )2+32
L=−2 . 35
ignorenegativebecauseit’sdistance.
L=2 . 35
Activity9.4
→
r⋅(−4 i+7 j+k )=6
Findtheperpendiculardistancebetweentheplane andthepoint
( 3,9,−2 )
.
TOPICSUMMARY
Wehavenotedthatthevectorequationofaplaneisgivenby;
→ →
r⋅H =d
→ →
where d=W⋅H
→
r⋅¿ (l ¿)(m ¿) ¿ ¿¿
Theequationcanalsobewrittenincolumnformas
¿
→ →
TheCartesianequationofplaneisgivenby

182
10:POLARCOORDINATES
LessonObjectives
Attheendofthistopicastudentshouldbeto:
 Plotpointsusingpolarcoordinates.
 Convertfrompolarcoordinatestorectangularcoordinates.
 Convertfromrectangularcoordinatestopolarcoordinates.
 Transformequationsbetweenpolarandrectangularforms.
 Identifyandgraphpolarequationsbyconvertingtorectangularequations.
TopicDuration:
 Compulsoryonlinereading,activitiesandself-
assessmentsandpractice:5Hours
 Optionalfurtherreading:3Hours

182
 Totalstudentinput:8Hours
TopicLearningrequirements:
Readingthenotes,payingcloseattentiontoexamplesgivenandattemptingalltheex
ercisesandactivitiesgiven.
Introduction
Thepolarcoordinatesystemisanewcoordinatesystemthatlocatespointsbytheirdi
stancefromtheoriginanddirectioninstandardanglemeasureisanalternativewayt
odescribethegraphsofequations.Theadvantageofusingthisnewsystemisthatma
nyequationsbecomesimplerinthesecoordinates,andtherearealsomanybeautiful
graphsthatarisethatyouwouldn’tthinkofusingx-ycoordinates.
Bigskill:.Youshouldbeabletoswitchbetweenpolarandrectangularcoordinatesfo
rapointontheplane,andsketchthegraphsofpolarequations.
Rectangularcoordinates:InCartesian(Rectangular)coordinatesystem,theco
ordinatesarenumberscalledtheabscissaandtheordinate,andthesenumbersaredi
recteddistancesfromtwofixedlines.
abscissa; ordinate
Thusthecoordinatesystemdescribeshowto“getto”apointfromtheoriginbywalkin
gEast-West,thenNorth-
South.Forexample,togettothepoint(2,1)fromtheorigin,walk2unitseast,then1u
nitnorth:

182
(2, 1)
Polarcoordinates:Inpolarcoordinatesystem,thecoordinatesconsistofadistanc
eandameasureofananglerelativetoafixedpointandfixedray(orhalfline).Thefixed
pointiscalledthepoleororigin,andisdenotedbyletter Thefixedrayiscalledthepol
araxis(orpolarline),whichwelabel .Therayisusuallydrawnhorizontallyandtoth
eright,anditextendsindefinitely.
Thus,polarcoordinatesdescribehowto“getto”apointfromtheorigin“asthecrowflie
s;”thatis,byturningtowardthecorrectdirection,andthenwalkingstraighttothepoi
nt.Forexample,togettothepoint(2,1)fromtheorigin,turnthroughanangle
radians(asmeasuredfromthestandardposition),andthenwalk
adistanceof unitsalongthatdirection:

182
Thus,thelocationofapointontheplanecanberepresentedbythecoordinates(x,y),
orthecoordinates(r,),andtherelationshipbetweenrectangularcoordinatesandp
olarcoordinatesisbasedontrigonometry:
PlottingPolarCoordinates
Considerthefollowingexamples:
Example:
(a)Sketchaplotof
Procedure:
Wemeasureangleof fromthepolaraxisinthecounterclockwisedirection,an
dthenmeasure1unitfromtheorigintothepointcorrespondingtotheangle.Hence,w
ehave:
Practice:Plotthefollowing:(a) (b) (c)
Convertingfrompolarcoordinatestorectangularcoordinates:

182
Plugintotheequations
Example:Convertthefollowingpolarcoordinatestorectangularcoordinates:
(a)
Solution:
Observethat:
Hence,therequiredrectangularcoordinatesaregivenby:
(b)
Solution:
Takenotethat:
Thentherequiredrectangularcoordinatesaregivenby:
Practice:Plotandfindrectangularcoordinatesforthepolarpoints ,
, ,and .

182
y

x
        


Convertingfromrectangularcoordinatestopolarcoordinates:
Plugintotheequations ,thensolveforrand.
 Keepinmindthatrcouldbepositiveornegative.
 Keepinmindthatisonlydefinedtowithinmultiplesof2.
Keepinmindthatsincethedomainofthearctangentfunctionis ,youhaveto
workalittlehardertogetthecorrectangleforwhenisinquadrantsIIorIIIbyeither:
o lookingatthegraphandusingreferenceangles
o usingthesimplecomputersciencetrick: whenx<0.
Example:Covertthefollowingrectangularcoordinatesintopolarcoordinates
sothat and :
(a)
Solution:
Recallthat
182
Thentherequiredpolarcoordinatesisgivenby:
(b)
Solution:
Likeintheexampleabove,weseethat
Thentherequiredpolarcoordinatesis:
Practice:Findthepolarcoordinatesoftherectangularpoints(3,3),(-2,1),(-1,-
2),and(2,-2).
y

x
        


Convertinganequationfromrectangularcoordinatestopolarcoordinates
:
Makethesubstitutions
Example
Writeapolarequationoftheline throughthepointswiththerectangularcoordinates
and .
Solution:

182
Theequationofthelineinrectangularcoordinatesiscalculatedasfollows:
Theslope,
Hencetheequationofthelineinrectangularcoordinateformis:
Weknowthat
Hencethepolarequationofthelineis:
Inconclusion,thegraphoftheequation isalinethroughthepoleforminganangl
e
ofmeasure withthepolaraxis.Furthermore,allpointsoftheform,forinstance
foranyvalue are2unitsfromthepoleand,therefore,determineacirclewithce
nter andradius Thusthegraphofthepolarequationr=2forall isacircle
Practice:Converttheequationsx2+y2=9andy=2xintopolarcoordinates.
ConvertinganequationfromPolarcoordinatestoRectangularcoordinate
sform:
Considertheexamplebelow.

182
Example:Showthat istheequationofacirclebyconvertingtorectangula
rcoordinatesform.
Solution:
Notethat:
Puttingtheaboveintothegivenpolarequationleadsto:
Whichbycompletingsquaremethodleadsto:
Whichisequationofacircle,center andradius, .
Example:Covertthefollowingpolarequationintorectangularcoordinateformandi
dentifythecurve
Solution:
Whichistheequationofaparabolawithdirectrix andfocus .
Sketchingapolarcoordinateequationr=f():
Makeatableofvalues
Makeagraphofy=f(x),identifyintervalsofincrease/
decrease,thenmakeatablethatdescribeshowtheradiuschangesoverthoseinterv
als.
182
Youmayalsodoitbyconvertingtheequationtorectangularcoordinates.However
,thatislikelycomplicateissuesinsomeinstances.
YoucouldalsoplugthefunctionintoWinplotoryourcalculatorandbedonewithitalr
eady…
Practice:
Sketchthegraphofr=sin().
y =y sin(x); 0.000000 <= x <= 6.283185


x
   

Sketchthegraphofr=.

182
Sketchthegraphofr=3+2cos().
y


y = 3 + 2cos(x); 0.000000 <= x <= 6.283190
x
   

Sketchthegraphofr=2–2sin().

182
y

y = 2 - 2sin(x); 0.000000 <= x <= 6.283190

x
   

Sketchthegraphofr=1–2sin().
y y = 1 - 2sin(x); 0.000000 <= x <= 6.283190


x
   


182
Sketchthegraphofr=sin(2).
x
   

y = sin(2x); 0.000000 <= x <= 6.283190
Activity
Attemptthefollowingquestions
1.Plotthefollowingpolarcoordinates
(a) (b) (c)
2.Showthatthepolarcoordinates and communicateoneandthesa

mepoint.Giveotherpolarcoordinatesthatcommunicatethesame.Whatisyourcon
clusionaboutpolarcoordinatesasopposedtorectangularcoordinates?
3.Convertthefollowingpolarcoordinatesintorectangularcoordinates
(a) (b)
4.Convertthefollowingrectangularcoordinatesintopolarcoordinates
(a) (b) (c)

5.Sketchgraphoftheequations:
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

6.Convertthefollowingequationstopolarform
(a) tothesimplestpolarform
(b)
182
(c)
(d)
7.Convertthefollowingpolarformsintorectangularforms
(a)
(b)
(c)
(e)
(f)
(g)
11:INTRODUCTIONTOCOMPLEXNUMBERS
LessonofObjectives:
Attheendofthecoursetopicastudentshouldbeableto:
 Define,identifyanddenoteacomplexnumber;
 Understandthegeometricinterpretation,andsketchacomplexnumberinthe
complexplane;
 Performbasicalgebrainvolvingcomplexnumbers(Addition,Subtraction,Mu
ltiplicationandDivision);
 DeriveandapplyDe’Moivre’sFormula
 Usecomplextheorytofindnthrootsofcomplexnumbersaswellasfindsolution
stosimplepolynomialequations.
TopicDuration:
 Compulsoryonlinereading,activitiesandself-
assessmentsandpractice:5Hours
 Optionalfurtherreading:3Hours
 Totalstudentinput:8Hours
TopicLearningrequirements:
Readingthenotes,payingcloseattentiontoexamplesgivenandattemptingalltheex
ercisesandactivitiesgiven
182
Introduction-ImaginaryUnit:
Uptothispointweknowthatitisnotquitepossibletofindtherootsofnegativenumber
s.Well,itispossible.Theimaginaryunit representanumberwhosesquarerootis .
Thatis, .Observethataproblemsuchas hasnosolutions,sinceforan
yrealnumber thesquare isnonnegative.Therefore, canneverbelessthan
.However,thefacility comestotherescueandoftenleadstoveryusefulresult
s.Hence,weeasilyfindthat .This,therefore,meansthat .
Wecouldalsohave or
.
Hence,weseethat:
2
i =( √−1 ) =−1
2
3 2
i =( √−1 ) =( √−1 ) ( √−1 )=−1⋅i=−i
3
4 2 2
i =( √−1 ) =( √−1 ) ( √−1 ) =−1⋅−1 =+1
4
DefinitionofComplexNumbers:
Acomplexnumber isanumberoftheform ,where and arerealnumbers
and istheimaginaryunitdefinedby .Note, iscalledtherealpartof denote
by and istheimaginarypartof,denotedby .
Traditionallytheletters and areusedtostandforcomplexnumbers.
OperationsonComplexNumbers:
AdditionandSubtraction:Thissimilartogroupingliketermswhererealpartsarec
ombinedwithrealpartsandimaginarypartsarecombinedwithimaginaryparts.
Example:
Expressintheformofacomplexnumber .

182
1.
2.
3.
4.
MultiplicationofComplexNumbers
Themultiplicationoftwocomplexnumbersisperformedusingpropertiessimilartot
hoseoftherealnumbers(FOIL)anddistributiveproperty.Rememberthat.
Example
Simplifyeachexpressionandexpressintheformofacomplexnumber :
1.
2.
3.
4.
DivisionofComplexNumber
Ingeometryandsimplealgebrawearealreadyawareofhowrationalizethedenomin
atorofanexpressionliketheexpressionbelow.Generally,Wemultipliednumerator
anddenominatorbythe“conjugate”ofthedenominator, :Thatis,

182
Considerthecomplexnumberarrangementandexpressitinitsstandardform,
.Inthiscasetheconjugateofthedenominatoris .Hence,wehave
Attemptthefollowingquestions:
Simplifyeachradicalusingimaginarynumbers.
1. 2.√ −7 3. 4.
5.√ −16⋅√−2
5 6
6.i³ 7.i 8.i
Simplifyandwritefinalanswerinstandardform(a+bi).
1. 2. 3.
4. 5. 6.
7. 8. 9.

182
Writethefollowingquotientsinstandardform.
1. 2. 3.
Simplifyeachradicalusingimaginarynumbers.
1. 2.√ −7 = 3. 4.
5.√ −16⋅√−2
5 6
6.i³ 7.i 8.i
Simplifyandwritefinalanswerinstandardform(a+bi).
2. 2. 3. 4.
5. 6.
7. 8. 9.
Writethefollowingquotientsinstandardform.
2. 2. 3.
GraphicalIllustrationofComplexNumbers
Sinceanycomplexnumberisspecifiedbytworealnumbersonecanvisualizethemby
plottingapointwithcoordinates intheplaneforacomplexnumber .Thepla

neinwhichoneplotthesecomplexnumbersiscalledtheComplexplane,orArgandpla
ne.
Figure1

182
ArgumentandAbsoluteValue
Givenanycomplexnumber ,theabsolutevalueormodulusof isgivenby:
Sothat isthedistancefromtheorigintothecomplexnumber inthecomplexplane

suchasinthefigureabove.
Theangle iscalledtheargumentofthecomplexnumber .Thisisdenotedby
.Note,theargumentisdefineduptoamultipleof .Thatis,forinstance,th
eargumentof couldbe Sothatonecouldsaythat:
,where isaninteger.
Now,trigonometry,weknowthatforanycomplexnumber wehave
and
Thisimpliesthatanycomplexnumbercanalsobeexpressedintermsofitsargument
andmodulus.Thatis:
Denoting ,where ,then

182
And
Example:Findthemodulusandtheargumentof ;henceexpressthecomple
xnumberintermsofmodulusandargument.
Solution:
Themodulus, .Observethat liesinthefirstquadrant,andhenceth
eargumentwillbeanglebetween and .Andnow,from wefindthat
Hence,wehave ………youmaysimplify.
Observethatif and ,then
,thus and
Givenacomplexnumber ,then isreferredtoasthecomplexconju
gateof .Notethat
Alsotakethat:Given and ,where , and
then

182
and
De’Moivre’sFormula
Assumethatforsomecomplexnumber , and then
Fromtheformulaobtainedaboveweobservethat
……….(De’Moivre’sFormula)
Hence,note:
and
Sothat,forinstance,if and
Then,byDe’Moivre’sformulaweseethat:
Exercise:UseDe’Moivre’sformulatoshowthat
(i)
(ii)
TheComplexExponentialFunction
Considerthecomplexexponentialquantity ,andletconsiderfirstacasewhere
.Theweknowthatforany ,

182
Hence,if then
Theaboveformulagivesarelationbetweenfiveveryimportantquantitiesinmathem
atics, and .ItisreferredtoustheEulerIdentity.
Figure2
Itis,therefore,alsoimportanttoremembertheabovepresentationthat:
Whichnaturallyimpliesthat
ComplexRootsofNumber
Foranygivennumber thereisamethodforfindingallthecomplexsolutionsoftheeq
uation:

182
,for beingainteger.
Tofindthesolutions,werewrite inpolarform,thatiswefind and suchthat
.Then
isasolutionoftheequation
Butthatisnottheonlysolutionsince,the isnotunique;itisdeterminedonlyuptomul
tiplesof .Therefore,ifwehaveoneangle forwhichindeed ,thenwecanals

owrite
Thisthenimpliesthat
Forthe rootsoftheproblem .
Sothesolutionstakethepattern
Thesolutions formapolygonof sides.
Example:Findallthesix(6)rootsoftheequation .
Solution:
Wesolvetheproblem .

182
Ifwerewrite isthestandardcomplexnumberform,wehave .
Hence and
Thisimpliesthat
For
Rememberthattherootsofcomplexnumbersoccurinconjugates.Thatis,if
isarootthen isalsoaroot.

182
Figure3
Activity:Attemptthefollowingexercises
1.Sketchthefollowingcomplexnumbers,henceorotherwisecomputetheirrespecti
vemodulus:
(a) and
(b)
(c)
(d)
182
2.Findanddrawalltherootsof:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
3.Determineallthecomplexnumberssatisfyingtheequation: ,where
isthecomplexconjugateof
4.Findallthecomplexnumbers suchthat and , iscomplexc
onjugateof
5.Thecomplexnumbers and aregivenby ,where isanint

eger.Find
(a) intheform
(b)Giventhat findthepossiblevaluesof .
6.Giventhan .Find
7.Given .Find if isrealnumber.
8.Solvetheequation ,givingyouranswersintheform
182
9.UseDe’Moivre’sformulatoprovethat
(a)
(b)
(c)
10.If ,showthat
(a)
(b)
(c)
11.usingtheconceptofcomplexnumbersshowthat:
(a)
(b)

182
182

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THEE-CAMPUS

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 1 OF 182

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 2 OF 182

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MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 8 OF 182

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 9 OF 182

DistanceAB=√ ( 12−9 )2+ ( 18−4 )2

13=√ ( 6−x ) + ( 21−9 ) ...(i)

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 12 OF

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 13 OF

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 14 OF

CA=√ (0−a)2 +(b−0)2 =√ a2 +b 2

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY x 2−x 1 PAGE 15 OF

y-axis y-axis linel2,misundefined

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 16 OF

Fig . 1 g shows angles of inclination

Ifalinehasaslopegivenasm,andangleofinclinationθ then,tanθ =m,whichistheslop

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 17 OF

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 18 OF

Case3,if y 1= y 2 ,thenm=0givingθ=0.Therefore,tanθ=0 thisimpliesthatthereisnoa

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 19 OF

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 20 OF

fig .1 h , angle between two intersecting lines

Ifl1andl2areparallellinesthenα 2=α 1andtheanglebetweenthemis0° .Thusifl1andl2ar

Giventhatθ=α 2−¿ α ¿ ....(i)

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 21 OF

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 22 OF

Ax+ By+ D=0

interceptform,wecanshowthattheirslopesareequal,asfollows: y=− ( AB ) x+( −CB )

Sincethelinepassesthrough(5,2),thevalues x=5 and y=2mustsatisfytheaboveeq

Alternatively,wecanfindtheslopeofthegivenlineas y=3 x−13 , givingtheslopeas

y= ( −AB ) x+( −CB )

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 25 OF

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 26 OF

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 28 OF

Therefore y−3=3(x −2)❑

7 ( y−4 )=−6( x+3)

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 29 OF

AnylinethatisnotparalleltotheY axisintersectstheY axisatsomepoint.The x -

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 30 OF

or3 y−5 x=9

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 31 OF

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 33 OF

Generalequation: Ax+ By+ C=0

Normalform: xcosθ + ysinθ−P=0

Figure 1 k .−Distance ¿ a point ¿ a line .

OS=x 1 cosθ+ y 1 sinθ

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 35 OF

Returningtotheexpressionsforsinθ ,cosθ ,andpintermsofA,B,andC(thecoefficient

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 36 OF

i)(5 , 2), 3 x− y +6=0

ii)(−2 , 5), 3 x+ 4 y −9=0

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 37 OF

GiventhattheequationoflineABinthefigureaboveis y=mx+b ,theequationofthesho

Findtheshortestdistancebetweenthelinewhoseequationisgivenas y=2 x +4 andth

Giventheline y=2 x +4 ,theslopem=2,theslopeofthelineperpendiculartothislineist

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 38 OF

Onsolvingsimultaneouslyweget y=1 and x=2,hencethepointofintersectionis(2,1)

Let P(x , y)beanypointonthelinethrough P1 ¿)and P2 ( x 2 , y 2 ) ,weneedtodeterminethe

Todetermine x ,wedrawalinesegmentthrough P1and P2.Let(x , y )beanypointonit,dr