Objective:

To plot Single Line diagram and Impedance and Reactance diagram of single line diagram.

Statement:
Power system has 2 bus bar A, B with generator 1 connected with bus bar A and generator 2
connected with bus bar B. Neutral of generator 1 and 2 are solidly grounded. A load of X kVA is
connected at bus bar B and a load of Y kVA is connected at bus bar B. A transmission line, operating at
22 kV, is connecting bus bar A and B. Two transformers T1 and T2 are connected at bus bar A and B
respectively. Two additional bus bar C and D are connected on the extreme end of transmission line.
Draw single line diagram for the given system and also mention all of the protection devices required at
any point. Further draw Impedance diagram and reactance diagram by using single line diagram.

Single line diagram:

A single-line diagram (also known as an SLD or one-line diagram) is a simplified
representation of an electrical system. Symbols and lines are used to represent the nodes and
connections in the system, and electrical characteristics may be included as well.

Protection devices:
Electrical protection devices are important because they help protect the occupants and the
infrastructure that could incur significant damages caused by electrical accidents. Overloading,
short-circuiting, and earth faults are all examples of unintentional electrical accidents that occur
without warning.

Some examples of electrical protection devices are lightning arresters, surge protectors, fuses,
relays, circuit breakers, reclosers, and other devices. Every electrical circuit has a maximum
voltage or amperage. If this value is exceeded, the wire will overheat, causing the wire insulation to
melt and fire to ignite.

Impedance Diagram:
The impedance diagram is the equivalent circuit of power system in which the various components
of power system are represented by their approximate or simplified equivalent circuits. The
impedance diagram is used for load flow studies.

In impedance diagram we do not draw the CT, PT and the relays.

Reactance Diagram:
The reactance diagram is the simplified equivalent circuit of power system in which the various
components of power system are represented by their reactance. The reactance diagram can be
obtained from impedance diagram if all the resistive components are neglected.

Reactance diagram is drawn by neglecting the effective resistance of generator armature,

transformer winding resistance, transmission line resistance line charging and the magnetizing
circuit of transformers.

In Reactance diagram we do not draw the CT, PT and the relays. And we also eliminate the load.

Single Line Diagram:

The single line diagram from the given statement:

Impedance Diagram:
The Impedance diagram for the above single line diagram:
Reactance Diagram:
The Reactance diagram for the above Impedance diagram:

Procedure:
i. First, open MATLAB software on computer. ii.
Then navigate to SIMULINK of MATLAB.
iii. After opening MATLAB Simulink, navigate to “blank model” on Simulink. iv.
Then navigate to “Simulink Library” to browse the components to develop a model.
v. Search and navigate required components to develop Simulink model. vi. For this
experiment Power Library will be used for part placement. vii. In this way we can
develop impedance diagram and reactance diagram of the power system.

Conclusion:
In this experiment, I learned how I draw the single line diagram from the given data and then I draw the
impedance diagram from the single line diagram by removing the CT, PT and the relays & including the
sources impedances and then I draw the reactance diagram from the impedance diagram by neglecting
the effective resistance of generator armature, transformer winding resistance, transmission line
resistance & also eliminate the load.
 EXPERIMENT # 2
Objective:
To plot Load Variation Curve and Load Duration Curve of the given load variation using
MATLAB (Simulink).

Definitions:
The definition of load variation curve and load duration curve is given following: -

i. Load Variation Curve:

We can define load variation curve as following: -

“The graph between variation of electrical loads and time at which the loads are consumed, is
called load variation curve.”

In power system, a load curve or load profile is a chart illustrating the variation in demand or electrical
load over a specific time. Generation companies use this information to plan how much power they will
need to generate at any given time. A load duration curve is similar to load curve. The information is the
same but is presented in a different form. These curves are useful in selection of generator units for
supplying electricity.

Load Variation Curve Figure

2.1
 ii. Load Duration Curve:
We can define load duration curve as following: -

“The illustration of the variation of a certain load in a downward form such that the greatest load
is plotted in the left and the smallest one in the right, is called load duration curve.”

There are some facts about the load duration curve, that can be summarized as: -

i. The load duration curve is an arrangement of all load levels in descending order magnitude. ii. The
are under the load duration curve represents the energy demanded by the system. iii. Load duration
curve can be used in economic dispatching, system planning and reliability evaluation.
iv. It is more convenient to deal with than the load curve.

A load duration curve is used in electrical power generation to illustrate the relationship between
generating capacity requirements ad capacity utilization. A load duration curve is similar to load curve
but the demand data is ordered in descending order of magnitude, rather than chronologically.

Load Duration Curve

Figure 2.2
Load variation Data:
The load variation data for this experiment is given following: -
Interval From Interval To Load in MW
12 AM 2 AM 6

2 AM 6 AM 5

6 AM 9 AM 10

9 AM 12 PM 15

12 PM 2 PM 12

2 PM 4 PM 14

4 PM 6 PM 16

6 PM 8 PM 18

8 PM 10 PM 16

10 PM 11 PM 12

11 PM 12 AM 6

Load Variation Curve Data

Figure 2.3

Procedure:
The procedure to plot load variation curve and load duration curve on MATLAB is given following: -

i. First, open MATLAB software on computer. ii.

Then open the new script on the MATLAB.
iii. Then enter the given code in MATLAB script window to plot load variation curve and load
duration curve: -
v. By entering the given code, we can get the desired output.
Code:
Output:

Load Variation Curve Output

Figure 2.4

Load Duration Curve Output

 Figure 2.5

Conclusion:

In this experiment I came to know about how to plot Load Variation Curve and Load Duration Curve of
the given load variation by using the ;oad variation data. I also execute the code of this experiment on
MATLAB(Simulink), by which I get the load variation curve and load duration curve which are
displayed in the output.

Questions and Answers:

Q 1. Describe the impact of poor power factor and poor load factor on the load side?

ANSWER:

We already know that poor power factor results in a larger line current to be drawn by the electrical
equipment. As a result, a large current at a low lagging power factor causes a higher voltage drop in
transformers and alternators.Low load factor shows that occasionally a high demand is set. To service
that peak, capacity is sitting idle for long periods, thereby imposing higher costs on the system.
Electrical rates are designed so that customers with high load factor are charged less overall per kWh.

Q 2. Describe the impact of poor power factor and poor load factor on the generation side?

ANSWER:

A system with a low P.F. increases the energy lost in the system and requires a much greater input
than can be used effectively to power equipment. Generator sets are normally rated for power factors
between
0.8 and unity.

Q 3. Describe the impact of poor load factor on the generation costs?

ANSWER:

The higher the load factor of the power station, the lesser will be the cost per unit generated, is because
a higher load factor means lesser maximum demand.
If a customer's load factor is lower than group average, the demand charge is a larger % of total
cost and overall cost of electric energy goes up. A low load factor is a “bad thing.” A low load factor
means that you are using electricity inefficiently relative to what you could be if you were controlling
your peak demand. Load factor is calculated using a few simple numbers from the electric bill.

Q 4. Differentiate between forward blocking and reverse blocking rate structures?

ANSWER:
With no gate signal applied, peak forward blocking voltage is the maximum voltage that can be applied
to the anode without causing the SCR to enter the unblocked (On) state. On the curve tracer, the
Collector Supply drives the anode and the gate is held open.

The reverse current blocking function is a function to prevent current from flowing from the output to
the input side, for example, when output voltage becomes higher than input voltage.