Chapter 1 Introduction 1

1.1 Why Data Mining? 1

1.1.1 Moving toward the Information Age 1
1.1.2 Data Mining as the Evolution of Information Technology 2
1.2 What Is Data Mining? 5
1.3 What Kinds of Data Can Be Mined? 8
1.3.1 Database Data 9
1.3.2 Data Warehouses 10
1.3.3 Transactional Data 13
1.3.4 Other Kinds of Data 14
1.4 What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined? 15
1.4.1 Class/Concept Description: Characterization and Discrimination 15
1.4.2 Mining Frequent Patterns, Associations, and Correlations 17
1.4.3 Classification and Regression for Predictive Analysis 18
1.4.4 Cluster Analysis 19
1.4.5 Outlier Analysis 20
1.4.6 Are All Patterns Interesting? 21
1.5 Which Technologies Are Used? 23
1.5.1 Statistics 23
1.5.2 Machine Learning 24
1.5.3 Database Systems and Data Warehouses 26
1.5.4 Information Retrieval 26
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1.6 Which Kinds of Applications Are Targeted? 27
1.6.1 Business Intelligence 27
1.6.2 Web Search Engines 28
1.7 Major Issues in Data Mining 29
1.7.1 Mining Methodology 29
1.7.2 User Interaction 30
1.7.3 Efficiency and Scalability 31
1.7.4 Diversity of Database Types 32
1.7.5 Data Mining and Society 32
1.8 Summary 33
1.9 Exercises 34
1.10 Bibliographic Notes 35
Chapter 2 Getting to Know Your Data 39
2.1 Data Objects and Attribute Types 40
2.1.1 What Is an Attribute? 40
2.1.2 Nominal Attributes 41
2.1.3 Binary Attributes 41
2.1.4 Ordinal Attributes 42
2.1.5 Numeric Attributes 43
2.1.6 Discrete versus Continuous Attributes 44
2.2 Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data 44
2.2.1 Measuring the Central Tendency: Mean, Median, and Mode 45
2.2.2 Measuring the Dispersion of Data: Range, Quar tiles, Variance,
Standard Deviation, and Interquar tile Range 48
2.2.3 Graphic Displays of Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data 51
2.3 Data Visualization 56
2.3.1 Pixel-Oriented Visualization Techniques 57
2.3.2 Geometric Projection Visualization Techniques 58
2.3.3 Icon-Based Visualization Techniques 60
2.3.4 Hierarchical Visualization Techniques 63
2.3.5 Visualizing Complex Data and Relations 64
2.4 Measuring Data Similarity and Dissimilarity 65
2.4.1 Data Matrix versus Dissimilarity Matrix 67
2.4.2 Proximity Measures for Nominal Attributes 68
2.4.3 Proximity Measures for Binary Attributes 70
2.4.4 Dissimilarity of Numeric Data: Minkowski Distance 72
2.4.5 Proximity Measures for Ordinal Attributes 74
2.4.6 Dissimilarity for Attributes of Mixed Types 75
2.4.7 Cosine Similarity 77
2.5 Summary 79
2.6 Exercises 79
2.7 Bibliographic Notes 81
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Chapter 3 Data Preprocessing 83
3.1 Data Preprocessing: An Overview 84
3.1.1 Data Quality: Why Preprocess the Data? 84
3.1.2 Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing 85
3.2 Data Cleaning 88
3.2.1 Missing Values 88
3.2.2 Noisy Data 89
3.2.3 Data Cleaning as a Process 91
3.3 Data Integration 93
3.3.1 Entity Identification Problem 94
3.3.2 Redundancy and Correlation Analysis 94
3.3.3 Tuple Duplication 98
3.3.4 Data Value Conflict Detection and Resolution 99
3.4 Data Reduction 99
3.4.1 Overview of Data Reduction Strategies 99
3.4.2 Wavelet Transforms 100
3.4.3 Principal Components Analysis 102
3.4.4 Attribute Subset Selection 103
3.4.5 Regression and Log-Linear Models: Parametric
Data Reduction 105
3.4.6 Histograms 106
3.4.7 Clustering 108
3.4.8 Sampling 108
3.4.9 Data Cube Aggregation 110
3.5 Data Transformation and Data Discretization 111
3.5.1 Data Transformation Strategies Overview 112
3.5.2 Data Transformation by Normalization 113
3.5.3 Discretization by Binning 115
3.5.4 Discretization by Histogram Analysis 115
3.5.5 Discretization by Cluster, Decision Tree, and Correlation
Analyses 116
3.5.6 Concept Hierarchy Generation for Nominal Data 117
3.6 Summary 120
3.7 Exercises 121
3.8 Bibliographic Notes 123
Chapter 4 Data Warehousing and Online Analytical Processing 125
4.1 Data Warehouse: Basic Concepts 125
4.1.1 What Is a Data Warehouse? 126
4.1.2 Differences between Operational Database Systems
and Data Warehouses 128
4.1.3 But, Why Have a Separate Data Warehouse? 129
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4.1.4 Data Warehousing: A Multitiered Architecture 130
4.1.5 Data Warehouse Models: Enterprise Warehouse, Data Mar t,
and Vir tual Warehouse 132
4.1.6 Extraction, Transformation, and Loading 134
4.1.7 Metadata Repository 134
4.2 Data Warehouse Modeling: Data Cube and OLAP 135
4.2.1 Data Cube: A Multidimensional Data Model 136
4.2.2 Stars, Snowflakes, and Fact Constellations: Schemas
for Multidimensional Data Models 139
4.2.3 Dimensions: The Role of Concept Hierarchies 142
4.2.4 Measures: Their Categorization and Computation 144
4.2.5 Typical OLAP Operations 146
4.2.6 A Starnet Query Model for Querying Multidimensional
Databases 149
4.3 Data Warehouse Design and Usage 150
4.3.1 A Business Analysis Framework for Data Warehouse Design 150
4.3.2 Data Warehouse Design Process 151
4.3.3 Data Warehouse Usage for Information Processing 153
4.3.4 From Online Analytical Processing to Multidimensional
Data Mining 155
4.4 Data Warehouse Implementation 156
4.4.1 Efficient Data Cube Computation: An Overview 156
4.4.2 Indexing OLAP Data: Bitmap Index and Join Index 160
4.4.3 Efficient Processing of OLAP Queries 163
4.4.4 OLAP Server Architectures: ROLAP versus MOLAP
versus HOLAP 164
4.5 Data Generalization by Attribute-Oriented Induction 166
4.5.1 Attribute-Oriented Induction for Data Characterization 167
4.5.2 Efficient Implementation of Attribute-Oriented Induction 172
4.5.3 Attribute-Oriented Induction for Class Comparisons 175
4.6 Summary 178
4.7 Exercises 180
4.8 Bibliographic Notes 184
Chapter 5 Data Cube Technology 187
5.1 Data Cube Computation: Preliminary Concepts 188
5.1.1 Cube Materialization: Full Cube, Iceberg Cube, Closed Cube,
and Cube Shell 188
5.1.2 General Strategies for Data Cube Computation 192
5.2 Data Cube Computation Methods 194
5.2.1 Multiway Array Aggregation for Full Cube Computation 195
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5.2.2 BUC: Computing Iceberg Cubes from the Apex Cuboid
Downward 200
5.2.3 Star-Cubing: Computing Iceberg Cubes Using a Dynamic
Star-Tree Structure 204
5.2.4 Precomputing Shell Fragments for Fast High-Dimensional OLAP 210
5.3 Processing Advanced Kinds of Queries by Exploring Cube
Technology 218
5.3.1 Sampling Cubes: OLAP-Based Mining on Sampling Data 218
5.3.2 Ranking Cubes: Efficient Computation of Top-k Queries 225
5.4 Multidimensional Data Analysis in Cube Space 227
5.4.1 Prediction Cubes: Prediction Mining in Cube Space 227
5.4.2 Multifeature Cubes: Complex Aggregation at Multiple
Granularities 230
5.4.3 Exception-Based, Discovery-Driven Cube Space Exploration 231
5.5 Summary 234
5.6 Exercises 235
5.7 Bibliographic Notes 240