SKMAPA

HIGHER
ALGEBRA
CLASSICAL
NINTH EDITION

LEVANT

Levant Books
India
 CONTENTS

1. INEQUALITIES
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Properties
1.3. Standard inequalities
10
Exercises 1A
12
1.4. Arithmetic, Geometric and Harmonic means
25
1.5. Applications 28
1.6. Standard inequalities
32
Exercises 1B

2. COMPLEX NUMBERS
37
2.1. Introduction
37
Complex numbers
2.2 40
2.3. Normal form
41
2.4. Geometrical representation
number 41
2.5. Conjugate of a complex 42
complex number
2.6. Modulus of a
45
Polar form
2.7. 50
2.8. Integral and rational powers 51
2.9 Roots of a complex number
54
2.10. nth roots of unity
thoerem 57
2.11. Applications of De Moivre's
61
Exercises 2A
66
Exponential function
2.12. 69
Logarithmic function
2.13. 75
2.14. Complex exponents
82
Exercises 2B
Trigonometric functions 84
2.15. 86
Hyperbolic functions
2.16.
93
2.17. Inverse functions
100
2.18. Gregory's series
102
Exercises 2C
3. INTEGERS

Natural numbers 105

3.1
Integers
3.2 Prime numbers 124
3.3.
Exercises 3A
138
141
Congruence
3.4.
Exercises 3B
156
Phi function
158
3.5.
170
Exercises 3C

integer
function 172
Greatest
3.6.
Mobius function
176
3.7 z +y = ? 180
Diophantine equation
3.8.
183
Exercises 3D

4. POLYNOMIALS
185
4.1. Polynomials
189
Synthetic division
4.2. 192
4.3. Zero of a polynomial
193
Exercises 4

5. THEORY OF EQUUATIONS
195
5.1. Algebraic equations
coefficients 198
5.2. Polynomial euqations with real
208
Exercises 5A
211
their nature and position
5.3. Real roots
221
Exercises 5B
Relation between roots and coeficients 222
5.4.
224
5.5. Symmetric functions of roots
230
Exercises 5C
234
5.6. Transformation of equations
Exercises 5D
240

5.7. 243
Reciprocal equations 249
5.8. Binomial equations
5.9. Special roots 253

Exercises 5E 260
 5.10. Equations with binomial coefficients 262
5.11 Cubic equation 263
Exercises 6F 269
5.12. Biquadratic equation 270
Exercises 5G 278

6. DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS
6.1. Difference operator A 280
6.2. Shift operator E 283
6.3. Linear Diference Equations 285

Exercises 6A 290

Exercises 6B 296

7. SUMMATION OF SERIES
7.1. Introduction 297
7.2. Method of difference 297

Exercises 7A 305

7.3. Difference operator 307

Recurring series 312
7.4
Exercises 7B 320

C+iS method of summation 304

7.5.
Exercises 7C 306

8. SIMPLE CONTINUED FRACTION

Continued fraction 323
8.1.
Simple continued fraction 324
8.2 328
8.3. Properties of the convergents
Integral solutions 333
8.4.
336
8.5. Properties of a simple continued fraction
341
8.6. lecurring simple continued fraction
Symmetric continued fraction 344
8.7.
Exercises 8 344

ANSWERS TO EXERCISESS 349

BIBLIOGRAPHY 358

INDEX 359
 1. INEQUALITIES

1.1. Introduction.

Throughout this chapter we are concerned with real numbers only.

When two real numbers are not equal, a relation of inequality is said
to exist between them. The property of trichotomy in the set of all real
numbers states that any two real numbers a,b must satisfy one and only
one of the following relations-
(i) a is equal to b (a = b),
(ii) a is greater than b (a> b),
(ii) a is less than b (a< b).
The last two relations are inequalityrelations
Therefore if a be a real number different from 0, one of the following
relations must hold-
inequality
(i) a> 0, (i) a < 0.
When a> 0, a is said to be positive; when a < 0, a is said to be

negative.
We define a b if a - b> 0, and

a<bifa-b<0.
The relations a> b and b < a state the same inequality relation, since

a>0-a<0. means a is greater than or equal to b;

The symbol a
a is less than or equal to b.
a bmeans
For example, if a is a real number then a>0;
if a is a positive real number then a* > 0.

1.2. Properties.
If a, b, c be real numbers, then
(i) a> b and b > c>a>c,
(ii) a>b>a+c>b+c,
(ii) a >b and c >0>ac > be,
(iv) a > b and c < 0 a c < bc,
(v) a> b and c =0 >ac =bc.
 HIGHER ALGEBRA

Poof. (i) a -c = (a -b) + (b- c)

0, since a -b>0 and b - c> 0. Theo-
Therefore a > C. positi
i) (a +c)- (b+c) = a -b Proof
0 , since a > b. Le
Therefore a + c> b+c. Then
(ii) ac - be = (a - be

0 , since a - b>0 and c > 0.

Therefore ac > bc. And
(iv) ac - be = (a - be B-
0, since a -b>0 and c < 0. gers
Therefore ac < bc. Note
does
(v) obvious.
F
Corollary. (i) a2 b and b2 c>a2c,
(2)2
(ii) a b and b> c>a> c,
(ii) a 2 b>atc2b+C, Thee
iv) a b and c> 0 a c bc,
Proo
(v a2band c <0 >ac bc.
Theorem 1.2.1. If a1, a2,... , an; bi,b2,.. ,bn be all real numbers
such .

that a b; for i = 1,2,. , n, then

a1+a2 + +an >b1+b2 + +6
Proof. (aj ta2 t +an) (b1 +b2 +..+bn) -
prev

(a1 b1) +(a2-b2)++ (a7 ba)

0, since a;-b; >0 for i 1,2,...,
n. =

The
Therefore a ta2 t+ +an >b1 +b2 + +bn
Theorem 1.2.2. If a1, a2,..., an; b1, b2,... ,bn be all positive real num- Proc
bers such that aj > b; for i
1,2,... , n, then =
to tl
a1@2...an b1b2.. .bn
Cas
Proof. a1a -

b1b2 =
a (a2 ba) + ba(a1 b1)
-

inte
>0, since each term is positive.
Therefore aja2 > b1b2. note
Thus a > bj and az> b2 >a1@2 > root
Similarly, a102 > b1b2 and ag > bg
b1b2
a1@2@3 b1b2b3
Successive applications give (6
aja2...an bib2...b
Note. The theorem does not hold
if the numbers be not all
For example, 5> -2 and 2 > positive. a
-10 but 5.2 <
(-2).(-10).
 INEQUALITIES 3

Theorem 1.2.3. If
a, be pOsitive b
positive integer, real numbers with a > b, and
then a" >b". n be a

Proof. The theorem holds for

Let us
n 1. =
assume that the
Then a >}m, theorem holds for a
positive integer, say m.
a b>0 and a
This shows that
the theorem holds for
> >b>0am+l bmt1,
And the theorem
holds for n =1.
n =m+1if it holds for n = m.

By the principle of induction,

gers n. the theorem holds for all
positive it
Note. If a,b real numbers with
are
a>b
does not
necessarily follow that a" > b". and is positive integer,
n a
it
For
example, 2 > 3 implies (2< (-3),
(2)>(-1). but 2> -1
implies
Theorem 1.2.4. If a> b> 0 and n bea negative integer, then a" < 6.
Proof. Let n =
-m. Then m is a
positive integer.
-
a
<0, sinceb-a<0 and ab >0.
umbers such
Therefore<
Since m
a positive integer and0<<
is
previous theorem. () <
(E)", by the
Therefore a <b-m, i.e., a <b".
Theorem 1.2.5. If a> b> 0 and be
<b a rational number, then a" > or
n
according as n is positive negative. or

ve real num- Proof. When n is an integer, positive or negative, the theorem reduces
to the theorems 1.2.3
and 1.2.4.
Case I. Let n be a positive fraction and n =
where p, q are positive
integers prime to each other and q # 1.
Let us consider two
positive numbers a-/9 and b-/4, where al/ de-
notes the positive qth root of the
root always exists, since a is
positive number a.
(Such a positive
positive.
We assert that a'/9> b/9, Because, a/ b 9
(b/9) a<b, a contradiction. (a/)9
Since p is a positive integer, a'/4> b/9
(a-/9)P> (bl/g)P,
positive.

i.e.,
 HIGHER ALGEBRA

Case II. Let n be negative fraction and n = -m where.

a>b>0;>}>0 positive 4. If a,
( > ()", by case 1 number,
or, b >a", i.e., a" < " . a"(a
This completes the proof.
Case 1.
L.H.S
Worked Examples. Case 2.
1. If a, b, c be all real numbers, prove that a + b*+c2 2 ab + e . L.H.S
a2+82+c (ab +bc + ca) ca.
(a b)2 + (b- c)* + (c-- a)? > Case 3.
+(c
-

= -

since each term is non-negative. a)' 20 Withc

Therefore a2 + b+c 2 ab + bc +ca, the Then
a = b= C. equality occurs who
when a (a-
a>b
2. If a, b, be all positive real
c
numbers, prove that Therefore
a2+b2 b+ Hence
a+b b+c e Cta
+ > a +b+c. Also
(a+b)* + (a - b)2 = 2(a2 + 62). There
Therefore 2(a + b) 2 (a +b)*, the equality occurs when a = b Comb
or, +b2
or, 2 since a +b 0. a (a
atb Occurs w

Similarly, 2. 1.3. Sta

Hence
+C+a2a
a+bb+c +b + e, by Theorem 1.2.1.
c+a
1. Weier
The equality occurs when a =
b= c. If a1
a1ta2
3. If a, b, c, d be all real numbers greater than
1, prove that
(a+1)(b+ 1)(¢+ 1)(d+1) < 8(abcd+1).
(a - 1)(b- 1) > 0 since a -1>0,b - 1>0 and
or, ab + 1>a+b
provided1
2(ab +1) > ab +1+ a +b (a +1)(b +1).
or, =

Therefore (a + 1)(b+1) < 2(ab +1)

i) . . .
Proof. (
Similarly, (c + 1)(d +1) < 2(cd +1) .
(ii) (1-a1)(
ab1,cd> 1. Using (i),
have we
(ab+1)(cd + 1) < 2(abed + 1) .. . (ii)
Succes
Hence (a +
and 4(ab +
1)(b + 1)(¢+1)dt
1)(cd + 1) < 8(abed + 1), by (ii) 4ab+ )(cd +1), by (i) and (ii): (1
Therefore (a + 1)(b + 1)(c + 1)(d + 1) < 8(abod+1.
In the-
 5
INEQUALITIES

rational
4 a,b, c be all positive real numbers and n be a positive
number, prove that
0.
a"(a -b)(a -c) + b"(b -

a)(b- c) + c"(c -a)(c -b) 2

Case 1. Let a = b = c.
L.H.S.=0, since each term is 0.
Case 2. Let two of a,b,c
be equal.a say.
L.H.S.= c"(c - a)" >0, since c> 0, (c - a)"> 0.
=b,
Case 3. No two of a, b,c are equal.
Without loss of generality, let us assume a > b> C.
Then a - b> 0,6-c > 0,a - c>0.
a"(a - 6)(a - c) +6°(b- a ) ( b - c) = (a - b)[a"(a - c)- b"(6-c)}

0.
a>b>c>a-c>b-c>0and a >b>0>a"> b", since n >
Therefore a"(a - c)> b"(b - c), by Theorem 1.2.2.
Hence a"(a - b)(a - c) +b"(b-a)(b- c) > 0.

Also we have c"(c- a)(c-b) > 0.

Therefore a"(a - 6)(a - c) +b"(b- a)(b- c)+ c"(c - a)(c - b) > 0.

Combining all cases, we have

0, the equality
a"(a-b)(a-c) +6°(b-a)(b- c) +c"(c-a)(c-b) 2
occurs when a =b = C.

1.3. Standard inequalities.

1. Weierstrass inequalities.
positive real numbers less than 1 and 8, =
If a, a2,... ,an are all
a1+a2+ +an, then
-

8 (1 -a1)(1 -

aa).(1 -an)< 1+
and 1+ Sn< (1+a)(1 +a2)..(1 + Gn) =s
provided in the last inequality it is assumed that s, <1.

Proof. (1 -

a1)(1 -

a2) = 1 -

(a1 t a2) + a1@2

>1-(a1 +a2).
az)(1 -as) > [1 (a1 +a2)](1 -

a3), since 1 -

a3> 0
(1 a1)(1
-
-

>1-(a1 +a2 +a3).

Successive applications give
(1-a1)(1 -a2)...(1 -an) 1-(a1 + a2 t+an)
i.e.,>1-s.
In the same manner, (1 +a1)(1 +a2)...1 + an)>1+ Sn
 HIGHER ALGEBRA

Since 0< a < 1, 1-a<1.

Thereforel-a < a ince 1ta1 > 0. Prom
1 or
Similarly, 1
- ag THa -dn jd eact
Therefore (1 ai)(1 02)...(an)
-
-

(14a1)(1+a2)..(1+an) Ca
Sub
Again, 1- a < 1. The
Therefore 1+a1 < since I - a > 0. and

The
Similarly, 1+a2 < l+an d Suk
Therefore (1+a1)(1 +aa)...(+ Gn) Let
(1-a1)1-a2)..(1-a,)
< Since 1 -8,n0.
This
1-8n*
completes the proof.

Worked Example.
1. If n be a positive integer, prove that 1.3.7...(2-1) 27"
2.4.8...27 2n+1-1 0 f
By Weierstrass inequality,
1
(1- (1- ).1- 1+}+t+ b
27
2741-1
or, 1.3.7.(2-)<4
2.4.8..2n
27

be
The ordered array of n real numbers a1, a2,..., an is denoted by B
(1,2,.,an). Let (a) = (a1,@2,... ,Gn), (6) = (b1,b2.,bn). Then
(a) = (6) ifa, = b, for i = 1,2,..., n. The ordered arrays (a) and (b) are
said to be proportional if there exists a non-zero real number k such that
a = kb; for i = 1,2,. . , n .

mple, (1, 1,2,0,-1) and (2,2,4,0, -2) are proportional.

nu

2. Cauchy-Schwarz inequality.
th
Ifa1,a2, . . .

, an; b1,b2,... ,bn be all real numbers, then

(a1 +a2++an)(61° +b2*++b,)2 (a1b1 +a2b2 + +a,b).
the equality occurs when
either (i) a; = 0 for i = 1,2,. .. , n; or b; = 0 for i = 1,2,.. .,n; or both 2

a, = 0 and b; = 0 for i =
1,2,...,n; L
kb; for some non-zero real number k, i =
1,2,...,n.
or (ii) a; =
 INEQUALITIES

Proof. Case I. If a, = 0 for i = 1,2,... , n; or b; =0 for i = 1,2,.. ., T.;

or both a,= 0 and b, = 0 for i =1,2,...,n; then the equality holds,
each side being zero.
Case II. Let not all of a, and not all of bi be
zero.
Sub-case (i). Let a, = kb; for some non zero real k,i =1,2,.. . , n.

Then (a2+ag24+0,)62+b2+b,)=P(%2+b++b
and (a1b1 +azb2 +.+anbn)2 =k*(b2+b++bn").
Therefore the equality holds in this sub-case.
Sub-case (ii). Let (a1,a2,..., ar) and (b1,b2,.,bn) be not proportional.
Let us consider the expression
(a1Ab1)' +(a2 -

Abz)* +... + (a, -Ab,)", where A is real.

For all real A, the expression 20. The equality occurs only when
a1-Ab1 = 0, a2 Abz = 0, * ,an Ab, = 0
i.e., when (a1,a2,.,an) = A(b1,b2y,n
i.e., when (a1, a2,. . .,an) and (b1,b2,. .. ,bn) are proportional.

Therefore, in this sub-case (a1-Ab1)2+(a2-Ab2)2+..+(an-Abn)>

0 for all real A.
or, (a1+ a2++ an)-24(a1b1 +a2b2 ++a,bn) + *(61+
b2+4+ b) >0
where A a+a2+ +an', B =

or, B -

2CA + A > 0, =

b+b2* ++bn, C a1b1 +a2b2 +**+anbn-

The roots of the equation Br - 2Cx +A = 0 must be imaginary,
because otherwise, there would exist some real A for which the equality
BA -

2CA + A = 0 would hold, a contradiction.

ed by
Then Therefore AB> C2
(a1b1 +a2b2 4
b ) are
or, (a1+a2++an ")(61° +b2++ba)>
h that ar,bn).
This completes the proof.

Note. In particular, if a1,a2. .,an;b1,b2, n be all positive real

numbers, then
(a12+a2+.+an2)(b+b2*++b,")2 (a1b +a2b2t+. +a,bn)?,
theequality occurs if =022 = . b».
nn)
Worked Examples (continued).
r
hotb
both
2. For all real ,y, prove that - S(1+(14)S
Let us consider ordered pairs (2x, 1 - r*) and (1 - y2,2y)
 HIGHER ALGEBRA
8

By Cauchy-Schwarz in
By Cauchy-Schwarz inequality,
(2(1-)+(1-r*)2]2 s [(2«)2 +(1-r"I(1-2*+(2
2 (a + a22+ .
or, (2(r + v)(1 -

ru)1 s (1+ r*)°(1 + 72)2 (d1 +d

+.
Again,
or, t y ( 1 - r y ) ,
or, l1+a1+2 s i
are all posin

or, - (+uT
S(1+r2)1+ye)
since bi, Ci
Therefore (a1b1C1 + a s

an)(b2+b+ - +
3. If a; > - (i 1,2,3) and a + b + c=1, prove
= that
V3a+1+ V3b +1+ V3c+1s 3V2.
1.3.1. If a1,
Letus consider ordered triplets (1,1,1)
and (V3a +1, V36+I, Theorem are
rationa

By Cauchy-Schwarz inequality, equal, and p, q

aPt+azP*+-tanP

(3a+T+ V3b+1+V3c + 1)* < (1+14+1)[(3a+1) +(3b+1)+(3c+1

have
or, v3a +1+ V3b +1+ V3c+1< 3/2.
as p and q
according
The equality occurs if 3a + 1 = 3b+1 = 3c+1, i.e., if a =b ==c.
Proof. Case 1. Let p,
b
of the numbers 1,2,.-., n-
4. If a, b, c, d> 0 and a+b+c+d =
1, prove that 1+b4e+4 t a r e both positiu
1+atc+d a, a , °
1+a+b+d T 1+a4+b+c2 7. Therefore (a,P - aP)0

a b C T
d or, a,P*t94a,Pt9 2 a
14atc+d I+a+6+d 1+a+bte
There are "C2 relatio
-++ +-t+t Adding, we have
(n- 1)(a1P+ ++ azP+
Let us consider positive numbers a n , 2,n;i#j
or, n(aP*9 +a2Pt -
V2-, 2-b, 2-c, V2-d. a+ +an)
By Cauchy-Schwarz inequality,
(1+1+1+1) I+ +z t l 8 - (a+b+c+d) or. 91P*+a2P+ .+a
Case 2. Let p, q have
op-
d 2 °PpOSite signs whena
1+b+ctd +a+c+d itatb+d t+atbtc?-4,1e., Therefore (a,P
The equality occurs when 2 a 2 b-

2 c 2 d, i.e., wDe
= -
= - = -

a,")» -

a = b =c = d.
Proceeding with simil
. t a1, a2, ,ani b1, b2,. . ,bn; C1, C2,. , cn .
. . be all positive real nun aPt+a2P* tanPt
bers prove that This
completes the
proof
(abc+abzc2 +a,b,,Ca)2 < (a12+a2++a2)(b* +b*'Note. The
.. +b)(c2+c22+
real theorem car
Let
numbers,
positive not all
equ.
d b;ci,i =
1,2,..., n. or all
negative,
 9

2+(1-2¥N(1-2 +(2
INEQUALITIES

(1+y* By Cauchy-Schwarz inequality, (a1di + azdz +

+ * + dn").
+andn)

(a+a2 + + an )(d1° + da +b,"c,2

Again, (d2+ d2+. +d,") =bc2+b"ca2+
Cn),
< ( b 1 + b + + b , ")(c12+ a
+

since bi, c are all positive.

1, prove that +
+anbnc) < (a1+a2
3/2. Therefore (a1b1c1 +a2b2c2 + .

an( + b ++b,")(c12+ca2++cn).
3a +1, V3b
+1, V3eC++ Theorem 1.3.1. If be n positive real numbers, not
a1, a2,..., an
all

equal, and p, q rational numbers, then

(3a+1)+(3b+1)+ (3c+1
are

1Ptta2P*14tanPt9oraPta2Ptten 1ta1ttan
n

according as p and q have the same sign or opposite signs.

+1, i.e., if a =
b =c. j be any two
Proof. Case 1. Let p, q have the same sign. Let i and
same sign, a,P - a,P and
of the numbers 1,2,.., n. Since p, q are of the
1+b4at-b
1tatctd t a9 a,9 are both positive or both negative or both zero.
-

Therefore (a,P -a,P)(a,-a,' 20

-b+c
or, aPt +a,P* 2 a,Pa, +a,°aP.
There are Ca relations of this type, not of all them are equalities.
+ +4
Adding, we have
(n-1)(a1Pt + a z P t + + a n P ) > Za;Pa,",i = 1,2,.., n ; j

1,2,..,n; i #j
a'V or, n(a1Pt1 + a2Pt + +a,Pta) > (a1P +a2P + +a,P)(a1? +
a2+ +an")

- (a +b +c+d)]
or, pt+2Pttta,*a aPte2Pttaa+a1ttan
have oppoei
Case 2. Let p, q have opposite signs. Then a,P-a,P and a, - a,9 have
Ppositesien
opposite signs when a; #a; and both are zero when a; = aj.
ie,2}
t a t b + c 2 - 4 ,

when
Therefore (a,P-a,P)(a,-a,9) < O.
i.e.,
= 2 -d, Proceeding with similar arguments as in case 1, we can prove
2- c
aPtta2Pt9t+anPt n
aPtaPttanP ata2+tan
real nu n
p o s i t i v e
This completes the proof.
be a l l
2 + + t a n* + 0 2 N o t
2b Note. The theorem can be
generalised. If a1,az, an be n positive
real numbers, not all *..,

equal, and p1,P2, Pm be m rational numbers, all

.,
positive or all negative, such that s =P1 +p2 +.+Pm, then