E.N.S Bouzareah 1st year, G 01/03/04/05/06 2020/2021 Department of English Teacher: Mr.

Boulahdour Introduction
to Western Civilization and Literature Lesson: 01 (2 nd Semester)

The Middle Ages

I INTRODUCTION
The Middle Ages was a period in the history of Europe that lasted from about AD 350 to about 1450. At the
beginning of the Middle Ages, the western half of the Roman Empire began to fragment into smaller, weaker
kingdoms. By the end of the Middle Ages, many modern European states had taken shape. During this time,
the precursors of many modern institutions, such as universities and bodies of representative government,
were created.
No single event ended the ancient world and began the Middle Ages. In fact, no one who lived in what is
now called the Middle Ages ever thought of themselves as living in it. In the Middle Ages, people thought
they were living in modern times, just as people do today.
The term Middle Ages was invented by people during the Renaissance, a period of cultural and literary
change in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. The term was not meant as a compliment. During the
Renaissance, people thought that their own age and the time of ancient Greece and Rome were advanced and
civilized. They called the period between themselves and the ancient world 'the Middle Age.' The adjective
medieval comes from the Latin words for this term, medium (middle) and aevum (age).
Historians adopted this term even though it was originally meant to belittle the period. Since the Middle
Ages covers such a large span of time, historians divided it into three parts: the Early Middle Ages, lasting
from about 350 to about 1050; the High Middle Ages, lasting from about 1050 to about 1300; and the Late
Middle Ages, lasting from about 1300 to about 1450. Historians used to believe that most of the cultural,
economic, and political achievements of the Middle Ages occurred in the second period, and because of this
they called that period “High.” Only recently, as the accomplishments of the Early and Late Middle Ages
have gained appreciation, has this term fallen into disuse. Today, historians often use a more neutral name,
the Central Middle Ages.
II THE TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE ROMAN WORLD
A1 Changes in the West: Assimilation of New Peoples
The variety of religious views in Late Antiquity mirrored the great variety of people in the Roman Empire, a
variety that increased during the 4th and 5th centuries and transformed the empire politically. Beyond the
borders patrolled by the Roman army were peoples whom the Romans called Germans. Although not
biologically different from the Romans, they had a different culture—or rather, many different cultures. They
lived in tribal groupings that were always in a state of change, breaking up and absorbing other groups. They
fought with the Romans, but they also traded with them. Many Germans admired the Romans and adopted
their habits and institutions. Many also adopted Christianity, although most of them became Arian Christians
because Arian missionaries converted them.
Military need led the Romans to incorporate German warriors into their army units. Other Germans were
brought into the empire to settle in depopulated areas, and their children were recruited into the army.
Beginning in the 4th century, army units of Germans led by their own commanders were welcomed into the
empire to defend the Romans.
The German settlers were eventually assimilated into the empire, but there were also tensions with the native
inhabitants. The Germans were like a migrant labor force: The Romans needed them, but they also resented
them. In the 5th century a Germanic tribe called the Visigoths asked to settle in the empire. They were being
forced out of their homeland by the Huns, a nomadic tribe from Central Asia that was moving west. The
Visigoths were allowed to enter the empire but were then ignored and left to starve. Their leader, Alaric I,
marched his tribe to Rome, which he attacked and plundered. Eventually Alaric and his people settled in
what is now southern France.
Meanwhile, other Germanic tribes were entering the empire. By the end of the 5th century, the western half
of the empire was under the control of various Germanic kings. In 476 the Western emperor was deposed
and not replaced. After that, there was only one Roman emperor, and he remained at Constantinople. A2
Changes in the East: The Byzantine Empire and the Growth of Islam
Although Constantinople called itself the second Rome and the emperor there still called himself Roman, the
eastern half of the empire changed so dramatically between 600 and 750 that historians call it by a different
name: the Byzantine Empire. The most striking change was in the empire’s size—the empire lost huge
portions of territory to the Muslims. By 750 the Byzantine Empire consisted only of what is today Turkey,
part of Greece, and bits of Italy. The Muslims had conquered all of the Middle East, Egypt, and North
Africa.
The Muslims, who practice the religion of Islam, were a new force in history. By 750 their conquests
stretched from Spain to India. Their first capital city was at Damascus, in Syria. There they discovered and
adopted many Roman and Byzantine institutions. They minted coins modeled on those of the Byzantine
Empire and hired former officials of Byzantine rulers. They also supported Arabic literature, which began to
flower. Poets wrote celebrations of brave warriors and witty satires.
B Successors of the Roman Empire
By 750 the Roman world had given way to two heirs: the Byzantine Empire, and the West. They had much
in common. The most fundamental of these similarities was religion. The people in the two areas agreed that
spiritual and worldly things were bound together—that is, they did not believe in the separation of church
and state. Another similarity involved the rural orientation of Byzantium, and the West. In these two regions,
farming was the most important and most common occupation of the inhabitants. A third similarity had to do
with loyalties. People's relationships were local in nature. They cared more about neighbors and local leaders
than about the rulers at the top, who were often too far away to make their presence felt. This led to tensions
between central and local authorities, with important political results: Large states tended to fragment into
smaller ones, some of which proved very resilient and have lasted until modern times.
The Byzantine Empire, the Islamic world, and the West had many differences. The most important of these
were economic and political. On the whole, the Islamic world was prosperous, with thriving trade and a
large merchant and professional class. Byzantium came next. Although the Byzantine economy was hurt by
war and loss of territory, it quickly revived. Constantinople remained an important center of trade, and the
Byzantine countryside was productive. The imperial administration was able to collect taxes from peasants
without difficulty. The West was the poorest heir of the Roman Empire. While a very wealthy landowning
class lived well, many cities of the West were depopulated and the land was relatively unproductive.
Another difference among these civilizations was political. The Byzantine Empire was a centralized state,
with the emperor acting as an important figure in both spiritual and worldly matters. The emperor appointed
the patriarch of Constantinople—the head of the church—and called councils to consider matters of church
law and policy. At the same time, the emperor was head of the army and navy and often personally led
troops into battle. A well-organized civil service worked for him, keeping records and collecting taxes.
In the Islamic world, the caliphs were also strong, centralized rulers. Like the Byzantine emperors, the
caliphs had a well-organized civil service and efficient methods of collecting taxes. This centralization
reached its height at the end of the 8th century under Harun ar-Rashid, who was one of the most powerful of
the caliphs. From his capital city at Baghdād (today the capital of Iraq), he ruled over lands that stretched
more than 5,800 km (3,600 mi) from east to west—about 1,600 km (1,000 mi) longer than the length of the
United States.
In contrast with these realms, the West was fragmented, with little or no governmental centralization. For
example, what would later become England was divided into many small kingdoms. The Italian peninsula
was divided among a king in the north, dukes in the south, and Byzantine governors in between. In addition,
the pope (the bishop of Rome, theoretically under the rule of the Byzantine emperor) thought he ought to
have his own Italian territories to rule. In what would become France and Germany, a royal family called the
Merovingians ruled over several kingdoms and often fought among themselves.

Rosenwein, Barbara H. "Middle Ages." (Abridged) Microsoft® Encarta® 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA:
Microsoft Corporation, 2008.
Teacher’s NOTES:
The middle Ages is a long historical period which stretches approximately from the 5th until the 14th century.
It is important to survey it and to observe the main events and factors of the period (without lingering much
on the details) so that one is able to make the link between antiquity and Modern times and to build a sound
comprehension of the world…
After the fall of the Roman Empire, a whole system of political, social, and economic organization came
down. Most Roman cities were sacked by invading barbarians (Germans, Franks…), the learning of the
Romans was lost, political unity fragmented as disorder reigned. Superstition and popular legends were
common among the people, it was really as it is sometimes called the Dark Ages…
Among the important characteristics of this period are, the rural aspect of most of Europe. The feudal wars
(between lords and kings), and religious wars between Europeans themselves and against Muslims. The
authoritative character of the Church and of European kings.
It is important to understand in this respect that the Church was a strong institution (a sort of parallel
government which was really powerful since it wielded the spiritual power over all people of Europe
including the kings, and also because it was really rich due to its multiple sources of revenue.
Another crucial point is the scarcity of learning since it was reserved only to members of the Church and the
nobility. Above all, science and all learning was meant to serve the Church and its interests not the people…
Considering these points, it is noticeable that the Church dominated crucial aspects of peoples’ lives. It
imposed conformity and severely punished all dissenters. Christianity was used as a means of social
oppression (to justify inequalities among the rich and the poor…) and political control. Throughout this
period, resentment and contempt of the role of the Church was growing.

The Reformation was a movement in Christianity in the 16th century (1517) that led to the split of the
Protestants (and other sects) from Catholics and Rome (the Pope). Each European country had its own
theologians who wrote and tried to provide new interpretations of the Christian religion.