J Forensic Sci, May 2018, Vol. 63, No.

3
doi: 10.1111/1556-4029.13677
TECHNICAL NOTE Available online at: onlinelibrary.wiley.com

GENERAL

Roberta Somma ,1 Ph.D.; Maria Cascio,2 M.Sc.; Massimiliano Silvestro,2 M.Sc.; and
Eliana Torre,3 M.A.

A GIS-based Quantitative Approach for the

Search of Clandestine Graves, Italy*

ABSTRACT: Previous research on the RAG color-coded prioritization systems for the discovery of clandestine graves has not considered all
the factors influencing the burial site choice within a GIS project. The goal of this technical note was to discuss a GIS-based quantitative
approach for the search of clandestine graves. The method is based on cross-referenced RAG maps with cumulative suitability factors to host a
burial, leading to the editing of different search scenarios for ground searches showing high-(Red), medium-(Amber), and low-(Green) priority
areas. The application of this procedure allowed several outcomes to be determined: If the concealment occurs at night, then the “search sce-
nario without the visibility” will be the most effective one; if the concealment occurs in daylight, then the “search scenario with the DSM-based
visibility” will be most appropriate; the different search scenarios may be cross-referenced with offender’s confessions and eyewitnesses’ testi-
monies to verify the veracity of their statements.

KEYWORDS: forensic science, forensic geology, ground searches, clandestine graves, prioritization system, GIS

From the analysis of clandestine graves with bodies/human
remains, recovered from northern to southern Italy in the last
10 years (1–17), burials were discovered by law enforcement
thanks to information provided mainly by passersby, informants,
and witnesses (and sometimes the offenders themselves). It fol-
lows that in Italy the percentage of findings due to intelligence-
led investigations is today very low (~5%) (1–17). By contrast,
much more attention is paid by law enforcement to intelligence-
led searches for clandestine graves in Great Britain (18), Aus-
tralia (19), and in Latin America (20,21).
Most criminals seek burial sites having the following charac-
teristics: (i) a soft and thick soil, the former feature allowing a
quick and efficient burial, the latter allowing the body/item to be
effectively concealed (18); (ii) a plain surface or a slope as gen-
tle as possible (22); (iii) little or no surface changes in soil fea-
tures (23); (iv) hidden locality from potential eyewitnesses (22);
(v) familiar location (to monitor the site) (22); (vi) easy access
on foot or by vehicle (to satisfy the principle of the least effort)
(22); (vii) reference points to be able to monitor the burial site
(known as the Winthroping principle) (24); and (viii) stable areas
not affected by erosion; however, depending on behavioral and
geographical profiling, offenders may prefer burials located on
the river banks (22) or landslides (18). The main factors
1
Department of Biomedical and Dental Sciences, and Morphological and
Functional Images (BIOMORF), Universita degli Studi di Messina, Viale F.
Stagno d’Alcontres, Messina, Italy.
2 ods (23,25,29,34–43), which are also used in archeology (24–
Land Engineering, Via L. Sciascia, Complesso Iride 83, 98100 Messina,
Italy.
3
Contrada Conca d’oro, 98168 Messina, Italy.
*Presented at the 2016 European Geosciences Union, General Assembly
€
(2016 EGU), April 17-22, 2016 Wien, Osterreich.
Received 5 June 2017; and in revised form 31 July 2017; accepted 21
Aug. 2017.
influencing the choice of the burial sites are therefore: diggabil-
ity, landscape/slope, vegetation, human-made structures, geomor-
phology, and visibility (18,22,23).
The search for clandestine graves requires a complex forensic
investigation where sites with particular characteristics have to
be searched, identified, and evaluated by an intelligence-led mul-
tidisciplinary team. This involves both law-enforcement agents
and various experts such as forensic geologists as well as spe-
cialists of other forensic disciplines (25). Surface evidence of a
possible recent clandestine grave is furnished by visual inspec-
tion of potential ground disturbances and anomalies
(18,22,23,26–29). During a nonintrusive examination of the
search area, recent graves may be detected by means of remote
sensing and using high-resolution photography with adequate
resolution, preferably infrared and ultraviolet (30–32). High-reso-
lution Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) constitute a powerful
tool for search purposes. These DEMs furnish a georeferenced
fly-through visualization of the topographic surface, that is, fun-
damental for ground-search purposes; indeed, Digital Terrain
Models (DTMs; e.g., a digital surface interpolating ground) and/
or Digital Surface Models (DSMs; e.g., a digital surface interpo-
lating ground as well as vegetation and human structures) aid
searches, for they may detect georeferenced topographic expres-
sions related to graves (22,32) as well as detailed 3D images of
vegetation changes (33). Subsurface features may be investigated
according to geophysical (Ground Penetrating Radar—GPR,
magnetometry, and electrical resistivity) and geochemical meth-
26,44). The search for clandestine graves may be also assisted
by another search tool, which is helpful in certain circumstances
and in terms of economic and human resources: the Red-Amber-
Green (RAG) prioritization system, also known as the traffic
light system by search practitioners. Significant contribution to

882 © 2017 American Academy of Forensic Sciences

 SOMMA ET AL.
this system was provided by Ruffell and McKinley (22), Don-
nelly and Harrison (18), and Ruffell and McAllister (23).
Notwithstanding the promising applications of the GIS-based
techniques in forensics (22,23,45–60), the first studies, in which
individual maps used in the search for a burial and/or deposition
site were also integrated with global information systems (GIS),
were reported in Ruffell and McKinley (22) and Ruffell and
McAllister (23). In contrast to previous studies (22,23), a new
GIS-based method, based on cross-referenced RAG maps in
order to evaluate “cumulative” suitability to host a burial, was
reported with preliminary data in Somma et al. (61). Therefore,
the goal of this technical note was to thoroughly illustrate this
innovative GIS-based presearch method for demonstrating that it
can assist investigators as well as canine scent detection team
with better management of efforts, resources, and time during
recent clandestine grave ground searches.
For the verification of the approach, the method was applied
to two different simulated crime scenes consisting of two clan-
destine burials of a homicide victim (Figs 1, 2 and 3). At both
crime scenes, the victims were buried in two rural areas of
northeastern Sicily (Italy, Fig. 1). The cadaver/human remains
were simulated by a plastic mannequin and a dummy bust.
Although reconstructing a more realistic crime scene with
human cadavers or carcasses would have been preferable, these
were not used in the present research, because it was consid-
ered that the GIS-based method was not based on identification
of geochemical or geophysical signatures and because current
Italian laws do not allow these kinds of experiments. Given
that in Italy, agricultural fields and wooded areas are among
the preferred burial sites (1–17), the graves were dug in a cul-
tivated field with fruits trees (Fig. 2) and in a wooded area
(Fig. 3). The GIS operators were unaware of the location of
the graves when they applied the method to the simulated
crime scenes. The graves of both sites were finally searched
for by a search team of 9 students, they too being unaware of
the burial site location. Information on the crime scenes and
materials provided to the team during the search were as fol-
lows: (i) the age of the burial, (ii) the intelligence-led data
related to the crime, (iii) the GIS-based search scenarios, and
(iv) a metal probe (T-bar) (37).
FIG. 1––(a) Europe with southern Italy shown in the rectangle. (b) Southern Italy with the two crime scenes. [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlineli-
brary.com]
. RED-AMBER-GREEN COLOR-CODED PRIORITIZATION SYSTEM 883
Previous Studies on RAG Prioritization System
A landform mapping approach was applied by Ruffell and
McKinley (22) to prepare a map of priority search areas or
domains concerning the disappearance of a girl, whose body
was presumably buried in an area of mixed bogs and moorlands.
Both a schematic map of the search location and a landform
map were designed by the authors. In the former, the main con-
tour lines, roads/paths, vegetation, and geomorphological fea-
tures (trees, bogs) were represented; in the latter, the map was
divided into domains delimited by watersheds, with indications
related to the visibility from roads and houses. These domains
were numbered in reverse order, the lowest numbers indicating
the highest priority. This landform map with domains was pro-
duced also by creating individual GIS-based maps related to ele-
vation data and viewshed analysis, based on topographic
information, integrated by additional data related to the vegeta-
tion reconstructed by terrestrial LiDAR images. The GIS-based
slope map was created with nine arbitrary chosen slope ranges;
the GIS-based color-coded map of the viewshed analysis was
made by mapping the visible areas in green color and the invisi-
ble areas in gray color and using one viewpoint of the search
area. Although these maps were separately elaborated in a GIS
environment, the resulting map of the landform with the priority
domains represented a sort of “proto” GIS-based RAG system
based mainly on the reconstruction of the vegetation features
and the GIS-based slope and visibility characteristics.
A full description and history of the development of the
RAG prioritization system have been provided by the pioneer-
ing research of Donnelly and Harrison (18). These authors have
shown several examples of RAG maps prepared for police
searches for homicide victims. RAG diggability maps success-
fully assisted police in finding the targeted burials. A diggabil-
ity map of a Scottish island was generated to identify areas
most suitable for hosting a burial, using only the Red (dig-
gable) and Green (not diggable) class. Another map consisted
in a geomorphological interpretation of the aerial photographs
and landscape showing mainly anthropogenic and natural
ground disturbances or vegetation changes and anthropogenic
structures. The authors’ studies included detailed analyses of
884 JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES

FIG. 2––Photographs of the crime scene at Alı. (a) Burial site under the olive trees. On the grave, the growth up of new grass is observable. (b) Grave with
the body simulated by a dummy in a black plastic bag. (c) Northeasterly view of part of the search area. In the NW zone, the burial site is located behind the
ridge, and the passage from the olive grove to the thick vegetation is discernible. (d) Cut of grave showing homogeneous topsoil. (e) View of landscape with
45° dipping slope, thick vegetation, and outcropping metamorphic rocks (phyllites). (f) Change from thin vegetation of terraces with grass and olive trees to
thick vegetation of shrubbery, brush, and oak trees. [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

the aerial imagery, and geomorphology, and underlined the A RAG system for the ground searches of burials in grave-
importance to consider behavioral and geographical profiling yards/cemeteries was deployed by Ruffell and McAllister (22) in
and victimology evaluation (18). order to provide a multiproxy assessment of the state of
 SOMMA ET AL. . RED-AMBER-GREEN COLOR-CODED PRIORITIZATION SYSTEM 885

FIG. 3––Photographs of the crime scene at Messina. (a) Burial site under the oak trees. The grave was concealed with leaves. (b) Depression corresponding
to the grave (after leaf removal). (c) Dummy recovered from the grave during forensic archeological excavation. (d) Wooded area with pine trees. (e) Aerial
view of the crime scene (flight by DJI phantom 4 drone, 50 m high from the ground; photograph camera provided with 12-megapixel resolution) with the bur-
ial site (rectangle). [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

inhumations to allow authorities to decide whether or not exca- geological, hydrological-hydrogeological, and land-use maps, (ii)
vation had to be done. Before the burial site survey and the geochemical surveys of waters near the burial site, and (iii) geo-
RAG assessment, according to the authors, it is necessary first to physical surveys. Furthermore, the authors stated that it is useful
make a desktop study collecting information related to: (i) to store and view all these data in a GIS environment, as data
886 JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES

may be compared and statistically considered. After that, the
method combined in the RAG system the three main elements
related to previous data as well as new surveys: (i) grave mark-
ers; (ii) physical features; and (iii) geophysical anomalies. If
none of the three elements is present, the site is classified Green.
If two of the three elements are present, the site is classified
Amber. If all three elements are present, the site is classified as
Red, and therefore as a site of a high probability to host a grave.
With this method a RAG code is assigned to each surveyed and
georeferenced point of the RAG map in the field, covering each
part of the search area.
A GIS-based approach was recently developed by Somma
et al. (61) to edit RAG maps and the related search scenarios for
a simulated clandestine grave. The method involved the con-
struction of a GeoDataBase in the GIS environment. The factors
determining the burial site choice of the offender were identified,
organized, and evaluated in ArcMap ArcGIS software. These
were reported in the related RAG maps, where each factor was
classified on the basis of high (Red), medium (Amber), and low
(Green) suitability to host a burial. With the cross-referencing of
these factors, the search scenarios showing the high- (Red), med-
ium- (Amber), and low- (Green) priority search areas were
finally edited.
The Method of the GIS-Based Color-Coded Prioritization
System Related to the Search of Clandestine Graves
The procedure presented here for the discovery of buried vic-
tims develops a GIS-based Color-coded Prioritization System,
that is, able to edit both the RAG maps of factors/entities influ-
encing the burial site choice and the search scenarios. This
method is followed in two phases: (i) the GIS-based RAG maps
of the geographic entities are drawn (Table 1); (ii) the GIS-based
search scenarios are designed (Table 2).

TABLE 1––The first phase of the GIS-based method: workflow of the geographical entities influencing suitability to host clandestine graves and the related
RAG color-coded classes within the ArcGIS project.

GIS-Based Amber-Coded
Entities RAG Red-Coded Class Class (Medium Green-Coded Class Arcgis Design and
Map (High Suitability) Suitability) (Low Suitability) Tools Aim of the Procedure
Search area and / / / 1 Shapefile polygons • Manual mapping of the search area and
access/exit 2 Shapefile points access/exit position
Diggability Easy Moderately Difficult 1 Shapefile polygons • Manual mapping of the diggability-related
difficult RAG areas
Landscape/ <20° 20°–27° >27° 1 Slope Tool • Automated procedure to identify the slope dip
Slope 2 Reclassify Tool direction
3 Raster to Polygon • The cells of the raster file, bearing the slope
Tool values, are attributed to the RAG classes,
4 Shapefile polygons according to appropriate ranges of slope
5 Clip Tool angles
• Conversion of the raster cells into polygonal
shapefiles for an automated mapping of the
RAG area
• Manual mapping of the terraces in RAG areas
• Overlap of the terrace-related shapefile
polygons with the RAG areas of the slope
RAG shapefile polygons
Vegetation Absent, thin with Along belts Dense 1 Shapefile polygons • Manual mapping of the vegetation-related Red
sparse, well- surrounding 2 Buffer Tool and Green class areas
spaced trees or dense vegetation • The buffer zone is created for the Amber class
wooded areas areas, along a belt between the Red and Green
areas, and inside of specific Green areas
Human-made Absent Along belts Present (with 1 Shapefile polygons • Manual mapping of the Red and Green class
structures surrounding concrete floor or 2 Buffer Tool areas
structures path) • The buffer zone is created for the Amber
areas, along a belt along the external edge of
the Red areas, and for the belts along the
external edge of the Green areas to be added
to the Green areas previously manually
mapped
Geomorphology Stable areas Along belts Unstable areas 1 Shapefile polygons • Manual mapping of the Red and Green class
surrounding 2 Buffer Tool areas
unstable areas • The buffer zone is created for the Amber
areas, along a belt along the Red and Green
areas, in the internal side of the Green areas
Visibility Invisible from Visible from one Visible from two 1 Visibility Tool of • Assigning to each DTM/DSM cell the number
possible single viewpoint or more the extension Spatial of points visible to a possible eyewitness
eyewitnesses of possible viewpoints of Analyst Tools • The cells of the raster file, bearing the number
eyewitnesses possible (Viewshed analysis) of points visible to a possible eyewitness, are
eyewitnesses 2 Reclassify Tool reclassified and attributed to the RAG classes,
extension of the according to appropriate ranges of values
Spatial Analyst • Conversion of the raster cells into polygonal
Tools shapefiles for an automated mapping of the
3 Raster to Polygon RAG areas
Tool
 SOMMA ET AL. . RED-AMBER-GREEN COLOR-CODED PRIORITIZATION SYSTEM 887

TABLE 2––The second phase of the GIS-based method: workflow of the RAG Search Scenario maps within the ArcGIS project.

GIS-Based RAG RED-Coded Arcgis

Search Scenario Class (High Amber-Coded Class (Medium Green-Coded Class (Low Design and
MAP Priority) Priority) Priority) Tools Aim of the Procedure
Search scenario All 2–6 entities At least one of the 2–6 entities is At least one of the 2–6 1 Merge • Automated procedure to
without visibility are red amber among the amber and red entities is green among the Tool determine cumulative
class RAG class 2 Clip suitability
Tool • Cut of the overlapping
areas
DTM-based All 2–7 entities At least one of the 2–7 entities is At least one of the 2–7 1 Merge • Automated procedure to
visibility search are red amber among the amber and red entities is green among the Tool determine cumulative
scenario class RAG class 2 Clip suitability
Tool • Cut of the overlapping
areas
DSM-based All 2–7 entities At least one of the 2–7 entities is At least one of the 2–7 1 Merge • Automated procedure to
visibility search are red amber among the amber and red entities is green among the Tool determine cumulative
scenario class RAG class 2 Clip suitability
Tool • Cut of the overlapping
areas

bedrock and soil; (ii) estimating the soil composition, texture,

The GIS-Based Entities RAG Maps
The first phase of the GIS-based method is devoted to create
the RAG maps of the geographic entities (Table 1). The related
GeoDataBase is established by: (i) bibliographic research (land
use, geological, cadastral maps, etc.); (ii) inspection visits; (iii)
high-resolution aerial/satellite orthophotographs; (iv) DTMs and
DSMs; (v) ArcGIS (ver. 10) automated procedures (58).
In the planning of the conceptual and logical model, the Geo-
DataBase is structured bearing in mind what kinds of informa-
tion are needed for the GIS system to detect the areas “suitable”
to host the burial. Subsequently, all the geographical entities crit-
ical to define the specific purpose of the model are identified
and organized in the GeoDataBase. The physical model of the
GeoDataBase emerged from the conceptual and logical model is
structured considering the following seven entities reported in
information layers: (i) Search Area and Access/Exit, (ii) Digga-
bility, (iii) Landscape/Slope, (iv) Vegetation, (v) Human-made
Structures, (vi) Geomorphology, and (vii) Visibility (Table 1).
Entities 2–7 are classified into three Red, Amber, and Green
color-coded classes corresponding, respectively, to high, med-
ium, and low “suitability” to host a burial site. Only the search
area and access/exit entity are excluded, being irrelevant for the
detection of the search classes.
Search Area and Access/Exit
The borders of the search area are fundamental to delimit the
extent of the ground search. The search area layer of the GIS
platform is determined by the analysis of both the aerial and
satellite imagery and the cadastral information. The search area
limit is created by designing a digital shapefile polygon within
the ArcGIS project. The access/exit positions are created by
designing shapefile points within the ArcGIS project (Table 1).
Diggability RAG Map
The diggability layer of the GIS platform is determined by
analyzing the aerial and satellite imagery, the geological/pedo-
logical/hydrogeological maps, and the surveying data. The quali-
tative evaluation of diggability is made on the basis of the soil
type and hand tools (or mechanical excavator) used to dig the
grave. It is evaluated by: (i) identifying areas with outcropping
structure, and engineering properties along some natural cross-
sections during a presearch reconnaissance visit and test pits, as
recommended by Donnelly and Harrison (18), (iii) testing the
ground with hand tools (18) and a metal probe (22). In the dig-
gability RAG map, three different RAG color-coded classes are
defined: the Red class for the easily diggable soils with spade or
shovel (high suitability); the Amber class for the moderately dif-
ficult diggable soils with spade or shovel (medium suitability);
the Green class for the difficultly or not diggable soils/outcrop-
ping bedrock with spade or shovel (low suitability). The differ-
ent RAG color-coded classes areas are created by designing
shapefile polygons within the ArcGIS project (Table 1).
Landscape/Slope RAG Map
The landscape/slope layer of the GIS platform is estimated by
analyzing the DTM and using the Slope Tool. This tool, together
with the information contained within the DTM, identifies the
slope dip direction and consequently develops an automated ras-
ter file with cells bearing the slope values expressed in degrees
or percentages. The evaluation of the resulting slope-related data
enables the different RAG color-coded classes to be arbitrarily
attributed to the raster-file cells. The slope ranges that are to be
attributed to the RAG classes, crucial within the ArcGIS project,
are chosen by evaluating: (i) the effort of the offender while
dragging the body to the burial site, experiencing horizontal to
dip slopes during tests on the field; the offender’s perception of
the victim’s weight during the dragging along a 150 m long dis-
tance (62) to the burial site, may be equivalent to three times the
real body weight (63,64); (ii) the internal friction angle of soil
(φ) influencing the slope stability. The three different RAG
color-coded classes attributed to the raster-file cells are defined
as follows: (i) the Red class for the horizontal to subhorizontal
slope (high suitability); (ii) the Amber class for the gentle slope
(medium suitability); and (iii) the Green class for the gentle to
dip slope (low suitability). The cells bearing the slope values in
the automated raster file, considering the appropriate ranges of
values, are attributed to the RAG classes using the Reclassify
Tool extension of the Spatial Analyst Tools (Table 1). The
resulting RAG color-coded slope raster cells are converted into
polygonal shapefiles by means of the Raster to Polygon Tool
(Table 1). The slope data may be further processed for those
888 JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES
areas with artificial terraces (Table 1). Despite the steepness of
the terraced ground, these are easily accessible when wide
enough. Consequently, considering appropriate terrace sizes, the
easily accessible terraces are attributed to the Red class, the ter-
races of medium accessibility are attributed to the Amber class,
and the terraces of difficult accessibility are attributed to the
Green class. The overlap of these manually designed shapefile
polygons identifying RAG terraced areas with the slope RAG
shapefile polygons previously determined by the raster to poly-
gon conversion, using the Clip Tool, produces a RAG map of
the slope RAG areas with terraces within the ArcGIS project
(Table 1).
Vegetation RAG Map
The vegetation-related data (vegetation type and age) are
compiled after the analysis of the aerial and satellite imagery,
of land-use maps, and of a general onsite vegetation survey.
The qualitative evaluation of the vegetation is made on plant
type and density: (i) absent or thin with grass, shrubs, and
trees, or wooded areas with well-spaced trees (with strong cov-
ering effect); (ii) moderately dense; (iii) dense with brambles,
shrubs, and trees. The vegetation-related data are attributed to
the three different RAG color-coded classes of the vegetation
RAG Map within the ArcGIS project. The Red class covers the
areas either (i) with absent or thin vegetation, these areas being
easily reachable by the offender while carrying the body; or (ii)
with wooded areas, these being well concealed for covert activi-
ties (high suitability). The Green class includes the areas with
dense vegetation, these being impenetrable (low suitability).
The areas of Red and Green color-coded classes are delineated
by designing shapefile polygons within the ArcGIS project
(Table 1). The Amber class covers the areas with moderately
dense vegetation, these areas showing a moderately difficult
accessibility (medium suitability). This class is created by
means of the Buffer Tool along the external edge of the Red
shapefile polygons (Table 1).
Human-made Structures RAG Map
The layer of human-made structures of the GIS platform is
established by analyzing both the aerial/satellite imagery and the
cadastral information. The structures may be roads, dirt paths,
sidewalks, concrete platforms (squares, etc.), buildings, stone or
concrete walls, etc. When a burial is made with hand tools, these
human structures are excluded as possible burial sites. The
absence of recent concrete pouring (ascertained during site visits)
and/or of new buildings construction after the disappearance date
need to be searched, as these sites may be used to cover up the
burial. The data related to the human-made structures are attribu-
ted to the three different RAG color-coded classes of the human-
made structures RAG map within the ArcGIS project. The
related Red—Green class shapefile polygons include the zones
without and with human structures (Table 1), being evaluated as
sites where digging is feasible (high suitability) or not (low suit-
ability). The Green areas also include the bands running along
the buildings and both sides of the roads/paths, as the offender
could consider them unsafe because any concealment signs or
markers on the ground could be visible for potential eyewit-
nesses. These bands are determined using the Buffer Tool Anal-
ysis Tools (Table 1). Similarly, to define the intermediate Amber
shapefile polygons, a buffer zone may be created along the
external edge of the Red shapefile polygons, the Amber
indicating the sites where the grave could be dug with medium
difficulty (medium suitability; Table 1).
Geomorphology RAG Map
The geomorphological data are gathered after analysis of the
aerial and satellite imagery, the hydrogeological risk map, and a
visual survey. These data include watersheds, streams/rivers
prone to water erosion, and unstable areas such as landslides.
These data may be included in the three different RAG color-
coded classes of the geomorphology RAG Map. The Red class
includes the stable zones, being evaluated as sites where digging
is “safe” and feasible (high suitability). The Green class includes
the unstable zones related to streams and landslides, being evalu-
ated as sites where digging is “unsafe” and not feasible (low
suitability). The Red and Green color-coded areas are created by
designing shapefile polygons within the ArcGIS project
(Table 1). To define the intermediate Amber shapefile polygons
(medium suitability), a buffer zone is created along the inner
edge of the Green polygons (Table 1).
Visibility RAG Map
The viewshed analysis is performed in ArcGIS using the
DTM and the DSM. It provides two different layers, namely a
DTM-based visibility layer and a DSM-based visibility layer.
These result from considering the viewpoints from which possi-
ble eyewitnesses could have seen the concealment area. For the
viewshed analysis, the following parameters may be evaluated as
follows: (i) the angle of the visual field and the elevation of the
viewpoint of the eyewitnesses; (ii) the elevation of the observed
point, located on the main roads and buildings around the search
area; and (iii) the maximum distance necessary to see a person
in the search area. In the DTM-based visibility layer, the invisi-
ble zones result from the cover effect of the landscape, according
to the procedure followed by Ruffell and McKinley (22),
whereas in the DSM-based visibility layer, the invisible zones
result from the cover effect of the vegetation and buildings, in
addition to the landscape effect. These layers are prepared by
means of the Visibility Tool of the extension Spatial Analyst
Tools; this extension processes the individual points of view in
relation to the elevations of the DTM and DSM (Table 1). The
resulting database is finally used for reclassifying the raster files
by means of the Reclassify Tool extension of the Spatial Analyst
Tools (Table 1). The Reclassify Tool makes it possible to attri-
bute the raster cells to three different RAG color-coded auto-
mated classes in the DTM- or DSM-based visibility raster layers
of the visibility RAG Maps. The Red, Amber, and Green areas
include, respectively, invisible cells (high suitability), visible
cells from only one viewpoint (medium suitability), and visible
cells from two or more viewpoints (low suitability). Finally, the
RAG areas are converted into polygonal shape files using the
Raster to Polygon Tool extension Conversion Tools (Table 1).
The Search-Scenario Maps of the RAG Prioritization System
The second phase of the GIS-based method is devoted to cre-
ate the search-scenario maps (Table 2). Search scenarios are
established by evaluating the cumulative suitability to host a bur-
ial by cross-referencing all the RAG maps related to the entities
considered. Each entity is cross-referenced with the others in
order to define areas at high, medium, and low suitability for the
burial site corresponding to high-, medium-, and low-priority
 SOMMA ET AL. . RED-AMBER-GREEN COLOR-CODED PRIORITIZATION SYSTEM
areas for the search of clandestine burials. In the construction of
search scenarios, it is assumed that: (i) The Red class is applied
for areas in which all entities are red; (ii) the Green class is
applied for areas in which at least one entity is at low suitability
among the three RAG classes; and (iii) the Amber class is
applied for areas in which at least one entity is amber among the
Amber and Red classes. The cumulative suitability is achieved
by means of the Merge Tool within ArcGIS (Table 2). The over-
lapping areas of the three classes are successively cut using the
Clip Tool. This tool allows a polygon with the requested attri-
butes to be chosen by cutting off any overlapping information
(Table 2). The search scenarios are constructed by considering
the following: (i) the 2–6 entities associated with the DTM-based
visibility or with the DSM-based visibility; (ii) the 2–6 entities
without considering the visibility (Table 2). Following this
procedure, three search scenarios are generated, namely RAG
GIS-based Search-Scenario Map with DTM-based Visibility,
GIS-based RAG Search-Scenario Map with DSM-based Visibil-
ity, GIS-based RAG Search-Scenario Map without Visibility
(Table 2).
The access/exit position is reported in the search-scenario
maps, the point from which the offender begins to transport the
body toward the burial site being a key parameter to evaluate
the walking feasibility toward the burial site, as it allows an
evaluation of the cost analysis, also known as spreading with
friction (18).
The Application of the GIS-Based Color-Coded Prioritization
System for the Search of Clandestine Graves: The Simulated
Crime Scenes at Alı and Messina (Italy)
The following intelligence-led data related to the missing per-
son and the main suspect were considered as follows: (i) The
victim was buried in the suspect’s ranch (Figs 1, 2 and 3); (ii)
the grave was dug with pick and shovel; and (iii) the conceal-
ment occurred in daylight. The DTM and DSM used within the
ArcGIS were characterized by a spatial resolution of 2 9 2 m
with 1 m of elevation and were acquired by means of LiDAR
airplane flights. Rainfall was registered at around 900 mm/y
(65). At both crime scenes, the GIS-team spent one day on the
desktop study to apply the GIS-based color-coded prioritization
system.
Crime Scene at Alı
The simulated crime scene was chosen in the area of Alı
(near the city of Messina, Italy; Fig. 1). It was located in an
isolated rural site (Fig. 2), on a gentle slope at 495 m to
570 m a.s.l. (Fig. 2c), divided by a small watershed, and par-
tially terraced for cultivation (Fig. 2c). The clandestine grave
was dug near a border of an olive terrace (Fig. 2a, b, c). The
burial site was chosen in an area not visible by potential
ground eyewitnesses but visible by aerial view (Fig. 2a, c).
The grave had a rectangular form and was 2 m long, 0.5 m
wide, and 0.75 m deep (Fig. 2a, b). The body of the victim,
simulated by an entire mannequin, was 1.7 m long (Fig. 2b,
d). After the body was interred on 5 August 2015 within a
black plastic bag, the grave was concealed covering the dis-
turbed ground with brushwood. The GIS-based Color-coded
Prioritization System of this crime scene was prepared the 1
September 2015. The “blind” forensic search test was con-
ducted on 17 September 2015.
889
Crime Scene at Messina
The simulated crime scene (Fig. 3) was chosen in the area of
Messina (Fig. 1). It was located at a rural site (Fig. 3), on a gen-
tle slope at 65–85 m a.s.l. The clandestine grave was dug along
the edge of a plain area surrounding an artificial lake (Fig. 3a,
e). The burial site was chosen in an area not visible by potential
ground eyewitnesses and by aerial view (Fig. 3a, e). The grave
had a rhombohedral form and was 0.9 m long, 0.5 m wide, and
0.5 m deep (Fig. 3b, c). The human remains, simulated by a
bust of a mannequin, was 0.8 m long (Fig. 3c). After the body
was interred on 15 July 2016 within a plastic bag (Fig. 3c), the
grave was concealed covering the disturbed ground with leaves
(Fig. 3a). The GIS-based Color-coded Prioritization System of
this crime scene was prepared on 1 May 2017. The “blind”
forensic search test was performed on 23 June 2017.
Search Area and Access/Exit
The search area of the Alı crime scene was calculated to be
39,317 m2. It was geographically limited by the borders of the
suspect’s ranch. These corresponded to: (i) two streams with a
NNW-SSE trend, in the northeastern and southwestern sectors;
(ii) the internal side of the perimeter wall (with an entry/exit
gate) in the southern sector; and (iii) an asphalted road (with an
entry/exit) in the northern area (Fig. 4a).
The search area of the Messina crime scene, calculated to be
15,624 m2, was geographically limited by the property line of
the suspect’s ranch (Fig. 5a). These corresponded to: (i) an
asphalted road, in the northeastern and northwestern sectors
(with an entry/exit); (ii) a metal fence in the southern and south-
eastern sectors.
Diggability
The Alı crime scene was characterized mainly by soil outcrops
with thicknesses ranging from a few decimeters to a few meters
(Fig. 2a), and second by outcroppings of phyllites (Fig. 2e). The
drift geology of the area was characterized by a natural granular
soil showing a silty-sandy texture with detritus clasts, overlying
bedrock of Paleozoic phyllites belonging to the Miocene Man-
danici nappe (66–68) (Fig. 2e). The areas with thick granular
soils on cultivated fields were included in the Red class and con-
stituted 47.3% of the total (18,583 m2, Figs 4b and 6a). The
areas with thick granular soils on abandoned cultivated field
were included in the Amber class and covered 10% (3935 m2,
Figs 4b and 6a). The areas with thin granular soils on aban-
doned cultivated field or outcropping phyllites were included in
the Green class and represented 42.7% (16,797 m2, Figs 4b
and 6a).
The Messina crime scene was characterized mainly by soil
outcrops, with thicknesses ranging from a few decimeters to one
meter. The drift geology of the area was characterized by a natu-
ral granular soil showing a silty-sandy texture with gravel clasts,
overlying sands with gravels belonging to the Middle Pleistocene
Messina Formation (69). The areas with thick granular soils
were included in the Red class and covered 4.1% of the total
(640 m2, Figs 5b and 7a). The areas with thin granular soils
were included in the Amber class and covered 89.6%
(14,000 m2, Figs 5b and 7a). The areas with thin granular soils
were included in the Green class and represented 6.3% (982 m2,
Figs 5b and 7a).
890 JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES

FIG. 4––RAG prioritization system of the Alı crime scene (Red, high suitability; Amber, medium suitability; Green, low suitability to host burial site; the bur-
ial site is represented by a ~4 9 4 m square). (a) Search area delineated showing the access/exit and the burial site. (b) Diggability RAG Map (the burial site
lies in the Red area). (c) Landscape/Slope RAG Map (the burial site lies in the Red area). (d) Vegetation RAG Map (the burial site lies in the Red area). (e)
Human-made Structures RAG Map (the burial site lies in the Red area). (f) Geomorphology RAG Map (the burial site lies in the Red area). (g) Viewpoints out-
side the search area used for the viewshed analysis. (h) Visibility RAG Map defined using the DTM (the burial site lies in the Green area). (i) Visibility RAG
Map defined using the DSM (the burial site lies in the Red area). [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
 SOMMA ET AL. . RED-AMBER-GREEN COLOR-CODED PRIORITIZATION SYSTEM 891

FIG. 5––RAG prioritization system of the Messina crime scene (Red, high suitability; Amber, medium suitability; Green, low suitability to host burial site; the
burial site is represented by a ~4 9 4 m square). (a) Search area delineated showing the access/exit and the burial site. (b) Diggability RAG Map (the burial
site lies in the Red area). (c) Landscape/Slope RAG Map (the burial site lies in the Red area). (d) Vegetation RAG Map (the burial site lies in the Red area).
(e) Human-made Structures RAG Map (the burial site lies in the Red area). (f) Geomorphology RAG Map (the burial site lies in the Red area). (g) Viewpoints
outside the search area used for the viewshed analysis. (h) Visibility RAG Map defined using the DTM (the burial site lies in the Amber area). (i) Visibility
RAG Map defined using the DSM (the burial site lies in the Red area). [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
892 JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES

FIG. 6––(a) Percentages of the RAG color-coded suitability to host the burial site for each of the evaluated entities of the Alı crime scene. (b) Percentages of
the RAG color-coded suitability to host the burial site in the different RAG maps of the search scenario (RAG_DTM: RAG map considering the DTM-based vis-
ibility; RAG_DSM: RAG map considering the DSM-based visibility; RAG_NV: RAG map without considering the visibility). [Color figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]

Landscape/Slope
The Landscape/Slope RAG maps were characterized as fol-
lows: (i) Red class assigned to cells with slope of less than 20°;
(ii) Amber class to those between 20° and 27°; (iii) and Green
class to those greater than 27°. As both crime scenes have artifi-
cial terraces, the slope RAG class extents were corrected, respec-
tively, assigning to the RAG classes the areas with terraces
having a width >4 m, between 4 and 3 m, and <3 m.
The percentages of the areas of the Landscape/Slope RAG
map at the Alı crime scene were as follows: (i) 20.4%
(8029 m2) for the Red class area, (ii) 23.9% (9378 m2) for the
Amber class area, and (iii) 55.7% (21,908 m2) for the Green
class area (Figs 4c and 6a).
The percentages of the areas of the Landscape/Slope RAG
map at the Messina crime scene were as follows: (i) 67%
(10,465 m2) for the Red class area, (ii) 12.4% (1939 m2) for the
Amber class area, and (iii) 20.6% (3230 m2) for the Green class
area (Figs 5c and 7a).
Vegetation
The southern sector of the Alı crime scene was characterized
by a rural area consisting mainly of olive trees with an average
of 6 m spacing on cultivated terraces (Fig. 2a, c), and where
low grass, oak trees, and chestnuts were also present. In the
northern area, vineyards with <4 m spacing were present chiefly
in terraced fields. By contrast, dense vegetation consisting of
trees, brambles, and shrubs covered the slopes near the streams
and around the steepest, north-central area dividing the southern
zone from the northern one and acting as a natural physical bar-
rier (Fig. 2). The vegetation-related data were attributed to the
 SOMMA ET AL. . RED-AMBER-GREEN COLOR-CODED PRIORITIZATION SYSTEM 893

FIG. 7––(a) Percentages of the RAG color-coded suitability to host the burial site for each of the evaluated entities at the Messina crime scene. (b) Percent-
ages of the RAG color-coded suitability to host the burial site in the different RAG maps of the search scenario (RAG_DTM: RAG map considering the DTM-
based visibility; RAG_DSM: RAG map considering the DSM-based visibility; RAG_NV: RAG map without considering the visibility). [Color figure can be
viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

three different RAG color-coded classes of the vegetation RAG
Map (Figs 4d and 6a). The Red class covered both the areas
with olive orchards, vineyards, isolated trees with little vegeta-
tion, and open ground (Figs 4d and 6a). The Green class
included the areas with dense vegetation with brambles, shrubs,
and trees (Figs 4d and 6a). The Amber class was defined along
a 10 m-wide buffer zone (Figs 4d and 6a). The percentages of
the areas of the vegetation RAG map were, respectively, as fol-
lows: (i) 65.5% (25,740 m2) for the Red class area, (ii) 19.4%
(7620 m2) for the Amber class area, and (iii) 15.1% (5955 m2)
for the Green class area (Figs 4d and 6a).
The Messina crime scene was characterized by a wooded area
with pines and scattered oaks. In the northwestern area, pine
trees with low grass prevailed and were well spaced (averaging
4 m apart; Fig. 3d). In the southwestern area, the oak trees pre-
dominated over the pines, and the vegetation was dense with
brambles and shrubs (Fig. 3a, e). This dense vegetation covered
the slope on the western side of the artificial lake, dividing the
northeastern zone from the southwestern one and acting as a nat-
ural physical barrier (Figs 3a, b and 5d). The vegetation-related
data were attributed to the three different RAG color-coded
classes of the vegetation RAG Map (Fig. 5d). The Red class
covered the wooded area with well-spaced pines, scattered oaks,
and low grass (Figs 5d and 7a). The Green class included the
areas with dense vegetation with oak trees, pines, brambles, and
shrubs (Figs 5d and 7a). The Amber class was defined along a
10 m-wide buffer zone. The percentages of the areas of the veg-
etation RAG map were, respectively, as follows: (i) 79.9%
(12,485 m2) for the Red class area, (ii) 12.8% (2000 m2) for the
Amber class area, and (iii) 7.3% (1140 m2) for the Green class
area (Figs 5d and 7a).
Human-Made Structures
The structures found at the Alı crime scene consisted of: (i)
two rural dirt paths; (ii) stone walls; (iii) two ruins with concrete
894 JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES
floors (Fig. 2c). The structures found at the Messina crime scene
consisted of: (i) one rural dirt path; (ii) stone walls; (iii) concrete
floor with benches; and (iv) artificial lake with a concrete bed
(Fig. 3a, e).
The data were attributed to the three different RAG color-
coded classes of the human-made structures RAG map within
the ArcGIS project. The zones without and with human-made
structures were attributed to the Red and the Green class, respec-
tively. The Green areas also included the areas related to the
4 m-wide bands running along both sides of the paths. The
Amber class included the 4 m-wide buffer zones.
At the Alı crime scene, the percentages of the areas of the
human-made structures on the RAG map were, respectively, as
follows: (i) 84.1% (33,045 m2) for the Red class area, (ii) 12.8%
(5031 m2) for the Amber class area, and (iii) 3.2% (1240 m2)
for the Green class area (Figs 4e and 6a).
At the Messina crime scene, the percentages of the areas of
the human-made structures RAG map were, respectively, as fol-
lows: (i) 80% (12,485 m2) for the Red class area, (ii) 13.8%
(2156 m2) for the Amber class area, and (iii) 6.3% (982 m2) for
the Green class area (Figs 5e, and 7a).
Geomorphology
At the Alı crime scene, the geomorphological data included
the following: (i) the watershed trend, (ii) the areas of the
streams, and (iii) superficial landslides. The geomorphological
features found at the Messina crime scene consisted of areas of
the streams suitable to erosion. The stable and the unstable zones
were attributed to the Red and the Green class, respectively. To
define the intermediate Amber class, a 4 m-wide buffer zone
was created along the streams or the landslides.
At the Alı crime scene, the percentages of the areas of the
geomorphology RAG Map were, respectively, as follows: (i)
83.7% (32,910 m2) for the Red class area, (ii) 6.1% (2387 m2)
for the Amber class area, and (iii) 10.2% (4020 m2) for the
Green class area (Figs 4f and 6a).
At the Messina crime scene, the percentages of the areas of
the geomorphology RAG Map were, respectively, as follows: (i)
FIG. 8––The RAG prioritization system of the Alı crime scene (Red, high suitability; Amber, medium suitability; Green: low suitability to host burial site; the
burial site is represented by a ~4 9 4 m square). (a) GIS-based RAG Search Scenario Map with DTM-based visibility (the burial site lies in the Green area).
(b) GIS-based RAG Search Scenario Map with DSM-based visibility (the burial site lies in the Red area). (c) GIS-based RAG Search Scenario Map without Vis-
ibility (the burial site lies in the Red area). [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
94.0% (14,686 m2) for the Red class area, (ii) 3.6% (561 m2)
for the Amber class area, and (iii) 2.4% (377 m2) for the Green
class area (Figs 5f and 7a).
Visibility
The viewshed analysis based on the viewpoints (Figs 4g and
5g) produced two Visibility RAG maps for each crime scene:
the DTM-based and the DSM-based Visibility RAG maps. The
invisible and visible zones were attributed to the Red and Green
class, respectively. The Amber class included visible cells from
only one viewpoint.
At the Alı crime scene, the percentages of the areas in the
DTM-based Visibility RAG map were as follows: (i) 2.8%
(1095 m2) for the Red class, (ii) 1.4% (538 m2) for the Amber
class, and (iii) 95.8% (37,680 m2) for the Green class (Figs 4h
and 6a). The percentages of the areas in the DSM-based Visibil-
ity RAG map were as follows: (i) 19.6% (7690 m2) for the Red
class, (ii) 4.9% (1930 m2) for the Amber class, and (iii) 75.5%
(29,700 m2) for the Green class (Figs 4i and 6a).
At the Messina crime scene, the percentages of the areas in
the DTM-based Visibility RAG map were as follows: (i) 0.8%
(130m2) for the Red class, (ii) 20.5% (3197 m2) for the Amber
class, and (iii) 78.7% (12,297 m2) for the Green class (Figs 5h
and 7a). The percentages of the areas in the DSM-based Visibil-
ity RAG map were as follows: (i) 31.6% (4930m2) for the Red
class, (ii) 56.5% (8825 m2) for the Amber class, and (iii) 11.9%
(1865 m2) for the Green class (Figs 5i and 7a).
Search Scenarios
Three different RAG maps of the search scenarios were pre-
pared for the two crime scenes (Figs 8 and 9): (i) the search sce-
nario with the DTM-based visibility, (ii) with the DSM-based
visibility, and (iii) without the visibility.
In the Alı crime scene search scenario with DTM-based visi-
bility, the Red area proved to occupy 0.1% (29.9 m2) of the
entire search area, whereas the Amber and Green areas repre-
sented 0.8% (310 m2) and 99.1% (38,977 m2), respectively
 SOMMA ET AL.
FIG. 9––The RAG prioritization system of the Messina crime scene (Red, high suitability; Amber, medium suitability; Green, low suitability to host burial
site; the burial site is represented by a ~4 9 4 m square). (a) GIS-based RAG Search Scenario Map with DTM-based visibility (the burial site lies in the
Amber area). (b) GIS-based RAG Search Scenario Map with DSM-based visibility (the burial site lies in the Red area). (c) GIS-based RAG Search Scenario
Map without Visibility (the burial site lies in the Red area). [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
(Figs 8a and 6b). On the other hand, in the search scenario with
the DSM-based visibility, the Red area occupied 5.9%
(2313 m2), and Amber and Green 5.6% (2218 m2) and 88.5%
(34,786 m2), respectively (Figs 8b and 6b). Finally, in the search
scenario without the visibility, the Red area constituted 29.0%
(11,412 m2), with Amber and Green making up 22.8%
(8965 m2) and 48.2% (18,940 m2), respectively (Figs 8c and
6b).
In the Messina crime scene search scenario with DTM-based
visibility, the Red area proved to occupy 0% (0 m2) of the entire
search area, whereas the Amber and Green areas represented
17.2% (2691 m2) and 82.8% (12,933 m2), respectively (Figs 9a
and 7b). On the other hand, in the search scenario with the
DSM-based visibility, the Red area occupied 2.1% (332 m2) of
the search area, and Amber and Green 33.1% (5171 m2) and
64.8% (10,121 m2), respectively (Figs 9b and 7b). Finally, in
the search scenario without the visibility, the Red area consti-
tuted 3.29% (515 m2) of the search area, with Amber and Green
making up 66.12% (10,330 m2) and 30.59% (4779 m2), respec-
tively (Figs 9c and 7b).
The time spent on the desktop study to apply the GIS-based
color-coded prioritization system was roughly 1 day for the Alı
crime scene and half a day for the Messina crime scene.
Ground Search
A ground search was made for both crime scenes. The search
team, using the search-scenario maps, began to search from the
access/exit position and surveyed first the high–medium-priority
areas. At the Alı crime scene, as the southern access/exit is
linked to a path reaching the high-to-medium-priority areas
(Fig. 8b), searches started from this site. During the searches,
the team looked for ground disturbance and vegetation anoma-
lies, in the high-to-medium-priority areas of the search scenarios.
For the anomalies found in the Red and Amber areas, the soil
density was tested with a metal probe. At both crime scenes, the
team found one anomaly characterized by soft soil and a ground
depression of a few centimeters. Moreover, at the Alı crime
scene, recently sprouted grass along a rectangular area was
. RED-AMBER-GREEN COLOR-CODED PRIORITIZATION SYSTEM 895
found above the anomaly (Fig. 2a). The forensic archeological
excavation resulted in the recovery of the simulated victim from
both the burials (Figs 2 and 3). The time spent on the ground
searches by the search team was roughly 1 hour at the Alı crime
scene and three hours at the Messina crime scene.
The Grave in the Search Scenarios
The grave at the Alı crime scene was 137 m NNW of the
entry/exit at the base of 2.5-m high-olive trees with a thin
canopy 2 m wide, near the northeastern corner of the highest
olive terrace (Fig. 2). The grave was spotted in a high-priority
area both in the DSM-based search scenario (Fig. 8b) and in the
search scenario without visibility (Fig. 8c). However, according
to the DTM-based search scenario, it was located in a low-prior-
ity area (Fig. 8a).
The grave at the Messina crime scene was 152 m NNW of
the entry/exit at the base of an oak tree 12 m high, under a 12-
m-wide canopy, along the northeastern border of the plain with
the artificial lake (Fig. 3a, e). It was spotted in a high-priority
area both in the DSM-based search scenario (Fig. 9b) and the
search scenario without visibility (Fig. 9c). However, according
to the DTM-based search scenario, it was located in a medium-
priority area (Fig. 9a).
Discussion
The idea of Ruffell and McAllister (23) to assign a “weight”
to the different association of factors served as a fundamental
starting point to develop the RAG system presented here. As
opposed to previous studies (18,22,23), in the GIS-based method
presented here, the main factors influencing the burial site choice
were classified in RAG cumulative classes finalized at the cre-
ation of different search scenarios. Moreover, as opposed to the
approach of Ruffell and McAllister (23), the method presented
here was planned without involving geophysical surveys, the
GIS-based RAG system presented here being a presearch desk-
top method. In fact, one of the aims of the present research was
the better management of efforts, costs, and resources, and the
896 JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES
postponing of the geophysical surveys (GPR, etc.) during the
ground search for recent burials, reserving them only for anoma-
lies evidenced by visual inspection in the high-to-medium-prior-
ity areas.
Concluding Remarks
In the GIS-based RAG system presented here, the Alı grave
(Fig. 2a), although not visible by possible ground eyewitnesses
as ascertained by the viewshed analysis (Fig. 4i), was visible by
aerial view (Figs 2a and 4a). By contrast, the Messina grave,
being under wide, thick oak canopy (Fig. 3a, e), was not visible
either by possible ground eyewitnesses (Fig. 5i) or by aerial
view (Figs 3a, e and 5a). These different circumstances, with
respect to aerial sighting, suggest that: (i) In the search areas
where a recent grave is exposed to the aerial viewing, the analy-
sis of the landscape by means of high-resolution aerial imagery
and DTMs may be sufficient for search purposes; (ii) by con-
trast, if a burial is covered by the tree canopy, the application of
the GIS-based approach using both the DTM and DSM view-
shed analyses may be successful, as it is impossible to detect a
burial with only high-resolution aerial imagery.
The time spent at the crime scenes to apply the GIS-based
color-coded prioritization system, and the successive ground
search using the RAG search scenarios, depended on the size of
the search area and of the high-to-medium-priority area, respec-
tively. Furthermore, the time spent on the desktop study for the
Alı crime scene was double with respect to Messina, being twice
the size, whereas the time spent for the ground searches was
three times longer at the Messina crime scene with respect to
Alı, its high-to-medium-priority areas being three times larger,
due to the cover effect of the wooded area. Nevertheless, at both
crime scenes, the time spent for the ground search is an out-
standing result because without the application of this method it
would have been impossible to spot the clandestine graves in
such a short time, given the specific features of the territory.
Finally, this technical note demonstrates that to conduct effi-
cient ground searches for clandestine graves the following points
should be borne in mind: (i) The RAG search scenarios may be
of different usefulness in narrowing down the potential burial
site depending on the specific features of the area; (ii) for effi-
cient ground searches it is fundamental to produce multiple
search scenarios as one may be more suitable than the others. If
the offender conceals the victim at night, then the scenario with-
out visibility will be the most appropriate one. If the culprit con-
ceals the body in daylight and worries about the possibility of
being seen by eyewitnesses, then the DSM scenario will be the
most appropriate; (iii) comparing DTM scenarios to DSMs ones
may assist in distinguishing between areas invisible due to vege-
tation/buildings and areas invisible for morphological reasons;
and (iv) the different search scenarios may be cross-referenced
with offender’s confessions and eyewitnesses’ testimonies to ver-
ify the veracity of their statements, especially using the viewshed
analyses.
With respect to the limitations of the proposed GIS-based
approach, the following points should be borne in mind: (i) The
level of effectiveness of each RAG search scenario will depend
on the intrinsic territorial features that distinguish one geographic
area from another one. Therefore, the results of one case cannot
be applied to others, unless the conditions are similar; (ii) the
percentage of high-to-medium-priority areas will be lower, and
hence will have a higher level of effectiveness, in search scenar-
ios reconstructed for concealment in daylight, while this
percentage will become higher, and therefore with lower effi-
cacy, in search scenarios related to concealment at night; (iii)
criteria to build the GIS database are arbitrary: This signifies that
the quality and efficiency of the resulting scenarios are strongly
influenced by the operator’s skills and expertise.
Future research will deal with the preparation of a presearch
and ground-search protocol for clandestine graves. This will be
subjected to a search test, where the concealment will be simu-
lated and the gravesite unknown to the authors. This will be in
collaboration with law enforcement and will aim to integrate the
GIS-based search scenarios presented here with other related dis-
ciplines. The high-to-medium-priority areas of the presearch
GIS-based color-coded search scenarios will be investigated dur-
ing the subsequent ground search by visual inspection
(18,19,26,28,29), geophysical methods (22,25,29,34–44), and
ground laser scanner (70).
Acknowledgments
The anonymous reviewers and the Editor-in-Chief Michael A.
Peat are kindly thanked for their constructive reviews, which led
to significant improvements of the original manuscript.
We are greatly indebted to Laurance Donnelly, Alastair Ruf-
fell, Lorna Dawson, and Jennifer McKinley for useful discus-
sions opening our minds on the complex and sensitive theme of
the search of clandestine graves.
References
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mese [Venice, the pregnant girl was buried alive in the ninth month]. La
Repubblica.it 2006 May 8; http://www.repubblica.it/2006/05/sezioni/cro
naca/ragazza-uccia-venezia/sepolta-viva/sepolta-viva.html (accessed 01/
07/2017).
2. Bella M. Ucciso e sepolto in un agrumeto. Ritrovata l’auto che trasporto
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Additional information and reprint requests:
Roberta Somma, Ph.D.
Department of Biomedical and Dental Sciences, and Morphological and
Functional Images (BIOMORF)
Universita degli Studi di Messina
Viale F. Stagno d’Alcontres
Messina
Italy
E-mail: rsomma@unime.it